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QUARTERLY REVIEW No.14 / January 2005 1

Cognitive Science as Science of the Mind

KAYOKO ISHII Life Science and Medical Research Unit

processes to establish new solutions to such 1 Introduction issues. The general of and Of the various means of studying the mind, its potential industrial applications have already cognitive science and neuroscience both explain been reported by Watari[1]. With this in mind, this the mind of the individual through her/his report summarizes the development of cognitive physical conditions including those of the brain. science through interdisciplinary interaction and Cognitive science, in particular, examines mental discusses its potential to supply of the aspects as ‘software’ to acquire, modify, maintain mental functions of human beings and to provide and utilise . It aims to elucidate the solutions to mental and social issues. mechanisms concerning thought, linguistic capacity, learning, consciousness, the of 2 The formation of the self as distinguished from others, evaluation, cognitive science and with others. In the West, cognitive science has appeared 2-1 Constituent areas as a continuum from Greek as a When the U.S. Cognitive Science was science of the mind, a refutation of Cartesian founded in 1979, cognitive science was defined mind-body dualism, a split from as “a multidisciplinary field embracing artificial philosophy as a positive discipline, a backlash intelligence, psychology and ”[2]. As against behaviorism and the establishment of represented by the theme of the first conference, under the influence of “knowledge, internal and logical representations, computational theory. Meanwhile, Japan has symbolic information processing, functionalism”, had no mind-body dualism exerting extensive, the main early interests were topics related to long-lasting influence such as Descartes’ theory. [3]. Later, emphasis was also Instead, it has long been thought that the mind placed on the biological brain as an indispensable and body are inseparable. Traditionally, the entity, or actual experiences and knowledge as an Japanese were proficient in handling ambiguous essential part of cognitive function. Researchers ideas and non-verbal thoughts, and in guessing from various disciplines such as computer science the mental states of others. In other words, the (or information (IT)), psychology, resources obtained through cognitive science linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, , have already been applied in Japan. However, and , take part in research without the custom of consciously analysing one’s in cognitive science ( 1). The Japanese own thought processes and explicitly describing Cognitive Science Society was established in them, Japan now finds the challenge of dealing 1983, with membership of around 1,500 as of with the loss of traditional social structures over 2004 (Table 2)[4]. Researchers in brain science the last few decades, as well as the recent demand and neuroscience are not obvious in the society for the promotion of science, considerable. It but rather participate in the Japanese Society is necessary to understand one’s own thought of Cognitive Neuroscience, where they interact

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Table 1 : Constituent disciplines defined by cognitive science in various countries Computer science Year of foundation Cognitive science Neuroscience Anthropology Ergonomics Psychology Philosophy Linguistics Education Sociology Logic

AISB (UK) 1964 ○ CSS (USA) 1977 ○ ○ ○ 1984* ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 1997* ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ARCo (France) 1981 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ JCSS (Japan) 1983 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ESSCS (Europe) 1983 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ KSCS (South Korea) 1987 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ GK () 1994 ○

*: Turning point AISB: the Society for the Study of and the Simulation of Behaviour CSS: Cognitive Science Society ARCo: Association pour la Recherche Cognitive JCSS: the Japanese Cognitive Science Society ESSCS: the European Society for the Study of Cognitive KSCS: the Korean Society for Cognitive Science GK: Gesellschaft für Kognitionswissenschaft

Table 2 : Number of members of cognitive science among relatively close subdisciplines such as societies in various countries neuropsychology, neurophysiology, neuroscience, Approximate membership brain , education, psychology, AISB in the U.K. 500 neurosurgery, neurology and psychiatry. CSS in the U.S. 1100 ARCo in France 350 2-2 Benefits of multidisciplinarity JCSS in Japan 1500 In many countries, societies for cognitive KSCS in South Korea 500 science have defined themselves as multidisciplinary since their foundation, and two decades hence, they continue to emphasize decreasing, while the number of psychologists their multidisciplinary nature. The that and linguists is increasing. Focusing on the first cognitive science is still considered to be a authors of the papers published in the Journal multidisciplinary field is due to the change of its of Cognitive Science and their institutions, constituent disciplines over time (Table 1) and the proportion of researchers in psychology the influx of human resources from different and IT was 33% and 41% (1977-1981), 48% and disciplines through educational and research 21% (1996-1997) and 65% and 18% (2002), institutions. Therefore, the contribution of the respectively [2 ]. In terms of methodology, methodology or expertise of each discipline in information processing, which analyses cognitive science changes, and so do the contents human cognition by analogy with functions of academic output in the field of cognitive of the computer, has long been mainstream. science. However, with the growth of situation theory, Currently, more than half of the researchers emphasizing context-dependent cognition, or in the cognitive science field belong to one of the socio-cultural approach from sociological two domains, namely, psychology or IT. In many and cultural perspectives, use of the descriptive countries, the number of researchers in IT is method based on on-site data has also increased

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Figure 1 : Percentage of first authors of articles published in the Journal of Cognitive Science with given departmental affiliations

Source: Based on the report by Schunn, Crowley & Okada, (1998)[2]. The latest data (’96-’97, 2002) is also shown for reference.

in the last decade. Corresponding to the individuals to groups of individuals (Figure 2). increasing participation of neuroscientists, the Cognitive science analyzes mental software from physiological activity of the brain has also been a macroscopic standpoint and therefore targets actively considered in recent years. The rise individuals and more global entities. Meanwhile, of these new approaches and methodologies neuroscience, a life science, analyzes mental is also reflected in the research subjects hardware from a microscopic standpoint and themselves. Since its foundation, the main deals with molecules (such as neurotransmitters subjects of cognitive science were the processes and neuron-specific gene expression), cells and of thought, reasoning and memorisation in the electrophysiological signal transduction, etc. individual. Recently, however, research has been conducted on interpersonal perception, 3-2 Is psychology literature? collaborative cognition and thought processes Because psychology targets macroscopic within groups. Moreover, there is increasing subjects such as individuals or society and often demand for research results to be more socially employs descriptive approaches, researchers applicable. When journals accept articles for from other empirical disciplines working at the publication, researchers from different disciplines microscopic level often perceive psychology are employed to conduct peer review. This helps as lacking the strictness or rationality required to avoid articles focusing only on traditional in the natural sciences. Although psychology disciplines that are preoccupied with academic originally split from philosophy, aiming to be interests, and favours articles compatible with an empirical discipline, certain schools in this various disciplines as well as with society. domain indeed created their own speculative terms and conceptual that could only 3 Methodologies be understood by people within the same in cognitive science school and that could not be verified. Cognitive psychology deals with the cognitive process that 3-1 Hierarchical structure of takes place within the bodies of human subjects science of the mind or experimental animals, which are practically The functions of the human mind involve ‘black boxes’. Therefore, researchers have coped various phenomena over different levels, from with this difficulty by enhancing the strictness molecules, cells, neural networks, brains, or rationality of experimental constraints

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Figure 2 : Hierarchy of phenomena concerning the mind

The constituent disciplines of cognitive science, cognitive sociology and cognitive anthropology place relatively strong emphasis on the analysis of society, while cognitive psychology and IT place relatively strong emphasis on the analysis of individuals. The gap between psychology and information science within the cognitive science field and neuroinformatics or non-invasive cerebral activity measurement within the neuroscience field is decreasing, which increases the potential for a fusion of the knowledge and methodologies of both fields. when inputting information to the subjects or psychology was included in teacher-training processing and interpreting the output. Due courses. After returning, they also established to the large limitation of experimental studies psychology in teacher-training courses in normal conducted on human subjects, such studies were schools, which explains the link between almost exclusively performed in the medical psychology courses and faculties of education field, such as comparison between pathological in Japan. Psychology was originally influenced and healthy subjects. Through the development by physiology, departing from speculative of cognitive psychology, the possibility of philosophy. In Cambridge University in the U.K. cooperation among , psychology and IT for example, the psychology domain derived is increasing. from physiology. In Japan, neither psychologists In 1876, the Meiji government started to nor scientists from other disciplines, including appoint returnees as instructors in the Faculty medicine and physiology, are aware that they of Literature of the Imperial University as part can share and fuse their methodologies. This of its efforts to encourage the development of a has prevented their mutual interaction. It is first westernized general education. Here, psychology necessary to reconsider the research situation was taught in the philosophy class of the liberal in experimental psychology in Japan and arts course. In 1893, Yujiro Motora, who had improve it so that researchers in the discipline studied experimental psychology in the U.S., can cooperate with their counterparts in other opened a department of psychology within the disciplines. faculty. Thereafter, psychology gradually became institutionalized in the Faculty of Literature[5]. 3-3 Cooperation between psychology and IT During 1875-78, as part of a widespread In the field of cognitive science, psychological general education drive, the Meiji government experiments have been often combined with dispatched delegations to the U.S. where simulations based on computational theory.

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In IT, the cognitive process is translated into theoretical mathematician, manipulated mental programmes where parameters can be set imageries of thin foil and a fluid to generate and altered on demand. Here, the researchers the mathematical concept of electromagnetic emphasise the types of programme or parameter fields[7]. Cognitive science has demonstrated that selected to create explanatory systems detailing non-verbal thinking processes employing mental the processing that takes place between imaging does exist and that the process involving input and output. When psychologists begin language is only a part of the overall thought cooperating with IT researchers, their different process. In the earliest experiment, subjects were perspectives often stand as obstacles. However, shown the letter ‘F’ or its mirror image rotated as their collaboration progresses, they revise at various angles and were asked to discriminate their strategies by mutually incorporating other the stimuli. The time required for their responses viewpoints. For example, for their simulation correlated with the rotation angle of the images, studies, IT researchers may choose parameters indicating that the subjects made their judgments as close as possible to those of observations by rotating the given images to an upright using psychological approaches. When data position in their minds[7]. Meanwhile, human obtained through psychological experiments language processing is an effective means of are considered to be effective but insufficient analysing cognitive functions, and a vast volume in sample size for statistical processing, IT of research has been conducted on the process. can provide simulation studies to complete the validity of a hypothesis. The difference 4-2 Cognitive mechanisms of reading between the mutual viewpoints can be therefore As can be seen in learning the Analects of advantageous in creating new scientific . Confucius in Japan or that of the Koran in Islamic societies, reading the written/printed 4 Research subjects form of a language is an important aspect of in cognitive science training in traditional learning processes. Even today, children with reading problems find it Some examples of the subjects studied in the difficult to proceed in terms of the learning cognitive science field are shown. process, even if other abilities are at a normal level or more advanced There is a huge amount 4-1 Verbal/non-verbal thinking of information in the modern world, and people Noam Chomsky, a linguist, further advancing find an increasing need to read for his analysis on the universal structure of meetings, manuals for working procedures, language, presented the hypothesis that “the contracts, etc. The resource of populations with human being is born with an innate ability high vocational and professional legibility should to spontaneously acquire language”[6]. This greatly influence the foundation of science and biological insight suggests that “even higher technology. mental functions in humans can be elucidated Meanwhile, about 5-10% elementary and through empirical science” and has inspired a secondary school children either have reading number of new studies in various areas. When difficulties or understand the meaning of written there were no means of empirically analysing sentences only with difficulty, although they thought, perspectives based on linguistic can normally communicate through speech and determinism claiming that ‘language rules have no specific disabilities otherwise. Those thought’ did exist. However, important concepts who have already mastered reading, such as have actually occurred in the minds of many teachers or parents, may be unaware, but from scientists and artists by pondering in mental the viewpoint of cognitive science, reading is imagery. Michael Faraday visualized the ‘lines of composed of multiple parallel steps involving force as narrow tubes curving through space’ the complex, rapid processing of information and thus formed the concepts of the electric and (Figure 3). It has been found that children with magnetic fields. James Clerk Maxwell, an abstract reading difficulties encounter problems in one or

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Figure 3 : showing the cognitive processes performed in reading

source: Prepared by the author based on Bruer’s report[8] more of these steps. For example, normal reading different domains nor deduced from resources of requires information processing in the order of general knowledge shared by multiple domains. milliseconds, but children with problems in the Based on such findings in cognitive science, a rapid processing of sensory information exhaust scholar of English who was worried about the their efforts in recognizing the elements of lack of basic cultural knowledge among teenage words and can hardly encode them into semantic students wrote “Cultural Literacy: What Every elements. Now it has been conceived that reading American Needs to Know”[9] in 1987, and it has ability may be improved by strengthening certain been used since as a book helping foreigners to weak steps in cognitive processes. understand general aspects U.S. culture.

4-3 Learning theory (2) Metacognition (1) Domain-specific knowledge Around 1980, cognitive scientists suggested In the field of cognitive science, “the process that the mature cognitive process in an individual by which a beginner becomes an expert”, i.e., involves metacognition, the ability to think the mechanism of learning, has been analyzed about thought itself. In other words, it is the through comparison of problem-solving between ability to consciously recognize problem-solving experts and beginners [8]. Initially, artificial behaviour in oneself or in another person intelligence was successful in solving formal, and to monitor and control one’s own mental logical problems such as those in , processes. When infants are told to memorise geometry and chess, but in the 1970s, they all the items on a list taking as much time as showed a weakness in solving problems requiring they need and to inform the examiner when large amounts of factual knowledge to solve they think they have memorised the list, the them, such as those in physics and medicine. It actual level of performance is much lower than was shown that human beings use an abundance their evaluation, even when their of domain-specific knowledge when solving are tested immediately after they declare they certain actual problems. Considerable portions have completed the task. When children are of domain-specific knowledge can be neither told to memorise and recite a story, younger compensated for by other knowledge specific to children’s memories tend to be dispersed and

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incoherent, lacking the vital elements required to recognition of self and non-self first appears at reproduce the main of the story. Meanwhile, the age of 18-24 months. As the first step in the when children over 12 years declare that they development of joint attention ability, pointing have learned a certain task, they can generally behavior intended to attract others’ attentions reproduce it to a level similar to their evaluation, to oneself or to an external target appears by indicating that they can recognize their own the age of 12 months. From this point, babies achievements. In addition, they know that they start to follow the glance of another person to must find associations between various elements a point away from the person, and by the age in the story, judge which parts are important and of around 18 months, they learn that when pay attention to these parts when memorising someone is staring at a certain target, “the person the story. Once metacognition has been acquired is thinking about the object” and, in this sense, in one domain, it can facilitate learning in novel they relate the person and the object. Autistic domains. individuals, however, have difficulty in guessing Metacognition is required not only during their own mental status and that of other people. growth but also at any stage of human life Psychological examination using ‘theory of mind’ facilitating our learning efficiency. As Karl Popper tasks has enabled the early diagnosis of autism. said, scientific theories are elaborated on by Moreover, by combining ‘theory of mind’ tasks successive modification of an existing immature with the non-invasive imaging of brain activity, hypothesis by proposing opposing hypotheses the functions of the frontal lobe responsible for and by verification[10]. Metacognition is, therefore, the ability to guess one’s own and others’ mental equally important in pursuing scientific research. status are being extensively analysed. It is also used for providing advice on others’ activities, or in collaborative work, when team 5 Involvement of brain science members have different tasks they are good at or and neuroscience areas work at different paces. A lack of metacognition concerning performance of either oneself or one’s 5-1 Microscopic neuroscience teammates often reduces working efficiency. and macroscopic cognitive research Neuroscience dealing primarily with the 4-4 Theory of mind brain involves numerous researchers; in Japan We unconsciously guess the mental status of for example, the total membership of the other people or adjust our own thoughts and Japan Neuroscience Society and the Japanese comportment to theirs. Because most guesses Society for Neurochemistry is 5,600, and that are adequate, interpersonal relationships can of the U.S. Society of Neuroscience is around proceed relatively smoothly without much need 32,000 including overseas members. Although a for minute verbal explanations. This ability to considerable number of these researchers have recognize the mental status of oneself and others, the intention to elucidate the cognitive process, ‘theory of mind’, is firmly established by 3-5 years they rarely participated in cognitive science of age. Using theory of mind, children come to societies because neuroscientists were primarily understand that someone’s belief is not always a interested in the biological aspects of the brain, representation of the actual facts of the external ‘hardware’ in the cognitive process. They start world but may merely be a misrepresentation by accumulating the ‘focal’ findings concerning that the person holds in her/his mind. The molecules, cells or local neural networks, with development of this ability can be tested by little in common with cognitive scientists’ ‘global’ showing a child a picture of a simple story analyses of individuals (Figure 2). However, and verifying whether the child can detect the neuroscientists also aim at global understanding character(s) having ‘false belief’. at levels such as the brain system, the central Even a newborn baby has the neurological nervous system, and the individual. This is properties to distinguish between self and because (i) sensory recognition of vision, hearing, non-self environments, but the subjective temperature, smell, taste and posture is perceived

18 19 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS QUARTERLY REVIEW No.14 / January 2005 only after physical stimuli (light, vibration, been adopted for analysis at the microscopic pressure & distortion) or chemical stimuli of level. In particular, methods employing IT, some hundreds of thousands of molecules such neuroinformatics, are effective for such analysis as acids and salts by the sensory organs are in dealing with the convergence and divergence converted into electric signals and transmitted of electrophysiological signals in the neural to the brain, and integrated in the cerebral network, and for integrating several findings at cortex, (ii) human beings can autonomously the microscopic level for a global understanding. create a new idea and utilize stored memories Here, neural information rather than biological even in the absence of external stimuli, and (iii) entities are simulated. the aforementioned global status of the brain In recent years, the sensitivity, resolution and controls microscopic phenomena. The existence scanning rate have dramatically improved in the of the top-down control mentioned in (iii) can be non-invasive measurement of cerebral activity, understood from the fact that a person perceives such as functional magnetic resonance imaging the same stimulus differently at different times (fMRI), cerebral blood flow measurement according to attentional level, expectation, through near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and anxiety or combination of stored magnetoencephalography (MEG), and in the contents. Unlike machines, human beings make relatively low-invasive single photon emission good use of the top-down mechanism in their computed tomography (SPECT). Thus, analysis smooth, flexible processing of information. of smaller, more discrete loci of the brain can For the experimental establishment of be conducted in healthy individuals under the concept of long-term depression in the natural conditions (Figure 4). This has raised cerebellum, Dr. Masao Ito was inspired by the expectations that understanding cerebral Marr-Albus theory in which, by hypothesising hardware in neuroscience and software in a special synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum, cognitive science will fuse in the near future. the learning potential of the neural network was This is reflected in the increasing participation deduced. Since then, theoretical strategies have of neuroscientists in the U.S. Cognitive Science

Figure 4 : Temporal and spatial resolution of the measurement of brain activity

Non-invasive methods: fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging, NIRS: cerebral blood flow measurement through near-infrared spectroscopy, MEG: magnetoencephalography, EEG: electroencephalography Less invasive method: SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography *The time required for the synaptic release of neurotransmitters form a vesicle and the duration of an action potential at a synapse are indicated for reference.

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Society in last 5 years. 6 Application to society 5-2 IT of the brain and the nervous system The human brain has about 1012 nerve 6-1 The case of Stephen Mobley cells, and each cell receives input from other In 1991, Stephen Mobley killed an employee nerve cells at a few thousand to 10,000-20,000 of a pizza parlor and was accused of murder and synapses. As a signal transporter at the synapse, robbery. No particular medical, psychological more than a few dozen neurotransmitters and or sociological predispositions were observed. neuromodulators have been identified so far. He had no previous record of violence and Each neurotransmitter has multiple specific showed normal intellectual potential. His receptors, which by themselves are coupled personality could be described as impulsive, to multiple intracellular second signaling cunning and self-centered. There was a history pathways, contributing to diversification of signal of pyromania and animal abuse. His lawyer transduction. Researchers refer to ‘a grandmother found an article[12] by Brunner et al. published cell’ only as a metaphor for the concept that in 1993 suggesting that “a point mutation in “a single nerve cell in the brain may be able to the gene encoding monoamine oxidase, which evoke an image of (for example) grandmother’s metabolizes neurotransmitters such as serotonin, face”. In fact, however, the contents of the dopamine and noradrenalin, may be related to neural information are determined by temporal an inherited disposition of aggressive behaviour and spatial changes in neural activity within among members of a Dutch family with a marked the network. Moreover, neural information familial history of crime”. He checked Mobley’s processing involves, in addition to the bottom-up family line and found records of impulsive, conversion from sensory input, top-down antisocial behaviour through three generations. regulation in which attention, expectation, The question as to whether Mobley should be memory and autonomous inspiration may select subject to genome analysis for the presence of or modify on-going information. this particular mutation and whether its presence Since the information processed in the brain was a reason for commutation was strongly is so huge and complicated, it was necessary debated. However, finally, genetic testing was not to incorporate strategies of IT, , conducted, and Mobley was sentenced to death. for a comprehensive description of neural Mobley’s case has raised two questions: information processing. At the RIKEN Brain whether individual or a small number of genetic Science Institute, a research group is surveying traits can determine human behaviour, and advances in neuroinformatics and developing a whether a person with such a genetic alternation neuroinformatics system for visual processing[11]. for a substance influencing brain activity At its early stage, neuroinformatics was would be exempt from legally responsibility considered to be “just a means of storing and for a crime. Later, in 1996, Brunner presented integrating experimental data”. Recent progress his view that “the concept of a gene that in neuroinformatics is reaching global analysis of directly encodes behaviour is unrealistic”[13]. brain function, and may fuse with the IT-based Meanwhile, monoaminergic neurotransmissions analysis of cognitive processes of the individual are significantly implicated in diverse mental conducted in cognitive science. Supporting a disorders such as depression and anxiety, and are subject studied both in neuroinformatics and always studied intensively in both the medical cognitive science separately reduces efficiency and pharmaceutical domains. To develop effective and wastes funds. It is necessary to promote diagnosis methods and therapies, a plausible interaction between the two fields so that relationship between genetic alternation and materials, facilities and knowledge can be phenotypic expression at an individual level exchanged and shared effectively. must be demonstrated[14]. The critical debate avoided in Mobley’s case will confront us again in the near future. We must be prudent in relating

20 21 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS QUARTERLY REVIEW No.14 / January 2005 issues at the microscopic level such as genes, understanding and opportunities to verify neuromodulators, cells and tissues, with those their findings in actual situations. For instance, at the global level such as individuals or society. hypotheses in cognitive science concerning Based on new findings obtained in cognitive personal learning, collaborative learning or a science, the concepts of judgment ability or particular teaching method would be verified responsibility for an individual’s own acts have to in university-affiliated elementary or secondary be reconsidered. schools. Once such a hypothesis is proven to be valid, strategies for its wide application would be 7 Support system discussed. As for the development of commercial for cognitive science products in companies, there are opportunities to make a good use of and to evaluate findings in 7-1 Dissemination cognitive science[1]. Being a science of the mind, cognitive science should have enormous influence on society. We 7-3 Application of results versus scientists’ must disseminate cognitive science as a discipline autonomy to help us understand mental functions and At present, the major outcomes in cognitive improve public understanding. Once interested, science are from the U.S., where the NSF people may have unreasonably high expectations (National Science Foundation) as well as military of the discipline. It is then necessary to explain such as DARPA (Defense Advanced what cognitive science can and cannot offer, and Research Projects Agency), ONR (Office of to continually discuss what and to what extent Naval Research) and AFOSR (Air Force Office of we should know about the mind. It is better to Science Research) have been sponsoring research start by dispatching understandable information in this field. Each country should have its own so that at least those who are interested and on the application of scientific findings. understand will take notice. Appointing a science It is better that Japan not be overwhelmed by writer may be helpful for large organizations. enumerative information but to select and utilize Moreover, informatics is an effective tool the information that it really needs. Private U.S. for people fromdiverse fields to access such foundations such as McDonnell, Mellon and information.. Spencer explicitly demand applications for the results of the research projects they sponsor. In 7-2 Opportunities for verification 1983, the United States National Committee on Because research in cognitive science is Excellence in Education published the report, oriented to the social application of its fruits, ‘A Nation at Risk’[15], which triggered in society cooperation with society is essential in the first significant concerns about public education, place. In science, the process from “setting a which resulted in a demand for proposals for the hypothesis, its evaluation, to restructuring of innovation of teaching and learning techniques the hypothesis” is taken as a regular strategy that have a firm theoretical and empirical in which trial and error is accepted. On the background. Around this time, cognitive studies other hand, where new scientific findings are of learning processes were beginning to produce applied, e.g., in school curricula, development new theories. Since then, cognitive science has of commercial products, diagnosis and drug offered influential knowledge and theories for administration, an error once made can never or educational strategies in the U.S. Some people rarely be compensated for or retrieved. Scientists worry that cognitive science, on the other hand, must recognize that society also has its own disproportionately emphasises the research strict criteria of evaluation although they may subjects of education and that researchers be different from theirs. Therefore, coordinating are concentrated in the domain. In Japan, it is different evaluation criteria is required. necessary to represent social needs to scientists, Through efforts to improve public but it would be better if the actual choice of relations, cognitive scientists must win social research subjects and approaches were left in the

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hands of the scientists themselves. In 2002-2003, sequences or codons that can infinitely generate the U.K. Office for Science & Technology variable information, resembling the grammatical conducted a “Foresight Cognitive Systems combinations of a language, are processed with IT Project” to establish frameworks for promoting relatively easily. On the other hand, information cognitive science. However, ‘they placed the in cognitive science differs in nature and requires activity firmly in the hands of the scientific significantly greater labour compared to the community[16].’ Genome Project. Moreover, even if a single highly comprehensive system is established, it 7-4 Worldwide database may not necessarily be as effective as expected. The enormous amount of scientific findings The different pathways of information processing on the brain can be hardly integrated by a single in the brain, although heavily interconnected country’s efforts, and international cooperation each other, are also unique. A database unified is essential. Since 1996, a subgroup in the OECD by standardising the diverse pathways may seem Megascience Forum (currently known as the like an encyclopedia, and may not be able to cope Global Science Forum) Working Group on with actual individual problems. In Japan, it is Biological Informatics has been studying issues wise to use foreign knowledge only if it is useful, in neuroinformatics, and Japan has actively as well as to pursue independent support of contributed to it from the beginning. In January projects that really meet Japanese needs. 2004, the OECD Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy met at ministerial level 8 Conclusions and decided to establish the International Neuroinformatics Coordinating Facility (INCF), The attempt to explain the human mind with which will take charge of the development and physical conditions including that of the brain of comprehensive database systems involves two scientific areas. One of them, for brain research[17]. The project has reached cognitive science, analyses the ‘software’ of the the stage where participating nations are being mind at the macroscopic level such as individuals asked to sign the agreement and to establish or groups, while the other, neuroscience, analyses national nodes. As mentioned previously, Japan the ‘hardware’ of the mind such as molecules, has developed a neuroinformatics platform in cells and neural circuits in the biological brain at certain areas. Promotion of such projects should the microscopic level. As the distance between encourage research within the nation and raise these two areas has been decreasing in recent the technological and intellectual contribution of years, physical and physiological bases of the Japan on the international stage. human cognition should be elucidated in the future. The approaches of the two areas can be 7-5 Promotion of original research in Japan mostly attributed to the vast findings accumulated During the Annual Forum of the AAAS in each area, the employment of IT to integrate (American Association for the Advancement them and advances in the non-invasive of Science) Science and Technology Policy in measurement of brain activity. Now, it is essential 2004, the importance of cognitive science was to enrich research environments for the efficient emphasized in the context of the converging accumulation, storage and utilization of findings project in , biotechnology, obtained in the two areas, and to elaborate on , cognitive science and systems for cooperation among constituent sociology (NIBCS)[18,19]. A to understand disciplines such as psychology, medicine and the human mind through the collaboration of IT, so that experimental data, e.g., that of the the aforementioned disciplines was named The non-invasive measurement of brain activity, can Human Cognome Project. It is obviously an be interpreted and integrated into an effective analogy to the Human Genome Project and is understanding of the mind. expected to involve a series of large-scale support Cognitive science is necessary for current programmes. The combination of nucleotide Japanese society, and we must promote this

22 23 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS QUARTERLY REVIEW No.14 / January 2005 science in a unique way. silences, as well as timing of utterance. These are sophisticated cognitive functions to pass on and (1) Explicit presentation of thoughts for understanding subtle feelings. The Japanese For more than a millennium, the Japanese have long attached importance to guessing have been achieving high levels of intellectual others’ feelings, which has subsequently allowed and economical production, and undoubtedly them to predict, prepare and supply what others have high cognitive abilities. They are not expect. Fine sensitivity and discrimination of accustomed to being explicitly aware of different colors and forms, and hand dexterity are their thinking processes or to expressing representative of excellent cognitive patterns, and them straightforwardly. However, now that characteristic of that for which the Japanese have it is necessary to invent new concepts and a good reputation. The Japanese already have the problem-solving strategies, the lack of explicit abundant cognitive resources required to invent recognition of their own processes of conduct new social structures and production systems, is often a hindrance to the Japanese. Scientific and it would be a grave loss if Japan did not make research in particular is made up of such the best use of its traditional cognitive faculties. processes as 1) focusing on a worthwhile question, 2) setting a goal after evaluating References whether the actual tools to reach it are or [1] Masao Watari; “’Research Trends toward will be available, 3) pursuing research while Intelligent Computing — Promotion of evaluating the process by oneself, 4) verifying Multidisciplinary Research in Cognitive the results and 5) advancing a theory. Thus, Science and Artificial Intelligence —” metacognitive excellence is required. In a society Science and Technology Trends- Quarterly lacking metacognitive excellence, researchers Review No.13 (October 2004). : can hardly explain the meaning of their own http://nistep.go.jp/index-j,html research, seek and find the most efficient solution [2] Schunn, C.D, Crowley, K, & Okada, T available, or apply particular knowledge under ‘The Growth of Multidisciplinarity in the differing circumstances. This is a serious obstacle Cognitive Science Society’ Cognitive Science for a nation aiming at social development by 22, 107-130 (1998) promoting science and technology. It is an [3] http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/ urgent issue for the Japanese to form the habit of [4] http://logos.mind.sccs.chukyo-u.ac.jp/jcss/ explicitly recognizing their thinking processes [5] Tatsuya Sato, Miki Takasuna “Reading the and consciously controlling their thoughts. History of Psychology: In Japan and the World).” Yuhikaku, Tokyo 2003 (2) Best use of traditional wisdom [6] Chomsky, N. ‘Language and mind’ Thomson On the other hand, according to cognitive Learning, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. science, human thinking does not exclusively New York 1972 consist of “rational, logical processes that are [7] Steven Pinker ‘The Language Instinct’ consciously managed through our own free will” Penguin Books 1994 as Westerners have often taken for granted (see [8] John T. Bruer, ‘Schools for Thought. A note). A social system and production system that Science of Learning in the Classroom’ The can cope with ambiguous, context-dependent MIT Press, 1993, “jyugyou ga kawaru-ninchi affairs and that considers human emotions shinrigaku to kyouiku jissen ga tewo and needs is required for the future world. musubutoki” Japanese translation by Fumiko The Japanese tend to refrain from rigid Matsuda, Toshiaki Mori. Kitaohji Shobo formularisation and to make use of reservation [9] Hirsch, E.D. ‘Cultural Literacy: What Every and flexible adjustment of comportment. American Needs to Know,’ 1987 Houghton Traditional Japanese communication utilizes not Mifflin “kyouyou ga kuni wo tsukuru” only the spoken language but also subtle facial Japanese translation by Yasuo Nakamura. and physical expressions or even the duration of TBS Britannica

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[10] Popper, K. The logic of scientific discovery, to pick it up from among several objects, the Routledge Classic, 2002 patient could make the right choice and pick [11] Shiro Usui “Neuroinformatics: trends and up the corresponding object without being prospects.” Seitai no kagaku. October 2003. consciously aware of it. This demonstrates Feature article “Genomic and informatics in that unconscious thinking processes do drug development” (in Japanese) exist. The contents of unconscious thinking [12] Brunner H.G., Nelsen M., Breakefield X.O., tend to be expressed through physical Ropers H.H., van Oost B.A., ‘Abnormal and facial expressions rather than words. behavior associated with a point mutation in Moreover, some patients with certain brain the structural gene for monoamine oxidase defects after injury or tumor may preserve A.’ Science 1993, 262, 578-80 the manipulation of intellectual concepts but [13] Brunner H.G. ‘MAOA deficiency and lack certain control of emotions. Because abnormal behaviour. Perspectives on an these patients cannot integrate individually association.’ Ciba Found Symp. 1996, 194, correct pieces of intellectual information 155-64 into a meaningful task, it is indicated that [14] “A big project for the genetic resolution of emotions are inevitably important for depression.” Science and Technology Trends: judgment or conduct. The judgment of June 2004 (in Japanese) : healthy individuals can be modified by http://nistep.go.jp/index-j.html expectation and speculation when they are [15] United States National Committee on exposed to distracting stimuli before or at Excellence in Education “A Nation at the same time as the target stimulus. Some Risk-Challenge to Japanese Education.” conditions of stimuli presentation may make Japanese translation by Sadao Hashizume. subjects perceive non-existent stimuli. This Reimei Shobo reflects the cognitive function used in actual [16] http://www.foresight.gov.uk/cognitive.html life when we deduce the entire features of [17] http://www.oecd.org/document/15/0,2340,e a target even when it is partially hidden, n-2649-201185-25998799-119690-1-1-1,0,html or when we rapidly recognize a particular [18] http:/wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/ target from a perceptually confusing [19] http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/forum.html background. When a subject is asked to talk Masatsura Igami; “Science and Technology freely in the laboratory and the questioner Policy Trends in the United States - Report favourably responds only to a certain word, on the AAAS Annual Forum on Science and the usage of the word by the questionee Technology Policy -”,Science and Technology increases. On the other hand, when the Trends — Quarterly Review No.13 (October questioner ignores a word, the questionee 2004) : uses the word less frequently. In neither case http://nistep.go.jp/index-j.html is the questionee aware of the fact that s/he is performing auto-correction in line with Note the alluded to preference of the interlocutor. As a surgical operation for epilepsy, When performing collaborative work in patients may receive separation of neural actual society, these cognitive processes connectivity between the right and work for a conformity bias in which the left hemispheres. Studies in cognitive statements or performances of a person psychology have been conducted after are adjusted to synchronize with others’ such operations. When a certain object was opinions or acts. described verbally and the patient was asked

(Original Japanese version: published in July 2004)

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