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Cold Seep Ecosystems 2009 by the O Ceanography Society or collective redistirbution of any portion of this article by photocopy machine, reposting, or other means is permitted only with the approval of The approval portionthe ofwith any articlepermitted only photocopy by is of machine, reposting, this means or collective or other redistirbution This article has This been published in HERMES SPECIAL ISSUE FEATURE Oceanography BY Jean-Paul FOucher, Graham K. WestbrOOK, journal of The 22, Number 1, a quarterly , Volume Antje BOetius, Silvia CeramicOla, STÉphanie DuprÉ, Jean Mascle, JÜrgen Mienert, Olaf Pfannkuche, Catherine Pierre, and Daniel Praeg O Structure and Drivers of Society. ceanography © Cold Seep Ecosystems The 2009 by O ceanography Society. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to copy this article for use in teaching and research. Republication, systemmatic reproduction, reproduction, systemmatic Republication, article for use and research. this copy in teaching to granted rights Society. All reserved. is ceanography Permission O ceanography Society. Send all correspondence to: [email protected] or Th e [email protected] Send Society. ceanography to: correspondence all O ceanography Society, P Society, ceanography O Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. A gyre in the brine pool that occupies the crater of Cheops mud volcano, Nile Deep Sea Fan, at 3-km water depth. The gyre is about 2-m across, and shows sulfur-rich white “foam” accumula- tions, thought to be produced by bacterial activity. This image was taken by ROV Victor during Ifremer’s MEDECO cruise in 2007. 92 Oceanography Vol.22, No.1 Abstract. Submarine hydrocarbon seeps are geologically driven “hotspots” of increased biological activity on the seabed. As part of the HERMES project, several sites of natural hydrocarbon seepage in the European seas were investigated in detail, including mud volcanoes and pockmarks, in study areas extending from the Nordic margin, to the Gulf of Cádiz, to the Mediterranean and Black seas. High-resolution seabed maps and the main properties of key seep sites are presented here. Individual seeps show ecosystem zonation related to the strength of the methane flux and distinct biogeochemical processes in surface sediments. A feature common to many seeps is the formation of authigenic carbonate constructions. These constructions exhibit various morphologies ranging from large pavements and fragmented slabs to chimneys and mushroom-shaped mounds, and they form hard substrates colonized by fixed fauna. Gas hydrate dissociation could contribute to sustain seep chemosynthetic communities over several thousand years following large gas-release events. IntrOductiON that drive fluid seepage at these sites. pressurized oozes lying below glacial Since the first discovery of a hydro- This paper presents information on the deposits. Milkov et al. (1999) compiled carbon-associated cold seep community structure and driving processes of major the first map of the HMMV landscape off Louisiana (Kennicut et al., 1985), seeps investigated in detail during the from video and photo surveys. Further hydrocarbon seepage and its close HERMES project. A companion paper fieldwork revealed concentric zones of association with “hotspots” of increased (Vanreusel et al., this issue) describes bio- seafloor morphology, litho-types, and biological activity have been documented logical communities at these sites. geochemical and biological processes at a number of seafloor sites worldwide (Milkov et al., 2004; De Beer et al., 2006; (Judd and Hovland, 2007). Geological MajOR Seeps in Jerosch et al., 2007), and demonstrated structures associated with the expulsion EurOpean Seas exceptionally high activity of mud, fluid, of hydrocarbon-rich fluids, such as mud The Nordic Margin (Figure 1a) and gas ejections through the surface of volcanoes and pockmarks, have been The Håkon Mosby Mud Volcano the volcano (Sauter et al., 2006). recognized on the margins of the Atlantic The Håkon Mosby mud volcano Geothermal modeling indicates Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, and the (HMMV; Figure 2) is located on the current aqueous flow rates of up to Black Sea, and new seepage sites continue Southwest Barents Sea slope in a water 4–10 m y-1 at the center of the volcano to be discovered. HERMES project sci- depth of 1270 m. Since its discovery in (Feseker et al., 2008), rapidly decreasing entists mapped, observed, and sampled 1989 (Crane et al., 1995) as a circular, to less than 1 m y-1 on its perimeter. The key seep sites along the Nordic margin, 1-km diameter feature in side-scan expelled fluid is saturated with meth- in the Gulf of Cádiz, and in the eastern sonar images, the HMMV has been the ane, mainly of biogenic origin, and gas Mediterranean and Black seas (Figure 1). target of numerous research expeditions. hydrate is abundant in the subsurface Considerable progress has been made The mud and fluid expelled from the (Ginsburg et al., 1999). Detailed observa- in the description and understanding of volcano may arise from a source depth tions of the various habitats and the bio- the biological activity and the processes of 2–3 km below the seabed within over- geochemical processes involved in each Oceanography March 2009 93 of them were made during the HERMES et al., 2006b). This central area is sur- fields of siboglinid tubeworms feeding cruises using R/V Pourquoi pas? in rounded by a zone of lower fluid flow on sulfide produced by anaerobic oxida- 2006 and R/V Polarstern in 2007. High and relatively high rates of anaerobic tion of methane at over 50-cm depth flow rates are restricted to the narrow methane oxidation of 4–10 mmol m-2 d-1 (Lösekann et al., 2007). In other words, central area of the feeder channel (about in the top few centimeters, where sul- the very high flow rates of methane- 100-m wide), which shows a gray mud fate can penetrate from the overlying laden anoxic fluids in the center of the breccia at its surface. In this area, the bottom water. This zone is covered by mud volcano can suffocate organisms, flow of methane-laden but sulfate-free white mats of giant sulfide-oxidizing which increase in biomass and activity subsurface fluids is so high that methane filamentous bacteria that profit from towards the outer rim where both meth- oxidation can only occur in the top the high sulfide flux (De Beer, 2006). ane and electron acceptors are available few millimeters of sediment populated Low fluid flow in the outer part of the for respiration. The escape of free and by aerobic methanotrophs (Niemann mud volcano is associated with dense dissolved methane has been estimated to contribute to an annual methane release of 13–40 x 106 mol yr-1 of which W10° E00° E10° E20° E30° ~ 40% is converted microbially to CO2 a Figure 1. Major hydrocarbon (Niemann et al., 2006b). A comparison seep sites around Europe. Vestnesa (a) Two sites investigated of the HERMES Vicking cruise high- along the Nordic margin resolution bathymetric map produced and discussed in this article in 2006 with a similar map produced are the Håkon Mosby mud volcano and the Nyegga three years before (Edy et al., 2004) pockmarks. (b) Sites inves- reveals major changes in the flow lines N75° tigated in the Gulf of Cádiz of mud in the central and southern parts and the Mediterranean and Black seas. All sites marked of the volcano, showing that the extru- Hakon-Mosby Mud Volcano by rectangles have been sion of mud is an active process that Snovhit investigated at some level by modifies the ecosystem on a time scale of N70° the HERMES project. White triangles are mud volcanoes. only a few years. N65° Nyegga W10° W05° W00° E05° E10° E15° E20° E25° E30° E35° E40° J. Troll b N60° N45° N45° ST N40° N40° GC CA N35° N35° GC : Gulf of Cádiz AM CA : Calabrian Arc MR : Mediterranean Ridge MR NDSF : Nile Deep Sea Fan AM : Anaximander Mountains NDSF N30° ST : Sorokin Trough N30° W10° W05° W00° E05° E10° E15° E20° E25° E30° E35° E40° 94 Oceanography Vol.22, No.1 E14°42' E14°43' E14°44' E14°45' Pockmark Fields on the 0 500m a Norwegian Margin Seabed The Norwegian continental margin, including the Barents Sea and Northwest 3 Svalbard, contains large pockmark fields on the seafloor connected to subsurface chimney structures. Pockmark fields exist 2 Jean-Paul Foucher (Jean.Paul.Foucher@ ifremer.fr) is Research Scientist, Géosciences 1 Marines, Centre Ifremer de Brest, Plouzané, France. Graham K. Westbrook is Professor of Geophysics, School of Geography, 1255m Earth and Environmental Sciences, 1260m N72° University of Birmingham, Birmingham, 1265m UK. Antje Boetius is Head, Microbial 1270m Habitat Group, Max Planck Institute for E14°42' E14°43' E14°44' E14°45' Marine Microbiology, and Professor, Jacobs E14°42' E14°43' E14°44' E14°45' 0500m University Bremen, Bremen, Germany. b Silvia Ceramicola is a researcher at the Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS), Sgonico (TS), Italy. Stéphanie Dupré is a researcher c at the Laboratoire d’Océanographie d et du Climat: Expérimentation et 1255m Approches Numériques (LOCEAN), 1260m N72° 1265m Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), > 50% Beggiatoa 1270m > 50% Po gonophorans Paris, France. Jean Mascle is Research E14°42' E14°43' E14°44' E14°45' Scientist, Géosciences Azur (UMR 6526), Figure 2. (a) High-resolution bathymetric map of the Håkon Mosby mud volcano show- Observatoire Océanologique de Villefranche ing three main morphological units: (1) a flat central and southern part interpreted as sur Mer, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France. an area of recent mud flows, (2) a hummocky seabed area interpreted as composed of deformed old mud flows, and (3) a pronounced moat at the periphery of the volcano. Jürgen Mienert is Professor, Department (b) Colored areas, superimposed on the shaded bathymetry, indicate main areas of Geology, University of Tromsø, Norway. colonized by pogonophorans and Beggiatoa.
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