media policiesinEurope. blowing; journalisticethics,professional standards; publictrust inthemedia; Keywords: Freedom ofexpression, information; safety ofjournalists;whistle- freedom. cludes withasetofreflections onthepossiblefuture ofjournalismandmedia con totheaudience,tion andcontents,- thearticle andquestionspertaining Revisiting issues of thepolitical economy of journalism, issues of representa- countries inEurope. ‘toxic environment’ bySafety Netare identified expanding and applytomore developments in2015-16suggestthatboththe «war ofattrition»andthe section itshows how, despitetheEuropean commitment tomediafreedom, experienced byjournalists,andhighlightstheirstructural basis.Inthesecond First, offers insightsastocurrent thearticle threats andotherimpediments Journalists andtheEuropean Centre for Press andMediaFreedom ( awarded agrant bytheEuropean Commission —theSafety Netfor European in Europe, theauthors draw oftwo ofindependentprojects onthe findings To discussthecurrent stateofaffairs for mediaandjournalisticfreedom decisions. ntable for theiractionsandontheothertoallow citizens tomake informed in order ontheonehandtoholdgovernments andotherinstitutionsaccou - The abilityofthemediaandespeciallyjournalismtooperate freely iscrucial E Challenges toMediaFreedom: AViewfrom Europe ugenia S iapera
y C hiara S ighel ecpmf )—.
129 ICR 11 2017 C E University (Irlanda) and Journalism,DublinCity del Institutefor Future Media (Italia) Caucaso Transeuropa BalcaniOsservatorio e investigadora del ug hiara e nia S S igh iap e e l ra e
es es
es profesora 11 2017
130 ICR Rights, freedom. Thishasbeen enshrinedinArticle 11oftheCharterFundamental and position isbyensuringmediapluralism andbyremoving barriers tomedia that thebestway inwhich journalismcanfunction andreflect uponits role of policies that seek to address media pluralism and freedom, on the premise imperative inorder toallow journalismtofulfilits role indemocratic societies. external influences andbarriers tojournalismandmediafreedom istherefore journalism free from externalcoercion orcontrols. Studying andmonitoring discussions must take place inacontext where journalistsare able topractise itsdiversepublics, best ways onethingiscertain:such inwhich itcanserve publics alike cankeep ondiscussingthenormativerole ofjournalismandthe different ways, engagingwithquestions ofsocialjustice. While theoristsand free information pointing totheneedconceiveofmediaandjournalismin hascriticised views thatthemediarepresenttical objectiveandvalue theory outside of their identities and interests. Drawing on similar arguments, cri ports thereby complicating views ofpublics actingasrational decision makers social groups, which lead themtodiverseinterpretations ofthesamemediare - (1980) focus ontheaudiences themselves andtheirdivision inclass andother decisions. At thesametime,theoristssuchasStuart Hall(2001 [1980]) andFish ability ofthemediatocheckauthorities andtoallow publics tomake informed gics already contain biasesthatreflect dominant ideologies, compromising the and Altheide (1979), focus ontheways inwhich mediaframingandlo - in thecontext ofcertainpolitical regimes. Others,for example Entman (2007) towards mediamonopolies andoccasionally theilliberalcontrol ofthemedia as the main source of income (e.g. Golding and Murdock, 2005), the tendency stemming from political economic factors,suchasthereliance onadvertising discussed constraints andlimitsplace ontheproper functioning ofthemedia Both HabermasandChomskyaswellmany othertheoristsandresearchers for theiractions andontheothertoallow citizenstomake informed decisions. order onthe one handto hold governments and other institutions accountable to operatefreely andwithoutcensorshiporotherexternalcontrols iscrucialin (1991) and Chomsky (2010). The ability ofthemedia and especially journalism and Mill(1966 [1860]) aswellbymore recent theoristssuchasHabermas has beenadvocated both by early thinkers such asTocqueville (2003 [1840]) A free andvibrant public sphere isvitalfor thefunctioning ofdemocracy. This E public authorityandregardless offrontiers. shall include freedom to hold opinions andtoreceive andimpartinformation andideaswithoutinterference by 1 dom andpluralism, theEuropean Commission hasawarded grants toprojects this fundamental freedom. Aspartofthiscommitment todefend mediafree - cession talkwithcandidatecountries, showingtheUnion’s commitment to conceives ofitself:indicators ofmediafreedom are important factorsinac opinion andexpression. Media freedom istherefore central tohowtheUnion Article 11,Freedom ofexpression andinformation 1.Everyone hastheright tofreedom ofexpression. Thisright ugenia Recognizing this,theEuropean Union hasdeveloped arationale andaset S 1 which reflects Article 19 oftheGeneva Convention onfreedom of iapera
y C hiara S ighel - - nalists more sympathetic to government lines,while otherswere giveninstruc were atthereceiving endofphone calls,otherswere replaced infavour ofjour difficultking itvery forjournalists toperform theirduties safely. were notmutually exclusive but all co-existedandoccasionally combinedma sations; andfinally (5)from randomandunpredictable sources. Thesesources andcriminalorgani ned political andbusinessinterests; (4)theunderworld the apparatusofstate;(2) commercial andbusinessinterests; (3)intertwi of thethreats included threats comingfrom thepolitical establishment and taken bysuchattemptstocontrol andhinderjournalism.Themainsources the mechanismsbywhich thesethreats operated—the howortheform ced byjournalists—in otherwords, who isinterfering intheirwork— and the report andtheirimplications for understanding mediafreedom inEurope. blished in 2015. This section discusses the findings and recommendations of with journalistsacross the11countries andreported theresults inareport pu achieve genderbalance.Overall, theproject conducted110indepthinterviews representing public andprivatemedia, press, broadcast anddigital,tried to sed theirsafety. We awiderangeofjournalistsandeditors, sought tointerview violence andintimidation orwho experienced otherincidents thatcompromi re withjournalistswho consistedofasetin-depth were victims interviews of and specific challenges facedbythem.Theempirical partoftheproject therefo- tojournalists,wewouldfirstneedidentify theneeds provide suchaservice countries, mature andnewerdemocracies. The project’s mainideawasthatto Slovenia, andTurkey, representing older andnewereucountries, candidate ria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, outtheirprofession.allow themtocarry Thecountries involved were Bulga and tools for journalistsin11countries thatwouldenhancetheirsafety and The mainobjectiveoftheSafety Net project wastodevelop asetofresources Building aSafetyNetforEuropean Journalists article willconclude withasetofreflections onthefuture ofmediafreedom. gent challenges faced by media and journalists in the current climate. The state ofaffairs for mediaandjournalistic freedom in Europe, andtheemer cussed inthefirst partofthis article, followed byadiscussion ofthecurrent Co-operative Society ( expanded thisworkbyestablishing anindependent not-for-profit European the European Centre for Press andMedia Freedom ( media freedom in11European countries including Turkey, while thesecond, first, Safety Net for European Journalists, conducted research in2014-2015 on ralism. Thepresent article reflects onthefindings oftwothese projects: the that address violations ofmediafreedom andmonitorbothfreedom andplu Direct political threats were rare butnevertheless present: somejournalists The empirical investigation sought to establish the sources of threats fa scek. The findings of the Safety Net project will be dis- Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa ecpmf ), built uponand ------
131 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
132 ICR to publish stories thatmay jeopardise theirrelationship withadvertisers. Addi difference andclosure. Thismakes betweensurvival reluctant newsoutlets very source for mostindependent newsoutlets, keeping the tapopenmay make the access to information. Given that income from advertising is the main revenue to employment, slander ordefamation, socialmedia harassment, andfreezing Other forms include controlling advertising income,lawsuits, sackingorthreats means available totheabove sources usedinorder tointimidate journalists. cases journalistshadbeenreceiving threats from all. is thatallthesesources ofthreat were operatingatthesameIke andinsome held other resentments giants the press. Overall, the important finding here from people who thought theirreports weren’t truthfuloraccuratewho occasionally underthreat byrandomorunexpectedsources, for example while others have beensubjected toviolent attacks.Lastly, journalistswere them: atleast twojournalists inoursample were underpolice protection, Journalists are alsounder attack by criminal organisations, when they expose across thecountries inoursample, for example thePeevski family inBulgaria. is Italy’s Silvio Berlusconi, butthere are similarthoughless spectacularcases pressures andattemptstoinfluence journalism.Themostwellknowncase politicians bought stakes inmediapublishing, andthisresulted inadded tances where media owners or editorsentered the political arena orwhere were deeply involved withoneanother. Ourrespondents referred toins- ned interests, andanenvironment where thebusinessandpolitical classes source, we found reports of a combinedandconcerted attackfrom intertwi media sphere intheseregions andtheirreplacement bylocal elites. a tendency forrope, which also observed Western media to disinvest from the (2012) discussion ofashiftinmediaownershippatternsCentral EasternEu outlets togainadvantage overtheircompetitors.Thisfindingsupports Stelka’s and tosupporttheirotherbusinessinterests ontheother, usingtheirmedia openly speculatedthatthese are usedfor political influence ontheonehand raised astothepurposeofbuyingtheseoutlets andjournalistsinoursample media andnewsoutlets underperform financially, there are serious questions Murdock, 2005), this new media owner class raises new issues. Given that most such asmediaconcentration andtheriseofmediaoligopolies (Golding and While studies ofthepolitical economy ofthemediawere concernedwithissues of mediaowners,whose businessinterests extendbeyond themediasphere. cracy. One of the most striking findings of the report was the rise of a new breed rence especially informer socialistcountries thattransitioned toliberaldemo- of transition, movingfrom direct political interference tocommercial interfe- common across thecountries inoursample. Moreover, there wasalsoasense (e.g. Cyprus). But thesecondkindofsource ofinterference wasmuch more was more commoninsomecountries (e.g. Turkey) andless commoninothers tions astowho theywere toquoteandinterview. Such political interference E ugenia As alluded toabove,violence orthethreat ofviolence constituteoneofthe Often, ratherthanthreats emanatingclearly from apolitical orabusiness S iapera
y C hiara S ighel - - - lent: there isnodoubtthatstrong unions would helpandsupportjournalists. litical pressure. (3)Thirdly, theposition ofunions wasequivocal andambiva led to oligopolies, toconflicts ofinterest, andtotheuseofmediaexert po- allowing more anddiversepublications tooperate, inreality, deregulation has gulated; although liberalisation ismeant tocontribute tomedia pluralism, our sample operatedinanmedialandscapewhich wasalmosttotally dere- business thatmay result inconflicts of interest. (2) Media inthecountries in ownership, whereby many mediaownershave stakes across awiderangeof build upthiskindoftoxic environment. Theseare: (1)non-transparent media main structuralconditions thatcontributed eitherdirectly orindirectly tothe tion against journalism. But what madepossible this war? We identified seven grade butconstant pressure applied,thatwecharacterisedasawarofattri The study didnotfindasetofisolated incidents butanundercurrent of low rred toasatoxic environment thatmakes difficult thingsvery forjournalists. diments experienced byjournalists,andshowstheexistenceofwhat werefe - oranglerepercussions usedmight have onthem. thataparticular story briefings. Theywere therefore conditioned toapply caution andtothinkofthe orareport theywouldimmediately ‘freeze’story themandexclude themfrom to them;severaljournalistsreferred toincidents where ifasource didnotlike a willstopofferingvernment andthebusinessworld, any information ortalking or threats. Asimilarcaution isexerted becausesomesources, from boththego- themselves applying caution evenwithouthaving received any overtpressure ral precarity, serious. Journalists loss ofemployment isvery are oftenfinding journalists —in Greece itisestimatedatover25%(Trimis, 2012) —and gene- foreign highunemployment among agents. Inacontext characterisedbyvery minority journalists,who were accusedofbeingunpatriotic and operatingas comments were alsoaddressedtionships. toethnic Slanderous anddefamatory and smearingcampaigns,especially around theirpastandalleged sexualrela sexual nature. Women comments were also at the receiving end of defamatory sexual violence wascommon,including somerapethreats, andpostsofovertly of onlineharassment were women.Thenature ofsuchattacksasvaried but ject wasundertaken, clearly gendered: mostifnotallofthevictims andvery slander. Socialmediaharassment wasontherisewhen theresearch for thepro- ging asharassment through socialmediaandinsomeinstancesthrough openly trating andexpensive,theyare notasintimidating orpsychologically dama without meritoperateasacontrol mechanism.Although suchactions are frus- defending lawsuits withouthaving everlost. Inthismanner, frivolous lawsuits a Greek newsoutlet told usthattheytypically pay about80,000euro ayear lawsuits mostly withoutmerit,butwhich theystillhadtodefend. For instance advertising funds.Inparallel, newoutlets andindividualjournalistswere hitby In thismanner, governments may exert control through themanagement of money isdistributedinways thatbenefitmostly thoseclose tothegovernment. tionally, insomeinstancesgovernment andoccasionally eveneuadvertising The abovediscussion offers insights astocurrent threats andotherimpe- Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa - - - -
133 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
134 ICR in Hungary, Poland andCroatia thepopulistic attackagainst suggests.Second, the riseofilliberaldemocracies evenamongeuMember States asthesituation me increasingly challenging for media freedom and journalistic safety, due to curred inEurope during2015-16. First, theEuropean political context has beco- updates onthepresent situation byfocusing onthree maindevelopments oc are expandingandapply tomore countries inEurope. Thissection willprovide both the‘warofattrition’ andthe‘toxic environment’ identified bySafety Net further since the Safety Net research. There is some evidence that suggests that Despite theEuropean commitment tomediafreedom, things have deteriorated Current Developments andEmerging Problems Croatia. rather thanprotect journalists,suchasfor example, the‘humiliation law’ in ling withlawsuits andthedevelopment ofmore ambiguouslaws thathinder no mechanismtoprotect themfrom frivolous lawsuits. Longdelays indea legal context isnotsensitiveenoughtotheneedsofjournalists, andthere is autonomy ofprevious generations ofjournalismworkers. (5)Additionally, the profession andthosewho remain orwho enter may nothave theskillsor sionalisation ofjournalism.Thisinpractice meansthatpeople are leaving the of wagesandmore topdowncontrol ofjournalistshave led tothede-profes- (4) Shorttermsprecarious workingarrangements, alongside thecontraction unions are closed tonewmembers,especially thoseworkingfor onlinemedia. dual labour contracts was certainly weakened unions, while insome instances corrupt. Deregulation ofemployment andtheshifttowards signingindivi But thecurrent inefficient unions are seenasweak, andinsomeinstances E 18/4, available at:http://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Croatia/Croatia-a-law-threatens-journalists-150653 2014, Croatia’s newCriminal Code establishes theoffence Balcani eCaucaso, ofhumiliation inOsservatorio information published isnotconsidered asofpublic interest andthosereferred toitfeel humiliated (Hedl, D., 2 ned for journalists?Thisisexaminedinthenextsection. tion? Hasanything changedsincethenandhave thingsimproved orworse- journalism. How doestheSafety Net project compare tothecurrent situa the longer termimprovement oftheconditions underwhich theypractise commendations for boththeimmediaterelief ofjournalistsunderthreat and the report concludesand to thisend, with aset of proposals and policy re- objective ofthestudy wastodevelop asetofpractical tools tohelpjournalists, media sphere hasdeveloped andoperatesinthecountries understudy. The identified byjournalistsandtheirstructuralbasisintheways in which the the epicenter ofethnic tensions, andtheseoftenfeed into theproblem. tarian regimes ofprevious eras.(7) Similarly, theregion understudy hasbeen of political corruption, itselfseeninmostinstancesasaremnant ofauthori Thisrefers toArticle 148oftheCriminal Code, according towhich thecourtmay sentence ajournalistifthe ugenia This summary of the findingsof SafetyThis summary Net highlighted several problems S iapera 2 (6) Anumber oftheproblems identified canbelinked tohigh levels
y C hiara S ighel - - - - - secure tool tosubmitand search reports ofthreats andviolations from across Europe. ship withthefinancialsupportof European It Commission: https://mappingmediafreedom.org/#/. provides a 4 3 are oftenunderpressure bymeansofdirect andindirect threats. tries aspiringtojointheeu ver, severalsources give evidencethatbothinMember statesandinthecoun an imperativetoberespected tobecomeandremainpartoftheeu ding documents and considering freedom of expression and information as mental pillarsofdemocratic systems,enshriningtheseprinciples ineubin Union hasconsistently recognised mediafreedom andpluralism asfunda journalism andofpeople deliveringit.Asmentioned earlier, theEuropean ropean statestorespect theirpositiveobligations toensure thesafety offree are amongthemostrelevant regional organisations regularly callingonEu for Human Rights, theOrganisation for SecurityandCooperation inEurope institutions, the Council ofEurope anditsStrasbourg-based European Court ced atnational andinternational level. TheEuropean Union anditsvarious result from thecombination oflegal provisions, caselaw andsoftlaw produ enough protected byEuropean laws andare currently underattack. countable thoseinpower, journalistic sources andwhistleblowers are stillnot tigative journalismandwhistleblowing are toexposewrongdoing andhold ac the factthat in 2016 the Panama Papers clearly demonstrated how vital inves - trends inEuropeans’ trustinthemediaandtheirindependence.Third, despite in Europe aswell,which furtherexacerbatesthepicture marked bydeclining the mediamadefamousbyusPresident DonaldTrump isarisingphenomenon European Commission. the Independent Journalists’ Association ofSerbianunsandco-funded bythe dia freedom intheWestern Balkans,arecently established initiativeled by media is confirmed alsoin thefirst report ofthe Regional platform forme- Here, thegrowing recourse tophysical violence asatool for intimidating the pology of threats particularly concentrated inSouthEastern Europe (348/711). are categorisedasphysical attacks,injuries, attackstoproperty aty- blished intheMappingMedia Freedom platform. and limitations facedbymembersofthepress throughout Europe were pu cases. From January 2015toDecember2016,2116 verified reports ofviolations the othersevenare stillratedPartly Free, withdecliningscores inmany from one(Turkey) to two, with Macedonia’s status downgraded in 2016; and Cyprus kept beingtheonly tworatedasfree; Not free countries passed to the11European countries analysed intheSafety Net report, Slovenia and decade when compared tootherregions oftheworld.Restricting thefocus old continent hasexperienced thelargestdrop inpress freedom overthelast ropeans stillenjoyamongthemostopenandfree mediasystemsglobally, the TheMappingMedia Freedom platform isaEurope-wide monitoring initiativerunbyuk Seethefullrepot here: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/freedom-press-2016 According toFreedom House’s Freedom ofPress 2016 European standards for theprotection ofmediafreedom andpluralism , mediaindependenceandthesafety ofjournalists Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa 4 Outofthese,711reports 3 report, evenifEu -based IndexonCensor . Howe------
135 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
136 ICR 2016. Thepublication ofmpm ber statesplus applicant countries Montenegro andTurkey, findingspresented inNovember withpreliminary cmpf.eui.eu) at the European University Institute. Its 2016 round of monitoring analysed indicators in28 eu mem tes. It hasbeendeveloped andimplemented bythe Centre for Media Pluralism andMedia Freedom ( 5 of service providers. of service tion ofnewlaws ontheright tobeforgotten andtherelated responsibilities online content (comment sections, socialmedia) as wellasfrom theintroduc results from legal issuesconnectedwithmanagingdigital broadcasting and at countering industrialespionage. Evidence ofimportant chillingeffects also public relevance canbeintroduced evenbymeansofcopyright normsaimed Directive onTrade Secret, restrictions tojournalists’ accesstoinformation of grants. As shown in the discussions in the European Parliament around the hunt and theescalation ofhatespeech againstminorities, refugees, andmi jihadist terrorism spreading across Europe, favouring alsoaclimateofwitch- terrorism andnational securitylaws too,evenmore sotoday with thefear of admitself-censorship(2016).surveyed and incourseofpublication, around 30%of the1000European journalists journalists. According toastudy carried outbytheCouncil ofEurope in2016 expression, making self-censorshipawidespread practice betweenEuropean Europe Database— canobviously have ahuge chillingeffect onfreedom of —by noway anItalian exception ashighlighted inipi of 100 years of prison all together. The abuse of defamation and insult laws year 155 journalists are sentenced tojail in foraverage every a totalamount nearly 90% of thecriminalsentences assess the journalists’ innocence; still, mation trialsdefinedinthe period between2010-2015. Findings indicate that (2016) analysed official of statistical dataofthe Justice ItalianMinistry ondefa France. For instance, inItaly arecent report byOssigenoperl’informazione with imprisonment inmostof them,withthesole exception ofBulgaria and but Cyprus, Croatia, Estland, Romania Ireland, anduk),itispunishable this matter. Defamation is a criminal offence in 22out of 28 onmemberstates’no direct powertointervene national regulations over to dotheirjob. ritarian turn,thatfurtherfacilitateinterference withtheabilityofjournalists evolution aswellnegativefactorssuchtheeconomic crisisandthesecu economic environments theproduct ofseveraltrends including thedigital Such deterioration canbeattributedtoincremental erosion ofthelegal and Protection, Market Plurality, Political IndependenceandSocialInclusiveness. looks atqualitativeandquantitative indicators infour majordomains:Basic monitored is free from risks, being assessed through a holistic approach that Media Pluralism Monitor 2016 E TheMedia Pluralism Monitor isatool designedtoidentify potential riskstomediapluralism ineuMember Sta ugenia Increased risksfor freedom ofinformation derive from theabuseofanti- Journalists facetheabuseoflegal actions for defamation, buttheeuhas As far as more indirect threats are concerned, preliminary findingsofthe As farasmore indirect threats preliminary are concerned, S iapera
y C hiara S 2016 report isexpected byMarch 2017. ighel 5 showthatnoneofthe30European countries ’s Defamation Laws in eu countries (all cmpf -http:// ------with higherriskstomediapluralism, nment cameinto powerin2010,theHungarian mediahave beenconfronted newspaper inthecountry, inlate2016.Since ViktorOrban’s right-wing gover with the sudden closure of Népszabaksag,gary the largest and main opposition Colloquium, panel 6 voices notinlinewiththegovernment positions.6 Gazeta Wyborczagiveadditional evidenceofincreased pressures tosilencing advertising revenues ofcritical privatemedialike theprominent newspaper nearly 200mediaworkers ofthepublic broadcasters lost theirjob. Sinking boards media, ofpublic service directly appoint management andsupervisory adcasting Actwere approved inDecember2015 allowing thegovernment to llowed suchgeneralpattern. In Poland, afteramendments tothePublic Bro- any otherMember State. Pressures andintimidations againstthemediafo- in ges totherule oflaw anddemocracytoanextent thatcannotbeobserved right-wing rulingparties Justice andLaw andFidesz launchedsevere challen and pluralism withintheEuropean Union itself.InPoland andHungary, the the political context hasbecomeincreasingly challenging for mediafreedom During 2016,developments inHungary, Poland andCroatia madeclear that The riseofilliberal onthe media democracies inEurope anditsimpact 7 ec.europa.eu/newsroom/just/item-detail.cfm?item_id=31198 (from minute 28:00to30:45). ownership, andshouldbeatokey priority for urgent action. concludes thatthisposesagreater threat thantheconcentration ofmedia linked to the dysfunction of democracy (Bárd y Bayer, 2016), the research in somecountries are provoking systemic failure of themediamarket andare non-transparent interconnections networkofpolitical andeconomic power garia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland andRomania. Assessingthat commissioned bytheEuropean Parliament onseveneuMember States: Bul documented bytheSafety Net report isreaffirmed inacomparativestudy new classofmediaownersexerting direct interference ineditorialdecisions managerialism intheSafety Net report. Thenegativeimpactoftherisea professional standards —what wedescribedasde—professionalisation and hip redundant, relying insteadonself-censorshipandtheforced erosion of coupled withworseninglabourconditions for journalists,makes censors- mechanism.Thisproblematicsement revenues coalition, asadisciplinary leverage andtake advantage ofopaquemethodsdistribution ofadverti findings oftheSafety Net report—that usethemediaaspolitical andbusiness known alliancebetweenpolitical andeconomic powers—oneofthecentral
Listen tothetestimony byPiotr Stasiński, attheAnnual deputyeditorinchief ofGazetaWyborcza,intervening See The end result of such pressures isepitomised bywhat occurred in Hun Editorial independenceisconstantly indangerasaconsequence ofawell- mpm 2014 country report for2014 country at:http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/results-2014/hungary/ Hungary An independent media,free from political andcommercial pressures 7 strengthening statecontrol andgrowing Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa . Podcast here: http:// - - - - -
137 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
138 ICR neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/pdf/key_documents/2016/20161109_strategy_paper_en.pdf placement of over 70 media workers; Croatian public television ( the fundsfor non-profit media;imposedmanagerialchangesatthetopof proposing theremoval ofitspresident andthedismissalofitscouncil;blocked the Croatian government attacked thenational regulator for electronic media stance toward wwii-fascist Croatian state.Inthefew months hewasinoffice, ter ofCulture, anappointment highly contested becauseofhisapologetical short coalition government in which Zlatko as Minis- Hasanbegović served of journalistic safety andfreedom. Thiswasparticularly evident duringthe nected alsowithmanipulateddistribution ofstateadvertisements. corruption bysenior officials, andthatfinancial difficulties were directly con cal nature ofthedecision, arguingitcameafterinvestigative stories exposing contested thehighly politi journalists, theopposition andexternalobservers claimed it was being closed simply because it was no longer financially viable, who were evendenied accesstothenewspaperbuilding.While theowners suspended publications without any prior communication to its employees, attempts tostifle critical reporting. InOctober2016, Népszabaksag suddenly 9 Multimedia/Infographics/Deterioration-of-media-freedom-in-Croatia 8 society actors.Quotingthejournalistanddirector oftheCentre for Investi tion ofsmearcampaignsagainstindependent journalistsandprominent civil conditions; cyberattackstoimpedeaccesscritical websites;theorchestra dia andfinancethose which follow poorworking theline;journalists’ very distribution ofcommercial advertising usedastools tosilence thecritical me- Watch, 2015)include the selective useofstateadvertising andthe controlled against journalists,key problems identified invarious reports (Human Rights Progress Report issuedbytheEuropean Commission inNovember 2016. two years, has persisted and, insomecases,intensifiedtwo years, haspersistedand, in thearea offreedom overthepast ofexpression andmedia,already observed present inallstatesoftheregion.rian trends are Thelackofprogress stillvery pean standards, proper implementation islacking(Pavlou, 2016) andauthorita Commission entailed intheaccession process— tendtobeinlinewithEuro- adopted —thanks totheclose monitoringandnegotiations withtheEuropean Platform topromote theprotection ofjournalismandsafety ofjournalists. gative journalistworkingoncrimeandcorruption, have beenreported inthe of theCroatian journalistsassociation andthebrutalbeatingupofaninvesti and otherviolations, including theattemptedassassination ofthepresident being responsible for words spoken andwritteninpublic (Bona,2016). These physical aggression againstaprominent journalistrecalled theimportanceof E European Commission, Ondeterioration ofmediafreedom inCroatia seehere asummarisinginfographics: www.rcmediafreedom.eu/ ugenia Croatia hasundergone asimilarpatternwithregard tothedeterioration Along withtheincreased recourse toviolence andtheimpunityofcrimes Moving to countries aspiring to join the European Union, even if laws S iapera
y C hiara dg S near ighel , Enlargement Strategy Paper 2016, page 4. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/ hrt ) which were followed bythe dismissalorre- 8 a statement he made in response to the 9 is stated in the last isstatedinthelast ------forcement ateulevel. expression andinformation, wouldbeakey firststeptostrengthen theiren in respecting fundamental rights andvalues, including thoseonfreedom of annual monitoring mechanism to assess each Member State’s performances quire urgent and joint action by the tant challenges tomediafreedom andpluralism ineumemberstatestoo. against journalists, restrictive legislation and the economic crisis are impor time, political andcommercial pressure, economic hardship, physical attacks mestic actorstoworkfor mediafreedom andpluralism athome.At the same law), monitorthesituation, andprompt governments aswellempowerdo- dia issueswhen otherareas oftheeuacquisare concerned(like competition implementing Charter ofFundamental Rights applies toMember States only when theyare asthemediaare mostlyintervention, regulated atthestatelevel andtheeu but ged after membership is obtained, new memberstatesconfirmsthatmediafreedom tendstobeharshly challen ning thatthere isno‘progress report’ for memberstates.Theexperience with criteria’), joinstheeu eventhisincentive ceasestoexistonceacountry ditionality andchecklistedin Progress Reports (knownasthe‘Copenhagen 10 Erdogan’s repression furtherworse. since October2016newState ofEmergency decrees making have beenissued, 2.500ned, mediaprofessionals left withoutjobbecauseoftheseclosures, and custody, 800press cards 173mediaoutlets cancelled, hadshut downorban 2016 July-August-September, 117journalistsanddistributorsare injail,76 tating impact.According tothelastpublished BİA Media Monitoring Report government’s post-coupcrackdown onthemedia has hadafar more devas- ble, proper journalismwillbeborn(Zanoni,2016). that, aslong asweexist,canbetheseedfrom which oneday, when possi in anobjective,neutral,andprofessional manner. Theonly thingIcansay is nisation todoinvestigative journalismaccording tointernational standards, hope themediasituation willimprove inthefuture I workwithmy orga ourfindings.And when askedthe mainstream medialiterally bury ifhehas day,every andwemanagetodoinvestigative journalism.Theproblem isthat the institutions that do not want to workwithus. […] We overcome obstacles underlegal oftenthreatened, pressure, wehavehelpless, bigissueswith very gative Journalism ofSerbiacins,Branko Čečen, We have nomoney, weare 2016. Full text: mechanism ondemocracy, therule oflaw Session on25October andfundamental rights wasadoptedinPlenary 11 The European Parliament resolution with recommendations to the Commission on the establishment of an http://bianet.org/english/media/181569-closed-radio-tv-channels-come-together-there-is-1-report
Seeindependent report byBİA Media Monitoring Report 2016July-August-September: Referred toastheCopenhagen dilemma, thisphenomenon would re- As gloomy asitisthesituation intheWestern Balkans,inTurkey the However insufficient one may considerthecriteriaset forthintheeucon eu law. TheEuropean onme- Commission canonly intervene 11 Given thecurrent alarmingtrends atnational level, 10
eu institutions. The introduction of an eu institutions have a limited scope of Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa , mea eu ------
139 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
140 ICR finding missions the European Centre for Press andMedia Freedom ( of thishappeninginEurope isfound inGermany, for instance.In2015-16 tool for spreading thegovernment’s views through biasedreporting. Evidence relevant share oftheaudience considering themainstream mediaasanelitist Things howeverchangewhen public skepticism grows totheextent ofhaving exclusively negativefactorwhen itisexercised inview ofimproving themedia. half ofthem,andespecially women, from engaginginpublic debates. abuse, hatespeechorthreats, withthedeclared result ofdiscouragingnearly dia (37%). Moreover, 75% of Europeans using social media have experienced media(35%)andofthenational body thatoverseesaudiovisual me- service tage furtherdecliningwhen looking atthepolitical independenceofpublic media are free from political orcommercial pressure (38%),withthepercen about theindependenceofmedia,only aminoritythinkstheirnational vide trustworthy information (44%thinkitdoesnot);when thequestion is free. marked bydeclining trustandawidespread belief thatnational mediaare not differ to country, from country Europeans’ perception of the media is clearly in November trend. Even 2016highlights anotherworrying ifresults greatly The Special Eurobarometer 452on Media pluralism and democracy issued Europeans andthemedia:between decliningtrustandmediascepticism surging nationalism andanti-multilateralism across theMember States. and itssuccessfuladoption cannotbetaken for granted inthecontext ofre- Rule ofLaw andFundamental Rights riskshowevertobetoolong andlate, rinstitutional agreement settingupaeubindingPact for Democracy, the the procedure initiatedbytheEuropean Parliament withacallfor aninte- also at the Annual Colloquium on Fundamental Rights 0409+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN#BKMD-20 The call for an interinstitutional agreement was recalled http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P8-TA-2016- skeptical stancetoward themediawasfuelled bythemediacoverageof labelled asacompliant propaganda tool ofthegovernment. Theaudience’s citizens who feel betrayed by German politics —and by the German media, Germany) party. Boththesepolitical actorsaimat providing aplatform for inst Islamization oftheWest) andtheright-wing populistafd(Alternative for press —debate initiated by the movement threats againstjournalists andmediaprofessionals connectedtotheLying 13 Seefullreport ofthe ecpmf fact-finding mission here: https://ecpmf.eu/news/ecpmf/pegida 12 Cited above. Lunacek. E ugenia Media criticism isnotsomethingnewtodemocratic societies, noritisan Across theeu 12 S iapera
y C hiara , only aslight majority(53%)agrees theirnational mediapro - 13 toinvestigate thegrowing number ofphysical attacksand S ighel Media and democracy pegida (Patriotic Europeans aga ecpmf by the ) carried outfact- ep Vice-President Ulrike - - broader societal tensions. gravated bydiscrediting on thebasisofgender andethnic affiliation, feeding nothing new:ithasalmostbecomeinstitutionalised andattacks are oftenag- Thus, in the Western Balkans hate speech against journalists is unfortunately write withoutactually addressing thefactsandarguments theyare exposing. gues who publish articles and features aimed at discrediting what journalists subjected to attacks coming bothfrom political power andbytheir collea 14 Human Rights Watch, 2015,cited above. Three months after the largest data leak ever enabled what the Ethical Journa offshores andshady businesses runby400journalistsfrom 100countries. of thePanama Papers, aworldwideinvestigation ontaxheaven, anonymous In April2016,hundreds newspapersacross theglobe published thefirstpieces The battlearound journalisticsources andwhistleblowing set uppopulartribunalstospotanddenouncelying press andtv bricators offake newsare themainstream mediaandproposed insteadto mation, BeppeGrillo reverted theaccusation claimingthattheprincipalfa Sharply criticizing theideaofaministertruthapplied toonlineinfor nal anti-trust agencyseemedtosuggestinpublic statements andinterviews. officials suchasthe ItalianMinisterof Justice orthe president ofthenatio - and removing fake newsonline,somethingwhich Italian high-ranking public ted against bodiesthe idea of having in chargeof monitoring public regulatory tion party which took 25% of the vote at the last Italian election in 2013 - reac Five Star Movement— apopularanti-establishment movement andopposi forInquisition andApopularjury thelies ofthemedia,leader ofthe before andaftertheNew Year’s eveentitled Thepost-bullshitofthenew Italian public debate at the beginning of 2017. In two articles published right sexual assaults andtheftallegedly committedbyrecent migrants toGermany. the mainstream mediainGermany beganreporting heavily aboutthealleged Cologne incidents of2016New Year’s Eve —when ittook severaldays before interviewed intheSafetyinterviewed Net report andinotherreports ofjournalists.Many ofthejournalists to apolarization withinthecategory paigns bypro-government media,asthepoliticisation ofthemediahasled and liars. Hate speech by high-ranking public figures is echoed by smear cam have repeatedly and publicly accusedjournalistslabellingthemmediamafia Vučić, andtheoneofMontenegro, Milo Đukanović, are amongthosewho thieves, prostitutes andthelike. ThePrimeMinisterofSerbia,Aleksandar accusations of acting on behalf of foreign agents, of being liars, informers, prominent civilsociety actorsare regularly attacked bypolitical leaders with Another example istheheateddebatearound fake newsthatshook the As far as Enlargement countries critical are journalists and concerned, Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa 14 complain ofbeing broadcaster. ------
141 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
142 ICR highlighted arecent report oftheFundamental Rights Agency( ces andmaterialsbylegislative, judicial, andevensecurity/intelligence means, countries have witnessedattemptsandpressure todisclose confidential sour secrecy laws, while theFrench journalistinvolved inthecasewasacquitted. 2016). However, theywere found guilty for theftandviolating professional prompted amuch neededdebateaboutcorporatetaxation inEurope (Valero, and investigative journalistsfor having safeguarded thepublic interest and competition commissioner Margrethe Vestager, praisedthewhistleblowers their taxpayments. SeveralEuropean public figures, included the European bourg’s controversial taxdealswithbigcorporations aimedatminimising and journalistsngo clause extended towhistleblowers, andthisdespitenumerous mediafreedom instance, wasapproved inJune 2016withoutincluding aproper protection The siderable shortcomingsare tobeenvisaged alsointheeulegislation itself. by theGreen/ efa momentum. It initiated in May 2016 with the presentation of a draft Directive mum standards for the protection of whistleblowers has started and is gaining whisteblowers/ whisteblowers/ http://www.greens-efa.eu/en/article/positive-feedback-on-greens-efa-draft-eu-directive-for-the-protection-of- 18 More background information at: ft_for_consultation_launch_May_2016.pdf ve infull:http://www.greens-efa.eu/legacy/fileadmin/dam/Images/Transparency_campaign/WB_directive_dra 17 More info at:http://www.greens-efa.eu/en/article/whistle-blowers-directive/. Theproposal for adraftdirecti pressures-against-journalists-and-other-media-actors-european Poland are reported (pp.14-15). Full report here: http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2016/violence-threats-and- nalists andothermediaactors 16 IntheFundamental Rights Agency report of November 2016 Violence, threats and pressures against jour ljournalismnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/ejn-ethics-in-the-news.pdf court has been on the barricades for better access to public information, for Law professor DirkVorhoof attheecpmf 2016conference, theStrasbourg has beentheEuropean Court ofHuman Rights ( more concrete developments are expectedtofollow inthecourseof2017-2018. decade, lism Network ofthe labelled asthebiggestsingle, corruption-busting story 15 Ethical Journalism Network, 2016,Report onChallenges for Journalism in Raphaël Halet, thetwowhistleblowers ofthesocalled LuxLeaks scandal. expressing supportfor advancements oftheEUlegislation inthisfield, the Commission andtheCouncil oftheUnion— undertook somemeasures llowing months, allthethree maineuinstitutions —the European Parliament, ted byacoalition oftradeunions, ngo the launchofhttps://whistleblowerprotection.eu/, anonlinecampaignsuppor E ugenia The LuxLeaks verdict isnotthesole reason for concern.In2016,several So far, atEuropean level akey actorfor highstandard-setting inthisfield Their revelations helpedinvestigative journaliststoshedlight toLu A campaigncallingontheeulegislator toadopt eu -wide commonmini eu ‘Trade Secret’ Directive aimedatcountering businessespionage, for S iapera 15 a court in Luxembourg sentenced to prison Antoine Deltour and
y C hiara group attheEuropean Parliament S advocated suchprovisions. ighel , casesfrom Belgium,France, Germany, theUK, Ireland, Lithuania, Croatia, , andjournalistorganisations. Inthefo- ecthr). Asrecalled byMedia 17 Post-Truth followed soonafterby Era. At http://ethica fra). 16 Con 18 xem and and - ------to raisepublic awareness; andfor enhanceddialogue withtheCourt aswell. need for bettermonitoringofecthrcaselaw bymedia,journalists,academia tect theirsources. Such developments givereasons ofconcernandsuggestthe rights toaccessinformation, publish investigation stories basedonleaks, pro- ning thescopeofArticle 10onFreedom ofExpression toinclude journalists’ (2016) the Court did not follow the previous line oflegal arguments broade- land (2016), Diamant Salihu vsSweden (2016) orBorisErdtmann vsGermany ecthr jurisprudence.Incaseslike Weber vsGermany (2015), BedatvsSwitzer However, trends intherecent highlighted someworrying hisintervention rcmediafreedom.eu/Multimedia/Video/Whistleblowing-Prof.-Dirk-Voorhoof-at-ECPMF2016-Conference available intheonlineResource Centre onMedia freedom inEurope -www.rcmediafreedom.eu. http://www. 19 Podcast andslidesofprofessor Vorhoof’s attheecpmf 2016conference intervention are amongtheresources election itbecameclear thatthelike economy thatconstitutesFacebook’s they useinorder toorder information are tradesecrets, butin thelastus usurpation oftheadvertising market. More specifically, thealgorithmic rules given on the one handtheir algorithmic management of contents andtheir internet andsocialmediacorporations hasfurthercomplicated the picture, terests have aclear andnegativeeffect onthemediasphere. The riseofthe questions ofoligopolies, andtheinter-meshing ofeconomic andpolitical in possible future ofmediaandjournalism. preceding discussion may shedsomelight tothecurrent situation and the and questions pertainingtotheaudience. Revisiting theseinthelight ofthe of thepolitical economy ofjournalism,issuesrepresentation and contents, Returning toourinitialdiscussion intheintroduction, wereferred toissues the creation of strategies to redress some of the problems discussedabove. empt further assaults to media freedom and on the other to contribute to verse. Thetaskofresearchers isontheonehand toidentify andseektopre- has beentakingplace for along timeanditwillbeadifficult process to re- standards, associatedwithbothdirect attacksandpolitical economic factors, a surprisetopeople workingonmediafreedom. Theerosion ofjournalistic facts —primarily butnotexclusively focused on theus—didnotcomeas The heateddiscussions ontheso-called fake news,post-truth, andalternative Thinking oftheFuture strengthened theserightsted, through itscaselaw ofthelast10-15 years. the right tofreedom ofexpression [...].TheEuropean Courtuplif- upgraded, these aspectsasbeingprotected underArticle 10oftheEuropean Convention, terms ofrights, becausethenational stateswere not(sufficiently) considering fact, it is thanks to the the protection ofjournalistic sources andofwhistleblowers. Asamatterof the protection ofinvestigative journalismandnewsgatheringthrough leaks, In termsofthepolitical economy ofmediaandjournalism,itisclear that ecthr that we can formulate these four aspects in Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa 19 - -
143 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
144 ICR example, theukMedia Reform coalition possession of certain mediaownersmay beastepintheright direction. For beralism, publicizing theeffects ofmediamonopolies andlistsofinterests in add thatwhile there isadistrustofregulation especially afteryears ofneoli against monopolies, inorder toprevent market concentration. Here wecan lists andpublics (Siapera &Papadopoulou, 2016). Thesecondistoregulate such asfor example, thedevelopment ofmediacooperatives,runbyjourna nity-based media.Along theselineswehave seensomepositivedevelopments not-for profit broadcasting alternatives, and such commu as public service rrent problems facedbythenewsmedia.Thefirstistoencourageandfund sphere, Victor Pickard (2015) suggeststhree mainways ofaddressing thecu advertising revenue are socialmediacorporations. Indiscussingtheusmedia fragmented onlinelandscapetheonly organisations thatcangeneratereliable profitable enterprise (Silverman &Alexander, 2016). Moreover, inthehighly tion produced by, amongothers,teenagersinMacedonia,who found thisa business modelwasconducivetothecirculation offake newsabouttheelec E 21 Seehttp://cmpf.eui.eu/Home.aspx 20 Seehttp://www.mediareform.org.uk/ their publics. But publics are important stakeholders. Theloss ofpublic trust often thannot,afocus onmediafreedom focuses onjournalistsratherthan that contributes totheimprovement ofthequalitytheiroutput. of this.Strengthening journalistsasprofessional workers istherefore afactor long learning andofcoursethespacethatallows journaliststotake advantage tegrated inthenewcurricula ofschools ofjournalism,there isaneedfor life- data journalismordigitalsecurityissues). While tosomeextent theseare in (e.g. professional ethics or fact-checking) and on new tools and challenges (e.g. there isanurgent needfor journalists’ education bothonthefundamentals of themediasphere, andendupcompromising thenewsoutput.Inparallel, journalists’ unions associations are significantly contributing totheproblems carisation ofjournalists,thelow degree ofunionisation andtheweaknessof earlier,development. Asweobserved thede-professionalisation andthepre- form of protecting journalists as workers and investing in their professional merely atechnology company (Ingram,2016). has repeatedly refused toacceptthatFacebook isanewsmediumandnot media organisations, despite the fact that Facebook’s ggests thatFacebook besubjectedtothesamescrutiny andnormsasother internet cannotbedismantled from thetopdown. Rather, Pickard (2017) su refers here toFacebook, whose defactomonopoly overalargepartofglobal is toclosely regulate monopolies when theycannotbedismantled. Pickard apply pressure togovernments.sary Thethird according method, toPickard, and Media Freedom ugenia A third, andcrucial,ifoverlooked, parameteristhatofaudiences. More In termsofmediacontents andrepresentations, may take interventions the S iapera
y C hiara S 21 ighel constituteimportant attempts tomonitor, andifneces- 20 andtheCentre for Media Pluralism ceo , Mark Zuckerberg ------Bárd, P. and Bayer, J. (2016). Altheide, D. L.(1979).Media Logic.Chichester: John Wiley &Sons. References media. and inpartdiscussedabove,isthatdemocracycannotfunction withoutfree are tolearn anything from theempirical research thathasbeencarried out demics andpolicy makers, have tokeep pushingthisagenda,becauseifwe want andarewe need, willingtosupport.We, ascitizens,journalists,aca dom. But thetimeisripetohave adiscussion aboutwhat kinds ofmediado guarantee thattheywillreverse thedownfallofjournalismandmediafree- more attention totheneedsofcitizensratherthanelites. across European borders, cancertainly aid.It alsorequires thatjournalistspay controlled an effort which grassroots andvirtuous journalism,joining forces journalism facesandthemechanismsthrough which mediaare seizedand transnational information aimedatraisingawareness aboutthechallenges of theimportant role mediaplay inademocratic society. Thistaskdemands bute to the formation ofmore positive views andhelp re-establish awareness Actively involving citizensandpublics intheworkofjournalismmay contri to do their work safely and the right of citizens to receive quality information. is anurgent needtorestore themissinglinkbetweenrights ofjournalists and widespread suspicion. Aswepointed outintheSafety Net project, there as evidencedintheriseofonlinehatespeech,proliferation offake news in thenewshashadapernicious effect onthepublic andsocio-cultural sphere, Fish, S. E., (1980). Entman, R.M.,(2007). Framing Bias: Media intheDistribution ofPower. Journal of De Tocqueville, A.(2003 [1840]). Democracy. Washington inAmerica DC:Publis- Regnery Bona, M.(2016). Croatia: theAttack AgainstJournalist Ante Tomić andtheDisconcer Habermas, J. (1991). TheStructural Transformation Into ofthePublicSphere: a An Inquiry Golding, P. yMurdock, G. (2005). Culture, Communications andPolitical Economy. None oftheserecommendations are easytoimplement, noristhere any communication 57(1),pp. 163-173. hing. Tomic-and-the-disconcerting-reaction-of-the-Minister-of-Culture balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Croatia/Croatia-the-attack-against-journalist-Ante- ting Reaction oftheMinisterCulture. OBC Transeuropa 5/4. Disponible enwww. Liberties, Justice andHome Affairs( EU Member States. Study requested bytheEuropean Parliament’s Committee onCivil Category of BourgeoisSociety.Cambridge:TheMITPress. Category nold/Oxford University Press, pp. 70-92. En: Curran, J. y Gurevitch, M. (eds.) UniversityCambridge: Harvard Press. Is There a Text in this Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities. A Comparative Analysis of Media Freedom and Pluralism in the Mass Media and Society. York:Londres/Nueva Ar libe ). Challenges tomediafreedom: Aviewfrom Europa - - - -
145 ICR 11 2017 11 2017
146 ICR Ossigeno per l’Informazione (2016). Mill, J. S. (1966). OnLiberty».ASelectionofHis Works (pp. 1-147). London:MacmillanEdu Media Pluralism andDemocracy–Special Eurobarometer 452,November 2016.(http:// MarkZuckerberg,Ingram, M.(2016). Sorry butFacebook IsDefinitely aMedia Company. Human Rights Watch (2015). ADifficult Profession. Media Freedom Under Attack inthe Herman, E. S. &Chomsky, N. (2010). Manufacturing Consent: ThePolitical Economy ofthe Hall, S. (2001 In:Durham,M.G. [1980]). &Kellner, Encoding/Decoding. D. (eds.), Media E Pavlou, A. (2016). Europe: Access to Information in Practice, Not Just On Paper, Zanoni, L.(2016). Media inSerbia:SomeoneSays No, obc Valero, J. (2016). «Vestager: We ShouldThanktheLuxleaks Whistleblowers», 11/01, Eu Trimis, (2012). Cited inSiapera, E., Papadopoulou, L.&Archontakis, F. (2015). Post-crisis Stetka, V. (2012). From Multinationals toBusiness Tycoons Media OwnershipandJour Silverman C. &Alexander, L.,(2016). How Teens InTheBalkansAre DupingTrump Sup- Siapera, E., (2015). Building asafetynetforEuropean. Project report journalists toDGCon Siapera, E. &Papadopoulou, L. (2016). Entrepreneurialism or Cooperativism? An Explo- Pickard, V., (2016). Media Failures inthe AgeofTrump. ThePolitical Economy ofCom Pickard, V. (2015). TheReturn oftheNervous Liberals:Market Fundamentalism, Policy ugenia cation UK. instruments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2119). ec.europa.eu/COMMFrontOffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/ Fortune, August 30.(http://fortune.com/2016/08/30/facebook-media-company/). sion/media-freedom-under-attack-western-balkans). Western Balkans, report. (https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/15/difficult-profes - etudes/STUD/2016/571376/IPOL_STU(2016)571376_EN.pdf) Mass Media. Nueva York: RandomHouse. (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/ and Cultural Studies: Keyworks. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 163-173. content/uploads/2016/10/DOSSIER_TACI_O_TI_QUERELO.pdf). we-should-thank-the-luxleaks-whistleblowers/). rActive.com 449-465. Journalism: Critique andRenewal inGreek Journalism. Journalism Studies 16(3),pp. Politics 17(4),pp. 433-456. nalistic Autonomy in Central andEasternEurope. TheInternational Journal ofPress/ nh6OxQE0y#.nmlA7JGQW). verman/how-macedonia-became-a-global-hub-for-pro-trump-misinfo?utm_term=. porters With Fake News, Net-for-European-Journalists2). nect. (https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Media-Freedom-Net/Building-a-Safety- ration ofcooperativeJournalistic Enterprises. Journalism Practice 10(2), pp. 178-195. munication 4(2), pp. 118–122. Failure, andRecurring Journalism Crises. TheCommunication Review 18,pp. 82-97. Transeuropa 17/11. nicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Serbia/Media-in-Serbia-someone-says-no-175966). S iapera
y (january 11) (http://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/interview/vestager-(january C hiara S ighel Buzzfeed, November 5. (https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsil Taci o ti querelo. (http://notiziario.ossigeno.info/wp- Transeuropa 2/12.(www.balca obc ------