DOCSLIB.ORG

Colonial Culture 1607

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Colonial Culture 1607 S ECTION 5 COLONIAL C ULTURE 1607 - 1776 1750BLACK AND WHITE POPULATION OF THE COLONIES Total 1750 Population: 1,170,760 0 50,000 100,000 150,000 New Hampshire Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia 1790ETHNIC POPULATION OF THE NEW UNITED STATES TOTAL 1790 P OPULATION : 3,929, 214 62 5-1 # THE SOCIAL LADDER AND THE AMERICAN DREAM, 1607-1776 “In America, people don’t ask ‘What is he?’ but ‘What can he do?”’ —Benjamin Franklin America has always had social classes. But unlike Europe’s tradition of closed social ranks, fixed by birth, America’s open social ladder—climbed through wealth and talent—offers upward mobility. Abundant land plus hard work put wealth within reach of the colonists, and America’s economic opportunities beckoned them up the ladder. Benjamin Franklin, about whom you’ll read later, is one example of the colonists’ response. Freedom to climb the social ladder, to better one’s self, is the American Dream. To catch the spirit of the American Dream in the colonial era, read the words of Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, a French immigrant living in New York, who wrote Letters From an American Farmer i n 1782. The selection below is from his most famous letter. WHAT IS AN AMERICAN? ¨ UPPER CLASS: GENTRY By J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, 1782 (upper 5%) planters “In this great American asylum, the poor of Europe merchants have by some means met together....Urged by a royal officials variety of motives, here they came. Everything has ministers tended to regenerate them; new laws, a new mode professionals of living, a new social system; here they are become Called “Mister” and “Mistress” men: in Europe they were as so many useless and given deference, the gentry plants...they withered, and were mowed down by dressed in silks with lace ruffles want, hunger, and war; but now by the power of and wore wigs, earning the name transplantation...they have taken root and flourished! “bigwigs”; they had front pews in “Here are no aristocratical families, no courts, no churches. At Harvard College, kings, no bishops...no great...luxury. The rich and the wealth, not grades, set class rank. poor are not so far removed from each other as in Europe.... ¨ MIDDLE CLASS (largest percent) “We are all animated with the spirit of industry farmers which is unfettered and unrestrained, because each tradespeople person works for himself...without any part being artisans (skilled workers in claimed by a despotic prince, a rich crafts, such as weaving and abbot, or a mighty lord. carpentry) “We have no princes for whom we toil, starve, and Called “Goodman” and bleed; we are the most perfect society now existing “Goodwoman,” they gave and in the world. Here man is free as he ought to be.... received deference and wore simple clothes. “Whence come all these people? They are a mixture of English, Scotch, Irish, French, Dutch, German, ¨ LOWER CLASS and Swedes. From this promiscuous breed that race hired hands now called American has now arisen.... indentured servants “What then is the American, this new man?.... enslaved African-Americans* I could point out to you a family whose grandfather Called the “meaner sort,” they was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, deferred to middle and upper whose son married a French woman, and whose classes. They wore clothes of present four sons have now four homespun linsey-wolsey (linen wives of different nations. and wool) and were subject to fines for dressing like the gentry. “He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the A large number of colonists new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. came as indentured servants; many rose to the middle class, “Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, who se some to the upper class. labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world.” (*A section on enslaved African-Americans follows.) 63 5–2 # CULTURE AND THE P E R S I A ACRONYM culture —the total of ways of living that characterize a group of people The P E R S I A acronym is handy for sorting out the ways people organize their lives in a society—for understanding their CULTURE. SIX C ONCERNS OF H UMAN L IFE People throughout history —no matter when or where they lived—have had six P OLITICAL : Who shall be in charge? human concerns, expressed in these six questions. E CONOMIC : How will we make our living? Their answers —in different times and R ELIGIOUS : What is the meaning of life— its origin, destination, and purpose? places—have created different kinds of S OCIAL : How shall we relate to others? political, economic, religious, social, I NTELLECTUAL : How shall we learn? intellectual, and artistic institutions, the sum of which is their culture. A RTISTIC : How shall we express ourselves—our emotions, thoughts, ideas? Below are some (but not all) of the ways people have answered the six questions through centuries of history. How have their answers shaped our institutions? How do you answer the questions? On the next page we will apply the P E R S I A acronym to the colonies. POLITICAL ECONOMIC RELIGIOUS Who shall be in charge? How shall we make our living? What is the meaning of life? Origin: Where did we come from? Agriculture Destination: What happens when we die? Purpose: How shall we spend our lives? Commerce Trades and Professions Based on Power: Based on Social Contract: head of clan (consent of the people governed) Industry oligarch DEMOCRACY —direct monarch participation of the people dictator REPUBLIC —participation through elected representatives SOCIAL INTELLECTUAL ARTISTIC How shall we relate to others? How shall we learn? How shall we express ourselves? Authoritarian society, based Singing on servitude or slavery Painting Deference society, based on rank Dancing Egalitarian society, Writing based on equal rights Authority: Discovery: under the law. Someone tells you. You find out for yourself. 64 5–3 # COLONIAL CULTURE: THREE WAYS OF LIFE, 1607-1776 NEW ENGLAND SOUTHERN MIDDLE COLONIES INSTITUTIONS COLONIES COLONIES Town meetings were the most Representative legislatures King direct form of democracy in the with the power to vote on taxes colonies. prevailed in all the colonies. POLITICAL Members were elected by white Who shall be in charge? male property owners (and in a few colonies, female property The king made appointments owners). only in the royal colonies, although he ruled all. Fishing, shipbuilding, trade, Grain farms, seaports, iron works Plantations and small farms— naval stores, furs . Thin, rocky tobacco, cotton, rice, indigo soil made farming unproductive. ECONOMIC How shall we eat? Congregational Church Many churches; religious tolerance Anglican Church the state RELIGIOUS the state, tax-supported church church, tax-supported church. What is the meaning (except in R.I.). of life? —origin? —destination? —purpose? Towns and cities . Strong sense Farms and cities. Most egalitarian Farms and plantations; few of community. Deference society. of the colonies (a matter of degree). towns. Authoritarian and deference societies. SOCIAL How shall we relate? First compulsory public schools; No public schools. Private schools No public and few private schools. started in Massachusetts in1647. run by churches and individuals. Wealthy people hired tutors for Scientific pursuits As in all colonies, girls had less plantation schools. INTELLECTUAL in all education. How shall we learn? three regions. PAINTERS: PAINTERS: WRITERS John Singleton Copley Charles Willson Peale Thomas Jefferson Gilbert Stuart Benjamin West James Madison ARTISTIC John Trumbull ARCHITECT How shall we express WRITERS : WRITERS Thomas Jefferson, a brilliant ourselves? William Bradford Benjamin Franklin “gentleman-architect,” established Anne Bradstreet Philip Freneau neoclassic architecture in America with Cotton Mather Thomas Paine three outstanding works: Monticello Mercy Otis Warren (his home), the Virginia State Capitol, Phyllis Wheatley and the University of Virginia. 65 5–4 # COLONIAL RELIGION: THE GREAT AWAKENING, 1720S-1740S 1492 1720s-40s Present THE GREAT AWAKENING was a religious movement: FROM THIS TO THIS A GREAT AWAKENING of religious fervor swept the 1720s—The Awakening began when Theodore colonies in the early 1700s. The movement, the first to Frelinghuysen, a Dutch Reformed minister, came from unify the colonies, involved two decades of evangelistic Holland to pastor in New Jersey. He preached emotional, revivals—gatherings that replaced rational, intellectual evangelistic sermons, stressing faith over reason. sermons with emotional salvation experiences. He inspired William Tennent to spread the revivals among The movement occurred in reaction to widespread Presbyterians religious apathy. Despite the fact that nine of thirteen in colonies had established (state-supported) churches, Pennsylvania. religious faith seemingly turned to formality with succeeding generations. A secular interest in business hastened the process. 1730s—Jonathan Edwards brought the Awakening to Massachusetts by preaching 1720 Estimated Religious Statistics frightening sermons about hell. New England—1 in 7 belonged to a church. 1740s—George Whitefield of England Middle Colonies—1 in 15 belonged to a church. made seven revival tours through the Southern Colonies—1 in 15 supported a church. colonies, drawing crowds of 20,000. RESULTS OF THE GREAT AWAKENING— ¨ Stimulated growth in all denominations; ¨ democratized Protestant religion by proclaiming salvation for all, not just those predestined; ¨ fostered anti-intellectualism in religion by belittling educated ministers; ¨ spurred the founding of denominational colleges to preserve doctrinal purity among their youths. CHURCH MEMBERSHIP, 1775 COLONIAL COLLEGES , including those* whose founding was thousands influenced by the Awakening 585,000 1. Harvard Congregational 1636 Cambridge, Mass. 500,000 2. William and Mary Anglican 1693 Williamsburg, Va.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Indelible Ink – the Trial of John Peter Zenger and the Birth of America’S Free Press
    BOOK REVIEW By M. KELLY TILLERY Indelible Ink – The Trial of John Peter Zenger and the Birth of America’s Free Press ichard Kluger won the Pulitzer in late 1733. Alexander and Morris RPrize for his masterful expose intended to use it as a vehicle to make of the cigarette industry in Cosby and his royal administration Ashes to Ashes in 1996, and his study accountable to the people. As the most of school desegregation, Simple Justice prominent and wealthy lawyer in New (1975), is a classic. His latest, equally York, Alexander had a lot to lose and excellent if less controversial should be thus concealed his involvement, lest he of interest to every Philadelphia Lawyer. be charged with seditious libel or worse. Indelible Ink is the most thoughtful, Zenger was a businessman without comprehensive and well-researched any particular political leanings, but study of the 1735 criminal trial in New he knew this was risky business. So York City of newspaper publisher John he made a deal. He would print, and Peter Zenger on charges of seditious Morris and Alexander would write, but libel. While you may know that Zenger Alexander would pay for everything and was acquitted, that he was defended by a defend him for free if he was charged. Philadelphia lawyer Andrew Hamilton, And Zenger would not betray his and that his victory was based upon the backer’s identity. defense of truth, Kluger sets forth so The newspaper was a hit as each much more. And, it is not all what you issue turned up the heat on Cosby.
    [Show full text]
  • EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY German Immigration to Mainland
    The Flow and the Composition of German Immigration to Philadelphia, 1727-177 5 IGHTEENTH-CENTURY German immigration to mainland British America was the only large influx of free white political E aliens unfamiliar with the English language.1 The German settlers arrived relatively late in the colonial period, long after the diversity of seventeenth-century mainland settlements had coalesced into British dominance. Despite its singularity, German migration has remained a relatively unexplored topic, and the sources for such inquiry have not been adequately surveyed and analyzed. Like other pre-Revolutionary migrations, German immigration af- fected some colonies more than others. Settlement projects in New England and Nova Scotia created clusters of Germans in these places, as did the residue of early though unfortunate German settlement in New York. Many Germans went directly or indirectly to the Carolinas. While backcountry counties of Maryland and Virginia acquired sub- stantial German populations in the colonial era, most of these people had entered through Pennsylvania and then moved south.2 Clearly 1 'German' is used here synonymously with German-speaking and 'Germany' refers primar- ily to that part of southwestern Germany from which most pre-Revolutionary German-speaking immigrants came—Cologne to the Swiss Cantons south of Basel 2 The literature on German immigration to the American colonies is neither well defined nor easily accessible, rather, pertinent materials have to be culled from a large number of often obscure publications
    [Show full text]
  • The Trial of John Peter Zenger
    THE TRIAL OF JOHN PETER ZENGER A Play in Five Scenes by Michael E. Tigar Copyright © 1986, Michael E. Tigar All Rights Reserved Written for Initial Performance at the Annual Meeting of the American Bar Association New York, New York, August 10, 1986 Cast of Characters, in Order of Appearance (With names of actors at initial performance) John Peter Zenger, a printer (Scott Armstrong) Chief Justice James Delancey (Tim Miller) James Alexander, a lawyer (David Keyser) Richard Bradley, Attorney General of New York (Mac Williams) John Chambers, a lawyer (Rick Froom) Andrew Hamilton, a lawyer (Michael E. Tigar) Margaret Hamilton, his daughter (Katherine Tigar) Peter Zenger, Zenger's son (Steve Cummins) Thomas Hunt, Foreman of the Jury (G. William Birrell) Scene I: Supreme Court, New York City, April 1735 Scene II: Andrew Hamilton's home in Philadelphia, August 1735 Scene III: The Black Horse Tavern, New York City, August 1735 Scene IV: Supreme Court, New York City, August 1735 Scene V: Supreme Court, New York City, August 1735 ZENGER.DOC Page 1 Program Notes The libel trial of John Peter Zenger was a celebrated event in American colonial history: It fueled the dispute over freedom of the press in New York for decades thereafter. Briefly, Zenger was arrested and charged with libelling the colonial Governor, William Cosby. The Chief Justice, James Delancey, who presided at the trial, was a wealthy adherent to Cosby's cause, and was only 32 years old at the time of the trial. Cosby appointed Delancey to be Chief Justice when the former Chief Justice ruled against Cosby in a celebrated suit.
    [Show full text]
  • The French Natchez Settlement According to the Memory of Dumont De Montigny
    The French Natchez Settlement According to the Memory of Dumont de Montigny TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………..…...1 Chapter Two: Dumont de Montigny………………………………………….......15 Chapter Three: French Colonial Architecture………………………………….....28 Chapter Four: The Natchez Settlement: Analysis of Dumont’s Maps…..………..43 Chapter Five: Conclusion…………………………………………………………95 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..105 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Vincas Steponaitis for his endless support and guidance throughout the whole research and writing process. I would also like to thank my defense committee, Dr. Anna Agbe-Davies and Dr. Kathleen Duval, for volunteering their time. Finally I would like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Jones who greatly assisted me by translating portions of Dumont’s maps. INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Natchez settlement, founded in 1716, was one of the many settlements founded by the French in the Louisiana Colony. Fort Rosalie was built to protect the settlers and concessions from the dangers of the frontier. Despite the military presence, the Natchez Indians attacked the settlement and destroyed the most profitable agricultural venture in Louisiana. While this settlement has not been excavated, many first-hand accounts exist documenting events at the settlement. The account this paper is concerned with is the work of Dumont de Montigny, a lieutenant and engineer in the French Army. Dumont spent his time in Louisiana creating plans and drawings of various French establishments, one of which being Fort Rosalie and the Natchez settlement. Upon his return to France, Dumont documented his experiences in Natchez in two forms, an epic poem and a prose memoir. Included in these works were detailed maps of Louisiana and specifically of the Natchez settlement.
    [Show full text]
  • The Trial of John Peter Zenger
    The Trial of John Peter Zenger Should someone be prosecuted for criticizing a government official even if the words are true? Should a judge or a jury decide the case? These were the key issues in the trial of John Peter Zenger. English kings had long controlled the press. King Henry VIII required all writing be licensed before it could be printed. The king prosecuted authors and printers who published unlicensed writing. A powerful royal council known as the Star Chamber controlled the licensing of printed works. The Star Chamber also created a crime called libel. “Seditious libel” was the most serious kind of libel. This outlawed insulting the government, its laws, and officials. Kings and parliaments wanted people to respect them. The Star Chamber ruled that the truth of printed words did not matter. Truth was not a defense in libel cases. In fact, the Star Chamber saw true statements that libeled the government as more dangerous than false ones. People would more easily dismiss false statements. The most famous trial lawyer in the American colonies, Parliament got rid of the Star Chamber Andrew Hamilton addressed the court. He was in 1642, and the last licensing laws defending publisher Peter Zenger against the criminal expired by 1695. But courts continued charge of seditious libel. (New York State Library) to enforce the Star Chamber libel laws. Judges decided whether printed words were libelous. Juries decided only if a defendant had published the words in question. By 1700, “freedom of the press” in England only meant no government licensing. Once authors and printers had published their writing, English officials could still charge them with seditious libel.
    [Show full text]
  • Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold
    Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold Fran¸coisR. Velde Econometric Society N.A. Summer Meetings, June 24, 2007 Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation Lucas's 1995 Nobel lecture begins with Hume (1752) to display a tension at the heart of macroeconomics: I neutrality of money seems \evident" I \If we consider any one kingdom by itself, it is evident that the greater or lesser plenty of money is of no consequence; since prices of commodities are always proportion'd to the plenty of money" I but experience shows otherwise I \tho' the high price of commodities be a necessary consequence of the encrease of gold and silver, yet it follows not immediately upon that encrease, but some time is requir'd before the money circulate thro' the whole state, and make its effects be felt on all ranks of people" ::: Mons. de Tot [Dutot]'s observations were generated by just such an experiment, and they don't support neutrality. Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation (2) How did Hume reach these two conclusions? Mixture of I loosely referenced empirical observations I \These facts I give upon the authority of Mons. de Tot" I a priori reasoning: \magical" thought experiments I \suppose that, by miracle, every man in Britain shou'd have five pounds slipt into his pocket in one night" Chronicle of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation (2) How did Hume reach these two conclusions? Mixture of I loosely referenced empirical observations I \These facts I give upon the authority of Mons. de Tot" I a priori reasoning: \magical" thought experiments I \suppose that, by miracle, every man in Britain shou'd have five pounds slipt into his pocket in one night" ::: Mons.
    [Show full text]
  • Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold
    Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Fran¸cois R. Velde Monetary and Financial History Workshop, Atlanta Fed 2006 Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation Lucas’s 1995 Nobel lecture begins with Hume (1752): I neutrality of money “evident” I “If we consider any one kingdom by itself, it is evident that the greater or lesser plenty of money is of no consequence; since prices of commodities are always proportion’d to the plenty of money” I experience shows otherwise I “tho’ the high price of commodities be a necessary consequence of the encrease of gold and silver, yet it follows not immediately upon that encrease, but some time is requir’d before the money circulate thro’ the whole state, and make its effects be felt on all ranks of people” ... or was it? Hume was in fact referring to an actual experiment. Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation (2) I How the quantity of money changes matters I Hume’s thought experiment “magical” I “suppose that, by miracle, every man in Britain shou’d have five pounds slipt into his pocket in one night” Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction Motivation (2) I How the quantity of money changes matters I Hume’s thought experiment “magical” I “suppose that, by miracle, every man in Britain shou’d have five pounds slipt into his pocket in one night” ... or was it? Hume was in fact referring to an actual experiment. Chronicles of a Deflation Unforetold Introduction This paper A magical experiment: I from August 1723 to September 1724
    [Show full text]
  • Bristol, Africa and the Eighteenth Century Slave Trade To
    BRISTOL RECORD SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS General Editor: JOSEPH BE1TEY, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Assistant Editor: MISS ELIZABETH RALPH, M.A., F.S.A. VOL. XLII BRISTOL, AFRICA AND THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SLAVE TRADE TO AMERICA VOL. 3 THE YEARS OF DECLINE 1746-1769 BRISTOL, AFRICA AND THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SLAVE TRADE TO AMERICA VOL. 3 THE YEARS OF DECLINE 1746-1769 EDITED BY DAYID RICHARDSON Printed for the BRISTOL RECORD SOCIETY 1991 ISBN 0 901538 12 4 ISSN 0305 8730 © David Richardson Bristol Record Society wishes to express its gratitude to the Marc Fitch Fund and to the University of Bristol Publications Fund for generous grants in support of this volume. Produced for the Society by Alan Sutton Publishing Limited, Stroud, Glos. Printed in Great Britain CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements vi Introduction . vii Note on transcription xxxii List of abbreviations xxxiii ·Text 1 Index 235 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the process of ·compiling and editing the information on Bristol voyages to Africa contained in this volume I have received assistance and advice from various individuals and organisations. The task of collecting the material was made much easier from the outset by the generous help and advice I received from the staff at the Public Record Office, the Bristol Record Office, the Bristol Central Library and the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers. I am grateful to the Society of Merchant Venturers for permission to consult its records and to cite material from them. I am also indebted to the British Academy for its generosity in awarding me a grant in order to allow me to complete my research on Bristol voyages to Africa.
    [Show full text]
  • John Peter Zenger and Freedom of the Press
    John Peter Zenger and Freedom of the Press Should someone be prosecuted for criticizing or insulting a government official even if the offending words are the truth? Should a judge or a jury decide the case? These were the key questions argued in the colonial New York trial of John PeterZenger. s early as 1275, the English AParliament had outlawed “any slanderous News” that may cause “dis- cord” between the king and his people. Slander, however, only referred to the spoken word. Published works became a much more serious threat to kings and parliaments after the invention of print- ing greatly enhanced communication in the 1400s. By the 1500s, King Henry VIII of England required all writing be cen- The most famous trial lawyer in the American colonies, Andrew Hamilton addressed the sored and licensed by royal officials court. He was defending publisher Peter Zenger against the criminal charge of seditious libel. (New York State Library) before being printed. Known as “prior restraint,” this heavy-handed control over the printed word resulted in prose- The Star Chamber ruled that the truth of printed words cutions of authors and printers who published unli- did not matter. Truth was not a defense in libel cases. censed writings. In fact, the Star Chamber considered truthful state- W In England, a powerful royal council known as ments that libeled the government or its officials as the Star Chamber controlled the licensing of even more dangerous than false ones. People would U printed works. (The council got its name more easily dismiss false statements. because stars covered the ceiling of its meeting Parliament abolished the Star Chamber in 1642, and S room.) The Star Chamber created a new crime the last licensing laws expired by 1695.
    [Show full text]
  • The Value of Money in Eighteenth-Century England: Incomes, Prices, Buying Power— and Some Problems in Cultural Economics
    The Value of Money in Eighteenth-Century England: Incomes, Prices, Buying Power— and Some Problems in Cultural Economics Robert D. Hume &'453&(5 Robert D. Hume offers an empirical investigation of incomes, cost, artist remuneration, and buying power in the realm of long eighteenth-century cultural production and purchase. What was earned by writers, actors, singers, musicians, and painters? Who could afford to buy a book? Attend a play or opera? Acquire a painting? Only 6 percent of families had £100 per annum income, and only about 3 percent had £200. What is the “buying power” magnitude of such sums? No single multiplier yields a legitimate present-day equivalent, but a range of 200 –300 gives a rough sense of magnitude for most of this period. Novels are now thought of as a bourgeois phenomenon, but they cost 3s. per volume. A family with a £200 annual income would have to spend nearly a full day’s income to buy a four-volume novel, but only 12 percent for a play. The market for plays was natu - rally much larger, which explains high copyright payments to playwrights and very low payments for most novels—hence the large number of novels by women, who had few ways to earn money. From this investigation we learn two broad facts. First, that the earnings of most writers, actors, musicians, and singers were gener - ally scanty but went disproportionately to a few stars, and second, that most of the culture we now study is inarguably elite: it was mostly consumed by the top 1 per - cent or 0.5 percent of the English population.
    [Show full text]
  • Germans Settling North America : Going Dutch – Gone American
    Gellinek Going Dutch – Gone American Christian Gellinek Going Dutch – Gone American Germans Settling North America Aschendorff Münster Printed with the kind support of Carl-Toepfer-Stiftung, Hamburg, Germany © 2003 Aschendorff Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, Münster Das Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Die dadurch begründeten Rechte, insbesondere die der Überset- zung, des Nachdrucks, der Entnahme von Abbildungen, der Funksendung, der Wiedergabe auf foto- mechanischem oder ähnlichem Wege und der Speicherung in Datenverarbeitungsanlagen bleiben, auch bei nur auszugsweiser Verwertung, vorbehalten. Die Vergütungsansprüche des § 54, Abs. 2, UrhG, werden durch die Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort wahrgenommen. Druck: Druckhaus Aschendorff, Münster, 2003 Gedruckt auf säurefreiem, alterungsbeständigem Papier ∞ ISBN 3-402-05182-6 This Book is dedicated to my teacher of Comparative Anthropology at Yale Law School from 1961 to 1963 F. S. C. Northrop (1893–1992) Sterling Professor of Philosophy and Law, author of the benchmark for comparative philosophy, Philosophical Anthropology and Practical Politics This Book has two mottoes which bifurcate as the topic =s divining rod The first motto is by GERTRUDE STEIN [1874–1946], a Pennsylvania-born woman of letters, raised in California, and expatriate resident of Europe after 1903: AIn the United States there is more space where nobody is than where anybody is. That is what makes America what it is.@1 The second motto has to do with the German immigration. It is borrowed from a book by THEODOR FONTANE [1819–1898], a Brandenburg-born writer, and a critic of Prussia. An old German woman, whose grandchildren have emigrated to Anmerica is speaking in her dialect of Low German: [ADröwen in Amirika.
    [Show full text]
  • Smallpox Inoculation in Britain, 1721-1830
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 1990 Pox Britannica: Smallpox Inoculation in Britain, 1721-1830 Deborah Christian Brunton University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the European History Commons, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Commons, and the Virus Diseases Commons Recommended Citation Brunton, Deborah Christian, "Pox Britannica: Smallpox Inoculation in Britain, 1721-1830" (1990). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 999. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/999 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/999 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Pox Britannica: Smallpox Inoculation in Britain, 1721-1830 Abstract Inoculation has an important place in the history of medicine: not only was it the first form of preventive medicine but its history spans the so-called eighteenth century 'medical revolution'. A study of the myriad of pamphlets, books and articles on the controversial practice casts new light on these fundamental changes in the medical profession and medical practice. Whereas historians have associated the abandonment of old humoural theories and individualised therapy in favour of standardised techniques with the emergence of new institutions in the second half of the century, inoculation suggests that changes began as early as the 1720s. Though inoculation was initially accompanied by a highly individualised preparation of diet and drugs, more routinised sequences of therapy appeared the 1740s and by the late 1760s all inoculated patients followed exactly the same preparative regimen. This in turn made possible the institutionalised provision of inoculation, first through the system of poor relief, later by dispensaries and charitable societies.
    [Show full text]