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Home , Carl Linnaeus, Leeuwenhoek Medal, On the Origin of Species

Series-1 (English) GREAT of THE WORLD

Collected & Edited by Assisted by Prof. Sunil D. Purohit Dr. Renu Tripathi

Published by Society for Promotion of Education and Research 11-12, New Ganpati Nagar-A, Bohra Ganesh Marg, Udaipur (Rajasthan) N ISSIO D MI N AN VIS IO Promong Excellence in Science Educaon and Research Through Sciencezaon (Science S e n s i z a o n ) , S u p p o r v e Teaching, Conceptual and Pracce Learning and Training as a part of Academic Social Responsibility Program (ASRP) SPSER SPSER

Published by Society for Promotion of Science Education and Research 11-12, New Ganpati Nagar-A, Bohra Ganesh Marg, Udaipur-313001 (Rajasthan)

e-mail : [email protected] First Edition : 2019

Printed by : Apex Printing House Contribution Amount: Rs. 10.00 only Great Biologists of the World 40

GREAT BIOLOGISTS OF THE WORLD

Collected and Edited by Professor Sunil Dutta Purohit Former Head, Department of Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur (Raj.)

Assisted by Dr. Renu Tripathi (Sukhwal) New Middle East International School, Riyadh of Saudi Arabia

Financial Support Dr. Renu-Sunil Dutt Tripathi Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Published by Society for Promotion of Science Education and Research 11-12, New Ganpati Nagar-A, Bohra Ganesh Marg, Udaipur (Rajasthan) Great Biologists of the World 41

CONTENTS

1. Antonie van 1 2. 4 3. Carolus Linnaeus 8 4. 12 5. 16 6. 20 7. 24 8. 28 9. 32 10. Max Delbruck 35 1 Father of

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is known as Father of Microbiology. Leeuwenhoek for the first time demonstrated the presence of in the environment which could not be seen with the naked eyes.With the help of created by him, he observed in different water samples, the presence of tiny motile objects which he designated them as ‘’. These tiny objects turned out to be as we know them today. Leeuwenhoek with this discovery opened up altogether a new area of scientific investigation which had great impact on civilization. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born on October 24, 1632 in a picturesque old town of Delft in Holland. His father was a basket maker and mother, the daughter of a brewer. Leeuwenhoek earned his livelihood as a cloth merchant and it was common for him to use small lenses to check the quality of clothes that he used to sell as draper. Rare sense of his curiosity in observing other objects through his lenses opened up a new area of scientific enquiry for him. He spent lot of his spare time constructing simple microscopes composed of double convex lenses held between two silver plates. Leeuwenhoek not only recorded every minute detail of his observations but also sent detailed letters to Great Biologists of the World 2 the Royal Society of London, describing his observations. There were a record 372 letters in all, written by Leeuwenhoek throughout his long of ninety years. The last letter of Leeuwenhoek was mailed by her daughter after his along with a cabinet containing 26 of his finest and most beloved silver microscopes. It was clear from his descriptions that he saw both bacteria and . He is believed to have created about 400 microscopes, of which, 7 are still present in the Museum of London. Discovery of microorganisms by Leeuwenhoek ended the long held myth that life spontaneously appeared from the non- living organisms. This further solved the mystery and confirmed that spoilage of the food, making of wine and turning milk into cheese involved microorganisms. It is interesting to note that Leeuwenhoek had a very little knowledge on how to present his scientific observations. This was reflected in the series of his letters written to the Royal Society of London. The letters were written in colloquial Dutch and often began with some simple talk about life in Delft, or his personal habits, his pet , or his business upturns and downturns, and then moved on to describing an amazing of microscopic observations. His scientific observations were made with painstaking care and exactness and this approach made him the most respected microscopist in the world. Leeuwenhoek had said “My work, which I have done for a long time, was not pursued in to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men”. The Royal Society of London, in the year 1680 conferred on him the membership of the society which was a rare honor for a person who did not have a formal scientific training! He became famous and a stream of visitors started pouring in his home, Great Biologists of the World 3 some time leading to loss of his privacy and causing discomfiture to him. One day Peter the Great, the Emperor of Russia called on him to see his instruments. He had to carry his instruments to a Yacht by which the Emperor had come through a canal, and he did not want to attract crowd by visiting the home of Leeuwenhoek. Leeuwenhoek was very secretive in and was not willing to share the art of making microscopes to anyone during his lifetime. He passed away in the year 1723. Leeuwenhoek will be remembered for astounding and detailed nature of his discoveries which revolutionized our in more than several ways. Great Biologists of the World 4

2 Robert Hooke A Natural Philosopher who Discovered Cell

Robert Hooke was a noted natural scientist who made variety of observations on natural world. He is known as ‘ Man’ of 17th Century England for his work in which covered areas such as Philosophy, Architecture, Chemistry, Astronomy, Physics and Biology including construction of scientific instruments. His most notable discovery was about cells, a term which he coined for microscopic honeycomb cavities in sliced cork. He was a true polymath who studied comets, the motion of light, the rotation of Jupiter, gravity, human memories and the properties of air. He invented or improved all the five meteorological instruments such as Barometer, Thermometer, Hydroscope, Rain Gauge and Wind Gauge. He developed and printed a form to record weather data. Hooke explained the basis of the phenomenon of elasticity known as Hooke’s Law. Robert Hooke was born on July 18, 1635 at Freshwater on the Isle of Wight, Hampshire in England. His father John Hooke was a priest of England and the Curate of Freshwater’s Church of All Saints. His mother Cecily Glyles was second wife of his father. Hooke was educated mostly at home during his early years due to ill health. He was a quick learner and had Great Biologists of the World 5 great interest in painting and making of mechanical toys and models. Unfortunately, his father passed away in 1748 when Hooke was only 13 years old. His father left a meager 40 Pound Sterling (INR 3500) as inheritance. With this amount in hand he went to London and was first apprenticed to painter Peter Lely and Samuel Cowper and proved fairly good at art, but he left because the fumes of the paint adversely affected his health. He enrolled at the Westminster School in London, where he received a solid academic education including Latin, Greek and Hebrew and also gained training as an instrument maker. After graduating from Westminster School, Robert Hooke took admission in Christ Church College of the . He studied experimental science here. In 1655, at 20 years of age, Robert Hooke became an assistant to a well known chemist Robert Boyle. He was working with Boyle when he discovered Boyle’s Law and helped him in construction and operation of Boyle’s Air-Pump. He worked with Boyle for seven consecutive years till 1762, after which he was appointed as the curator of experiments for the Royal Society of London. He held this position for 40 years. Initially the Royal Society of London was not in a position to pay anything to him for the Curator’s position. Hooke eventually got paid for the curatorship when he was appointed as a professor of Geometry at Gresham College in London in the year 1665. While he was already working with Boyle, he also came in contact with an eminent architect Christopher Wren, natural philosopher John Wilkins and who were also associated with the society. Hooke became Fellow of the Society in the year 1663. In 1665, he published his famous book ‘’ (meaning- Small drawings) in which he documented the observations he had made through various lenses of a Great Biologists of the World 6 in a period of about nine months. It featured many drawings, such as that of a detailed and a slice of cork observed through the microscope. Hooke was the first person to use the word ‘Cell’ to identify microscopic structures when he was describing cork. The word ‘Cell’ for these structures came to his due to its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian Monks in a Monastery. It is considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written, which became a bestseller during that time. In the year 1670s he postulated that gravitational pull applies to all celestial bodies. He stated that it decreases with distance and in its absence the body would tend to move in a straight line. He could not give any evidence for this hypothesis. In the year 1678 publication of Hooke’s ‘Lectures of Spring’ shared his theory of elasticity which later on came to be known as Hooke’s Law. He stated that the force required to extend or compress a spring is proportional to the distance of that extension or compression. Almost in the same year, Hooke helped the society to confirm a report written by A.V. Leeuwenhoek about bacteria and protozoa, referred to as ‘Animalcules’ by him. Hooke was the first scientist to examine under microscope. As a result he successfully managed to convince scientists that fossils were the remains of the and that existed in past geological ages. This became a big support for the theory of , later proposed by Charles Darwin. He made tremendous contribution to time keeping by improving pendulum clocks. For pocket watches, he created the balance spring. Great Biologists of the World 7

Robert Hooke received the Degree of “Doctor of Physic” in the year 1691. Robert Hooke suffered several ailments at the end of his life. It is believed that perhaps he was suffering from scurvy. He died at the age of 67, on March 3, 1703, in London. He was buried at St. Helen’s Bishopgate. He was very wealthy at the time of his death. He firmly believed that- “By the means of telescope, there is nothing so far distant and by the help of microscopes there is nothing so small as to escape our enquiry. Hence there is a new visible world discovered to our understanding”. Great Biologists of the World 8

3 Carolus Linnaeus Father of Modern

Carolus Linnaeus was one of the few giants in the area of natural sciences. He is most widely known for creating systems for naming and classifying plants and animals. He is credited with proposing the binomial system of of plants and animals. He was also the first to discuss the subject of as an area of investigation. He discussed the importance of relationship among organisms in nature. Further, he was one of the first naturalists to describe food chains in an ecosystem. He advocated the use of biological knowledge not only in medicine but also in agriculture. He believed that effective control of agricultural pests needed thorough knowledge of their life histories. He also modified the Celsius scale of temperature invented by . His ideas of classification have influenced generations of biologists during and after his own life time. also known as Carl von Linne or Carolus Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in Rashult at Stenbrohult, in the province of Smaland in Southern . His father was Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus who was a church and an amateur botanist and his mother was Christina Brodersonia. His Great Biologists of the World 9 parents wanted him to become a priest for which neither he had any aptitude nor desire. Carl was introduced to botany by his father during his early childhood. At the age of 5 Carl had his own garden, which he later said “inflamed my with unquenchable love of plants”. Carl Linnaeus started his schooling at the age of 10. He was not a bad student but did not excel. By the end of his secondary level schooling, his teachers had formed the opinion that he was not bright enough to go to university. Carl was more interested in plants than his studies while in a grammar school. Johan Rothman, a master at high school encouraged Carl’s interest in science and suggested him to study medicine. Rothman tutored Carl for a year. In 1727, Linnaeus entered the university of and enrolled himself with the Latin name Carolus Linnaeus. This was a common practice for students in Europe to adopt Latin names. Finding that science and medical studies were weak here, he shifted to University after a year. Impressed by an essay written by Carl on sexuality of plants, , a professor of religion appointed him as a Lecturer in Botany just at the age of 23 in the year 1730. In the winter of 1730/31 Linnaeus continued working hard on botany in Uppsala. In , he was not satisfied with the way were classified. He began thinking as to how to improve this. He started using two part naming system, which later on was recognized as binomial system of nomenclature (e.g. Pisum sativum). In 1735 at the age of 28 Linnaeus traveled to the University of in the to get a doctoral level degree in medicine. Linnaeus had already written a thesis in Uppsala about and its causes which he submitted to the . He created new history when he was awarded Great Biologists of the World 10

Ph.D. Degree in Medicine within two weeks of its submission. In the year 1737 Linnaeus published his famous book “”. Over the years, Linnaeus continued to develop his ideas and added new species. In next 30 years of study, the book “Sytema Naturae” grew from a mere 12 pages document as first edition to 2400 pages in its 12th edition. After his publication, Linnaeus visited Germany, France and England to meet scientists, discuss his work and to collect specimens. Linnaeus returned to Sweden in the year 1738, becoming a physician in the nation’s capital . Here he founded ‘Royal Swedish Academy of Science’ and became its first President. In 1941, at the age of 34, Linnaeus returned to and became Professor of Medicine. He was made in charge of botany, natural sciences and university’s . In 1750, he became Rector of the university, a position which he occupied for next 22 years. He retired in the year 1776. In 1753 Linnaeus published a two volume book ‘’ (Plant Species) spread over 1200 pages. He described almost 6000 plant species that had been discovered at that time. These 6000 plant species were classified into 1000 genera. One of the notable contributions of Linnaeus included modification of ‘Celsius Scale of Temperature’ into a form that we use today. The scale was originally invented by Anders Celsius but used 0°C as boiling point and 100°C as freezing point. Linnaeus realized that it would be more useful if these values are reversed and persuaded the rest of the scientific world to accept his suggestion. Great Biologists of the World 11

Carolus Linnaeus was knighted by the king of Sweden. Linnaeus’s idea of going to expeditions to study nature and gather specimens inspired Charls Darwin to go to expeditions that led to his “Theory of Evolution by ”. Carolus Linnaeus died on his farm Hammarby, 10 km from Uppsala, on 10th January 1778 after suffering a stroke. He was buried at . Today at Hammarby stands a museum featuring exhibits of Linnaeus’s work, his botanical collections and a garden and a park where his love of the natural world has been preserved. After the death of Linnaeus, a large portion of his library, manuscripts and natural history collections were bought by Sir who founded the ‘Linnean Society of London’. At the time of his death Carolus Linnaeus was one of the most acclaimed scientists of Europe. Great Biologists of the World 12

4 Edward Jenner The Father of Immunology

Edward Jenner was an English Doctor known for his valuable contribution in the field of vaccination and immunology. He developed and popularized smallpox vaccine which helped save the lives of countless people. Edward Jenner was born in Berkeley; Gloucestershire on 18th May 1749.He was the son of Reverend Stephen Jenner and his wife Sarah. His father was a priest in Berkeley church. Edward was very much interested in natural history and medicine right from his early childhood. When he was only 5 years old, his father died and was then brought-up by his older brother who was also a cleric. While studying at local school, Edward showed great interest in nature and animals which unleashed his taste for . He pursued his primary education at places like Cirencester and the market town of Worren-under-edge. During his younger days, Jenner had contracted the dreaded smallpox epidemic and had to deal with his health problem for the rest of his life. In the year 1764 when he was 14 years old, he apprenticed to the surgeon, Daniel Ludlow who then practiced in the town. Late in 1770, he was apprenticed to another doctor John Hunter, to learn surgery and at St. George’s Great Biologists of the World 13

Hospital, London. Hunter became his mentor and a friend, the relationship that lasted till Jenner survived. Edward Jenner was greatly influenced by his mentor who always believed in new discoveries. He used to tell him “Do not think, try”. After spending three years with John Hunter, Edward returned to Gloucestershire in 1773 to work as a doctor. He opened a small office where he carried out private consultations little-by-little, and gained prestige among the residents of Berkeley. Along with few other contemporary physicians, here he started a consortium of medical practitioners called ‘Fleece Medical Society’, also popularly known as ‘Gloucestershire Medical Society’. Jenner pursued his higher studies in Medicine by enrolling himself at the renowned University of Saint Andrews, located in Scotland. He obtained a medical degree from this institution in the year 1792. During the late 18th Century, one of the most feared diseases was smallpox. The disease was common and killed up to 33 per cent of those who contracted this disease. At the time, there were little known treatments or vaccinations that could prevent it. In this period of time, Jenner decided to start tracking this disease. So his first action was to observe carefully during long hours the environment in which infected people lived. As a result Dr. Edward Jenner noted that women or milkmaids who milked the cows and were in close contact with the cows, very rarely contracted the disease. In one of his visits to distant territories he attended a girl who consulted him about the skin rashes, she was a milkmaid. Edward, quickly resembled the previous studies, detecting smallpox. This observation led him to think that inoculating with a strain of the cowpox virus could protect them from smallpox. Edward Jenner Great Biologists of the World 14 discovered that smallpox is a variant of cowpox. With this revelation, Jenner became interested in testing his hypothesis. In 1796, he extracted infected material from a patient affected by cowpox and inoculated in to an 8-year old boy named John Phipps who was apparently suffering from smallpox. To his amazement, the boy recovered from the symptoms. After this recovery, he inoculated the boy again, but this time with smallpox virus. This time no disease developed. This suggested that the same disease can not develop twice in the same patient and that it evoked immune effect with respect to conventional smallpox in the people who had contracted it. Jenner continued his tests on 23 other persons and obtained similar results. His initial observations on milkmaids not contracting smallpox disease confirmed that cowpox vesicle secretion was what protected the women who milked. In 1798, he published his research results based on a series of experiments conducted by him. He coined the term ‘Vaccine’ (From a Latin word ‘Vacca’ meaning cow). His publication evoked strong criticismfrom scientists who were members of ‘Medical Association of London’. They were opposed to the manner in which Jenner was treating smallpox patients. Even from the church, it was preached that the vaccine was an anti- Christian action. His critics, especially, his local clergyman, stated that it was disgusting and impious to inoculate someone with the stuff of a sick . In spite of his criticism, in 1802, the British Parliament gave him some money recognizing his great work; a contribution to medicine and humanity. Although, he became rich, he continued his quiet life in the same old house in Berkeley and continued to work as a rural doctor, caring for people without distinction. He carried one force man campaigns in which he Great Biologists of the World 15 vaccinated almost 200 persons per day. He decided to withdraw from scientific activities in 1815. In 1802, he was appointed as a member of the American Academy of Art and Sciences. Edward Jenner was appointed the President of ‘Jennerian Society’ in the year 1803, at London. The society was later on renamed as ‘National Vaccine Establishment‘. In 1805, he became an integral part of the ‘Royal Society of Medicine’. He was elected to be a member of the esteemed ‘Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences’ in 1806. He was appointed as the personal physician of the ruler, King George IV in 1821. This was a rare honor to serve as doctor for a monarch. Edward Jenner died at the age of 73 on January 26, 1823 after suffering from cerebral hemorrhage. His was body was laid to rest at the crematorium in the Church of St.Mary’s, Bekeley. The world Health Organization (WHO) in 1979-80 declared that the entire world has been eradicated of the smallpox epidemic. This could not be possible without commendable discovery of vaccination by Edward Jenner. In a poll conducted by British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), London, Jenner was named one of the who have ever lived in the United Kingdom. Great Biologists of the World 16

5 Charles Darwin Father of the Theory of Biological Evolution

Charles Darwin commands an important place in the for propounding the Theory of Evolution through natural selection. Naturalists of his time believed that all species were either made at the beginning of of the world or had been created throughout natural history. In both the cases, it was believed that the species remained almost the same over time. However, Darwin noticed similarities between species throughout the world, and some variations based on specific locations, which led him to believe that they have evolved gradually from common ancestors. He came to believe that species survived through a process called “Natural Selection”, where species that successfully adapt to meet the changing needs of the natural habitats had thrived, while those that could not develop and reproduce would die. He described his theory in his best known publication “Origin of the Species through Natural Selection”. Charles was born on February 12, 1809, in the small town of in England. He was one of the five brothers and sisters. Darwin belonged to a rich with broad history of scientists. His father, Robert Darwin, was a wealthy doctor and his grandfather, Dr. Eramus Darwin, was a Great Biologists of the World 17 recognized botanist. Darwin’s mother Susanna was the daughter of the potter . She died at an early age when Darwin was only 8 years old. Darwin’s father wanted him to become a doctor, but Charles was always more interested in and natural history. He was not a brilliant student as child but went on to study at the in October 1825 at the age of 16. Darwin had a strong dislike to medical education and eventually joined Christ College, Cambridge. He received a Bachelor of Arts Degree in the year 1831 and a Master of Arts in the year 1836. Darwin became strongly interested in study of botany. In 1931, a professor close to Darwin suggested him to join a position as naturalist on the ship Beagle which was embarking on a scientific expedition to South America and islands of the South Pacific, leaving in late December 1831. His father initially did not like the idea, but eventually agreed. Darwin’s position on the ship was peculiar. A former captain of the vessel had become despondent during a long voyage because, it was assumed, he had no intelligent person to converse with while at sea. The Royal Naval British Authorities thought that sending an intelligent person like Darwin would serve dual purpose. In one way Darwin will study and make records of discoveries and the other way he will provide companionship for the captain. With this background Darwin was accepted to travel on the second voyage of Her Majesty’s Ship-Beagle. The HMS Beagle left the port on 7th December 1831 and returned on 2nd October 1836 having explored South America, Africa, Australia and Galapagos Islands. Charles Darwin was only 22 years old when he undertook his journey aboard Beagle. The strange animals and plants that he saw in remote places Great Biologists of the World 18 inspired his deep thinking about how life might have developed. Darwin’s famous journey lasting for about 5 years allowed him to study natural specimens from across the globe and collect some to study back at England. In all, Darwin spent more than 500 days at sea and about 1200 days on land during his trip. He studied plants, animals, fossils, geological formations and recorded his observations in a series of notebooks. Darwin noticed three distinctive patterns. (1) Species vary globally (2) Species vary locally and (3) Species vary over time. Upon returning to England, Darwin married his first cousin Emma Wedgwood and began years of researching and cataloguing his specimens. Three years after returning to England Darwin published a “Journal of Researches” containing an account of his observations during the expedition aboard the Beagle. The book entitled “”published by him was an entertaining account of Darwin’s scientific travels. Initially Darwin was reluctant to share his findings and ideas about evolution. Historians think that he did not talk about his theory because he was afraid of public criticism. For more than 20 years of his understanding about biological evolution, he did not present his work in the public . Later, in the year 1858, Darwin came across a paper written by Alfred Russell Wallace that purported a similar theory of natural selection to his own. Right away, Darwin realized that they needed to publish their work together. They published a joint paper citing their ideas in the “Journal of Linnaean Society of London” in the year 1858. This publication received little public attention. Subsequently, on November 22, 1859 Darwin published his masterpiece “ by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life”. This is usually called as “Origin of Great Biologists of the World 19

Species”. Darwin’s work instantly became famous and revered by scientists across the globe and his theories had an almost immediate impact upon religion, science and society at large. While scientific and religious communities debated his works, Darwin lived a quiet life in the English countryside. He became highly respected and regarded as a grand old man of science. Darwin died on April 19, 1884 at his family home, , in London and was honored by being buried in Westminster Abbey close to Isaac Newton’s burial site. Thousands of his admirers attended his funeral. At the time of his death, Darwin was hailed as a National Hero. To commemorate his valuable contribution, 12th February every year is celebrated worldwide as ‘Darwin Day’- the day Darwin was born in the year 1809. Great Biologists of the World 20

6 Louis Pasteur The Father of Germ Theory

Louis Pasteur was a French Chemist and Microbiologist who developed the first vaccines for rabies and diseases. He also invented the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination. He named this process ‘Pasteurization’. During his time, people believed that microbes such as bacteria appeared due to “”. They thought that the bacteria just appear from nowhere.Through his experiments he proved that germs, such as bacteria, were living things and that they came from living things. They did not appear spontaneously. This was a major discovery in biology for which he is regarded as the ‘Father of Germ Theory’. He is considered as one of the few pioneers in the field of microbiology and founders of . His first important work in the field of vaccination came in the year 1879 while studying a disease called as ‘ Cholera’. He accidentally exposed some to the attenuated form of a culture of disease causing virus, and observed that they became resistant to the actual virus. This laid the foundation of the development of vaccine against Anthrax disease. Great Biologists of the World 21

In the , Rabies was a much dreaded disease, and Pasteur began working on a vaccine against it. He experimented on infected and developed a vaccine that was tested on 5o . But, the vaccine was yet to be tested on human beings. At one point of time, he considered testing the vaccine on himself. This would have required infecting himself with rabies and then trying its cure. Although, Pasteur was not a medical doctor, he took a chance of administering his vaccine under the supervision of a physician, to a nine-year-old boy, Joseph Meister who was suffering from 14 bites from a rabid dog. The vaccination continued for 12 days period and the child recovered. The boy did not develop symptoms of disease even after three months. It was a major break-through in the field of medical science. His research in fermentation showed that the growth of microorganisms was responsible for spoiling the beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. He developed the method of ‘Pasteurization’, in which the beverages are heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C which killed most of the bacteria already present in them. His first test on Pasteurization was completed on April 20, 1862. Pasteur also studied microbial disease in silk- which was causing devastating losses to French silk industry. By eliminating the microbes from the silk farms he was able to end the disease and save the French silk business. Pasteur observed that masses of wounded men were brought home in trains during Franco-German War (1870-1871), and a large number of them were dying of microbial infections. He suggested medical corps to adopt the theory that diseases and infections were caused by microbes. The Military Medical Corp Great Biologists of the World 22 unwillingly agreed to sterilize their instruments and bandages, treating them with heat to kill microbes. The results were spectacular. Louis Pasteur was born on 27th December 1822 in Dole, Jura, France. His father, Jean-Joseph Pasteur, was a tanner and a Sergeant Major decorated with the Legion of Honor during the Napolenic wars. His mother’s name was Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui. He grew up in the town of Arbois. His family was very poor and during his early education he was an average student who was more interested in art and music. Pasteur attended the Ecole Primaire (Primary School) and in 1831 entered the College d’ Arboix. Pasteur obtained his Bachelor of Arts Degree in the year 1840 and a Bachelor of Science Degree in the year 1842 from Royal College of Besancon. Subsequently, he obtained Ph.D. Degree in 1847 from Ecole Normale, . He continued his career in research and teaching at Dijon Lycee. In 1854, Pasteur was appointed Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of Lille. He became Professor of Chemistry at the University of Strasbourg. In 1887 he established the ‘’ in Paris and served as its Director for the rest of his life. Today the Pasteur Institute is one of the most prestigious research centers in the world in the field of infectious diseases. Pasteur’s life was not without troubles. He suffered severe brain stroke in the year 1868 which permanently paralyzed his left arm and leg. In spite of this, he continued his research. Louis Pasteur was a great believer of hard work. He used to advise other scientists saying that “An individual who gets used to hard work can thereafter never live without it. Work is the foundation of everything in the world”. Pasteur had a great Great Biologists of the World 23 faith in the good nature of humans. He helped to increase average life expectancy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In recognition of his valuable contributions he was awarded several prizes and accolades. He received Rumford Medal from Royal Society of London. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Montyon Prize in 1859 for experimental , the Jecker Prize in 1861 and Alhumbert Prize in 1862. For his work on fermentation, he received Copley Medal in 1874. In 1883, he became foreign member of Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Science. He won the Leeuwenhoek Medal, Microbiology’s highest Dutch honor in Arts and Science in 1895. Unfortunately, Pasteur suffered another massive stroke in 1894 and then never recovered fully. At the age of 73 Pasteur died on September 28, 1895 in Paris. He was buried in the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, France with state honors. Later the Pasteur’s remains were transferred to a Neo-Byzentine crypt at the Pasteur Institute in 1896. On the last day he remarked “I should like to be younger, so as to devote myself with new ardor to the study of new diseases”. Louis Pasteur will be remembered as one of the greatest scientists whose discoveries led to an understanding of microbes and the diseases caused by them. This has helped save millions and millions of lives. He once said “In the field of observation, chance favors the prepared mind”. It will be called as coincidence only that the years after the death of Louis Pasteur, Joseph Meister, the boy Pasteur saved from rabies, worked as guard at his tomb. Great Biologists of the World 24

7 Gregor Mendel Who Propounded the Theory of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel, known as the Father of , is credited with the monumental work on which he carried out in the Abbey Gardens of his Monastery where he was a priest. His meticulous way of recording observations of his experiments became the basis for modern genetics. The baseline generations of his breeding experiments which he called as pure breeds (P or parent generation) manifested seven traits in that never blended (e.g. seed shape, seed colour, seed coat, shape of the ripe pea pod, color of the unripe pod, location of the flowers and height of the plant) and always inherited separately and intact. This observation was in contrast with what scientists in his time had been saying with inheritance. He argued that if an offspring is a product of blending, then such Pisum species should look similar to their parents. To test his theory that traits are intact when passed from parents to off- springs, he then designed F2 (Second Filial Generation) experiment which is cross between dominant trait with a recessive one. To his amazement he found out that in a particular trait (e.g. seed color) in every four seeds, three were yellow and one green, and he found similar findings to all of his seven identified traits having a ratio of 3:1. This proved that recessive traits were not blended but instead they showed up again given the Great Biologists of the World 25 right pair of allele. To further confirm his theory of inheritance, he conducted ultimate test of his experiment called back cross. This is the cross between pure dominant traits, and the cross between pure recessive units (units were later known as genes) and heterozygous individuals containing dominant and recessive alleles. After backcross he found out that the cross between pure dominant would result to pure dominant, and cross between pure recessive would result in to pure recessives and the cross between heterozygous would produce 3:1 ratio (3 dominant and 1 recessive). The Laws of Inheritance described by Gregor Mendel based on his experiments explain about the way the characteristics are transmitted from generation to another in an organism. The three laws included (1) Law of Dominance (2) Law of Segregation (3) Law of Independent Assortment. The Mendel’s Law proved that traits are inherited separately, and that some characteristics that seem to be lost in one generation crop up again a generation or two later, never having been lost at all. He gave us theoretical explanation based on his experiments. These explanations provided that traits were discrete, individual units that passed from parent to off-spring in a manner that was consistent, predictable and mathematically precise. Johann Mendel was born on 20th July 1822 in Heizendorf, North of Moravia then under Austrian Empire. His father Anton Mendel was a farmer. His mother Rosine Schwirtlich was the daughter of a gardener. Johann Mendel was the only son between an elder sister Veronika and younger sister Theresia. His parents taught them how to rear animals and graft fruit trees. In his early childhood Johann remained sick and bed-ridden. He could not do anything to help his father. This forced his father to work alone in the farm even with his crippled body due to a fallen Great Biologists of the World 26 tree. His father was not happy with him and would often say “He is disappointment for me”. Johann used to speak to his mother only because she was polite and sweet natured. He even did not talk to his elder sister Veronika who was very antagonistic towards him. He maintained good relation with his younger sister Theresia who was very supportive to him. At the age of 11 Johann Mendel was sent away from his family to complete elementary and high school education at Troppau (Opava to the Czechs). His parents never sent him money for his school fees. However, his younger sister Theresia provided him finances for which he was greatly indebted for his entire life. He was among those high achieving students from high school education making him eligible to pursue studies in a university. He graduated at a Gymnasium and subsequently moved on to philosophical institute for a two year study program. After graduating he went on to the University of Olomouc and studied there for three years (1840-1843). In 1843 a Former Professor at Gymnasium, Father Friedrich Fraz recommended him to go for a priest-hood. This was an opportunity for him to liberate himself from a that he was finding increasingly difficult. Monastery was economically prosperous and was able to support its members including Gregor. He entered priest-hood at St. Thomas monastery in Brunn, Austria (now Brno, Czech Republic) and changed his name from Johann to Gregor. Johann Mendel became Gregor Mendel. He was ordained a priest in 1947. He spent about seven years planting, breeding and cultivating pea plants in an experimental part of the Abbey Garden that was started by previous Abbot. On Friday the 8th February 1865, he presented his experiments at the Brunn Society for the Study of Natural Sciences to an audience of 40 people. Nobody Great Biologists of the World 27 among them was convinced with his explanation and could not understand the significance of what Mendel had discovered. That lecture was subsequently published as a Forty-four page article in a Journal. To gain legitimacy of his work, he decided to distribute copies of his paper to 12 different eminent scientists of Europe. None of them paid attention to his work as it was considered to be against the Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection which never approved the theory of inheritance. His last copy of the paper along with a letter sent to Prof. Karl von Nageli at the University of Munich also did not find his approval. Unfortunately, the work of Mendel was not appreciated and recognized during his life-time. It was early May in 1900 when , a Professor at St. John’s College, Cambridge realized the importance of his work. Simultaneously, three other scientists from different countries rediscovered the work of Gregor Mendel. They included from Netherlands, Carl Correns from Germany and Erich von Tschermak from Austria. Bateson soon became a dedicated defender of Mendel’s work. He coined the term ‘Genetics’ (In Greek-Descent). Mendel’s work later on led to so many discoveries such as genes which carry the important traits, that the genes are found on the which are located in the nucleus. Nearly a century after the ferocious debate over Mendelism that set the stage for contemporary genetics, we have now realized that how important was his work which made our understanding about hereditary transfer of characters more clear. On the early morning of the January 6, 1884 Gregor Mendel died at the age of 63. Great Biologists of the World 28

8 Robert Koch A Great Bacteriologist

Robert Koch was a German Physician who became famous for his monumental contributions in the field of Bacteriology. He is credited with the discovery of the causal organisms of Anthrax, Cholera and Tuberculosis diseases. He was one of the brilliant and outstanding learners who even at the age of 5 started reading news papers himself. He gained interest in science while studying in high school, and decided to study biology. Besides, he loved to read classical and loved playing chess. While he was working as a District Medical Officer for Wollstein during 1872-1880 he observed that the Anthrax was quite prevalent among farm animals. He became interested in investigating the cause of this dreadful disease. Koch did not have necessary laboratory facilities, had no equipments or good library to his access. He created small laboratory in his 4-room home where he lived with his wife. He used microscope given by his wife while few other equipments were acquired by him. He was able to successfully demonstrate that Anthrax was caused by a bacillus bacterium- Bacillus anthrasis. Koch grew the bacterium in a Petri Dish (invented by his assistant Julius Richard Petri) for several generations in pure form and showed that, although they had had no contact with any kind of animal, still they could still Great Biologists of the World 29 cause Anthrax. Koch published his findings in a scientific magazine ‘Botanical Journal’ in the year 1876 when he was only 32 years old. This made him famous among contemporary scientists of that time. Further investigation on Anthrax disease by Koch led to the development of practical and scientific basis for control of infectious diseases. He introduced methods by which pathogenic bacteria could simply and easily obtained in pure culture, free from other organisms and by which they could be detected and identified. Koch laid down certain criteria in 1890 that must be achieved before it can be accepted that particular bacteria cause particular disease. These criteria are now known as ‘Koch’s Four Postulates’ and used to confirm the pathogenicity of any organism presumed to be the causal agent.He later on identified organisms associated with wound infections and Cholera as Staphylocopccus and Vibrio cholarae, respectively. Robert Koch’s research in bacteriology and discovery of pathogenic nature of bacteria had a great impact on the study of another disease, known as Tuberculosis which claimed the human lives in epidemic proportions. On 24th March 1882 he made history when he presented his findings on Tuberculosis and its causal organism before a group of scientists. He explained and illustrated all the scientific evidence in support of isolation and identification of tubercle bacillus and demonstrated its transmissible nature and how it caused TB in man. Recognizing his discovery of the tubercular bacillus and its monumental impact on public health as well pioneering impact of his postulates on the understanding of infectious diseases, he was awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in the year 1905.In the presentation speech on 10th December 1905at Stockholm in Sweden, Professor K.A.H. Morner said “Germany has produced plenty of path-breaking scientific for Great Biologists of the World 30 centuries but one man who is counted among the greatest ever produced by the country is Robert Heinrich Herman Koch”. Robert Heinrich Herman Koch (in short Robert Koch) was born on 11th December 1843 in Clausthal near Hannover in Germany. His father Hermann was a Mining Engineer while his mother Henriette Biewand a home maker. Robert Koch passed high school in the year 1862 and graduated from the University of Gottingen in Germany in the year 1866 with an MD degree securing highest grades. In the year 1870 Koch voluntarily joined Prussian Army to contribute to the Franco-Prussian war and for 8 years he served as District Medical Officer for the Army at Wollstein where he carried out the monumental work which brought him fame. He served as a Professor at the University of Berlin and was made Honorary Director and Professor at the ‘Institute of Infectious Diseases’. The institute was renamed as ‘Robert Koch Institute’ after his death. His motto ‘nun qua motiosus’ (Latin-never idle) was his driving force behind his commitment and passionate dedication for research in Biological Sciences. He was great nature lover and was fond of travelling. He visited several places such as France, Berlin, London and Hannover. He was sent to Alexandria, Egypt (where he discovered Vibrio cholarae, the causal agent of Cholera), Africa and India for study of different diseases. He was conferred German Order of Crown, The Grand Cross of the German Order of Red Eagle, Orders of Russia and , Privy Imperial Councillor by Emperor Wilhelm I. In the year 1897 he was made Fellow of “Royal Society of London”, a rare honor conferred on a scientist of outstanding contributions. Robert Koch was a scientist par excellence. He was not only a great scientist with gifted mind but also a visionary who laid the foundation for the study of bacteriology in the modern Great Biologists of the World 31 age. In honor of this great scientist, 24th February is observed as ‘World Tuberculosis Day’ declared by the World Health Organization. In fact, on this day Robert Koch had first presented his findings on the etiology of Tuberculosis or TB (also known as Koch’s Chest) as we call it in short. At the age of only 66, this great scientist passed away on May 27, 1910, at Baden-Baden in Black Forest Region of Germany of a heart ailment. Great Biologists of the World 32

9 Alexander Fleming A Bacteriologist Who Discovered Penicillin, The First Antibiotic

Alexander Fleming was a Scottish Medical Doctor who is credited with the discovery of first antibiotic, penicillin, isolated from a saprophytic Penicillium, also known as Blue-Green Mold. During World War I, Fleming served in the Royal Medical Army Corps as a Bacteriologist, studying wound infections. He observed that antiseptics commonly used at that time were doing more harm to humans than good and more wounded soldiers were dying from antiseptic treatment than from they were trying to destroy. While treating several war victims, Fleming became interested in antibacterial substances which would not be toxic to animal tissues as was observed with antiseptics. Fleming was a dedicated researcher committed to science. It was quite usual for him to go to his laboratory early in the morning every day. In November 1921, on a severe cold day he found that a drop of mucus dripped from his nose on the culture of bacteria dissolved them. Further investigation revealed that, this was an action triggered by an enzyme, lysozyme present in the mucus which did not kill bacteria. Rather it temporarily dissolved the cell wall of the Great Biologists of the World 33 bacteria. This was a great discovery indeed, but did not solve the problem of control of bacterial infections. In an another incident, on September 28, 1928 Fleming returned to his laboratory after a month away with his family and noticed that a culture of Staphylococcus aureus he had left out had become contaminated with a mold (later identified as Penicillium notatum). He also discovered that the colonies of Staphylococci bacterium surrounding this mold had been destroyed. Fleming called the substance destroying the bacterial colony as “Mold Juice” and subsequently named it Penicillin. Later on the purified form of penicillin was obtained by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain from the University of Oxford. Fleming along with Florey and Chain was awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine in the year 1945. Sir Alexander Fleming was born at Lochfield, near Darvel in Ayrshire, Scotland on 6th August 1881. His parents Hugh and Grace were farmers, and Alexander was one of their four children. He attended the Louden Moore School, the Darvel School and Kilmarnock Academy for his studies before moving to London in 1895. He obtained M.B., B.S. Degree from Saint Mary’s Hospital Medical School at the University of London in the year 1908 and won a Gold Medal. He was Professor at Saint Mary’s Hospital Medical School, University of London. He became Emeritus Professor of Bacteriology of this university in the year 1948. He was elected as Fellow of Royal Society in 1944 and Knighted in 1944. Fleming became a Fellow of Royal College of Surgeons and Fellow of Royal College of Physicians in England. He was awarded honorary degrees of Doctor of Science by nearly 30 European and American universities. Fleming died of a heart attack at the age of 74 on 11th March 1955 at his home in London. Great Biologists of the World 34

The discovery of penicillin by Fleming paved the way for use of antibiotics in modern healthcare and saved millions of lives. Further, his discovery of lysozymes was a significant contribution to human research. Great Biologists of the World 35

10 Max Delbruck The Man who Discovered the Genetic Structure of Viruses

It was in the 20th century that scientists in the field of physics and chemistry started taking an interest in biology. Delbruck was one of the influential people who participated in this ‘movement of physical scientists into life sciences’. They brought the experimental and mathematical methods and tools of the physical sciences into investigating biological issues and this resulted in new insights into the basis of life. Delbruck shared the 1969 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine with Alfred D. Hershey and Salvadore E. Luria for work on the genetic structure of the virus. Viruses are agents of diseases, that are much smaller than bacteria and consist of a single or double stranded nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein shell. They occupy a world in between the living and non-living. Like the living they can reproduce but unlike the living, they can duplicate themselves only within a host cell. They are parasites occupying the host cell, and drawing the requirements for reproducing, from it. This parasitic behavior often causes diseases in the host cells, leading even to the death of the host cell. Great Biologists of the World 36

Max Ludwig Hans Delbruck was born on September 4, 1906, in Berlin, Germany. His father, Hans Delbruck was Professor of History in Berlin University. Max’s mother was the grand daughter of the famous chemist, Justus von Liebig. Max grew up in a Berlin suburb, Grunewald, populated by academics, professionals and other well-to-do classes. He was interested in science from his boyhood. His early interest was astronomy. But during the later part of his graduate years at Gottingen University he shifted to theoretical physics. Physics had just made a great leap onward with the discovery of quantum mechanics for which Gottingen was one of the centres. During this time he interacted with many of the great German physicists including Pauli, Einstein and Max Born. Delbruck took his PhD from Gottingen in 1930, when he was twenty-four. He went to Copenhagen in the summer of 1931 and met Niels Bohr. There Bohr had created a group of scientists dedicated to study and research. He joined this group and its open, critical, scholarly atmosphere was a major influence in his own career as a scientist. Delbruck then received a Rockefeller scholarship for study in England. He went to England and joined Bristol University. In 1932 he returned to Berlin to work as assistant to Lise Meitner. But it was not research in physics that prompted him to work with Meitner. The motivation was he could work in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (where Lise worked), which would help him get acquainted with the problems of biology. Delbruck’s interest in biology originated from his association with Niels Bohr during his Copenhagen days. Bohr had speculated that an extension of quantum mechanics might have wide applications in other fields of science, especially in biology. In 1937 Delbruck obtained a second Rockefeller fellowship and used it to move to the California Institute of Technology Great Biologists of the World 37

(Caltech) in the USA. Delbruck chose Caltech because of its research record in fruit- genetics. There he became acquainted with bacteria and the viruses that attack them (bacteriophage or ‘phage’). In 1939 he co-authored a paper on The Growth of Bacteriophage with E.L. Ellis, in which they showed that viruses reproduce in one step rather than in several steps as cellular organisms do. The Rockefeller fellowship that enabled him to do research in the United States ran out in September 1939, leaving him with the choice of either returning to Germany or staying back in the USA. Meanwhile the Second World War had started and Germany under Nazi rule was at war with Britain, France and their allies, and he chose to remain in America. He accepted an instructorship in the physics department of the Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1940. In the year 1941 he met Salvador Luria, the Italian , and started the joint research that brought them the Nobel Prize. Luria had arrived in 1938 as a refugee from Fascist-ruled Italy, and was working in Indiana University at Bloomington. They first met at a physics congress held in Philadelphia. The two scientists got excited about phage research and decided to collaborate. Thus began the joint research that would bring them the 1969 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. In 1942, Luria obtained an electron micrograph of phage particles that confirmed earlier descriptions of them as consisting of a round head and a thin tail. In 1943 Delbruck and Luria in their joint study demonstrated that bacteria could spontaneously mutate in response to phage and so develop resistance to them. It meant that bacterial resistance was not a change that occurs to an organism when it adapts to a new environment. Later, Great Biologists of the World 38

Delbruck and Albert Hershey, a biologist working at the Carnegie Institute in Washington, independently discovered that genes from different phages could combine with each other spontaneously. The Nobel Prize was jointly awarded to the three scientists. Delbruck held the view that life has a physical basis. How it originates, grows, develops, adapts, dies out etc. could all be explained by laws which primarily are in the fields of chemistry and physics. Delbruck’s thinking inspired the Austrian physicist and Erwin Schrodinger to write the highly influential book What is Life? This book influenced , James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins, the trio who shared the Nobel Prize for discovering the DNA double . His efforts to promote exploration in genetics through investigations of the viruses that affect bacteria (bacteriophage) were important in the development of molecular biology. Max Delbruck died on March 9, 1981. Proposed Main Acvies of the Society

1. Popularizing science among rural and urban school children through “Sciencezaon Mission” 2. Pracce learning for school children of rural area through science outreach program 3. Livelihood security – Creang self-reliance through science intervenon 4. Skill development and training – Creang self-employment 5. Promong quality research through aptude development and training for appropriate research methodology 6. conservaon and environment quality improvement – Creang awareness about sustainable development 7. Promong value-added agriculture and organic farming 8. Organizing scienfic events – Promong interdisciplinary cross–talks 9. Extension lecture series in New Biology and Chemical Sciences. 10. Teachers' training and capacity building 11. V et al., – Volunteering Educaonal Support 12. Science Enabling Centres (SPSER – SEC)- Creang network for promoon of science 13. Supporve teaching at all the levels of educaon (Primary, Secondary and Terary). 14. “Vignan Shiksha Setu Abhiyan” – Bridging gap among schools, colleges and universies. 15. Health, cleanliness and sanitaon – Achieving goals of “Swach Bharat Abhiyan” 16. Internaonal and naonal collaboraons – Developing synergy 17. Promong high-tech agriculture-encouraging drip irrigaon and greenhouse culvaon.

he Society invites Educaonal Instuons at all the levels, Research TOrganizaons, other Sociees and Self-Help Groups to join hands and collaborate with SPSER to achieve common goals of “Sciencezaon”. Learned academicians, School, College and University Teachers and Students, Research Scholars, Enlightened Cizens as well as Sciensts from different Research Organizaons are encouraged to volunteer their services for this mission as a part of their “Academic Social Responsibility (ASR)”. Basic Tenets of Cleanliness and Environment

1. Wash your hands properly. 2. Do not lier around your home. 3. Put garbage in dustbin and dispose it of properly. 4. Do not burn garbage and plasc. 5. Reduce use of plasc and polythene. 6. Use water judiciously. 7. Plant more trees. 8. Do not allow water to collect around your home. 9. Drink filtered water only. 10. Use electricity judiciously and save it as far as possible. 11. Use public transport. 12. Reduce use of chemicals in agriculture.