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Cold Seeps: Marine Ecosystems Based on Hydrocarbons

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Cold Seeps: Marine Ecosystems Based on Hydrocarbons sis_16_RZ.qxq:Layout 1 31.08.2010 18:41 Uhr Seite 60 Image courtesy of MARUM, Bremen University Cold seeps: marine ecosystems based on hydrocarbons Thousands of white crabs grazing on an extensive mussel bed at a cold seep off the coast of Pakistan Glossary Chemosymbiosis: a symbi- David Fischer takes us on a trip to the bot- otic association between a tom of the sea to learn about cold seeps – multi-cellular organism (the host), which provides a their ecosystems, potential fuels, and pos- protected environment, and a bacterium that oxidises sible involvement in global warming. specific chemicals to obtain energy and synthe- What are cold seeps? These hydrocarbons form up to sev- sise organic carbon that is Cold seeps are often oases for eral kilometres below the surface of required by the host microbial and macrofaunal life on the the sediment when organic matter is Methanotrophic: a methan- sea floor – similar to hydrothermal degraded by either high temperatures otrophic organism vents, where hot water emerges or micro-organisms. When the hydro- metabolises methane as its under high pressure, several kilome- carbons are produced in very large only source of energy and tres below the sea (see Little, 2010). In quantities, or where tectonic stress carbon contrast to hydrothermal vents, how- Pore water: the water that ever, cold seeps can occur at water fills the space between depths of between a few metres and individual grains of sedi- several kilometres, often along conti- ment nental margins. Thiotrophic: a thiotrophic They are places where hydrocarbons organism oxidises sulphur – mostly methane but also ethane, compounds propane, or even oil – seep from the sediment. Unlike at hydrothermal Trophosome: a specialised vents, the emanating fluids (gases and internal organ in tube Microbes covering cold seeps in an liquids) are no hotter than the sur- worms, hosting symbiotic anoxic region, which does not support BACKGROUND bacteria rounding seawater, and they are not macrofauna necessarily under high pressure. Image courtesy of MARUM, Bremen University 60 Science in School Issue 16 : Autumn 2010 www.scienceinschool.org sis_16_RZ.qxq:Layout 1 31.08.2010 18:41 Uhr Seite 61 Science topics squeezes the sediments, the fluids rise One such energy source is methane, surface of the sediment (as in cold to the sediment surface through released at cold seeps. The anaerobic seeps), the sulphide produced by the cracks and fissures. The fluids may oxidation of methane (AOM) is a meta- micro-organisms can fuel an entire seep out at a continuous, low rate or bolic process with sulphate as the final ecosystem. Microbial or faunal the rate may vary. electron acceptor, mediated by a sym- colonies at cold seeps can be between biosis of methane-oxidising (methan- 100 cm2 and several hundred square Life at cold seeps: anybody home? otrophic) archaeans and sulphate- metres in diameter. Where the sul- Some fascinating creatures can be reducing bacteria. phide-rich pore water escapes from 2- → - - found at deep-water cold seeps, CH4 + SO4 HCO3 + HS + H2O the sea floor, the seep site will be including giant tube worms, mussels, AOM takes place in anoxic marine colonised concentrically around these clams and crabs. How are these sediments, wherever methane from spots: closest to them will be those ecosystems supported? deep down and sulphate from the organisms which tolerate the highest Almost the entire seabed is home to seawater meet. The end products of concentrations of otherwise toxic sul- micro-organisms. However, to sup- AOM, bicarbonate and sulphide ions, phide (see upper image on page 62). port significant levels of microfauna are released into the surrounding sed- At the basis of these ecosystems in deep water, where the sunlight iment and pore water (see glossary are methanotrophic and thiotrophic does not reach, requires oxygen-rich for all terms in bold). bacteria. Some of them live in water and an alternative energy At locations where high methane chemosymbiosis with mussels source – such as hydrocarbons. concentrations are found close to the (methanotropic bacteria), clams and Biology The text also provides valuable background reading to Chemistry introduce the origin of life at the bottom of the sea, for example with a comparison to hydrothermal vents. Earth science Marine environments In addition, the article provides references to content- rich websites (MARUM, NOAA) where the reader can Ecosystems find further information and resources (including Energy teaching materials) on the topic. Therefore, I suggest Biodiversity completing the teaching unit with an activity from Climate change one of the cited web resources. Ages 15+ The article can also be used as a comprehension exer- cise. Possible questions include: If you are curious about the extremes of life on Earth, In AOM this is the article for you. David Fischer reports on a) sulphate is oxidised to sulphide exotic biological communities living at the bottom of the sea and on the exploration of these environments. b) sulphide is reduced to sulphate The language is easy enough to understand, with a c) methane is reduced to bicarbonate glossary for technical terms. The article can be used in d) methane is oxidised to bicarbonate. different subjects (biology, earth science, chemistry) Gas hydrates to address a whole range of topics, such as: ecosys- a) consist of water molecules surrounded by gas tems, energy metabolism, food chains, natural molecules resources, sedimentary rocks, non-renewable energy b) consist of gas molecules surrounded by water sources, marine environments and biodiversity, air molecules pollution and the greenhouse effect, oceanographic c) are formed under high-temperature and research, hydrocarbons, clathrates, or redox reac- low-pressure conditions tions. Some of these topics (e.g. ecosystems, energy d) are formed under high-temperature and sources) are particularly suitable for an interdiscipli- high-pressure conditions. nary approach. REVIEW Giulia Realdon, Italy www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 16 : Autumn 2010 61 sis_16_RZ.qxq:Layout 1 31.08.2010 18:41 Uhr Seite 62 our increasing energy demands. Cold Cold seeps are often Gas bubbles seeps generally indicate large colonised in a concentric amounts of hydrocarbons below the fashion Tube worms seabed, and they are comparably easy Chemosynthetic to identify because of their typical bacteria colonisation by specialised organisms. Most interesting in this respect are Carbonate gas hydrates. In these ice-like crys- Mussels and clams talline compounds, water molecules form a cage structure called a clathrate around individual gas molecules (see image on page 63) – in natural gas hydrates, this is mostly methane. Gas Gas hydrate hydrates form where pore water is Image courtesy of BGR, after Sahling et al. (2002) Low / high sulphide concentration saturated with methane gas, within a narrow window of low-temperature Plume: sucks in oxygen, carbon and high-pressure conditions found dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide so only in deep permafrost soils – and in that microbes living inside the trophosome can process it as food marine sediments at depths below about 400 m (see lower image on page 63). At atmospheric pressure, gas Heart Ventral blood vessel hydrates are unstable and rapidly Dorsal blood vessel decompose into water and free gas. Gas hydrates store large amounts of Trophosome: micro-organisms that have a symbiotic relationship with chemically bound energy: because of Trophosome the tube worm live here. They gener- the specific molecular structure, one Capillary ate food for the tube worm through a process called chemosynthesis litre of gas hydrate holds 0.8 l of Worm water and 164 l of methane gas. The Tube Tube: hard cylinder made of a total energy resources in gas hydrates chitin proteoglycan / protein on Earth are estimated to be greater complex that protects the soft than those of all other known fossil insides of the tube worm fuels combined – ever. Several countries, including the Capillary Trunk: the tube worm has no USA, Japan, South Korea, India and anus; all of the waste from the microbial reactions are China, are exploring ways to harvest stored here gas hydrates – safely, which is not a trivial matter. More importantly, how- ever, it is essential to stop the gas Chemosynthethic bacteria: These bacteria use sulphides hydrates from melting. Global warm- and carbon dioxide to pro- ing is increasing the oceans’ tempera- duce oxygen and nutrients tures, and this could cause a large- Image courtesy of Enduring Resources for Earth Science Education (ERESE) Image courtesy of Enduring Resources to be used by the tube worm scale melting of gas hydrates in the sediment. Tube worms host chemosymbiotic bacteria in their trophosome. This is a cross-section If they were to melt, the methane of Riftia pachyptila, which is found at hydrothermal vents released into the atmosphere would react with atmospheric oxygen to tube worms (thiotrophic bacteria). The formation and fate of gas form CO2, very efficiently enhancing The mussels and clams harbour the hydrates the greenhouse effect. Left undam- bacteria in their gills, whereas the Cold seeps are not only interesting aged, gas hydrates act as stabilising tube worms shelter the bacteria in because of the ecosystems they host: agents for the continental slopes. If their trophosome; the bacteria, in they could be important contributors they were to melt, the slopes could return, supply their host with organic to climate change and valuable new destabilise, resulting in huge subma- carbon (see image above). sources of hydrocarbons, to satisfy rine landslides and tsunamis. 62 Science in School Issue 16 : Autumn 2010 www.scienceinschool.org sis_16_RZ.qxq:Layout 1 31.08.2010 18:41 Uhr Seite 63 Science topics Gas Images courtesy of MARUM, Bremen University molecules Image courtesy of IfM-Geomar, Kiel, Germany Image courtesy of IfM-Geomar, White gas hydrates consolidate Water molecules Burning gas hydrates sea floor sediments Clathrate structure of gas hydrates How do we study cold seeps? they had filled with sample material.
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