ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF NUWARA ELIYA F JPORT 42

EN. ^M-ILINTAL STUDY OF NUWARA ELIYA REFERENCE CMLY

Final.Report

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF NUV/ARA ELIYA

Prepared for the/

CENTRAL ENVIRONMENT AUTHORITY

Gunaratna Associates

Colombo

February 1937 ^_ A ... CEA Library TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1.0 BACKGROUND

1.1 Project Origin 1

1.2 Objectives 1 1.3 Terms of Reference 2 1.4 Project Boundary 3 1.5 Preliminary Report 6

2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

2.1 Manifestations 7 2.2 Causative Factors 7 2.3 Most Serious Factor 8

3.0 BASIC ISSUES •

3.1 Depletion of Forest cover / 9 3.2 Soil Erosion 13 3.3 Soil Conservation measures 16 3.4 Specific locations and recommendations 22 3.5 Land Slides 28

3.6 Siltation 33 3.7 Pollution ' 45 3.8 Socio-economic Considerations 51

4.0 PROPOSALS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Land Use 56 4.2 Urban land use 62

4.3 Conclusions \ 74 4.4 Summary of Recommendations SOL

APPENDICES

1 Bibliography- .86'

2 Officials met in Nuwara Eliya , 8? by the Team.

3. Team members of Study 83 Fig 1 Forest clearing for cultivation* 10

Fig 2 Erosion at "Unique view" 25

Fig 3 Sketch - section of hill slopes

(Moon Plains Bomuraella access Road) 32

Fig 4 Sketch - section of hillside 34

Fig 5 Deforestation and cultivation of steep slopes 36

Fig 6 Denudation and cultivation of

stream reservation 37

Fig 7 Siltation of Lake Gregory 43

Fig 8 Siltation of Lake Gregory , 44

Fig 9 Dumping of Industrial waste • -46

Fig 10 Pollution of streams by industrial waste 47

Fig 11 Pollution of stream by sewage 49

Fig 12 . The ugly face of new Nuwara Eliya 78

Fig 13 Another view of new Nuwara Eliya 79

LIRT OF MAPS

Map 1 Project Boundaries 5

Map 2 Occurence of Forest Fires 12

I.'.ap 3 Project Area in Agro Ecological

Region WU3 57

Map 4 Lake Gregory (Drainage Pattern) 85

Map 5 Proposed Land Use Plan for Project' Area 89

Map 6 Proposed Urban Land Use Plan 90 Cover Picture: Denudation for vegetable cultivation on steep slope; Encroachment into Pedro Forest Reserve at 'Underbank

All Photographs: by K. Locana Gunaratna 1

1.0 Background

1.1 Project Origin

The Central Environmental Authority (CEA), being of the view that the town of Nuwara Eliya and its surroundings ... are being subject to environmental degradation, had decided to examine this problem in some depth. They envisaged that the problem should be studied as a matter of urgency by a team having expertise in land-use planning, soils, agronomy etc. Following this decision, the Director- General of the CEA wrote in September 1984 to the principal of Gunaratna Associates (the Consultants) inquiring whether he along with a suitable team could undertake the study. The consultants conveyed their interest in October 1984 and were informed that the areas of special concern to the CEA included:

Siltation of Lake Gregory Deforestation Vegetable cultivation and lack of soil conservation High use of agrochemicals

Stream reservations and protection of stream banks

Disposal of soild waste Location of industries, discharge of effluents, pollution and possible damage to inland fishing The town centre after July 1981 for recommendation^ on fire gaps, relocation of abatoirs, etc.

Land use, and Human Settlements.

The discussions the Consultants had with the CEA during

the following months enabled the broad objectives of the

project to be defined.

1.2 Objectives

Nuwara Eliya of the 1950s and earlier was known for its salubrious climate, its neat and tidy town and the scenic beauty of its environs. These were some of its' main, attractions as one of the prime destinations for local 2

holiday-makers in those years. A marked deterioration is observable today, where perhaps only the climate has remained relatively unchanged. Many houses, gardens and parks are unkempt. Damaged buildings and rotting garbage can be seen. Hill slopes seem scarred and lakes are being silted. Roads are bad and there are frequent land slides. Such are the superficial observations.

Unfortunately, the affront is not merely to 'middle-class' aesthetic sensibilities. The problems go much deeper and are manifold. The pollution by agrochemicals and sedimen­ tation of streams and lakes also adversely affect irriga­ tion and hydropower reservoirs, the lake fringe lands and the habitat for fauna and flora. The instability of hill slopes and resultant land slides have serious economic consequences such as damage to public and private property, hindrance to the transport of goods and people, quite apart from the obvious damage to life and limb. Some of the origins of these problem areas are socioeconomic. Despite this, the CEA could intervene to control and avert further environmental degradation.

Thus, the broad objectives of the Environmental Study were

seen as the making of recommendations:

1. to arrest environmental degradation in Nuwara Eliya and improve the quality of its environment (in such a manner as not to diminish but possibly to improve the economic and social life of its inhabitants); and

2. to enhance the aesthetic amenity of Nuwara Eliya

(with a view to improving its position as a holiday

resort for local and foreign tourists).

1.3 Terms of Reference

Many studies and plans have been prepared for Nuwara Eliya, Their areas of interest have ranged from the integration of rural development efforts in the District, to physical 3

structure plans for the town centre. None of these have focussed specifically and in depth on environmental aspects.

Thus, the terms of reference for the Study drawn up by the Consultants and accepted by the CEA were:

1. to examine available documents and conduct brief field investigations on : /

(a) the existing and changing physical pattern of development including human settlements and land use, to determine its impact on the environment.

(b) the pollution of the air, land and water with a greater focus on streams and lakes;, and

(c) erosion in its broadest aspects including land slides and the siltation of streams and lakes;

2. to quickly identify the basic problems and causations underlying the above;

/

3. to identify areas needing further study;

4. to make recommendations for immediate, short-term and long--term implementation; and

5. to present the Study in the form of a brief written report, supplemented by broad proposals on land use for the town and environs in the form of maps.

1.4 Project 3oundary

At the commencement of the study, it was necessary that the project boundaries be determined. According to the terms of reference given above and the objectives as set out in section 1.2 the study area was confined to 4

Nuwara Eliya town and its environs. The area of the town was fixed by the Municipal Council limits, and the environs, to be technically acceptable for a study of this nature, was extended to the surrounding hills, which forms a mantle round the town.

Thus we see the core area (the town) as an undulating valley surrounded by steep hilly terrain with only a few plateaus such as Moon Plains. The main stream (Nanu Oya) that flows through the town, and which also feeds Lake Gregory derives its waters from the innumerable minor streams and rivulets that originate in these hills. They also form the catchment of. Bomuraella Oya to the East of the town.

Based on the above physical characteristics of;the study

area the project boundary was.defined as follows

(See map 1 ) :

1. The area within the Nuwara Eliya Municipal Council

limits to form the core area;

* 2. To the North,'the catchment of the streams leading

to Lake Gregory and Nanu Oya and extending to the

Pidurutalagala hills;

3. To the east the catchment of Bomuraella reservoir-

ie. the Kandapola - Sita Eliya range with Kotakitul-

kanda as the landmark (this includes the Kandapola

Sita Eliya Forest Reserve);

4. To the South East, the boundary to extend up to the

Hakgala Gardens including the Sita Eliya Sanctuary

and Hakgala Strict Natural Reserve;

5. To the South, up to Kanda Ela reservoir, and moving

South West, to Water Fall Point New; and

6. To the West, the range from Waterfall Point New to Kikilimana Hill. This covers an area of 20.5 square miles, with the town defined by the Municipal limits occupying an extent of ^ square miles. i. ; -\ - X i _ • / •• r / trim'-

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1. 5 Preliminary Report

With the identification of the appropriate extent that the study should cover, field visits were made to as many areas as possible within the Project Area. The observa­ tions made by each specialist team member were compared, discussed and inferences recorded. Interviews with Public Officials in Nuwara Eliya(Forestry, Agriculture, Urban Development.:, Anministration, Municipality, etc.) were made to ascertain their view points. Some time was also spent at the Integrated Rural Development Project Office for gathering additional data relevant to the Study.

Based on the above work a preliminary report was submitted to the CEA, the objectives being to present a set of interim recommendations that could be quickly implemented by the Government without much capital outlay. These the Consul­ tants hoped would enable the CEA to take speedy action wherever ' possible to diminish and mitigate the adverse consequences of environmental degradation in Nuwara Eliya.

This present report is intended to deal with all the

environmental hazards in more detail and make those

recommendations for arresting the continuing trend, both

in the short term and long term. 7

2.0 Environmental Degradation

2.1 Manifestat ions

The manifestations of environmental degradation observed

in the field included:

(1) Depletion of forest cover; (2). Erosion of top soil; (3) De-stabilization of earth in hill slopes; (4) Pollution of streams and lakes; (5) Siltation of Lake Gregory: (6) Deterioration of aesthetic amenity.

2.2 Causative Factors

The following are some of the major causative.factors

that were identified: /

(1) The encroachment of (earlier) plantations and (more recent) market garden agriculture into forest reserves; (fig.2)

(2) (a) Cultivation of vegetables on steep slopes

and stream reservations; (fig. 3)

(b) Deforestation;

(c) Inadequacy (and sometimes even the absence

of any) soil conservation measures;

(3) Excessive use >of chemical fertilizers and agro- chemicals in market gardening.;

(4) Unsatisfactory practices in the disposal of

waste (garbage, sewage and industrial waste);

(fig. 4 & 5) 8

Most Serious Factor

The Consultants are of the view that one of the most serious of all the causative factors is the extensive cultivation of vegetables - especially potatoes. Quick and high profits for. a few, are pushing a large number of subsistence farmers to reckless and unsatisfactory agricultural practices and into most unsuitable lands. Forest and stream reservations are encroached with apparent impunity. Agrochemicals are used to excess. Steep slopes are tilled with abandon. In this context and within the existing framework of land use, it is apparent to the Team that the extent of land under vegetable cultivation has gone beyond the tolerable limit. Many parts of the project area are likely to be (if not already)•subject to irreversible damage. The most dramatic of such damage as may be expected are rockfalls and land slides.

The project area has thus far been spared any disasters of the nature anticipated above. However, the very recent tragedies in Maturata and other places within the Nuwara Eliya District and in close proximity to the project area, serve as.warnings. It would be most unwise to assume as some newspaper reports suggest, that the causative factors are purely a concurrence of climatological and geological conditions. Informed opinion indicates otherwise. It should also please be recalled that the Consultants on their own included the danger of land slides within the terms of reference for this Study when the Technical Proposal was first prepared.

The above problems that have brought about environmental degradation in Nuwara Eliya are discussed in more detail in the chapters that follow. Persuant on the interim suggestions made in the Preliminary Report, recommendations for long-term solutions including proposals on land use have been formulated for the town and its environs. These have been based on land classifications and soil capability, data*, and also taking into account the socioeconomic factors

s 1. de Alwis,K.A.,Jayawardena,N.S.,Dimantha,S. "Land Suitabi­ lity Evaluation and Land Use Study",Vol:III Summary Report 9

.3.0 Basic Issues

3.1 Depletion of Forest Cover

The steady population increases in the country over the last several decades, has caused the need for more land for settlement (housing), agriculture, energy demands and social infrastructure. Thus more and more new lands are being utilised, which invariably result in the depletion of forest cover. Vast extents of land in virgin forest have been cleared to make way for large scale irrigation, agriculture and settlement projects. Social andrieeQiiomic issues have therefore always dictated land uses-/ ; V'lt seems a paradox that on the one hand we are asked to

conserve forest and on the other called upon tbr*. develop land.Encroachment of forest land is a continuing process and difficult to curb in the context of the prevailing socio" -economic conditions, despite the legal/provisions made from time to time. Even eviction must mean the finding of alternate lands for settlement.

t In Nuwara Eliya, the situation is similar but even more serious than in other parts of the island. The pressure on land has been further aggravated by the physical character­ istics of the terrain. The gradual transformation of this British Colonial resort town for a Colombo based elite to one dependent on an agricultural economy with the intensive cultivation of vegetables, ha^' led to the encroachment of forest reservations and stream!.!blanks. The illicit felling of trees for timber and fuel-wood is common. The table below would' indicate the extent of the problem in Nuwara Eliya as compared with the situation in a few

adjacent areas .(pee fig. l) 10

ft

*• vs.*

Encroachment for cultivation; Pedro Forest Reserve at 'Underbank' Fig. 1 11

Illicit Clearing and Forest Fuelling - 19851

Range Forest Total Number of offences Extent Trees (Numbers) affected felled (Acres)

72 3^ 92 Hatton 4 •» 64 Haputale 36 o

Halgranoya 40 7 19

Mahiyangana 52 1 63

Nuwara Eliya 251 53-i 1096

Studies done in relation to assessment and change in forest cover including those obtained from sattelite immageries have indicated that the forest land resources ,for the country have undergone marked decrease of approximately 4S% of forest cover over a 23 year period (1956-1979).

The extent of forest cover in the Nuwara Eliya District has been estimated at 90000 acres of which 10% has been denuded. In the area under study the total extent of forest cover is 8800 acres of which about 2100 acres are degraded. This constitutes about 2.4% of the total forest cover, and is based on existing land use map prepared in 1981. Y/ith encroachments in forest lands having taken place since then, the present situation should be even worse. Forest fires, mainly done deliberately by poachers during the dry seasons have also caused damage to the forest cover. According to available data of their occurence in and around the project area they number from about 8 in 1976 to 16 inch -fires in 1983. Map 2 indicate their locations and years of occurence.

Source: Forest Department, Nuwara Eliya. 12

OCCURENCE OF FOREST FIRES

LEGEND

A.8.A. DIVISION BOUNDARY

DISTRICT BOUNDARY

ROAD

RAILWAY PROJECT BOUNDARY

YEAR OF FIRE FREQUENCY

1983 O

1982

(976 •

MAP 2 13

As conservation forestry forms and essential and integrals part of an erosion control and conservation plan for the area ( to minimise soil loss and deposition and maintain : . the ecological balance)it. has-, been given due considera­ tion when preparing the land use plan.

It is proposed that all degraded forest lands should be rehabilitated with new planting both as conservation forest or economic forestry for the controlled extraction of fuelwoQ'd and timber for construction purposes. These are more '..fully 0 described .under) land use. (Chapter 4.0)

3.2 Soil Erosion

A major problem affecting cultivated land ,ts:rerosion-'.;* on steep and unstable slopes. Besides damaging agricultural land and reducing its productive capacity, it/results in siltation of irrigation canals and sedimentation of reservoirs. It further causes destruction to communication and damage to property.

The main types of' erosion prevalent in the area are splash

erosion resulting from Tain drop action due to the absence or inadequacy of vegetative cover to protect the land surface. This in particular applies to lands under seasonal cultivation with wide spaced crops. The other form of erosion that has taken place due to surface flow is sheet erosion where a relatively fair amount of soil has been removed from the surface level. It is also present in poorly managed tea land besides those under seasonal culti­ vation. Channelised flow too has been observed. Rill erosion is present in many locations particularly on exposed steeply sloping land surfaces. Gully erosion too is prevalent in many locations. Besides the normal forms of erosion referred to above, the other forms of erosion met with are, streams bank erosion, road erosion, gravity erosion and mass movement. 14

Erosion occurs in all its forms and types in t:he area commencing with splash and climaxing in mass movement.

Both channelised and pre-channelised forms of erosion occurp. The main types of erosion on cultivable land under pre-channelised forms are :-

(i) Splash Erosion : This is a common phenomena in the area in association with puddle and fertility erosion resulting from rain drop action. Eere, bare soil is subject to detachment, gouging and splattering by the falling rain drops acting as miniature bombs.

(ii) Surface Flow : Due to the rugged terrain and sloping nature,the land is subject to the second erosive agent, run-off water. As the water travels downslope, it gains energy and soil is thereby dislodged and trans­ ported as well and deposited elsewhere on downstream lands.

(iii) Sheet Flow : This is the first stage in the wearing away of land in the area by water erosion pro­ cesses following rain drop action. This results in the transportation of the detached material over the surface of the land by run-off as sheet flow.

The physiography of the area induces channelised flow, where the water tends to flow along small depressions due to irregularities in ground configuration. This has occurred as;

(i) Rill Erosion: Where the rain water accumulating, tends to be concentrated along certain lines of flow due to. irregularities in the land surface or obstructions, creates turbulence leading to scouring action from run-off water. Rill erosion is a common feature in the landscape of the area. It has occurred on both agricultural and non-agricultural land. 15

(ii) GuJl^-.E^aioji: Small rills that have been carved out due to the scouring action of concentrated flow, have developed into larger ones downslope. The rills develop into gullies as cutting and transportation action proceed. With the growth of rills downslope with larger and larger channels gullying has resulted in removal of. chunks of soil from the channel bed and walls, and these being carried downstream.

(iii) Gully Head Erosion : Further, as gullying proceeds, it also cuts backwards and referred to as gully head erosion. This type of damage is quite c'ommon in many parts of the watershed under permanent and seasonal crops.

Erosion in the area is not only confined to the forms referred to above. There are many other forms and types of erosion, and these are briefly enumerated below :

(i) Waterfall Erosion : The area has a few examples of this type of gullying and erosion originating in small vertical drops at the lower end of an erodible depression or outlet of water,. ,

(ii) Stream Bank Erosion : This is a process of erosion caused by water where soil material on the sides' of a permanent or seasonal stream is dislodged gradually or in chunks due to under cutting by water, caving in or slumping of banksaand washed away. This is a common feature affecting most of the streams and water courses in the area.

(iii) Road Erosion : Damage to roads due to erosion by water is a serious problem on roads and unless road run -off is disoosed off safely, not only the road surface, but the banks and shoulders are affected. In many areas, roads and paths have turned out to become waterways during rain and subject to gullying. 16

Soil Conservation Measures for Erosion Control

Soil Conservation Measures :

In view of the complexity of the problems.-in the area due to the prevalent land use practices, erosion hazards occur. The conservation practices to be adopted in order to overcome these hazards may be grouped under the following four broad categories :

i) Agronomic Measures ii) Mechanical and Engineering Measures iii) Special or Additional iv) Structural

Biological /Agronomic Measures :

These are primarily concerned with land use, parti­ cularly the vegetative cover and protection afforded to the soil. Generally the more erodible the land, more protective the cover crop should be. It has therefore to be decided which land use and cover is most suitable for the particular land.

Vegetative Cover for Erosion Control :

The role of plants and vegetative cover is one of the most effective natural means of conserving soil and water.

Forms and types of cover are indicated below as well as other practices :

(i) Trees : Tree planting or afforestation is there­ fore a conservation treatment for lands that are in a severely eroded condition without a protective cover.

(ii) Shrubs : This will include types of bushy vege­

tation or that of an erective type. They are established

singly or on specific intervals to provide medium shade

and supply organic material. They could be planted in

rows or as hedges to act as stop-washes, hedges and

buffers. 17

(iii) Ground Covers : This will include those of both

the creeping and erect variety that could afford a protec­

tive cover to the soil against erosive action of rain,

thus minimising erosivity. They could be both of the

^leguminous or non-legumineug types.

(iv) Mulches : Besides the above, live mulches, dead mulches of plant residue and other vegetative material could be used by spreading it over the ground to afford protec­ tion to the soil against erosive action of rainfall. Besides '.incorporating organic material into the soil,they promote its absorbtive and infiltrative capacity.

(v) Contour Planting : This conservation technique

refers to the placing of plant rows along the contour as

opposed to lines downslope. It closely follows the contour

lines with planting to be done along the lines, parallel to

them.

(vi) Contour Hedges : With some species where spacing between planting is very close in the row, contour hedges could be formed. ,This is applicable with green manure like Crolarea, Tepprosea, Gliricidia, Acacia and plants like Kuskus and grasses GUatamala.

(vii) Strip Planting : This technique is the cultivation

of sloping land in alternate strips-- with non-erosion

conducive plant;, material like grasses and green manure.

The strips could be placed across the slope of the land

at right angles to the direction of surface flows. This

has the objective of slowing down run-off and filtering out

soil washed. By this method the rate of sheet erosion is

reduced and gully erosion checked.

(viii) Buffer Strips :It is the technique of placing

strips of grass across the land. They serve to act as

buffers to control run-off and entrain soil wash. 18

Mechanical Conservation Measures:

These are measures that are commonly adopted and intended to break the steepness and length of slope by bringing about such modification to the ground surface or by placing such destructions across it. It also envisages to check and control surface flow of water and retaining it, then channe­ lising it along artifieally constructed drainage ways across the slope of the land and leading them into natural waterways or those specially constructed for the purpose. Some of the measures that have been successfully adopted are given below :

Contour Trenches : Contour trenching is a conservation technique where trenches are marked and excavated along a uniform level or at a particular contour across the slope of the land. The soil is placed on the lower side of the trench. The trench could be continuous or staggered. They are particularly useful in fairly gentle slope in highly eroded areas.

Drains.: Graded Lock and Spill : This measure can be recommended in areas where other types of measures cannot be recommended due to lack of stones, steep slopes, etc.

Specifications : The drains should have a gradient of 1 in 120, and should be 2' wide and 1-^-' deep, with blocks of 1' x 1' at every 10' to 15 feet. The earth excavated from the drains should be formed into a bund on the lower slope leaving a berm of 6" from the lower lip. of the drain.

Terraces : This is a conservation technique that has

the same objective and principle of bunds.. The terraces

are built as broad based or narrow based structures as the

terrace may be on the level, ;grade or variable grade

depending on the site and the condition. Terraces are of

several types : 19

A) Bench Terrace : This is a common conservation practice where sloping lands are modified to form a series of broad ledger off steps referred to as benches, when':.' stones are not available, and when^ the land is capable of giving good returns, and could be put to very intensive use, preferably with supple­ mentary irrigation': the horizontal and vertical intervals and grades, varying as determined by the slope of the land.

B) Intermittent Terrace Contour Platform : This measure consists of modifying the slope of the land... both in relation to gradient and length by provision of a series of platforms or ledges out into the land at specified intervals. The platforms may be levelled or graded with the land between them forming risers which are protected with a vegetative cover. These measures are useful and could be conveniently adopted to growing of tree crops, including orchard crops.

C) Broad Based/Terrace : This is a measure where lands of gentle or moderate slopes are provided with relatively low level broad based terraces or bunds. These are usually constructed by machinery such as discs etc. which result in the earth being heaped up

in broad bunds with a broad channel'at the upper slope,

to lead off excess water into grassed waterways

provided for the purpose. These have been successfully

used for developing lands in the cultivation of

potatoes in the high plains area.

^) Stone Terrace : This measure should be recommended in all areas where stones are available. If adequate stones are not available to stone terrace the entire area, these may be alternated with Graded Lock and Spill Drains in the higher land classes and graded bunds in the lower land classes. 20

Specifications : The stone terraces should be

at least 2' high from the upper side and 1--' wide

and should have a foundation of at least 6" and

may have a gradient from contour to 0.6 per 100.

E) Individual Terrace : This conservation practice

is used in connection with individual trees where

shelves or ledges are cut into the ground at

specified intervals to provide for planting sites

for tree crops. The lower side of the terrace

could be protected with stone or brush wood or

vegetative cover. This practice could also be used

for existing tree crops by skirting the tree with a

stone terrace berm or manicured riser with vegeta­

tive protection.

F) Graded Bunds : This measure can be recommended

in areas where stones are not available and for the

gentler slopes. The bunds should have a gradient

of 4' to 6' per 100' and should be at least 3' wide

at the base and 2' high initially, so that it will

be li' after settling. A shallow parabolic drain

approximately 6" deep and 1' wide may be created

above bund. As in the drains, the bunds too should

be led into natural drainage lines.

Special or Additional Conservation^ Measures :

(i) Gully Control : The control of gullying is

essential to prevent „their deepening and increasing, as well as their extension to adjoining lands. In the

first instance diversion drainJ canals should be provided

above the head of the gully to check and direct

water flowing into the gully.

Several structures such as vegetative, brush and

rock check dams should be built across the gully. 21

Further treatment and stabilization of gullies could be proceeded with the establishment of fast growing grasses, creepers, shrubs, fast growing trees or any form of vegetation on ceased or manicured gully slopes.

(ii) Stream Bank Erosion Control : Stream Bank Erosion presents a special problem due to variation in water level and rate of flow. The area left exposed and devoid of cover is most vulnerable to erosion. It is most severe on the outside in beds of . streams and rivers.

Stream banks subjected to severe bank erosion can be stabilized by the growing of a permanent vegetative cover of grass shrubs and trees. "Affected banks an,d particular- ly vulnerable banks~can be protected by jetties, revettments and retaining walls. , /

The control or treatment of stream bank erosion is effected by two main conservation techniques of providing a (I) protective cover to the bank and (I.I) deflecting structure.

(iii) Road Erosion Control : Road construction results in much cutting, filling and crossing of natural drainage lines. This makes the road surface and sides vulnerable to erosion both sheet, rill and gully. In addition, they are subject to gravity erosion and mass 'movement where cuts have removed the support of the earth above the road.

X In the first instance, erosion control in roads require

proper alignment,. Slopes of road banks should be eased

and not greater than 2:1 and protective coyer should be

established on the road banks. Provision of adequate

road drainage ways along it and under it where it crosses

natural drainage lines should be made with necessary

protection against gully and water fall erosion at 22

culverts. Stabilization should be given to cuts, fills and shoulders. Diversion should be provided where water has tendency to flow over road banks and this water led into the nearest outlet.

(iv) Foreshore and Wave Lap Erosion Control: Conservation Measures are needed to control and treat this form of erosion which may occur along the foreshore of lakes, reservoirs and ponds due to,wave lap action. Treatment and protective conservation measures could be broadly classified as Biological or Vegetative and Mechanical.

(v) Structural Conservation Measures : These refer to a range of complex measures and structures such as detention storage reservoirs and diversions etc. These become necessary to control effect of erosion' by over­ flows and flash flooding as well as to collect and dispose of excessive run-off water and for safe disposal of same where necessary without adversely affecting the construction sites. Further they could be built into a plan for utilization of depressions, and collection of water for recreation and other purposes.

Specific Locations and Recommendations

Some selected locations which have been subject to erosion hazards, soil loss and overflows are described below and recommendations made.

(1) Top Pass : These lands from the summit or apex lands of the Nuwara Eliya Lake catchment and Nanu Oya headwaters. The lands are steeply sloping to extremely steeply sloping. Stream reservations are not maintained and cultivated to the very edge of the stream. Soil Conservation Measures are inadequate or not adopted at all. Soil erosion is severe and in some locations gravity erosion and mass movement (land slips) have taken place. 23

The following recommendations are made :

i) Further clearing of forest in this area be stopped and banned.

ii) F.eforestation of lands where forests have

been encroached in the higher slopes above- 40% ••

iii) Restriction in the cultivation of vegetables

and containing the same.

iv) £ffect change in land use in lands that are

steep or extremely steep.

v) Adoption of Soil Conservation Measures on lands that could be permitted for cultivation.

Since this area forms the entrance to Nuwara Eliya town, it is imperative that the natural scenic beauty be preserved and measures taken to prevent further degrada­ tion of the land.

(2) Top Pass Nuwara Eliya Road : The road bank is subject to slumping at several locations. It is suggested that measures be taken to stabilize the above through manicuring of banks to stable slopes or stepping banks and providing a protective vegetative cover.

(3) Stream Bank Erosion of Lands bordering stream

flowing through Westward-Ho Estate :

Stream bank erosion ~has taken place along this stream resulting in damage at many locations. This is mainly due to cultivation of lands to the very edge of the stream , and non-provision of reservations.

Measures for the protection of streams against stream bank erosion and conservation practices have been indi­ cated in Section 3.3. 24

(4) Water Field Drive and Environs - Pedro Reserve Lands : . . The clearing of forest cover on these lands and their, subsequent cultivation have resulted in erosion including gully formation after the protective cover had been removed. This has been further aggravated due to the non-adoption of the soil conservation measures.

It was noted that sometime back, overflows have resulted causing damage to some buildings in the area.

In view of the above, it is suggested that these lands be acquired and reafforested. If this is not possible, the only other alternative and a short term solution is to bench terrace these lands if they are to be cultivated. The provision of associated safe water disposal.systems and the provision and maintenance of stream reservations along all natural drainage lands and streams are very necessary.

(5) Unique View and Land behind Glenfall: These lands which ad.join the Pedro Reserve had been under tea cultiva­ tion sometime back. Subsequently, they had been sold and. disposed of, resulting in a change in land use to cultiva­ tion of seasonal crops mainly vegetable. No soil conser­ vation measures have been adoped. As a result, the Glen­ fall stream and other streams and waterways in this area have been subject to bank erosion. In some locations, gravity erosion has also taken place. Further, the lower section below the road, waterways are extremely narrow. This has resulted in overflows. (See figure 2)

In view of the above, the following measures are suggested

i) Prohibition of cultivation on very steep

lands in the Unique View Area.

ii) Se.afforestation of the above lands.

26

iii) Change in Land use from seasonal crops to ,

permanent crops such as orchard tree crops.

iv) Provision of reservations along all streams

and waterways.

v) Stone paving and protection.of all waterways.

vi) Soil conservation measures be adopted in all

lands that are considered suitable for

vegetable cultivation.

vii) Restrain provision of seed material and other

inputs till such time as soil conservation

measures are adopted.

(5) Clearing of Lands in the Lovers' Leap Area above

Lady McCallums' Drive

In this area, steep and unstable lands have been cultivated after removing forest cover.

It is suggested that the cultivation be stopped in these lands and the area be re-forested. It has been noted that these lands had been under a forest cover earlier. Alter­ nate lands within project area suitable for vegetable and/ or potato cultivation be adopted. ( See Land iSJse ij?lan).

(7) Main Streams and Waterways : The main feeder streams for Nuwara Eliya lake which commences at Top Pass and flows through.Westward-Ho Estate, Nuwara Eliya town, the Nuwara-

Eliya park and the Race Course have been subject to bank erosion at many locations and siltation has taken place..

As a result overflows and flash floods have occurred on several occasions. The adjoining lands have also been subject to damage sometime back. This particularly applies to the lands below St. Andrews Drive and the Buddhist temple environs. 27

The main causes for this damage could be attributed to:- The non-protection and stabilization of stream banks and stream shoulder lands.

Cultivation up to the very edge of the stream

in some locations.

Siltation resulting from soil erosion; and

Overflows and flash floods during time of heavy

and incessant rains aggravated by the cultiva­

tion of seasonal crops.

In view of. the above, the following measures are suggested :

i) Provision and maintenance of reservations along the

sides of streams .;

ii) Stabilization and protection of unstable banks of

streams by manicuring

iii) Masonry and / or vegetative protection of the banks

of streams;.'

iv) Provision of stone or masonry walls or aprons in

locations where the banks have been subject to

slumping and undercutting.;

v) Provision of silt traps at the end of streams.;; and

vi) Prohibition of cultivation on the banks of streams.

(8) P^^heT^_Lajid_s__above Nuwara Eliya Lake : Much of

the lands cultivated today had formed a part of the origi

lake. The continuation of the cultivation of these lands

would be a source to further sedimentation of the lake.

As such, it is imperative that at least a five chain

(100 M.) reservation be provided around the perimeter

the lake. 23

Any cultivation above this reservation strip should be

restricted and contained. All lands cultivated or given

out for cultivation should have conditions that they be

adequately soil conserved.

3.5 Land Slides

In the recent past a number of land slides have p,ccured in

Nuwara Eliya District. Land slides cause damage to life

and property and a systematic study of .causes of land

slides and adoption of ways and means to safeguard life

and property is of paramount interest.

On a suggestion by His Excellency the President, a study group was formed in June 1986 under the chairmanship of Professor Cyril Ponnamperuma to study the problem of land slides in Sri Lanka. This IFS study group included scientists and specialists in various fields associated with land slides and has produced a most comprehensive report on this subject.''"

The number of land slides that occured during the period of 2-3 weeks in January 198S in the upcountry districts in Nuwara Eliya and Badulla focussed the necessity of early attention. On a directive from the Hon.Prime Minister, a multidisciplinary team comprising scientists from eoncerned government institutions formed a study group. This committee investigated the affected areas and made recommendations on the course of action to be taken.

A general study of land slides and soil creep was made by Maclagan Gorrie of the Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya in 1960. This document too dealt with causes of land slides and preventive action to be taken to minimise damage resulting from them. Many other scientists

1. Proceedings of the Multi-disciplinary seminar on Land Slides?. - July 1986. 29

have studied the problem and it can be stated that causes of land slides are now fairly well understood. Acceptable solutions to the problem however are influenced by economic viability of the technical solution as well as other social factors.

Causes of Land Slides : Land slides are caused by -

i. Natural causes eg. mass movement of earth on

a sloping rock surface when earth in saturated

and rock face is lubricated with water;

and / or ,

ii. . Man-made activities such as cutting a hill

side and thereby making the slope of hill

unstable.

J ,:Rock fall" or "rock-slide" is the movement of newly detached parts of rock. The rock may be either exposed bed rock or saturated groups of boulders of varying sizes that may be detached from overhanging cliffs.

Heavy rainfall is a causative factor in land slides and

rock falls. Saturation of earth reduces stability of

slopes triggering mass movement of earth or causing flow

of mud and debris.

Methods of Controlling Land Slides : Methods for

controlling.land slides can be devided into three

categories these being preventive, palliative and

remedial.

Preventive measures consist,; of the. A£oi-3jp;winj?: •-

i. Forest cover is best in catchments where hill sides are prone to slips. Even good grassland provides safeguard against land slides. Denudation is positively bad. 30

ii. Siting of reservoirs should be confined to more stable hill areas. Geological and topographical conditions must be compre­ hensively studied before siting reservoirs. When hill slopes on the periphery of a reservoir become saturated their stability is reduced. Quick lowering of water table as in the case of a breach of the reservoir, subjects the slope to sudden drawdown conditions and promotes slope failure. iii. Road cuts should be provided with effective

drainage. So should cuts in slopes for any

construction activities.

iv. Burning of forest or grass cpver on hill slopes should be prevented. Instances were reported of burning of forest or grass cover and preventive measures against such acts is an immediate necessity.

v. Shock and vibrations due to blasting tend to trigger land slides. Where heavy blasting is involved, for example for blasting large masses of rock for obtaining rock for construction of rock-fill dams, it is necessary to obtain expert opinion from geologists, siesmologists etc., to assess the effect of heavy blasting on the neighbouring hill slopes.

vi. Following investigations should be carried

out in areas subjected to land slides :

Geological investigations;

Land Movement investigations;

Slip plane investigations; and

Ground water investigations. 31

In addition, simple and manageable early warning systems should be adopted to warn inhabitants any impending land slide disaster.

Palliative afld:remedial j4ejis_ures :

i.: In order to prevent reactivation of a earthslip, it would be desirable to dig drains well uphill so as to get surface drainage away before it can enter into the slip itself;

ii. A quick grass cover established on any

new earthslip causes stabilisation and

is useful; and

iii. Any threatening boulders should be stabilised by shoring them up with concrete or masonry wedges. The use of explosives to get rid of isolated

rocks;is not generally recommended.

Although there have been land slides in the district, it so happens that none have occured yet within the Project Area. However, even the brief field visits made by the Consultants' team members revealed at least two locations where the danger seemed imminent. These are at :

a) Moon Plains - Bomuraella road : On Moon plains Bomuraella Tank access road, non-biodegradable refuse from a factory is being dumped on the hill slope. It is illustrated by a sketch (fig.; 3 ). Also see photograph on page 46 . Such refuse find its way down the slope to Bomuraella Oya. It was also noted that refuse dumped by the road side has been set oh-.fit-e burning vegetation . both on upper and lower slopes. The burning of forest cover on steep slopes, all tend to promote erosion and land-slips. 32

MOON PLAINS — BOMURELLA TANK ACCESS ROAD

REFUSE DUMPED ON HILLSIDE AND BURNT CAUSING

VEGETATIVE COVER TO BE DESTROYED. THIS PRO­

MOTES SLOPE FAILURE OR LAND SLIDES AND IN

ADDITION CAUSES POLLUTION OF WATER IN

BOMURELLA TANK.

BOMURELLA OYA

Fig. 3 33

It is recommend that the local authorities take

suitable action to prevent dumping of refuse hap­

hazardly and more importantly to prohibit burning of

vegetative cover of steep hill slopes as being done

in this particular case.

b) Unique View - Subsidence of Ground : The Team also noted an underground water course in its formative stage. Surface flow has entered the ground through a deep r. hole and has formed an underground water course. It is probable that subsidence of the ground would follow; however geological investigations are necessary to help understand this phenomenon and to suggest what preventive or remedial .J3g§sur>es i'.aEecideair,a/li.l'e . It is recommended that Geological Survey Department, be requested to investigate and report further.on this phenomenon.

Further, an instance where cutting of the hill slope for

construction purposes was seen near culvert 71/11 on the

Nuwara Eliya - Kandy road, as shown in the sketch

(p-fvlj. 4 ). Cuts of this nature, on the hill slopes

reduce their stability. Possible failure of this hill

slope should be examined, especially as it is near the

highway.

3 .6 Siltation

The phenomena of siltation is not peculiar to Nuwara Eliya.

Flowing water alwaysNcarries with itself suspended

material. In addition, larger grains of material in

contact with the stream bed are also moved. The third

class of movement, saltation, is hard to distinguish

from suspension in water, but the particles so transported

are of a size intermediate between suspended and bed

load materials.

In most streams sediment is transported concurrently by

the two or all three methods. The suspended load comprises

the greatest part of the total load and is therefore 34

HILL SIDE CUT FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES

NEAR CULVERT N- 71 /II OF KANDY-NUWARA ,

ELIYA ROAD

sis. 4 the most important in silting of reservoirs.

Several factors affect the siltation of reservoirs, the more important of these being :

Nature of land surface, whether covered with

vegetation or not,

Composition and structure of soil,

Land slope,

Soil conservation measures,

Rainfall characteristics, and

Climatic conditions.

Siltation is caused by : •

- Deforestation (See fig. 5)-

Cultivation of steep slopes

- Poor land conservation measures

Cultivation of stream reservations. (See fig.6-)

In general the main objectionable effects of siltation

of a reservoir is the reduction of the capacity of that

reservoir. The usefulness of the reservoir is diminished

because :

flood problems are aggravated;

fish growth is retarded; and

recreational activities are curtailed.

Last but not the least important is the possible loss of

scenic beauty. V.'".

2c*

Denudation for vegetable cultivation on steep slope; Encroachment into Pedro Forest Reserve at 'Underbauk'

38

Siltation of Lake Gregory : The lake is being subject to extensive silting. The position is so grave that a large area which was earlier under water has now become land. Some other sections have become boggy lands. This condition is mostly seen .in the Western section of the lake adjoining the former Race Course and also in the Eastern section at Mahagastota end. The condition prevails at the mouths of the feeder canals too. If this situation is allowed to remain unattended, the entire lake will end up as a massive bog and even­ tually, the lake might disappear completely . The town, would lose one of its most attractive aesthetic amenities.

That sedimentation has taken place is manifest and visually observable. This was clearly evident after the emptying of the reservoir for a short period sometime back. Though no quantitative estimate of sedimentation has been attempted yet the amount could be considerable if not enormous. The sources of sedimentation generation have been identified and located as well as described.

Survey of Sedimentation : A survey was conducted some

time ago OA the fmtlsr of sedimentation. This was intended

to assess the nature of sedimentation, the extent, damage

already caused and reasons for sedimentation and also to

recommend ways and means of preventing them. It was

discovered that sedimentation has been widespread over

a large area especially at the mouths of the feeder canals.

Sedimentation has mostly taken place in the West Bank of

the lake adjoining the Hawa Eliya - Badulla road below

the old Race Course. Another section which has been

affected mostly is the East Bank of the lake adjoining

Mahagastota and Moon Plains. Sedimentation has also

taken place at the mouths of all the feeder canals,

especially at the mouths of canals along Nuwara Eliya -

Badulla road. '39

Since the lands around the lake have been cleared 'for cultivation purposes, soil erosion has taken place in these lands to a large extent.

Causes of Sedimentation : The main cause of sediment­ ation in Nuwara Eliya is the flowing of silt along the feeder canals. These get collected from the lands in the catchment area. This is mainly due to the cultivation of lands in the catchment area without the adoption of proper soil conservation methods and, also due to clearing of lands in steep valleys, changing of crop pattern from permanent crops to seasonal crops and cultivation of seasonal crops in hilly areas. Silt also flows from side drains and building sites. However, the damage in this manner is negligible when compared with the extent of land cultivated. '

Lands situated above the Lake and lands through /which

streams are flowing are :

South - Bonavista and Unique View areas West_ - Land situated below the race course and those below the junction at Nuwara Eliya -

Badulla road and Upper Lake road.

North - Galways land and others and Naseby

Estate. East - Mahagastota / Moon plains area. (See map,

Bonavisata Division : These lands are situated above the

lake and water from these lands flow direct to the lake.

These lands consist of home gardens, seasonal crops and

dwelling houses. No soil conservation methods have been

adopted. In the absence of a proper drainage system,

there is extensive soil erosion in these lands.

Most of the lands in this area are steep hills and cultiva­

tion of these without proper soil conservation methods has

resulted in this situation. Even the reservations of 40

natural water courses have been cultivated upto the very banks.

Unique View Area : These lands were earlier under tea and of late, they have been cleared and substituted with seasonal crops. This has', led to extensive erosion.

Here too the lands are steep, and they have been cultivated without adonting oroner soil conservation methods and as a result •:'~mubhr,:i damage has been caused due to soil erosion. Reservations of natural water courses have been cultivated. Most of the lands in this area are not suitable for cultivation.

Lands below Race Course : Reservations of the main water way have been extensively cultivated without any space

left behind. , f-jThese:' lands: ..ar-e situated immediately

above the lake. Hence . . erosion and consequent sediment­

ation is consistently taking place. However these lands

are not suitable for cultivation purposes owing to their

higher elevation.

Galways Land : This had been reserved as a sanctuary but due to indiscriminate felling of trees, it has,been badly ruined. Trees .have: been Jelled land;'.,ad joining .lands * •• •cultivated without adopting proper soil conserY vation methods. As a result, erosion, has set in and the lake down below is gradually sedimenting.

Moon Plains Area : Thsis area too has been cleared and

seasonal crops have been cultivated without adopti

soil conservation methods}and as a result, erosion has

taken place. Natural water courses have been made use of

clearing their forest reserves. These water courses are

directly feeding the lake but felling of trees in the

vicinity might lead.to their going dry during the drought

period. 41

Naseby : Forest reserves of the streams coming down from this estate have been subjected to wanton destruction and as a result sedimentation takes place. Banks of the streams too have been breached due to-extensive sedimenta­ tion. Weeding in the estates have also l§gLVi. to erosion.

Race Course : Banks of the main water course have been breached. iSeasonal crops have been cultivated up to the very end of these banks, without adopting soil conserva­ tion methods.

Water does not flow direct to the lake from area outside

the main catchment area. This area comprises the upper

section of Nanu Oya. But Nanu Oya which has a number of

tributories, is the main feeder canal of the lake. This

area includes a number of major and minor catchment areas

such as :

Top Pass;

Lands around Water Field Drive below forest

reserves of Pidirutalagala ;

Lands adjoining Top Pass and Nuwara Eliya Road ;

Estate lands and lands around Nanu Oya (Lands around Westward Ho stream); and

Municipal Area

Top Pass : This is the upper catchment area of Nanu Oya.

Here too the land hasNbeen cleared on a large scale.

Vegetables have been grown in steep lands without adopting

soil conservation methods. As a result, erosion has been

very high causing extensive damage. 42

Lands around Water Field Drive below Pidurutalagala

Forest Reserve . Trees have been felled and jungle cleared. Steep lands have been completely cleared for cultivation purposes and as a result banks have been breached. This has resulted in extensive damage to

the streams.

Lands around estate lands and Nanu Oya (Westward Ho): No reservations have been spared for the Nanu Oya in the estates through which this stream flows. There are many types of water courses in the estate and during the rainy season all the foot paths become streams.

Weeding is another contributing factor to the extensive

erosion -that has taken place.

Remedial Action : The remedial action taken/thus far

has essentially been cosmetic and ineffective./ One effort

was to desilt the lake. While this was done, silting

continued. Another effort was to build silt-traps. These

too were built. The streams bearing silt seem to have

by-passed the traps. Vast extents of silted new land

areas are seen today below the traps where the lake used

to be. (see fig. 7 •', 8 ).

These earlier attempts at remedial action point to (a) the

is-identific.ation of the nature and extent of the problem m and (b) the crude Civil Engineering design 'solutions'

without adequate field data or appropriate 'model tests'

where relevant. The subject of desiltation has received

wide publicity not only in the case of Lake Gregory but

in case of many irrigation tanks in the island. Removal

of silt from the bed of the reservoir is a costly opera­

tion and must be viewed against the returns on the

investment. Economic gain from desiltation is rather

complex to assess.

Fig. 8 o; 1 ™ f t air o r.ronnrv si 1r and Marsh r

45

However, it must be said that any further attempts to de-silt Lake Gregory without serious efforts to curb deforestation and the cultivation of steep slopes and • stream reservations in the surrounding hills on the one hand, and without improving the soil conservation measures on the already cultivated hilly terrain on the other hand, would be a tragic waste of public - funds. In the context of a comprehensive and concerted effort, to arrest environmental degradation, the de-siltation of Lake Gregory could be very beneficial. Quite apart from aesthetic enhancement and consequent benefits to the town from tourism, it must be noted that this lake is a source- from which the Nanu Oya feeds the Mahaweli Ganga.

in some situations, silt from lakes have been used for making building materials such as bricks and tile's. If Lake Gregory is to be de-silted, it may be worthwhile investigating the suitability of this particular silt for building material and the feasibility of such an industry at Nuwara Eliya.

3.7 Pollution

No attempts were made to quantify pollution levels in the air. water ^or -Mifd "as/"this rebuires laboratofy^.iny^stlg&4;iD£?JAvhich are beyond the scope of this study, The Consultants however recommend that such investigations in respect of land and water be done in view of the overwhelming field evidence obtained in the form of observations and information from Public officials, and also from past reports.

The main types of pollution affecting the environment in the project area are the result of grossly inadequate facilities for waste disposal and the excessive use of agro chemicals in the cultivation of vegetables.

;Mnon Plains/Bomura-ellaRoad 48

Waste Disposal

Garbage from shops, residences and factories were seen dumped by the roadside, particularly at two locations, viz: in the open space behind the Bazaar and the other, down a steep hillside on the Moon Plains Bomuraella

road (fig. 9; 10)• The latter was found to even consist of non biodegradable waste, thereby polluting a major

stream below. This has been discussed more fully in

section 3.5

Another instance of pollution is the case where waste

water and even raw sewage in the town centre area is

being directly discharged into the Nanu Oya which flow

through the Town (fig.ii ). It would be seen that the

rear of the buildings abut this stream.

Excessive Use of Agro chemicals

It is understood that in Nuwara Eliya the intensive cultivation of vegetables including potatoes cropped twice or thrice a year makes heavy use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides, and that exotic vegetables, especially cabbage are sprayed with pesticides even at harvesting. Potatoes which are also intensivelv. cultivated are prone to pest attack and diseases, also requiring heavy inputs of agro chemicals. As these cultivations extend up to stream banks, and even encroach on them, agro chemicals get readily washed down to the natural streams and water courses thereby polluting them.

It is known that the ground water table is also affected by chemical pollution, due to the heavy use of chemical

fertilizers. A report on a study1 done for providing

1 Nash Harriet G, (hydrogeologist), 'Sita Eliya Water Supnly Scheme' May 1980.

50

a water supply scheme for a settlement in Sita Eliya states that the soil and ground water there is contaminated with fertilizer, and hence needs too many treatment procedures before being made potable. It is also mentioned in this report that the area North West of the Town, upstream from the main area of market gardening are suitable sites for underground water that would be free fi?6m contamination. It is thus seen how extensive cultivation can adversely affect the environment and reduce the potential of a natural resource. However, it is suggested that water from the dug wells in such areas be used for cultivation, while conserving the pipe borne water for drinking purposes only. •

Recnrnrpe.ndat i ons

On the aspect Garbage disposal the Municipal Authorities

mentioned that an incinerator was not available, and

dumping sites were difficult to find. The prospect of

recycling bio waste as fertilizer would be worth investi­

gating in view of, the heavy demand for fertilizer in

cultivation.

A nroposal for a proper sewage disposal scheme is made in the section ( .4.2 . ) which discusses the environmental implications of developing the Town. The provision of an

incinerator may also be recommended for the disposal of non biodegradable waste. But, further study is needed to identify an appropriate type and a suitable location.

The dangers of the uncontrolled use of chemical pesticides

cannot be over emphasized. The FAO has seen it fit to

introducer in 1981

the Distribution and Use of Pesticides". The WHO also

has been much concerned with this subject. There are

several Sri Lankan scientists who are familiar with this

matter. A local scientist who advocates the alternative

use of 'natural' pesticides is Dr.R.P.M.Gunasena of the

Faculty of Agriculture, Peradeniya. Socio -Economic Considerations

One of the significant developments within the project area within the past decade has been the rapid increase in population. Within the Nuwara Eliya Assistant Government Agent's Division (in which the Project Area is located) the population increased from 151,000 persons in 1971 to 173,000 persons in 1981 -- an increase of 15% over a ten year period. In 1971 there were on the average 315 persons per square kilometre in the division and 3.1 hectares per head of population; by 1981 the number of persons per square kilometre had increased to 360 and the per capita land area had decreased to 2.7 hectares-'. Increasing population has meant an increasing demand for land not only for subsistence but also for housing, services etc. These demands have set; up pressures on land and these in turn have led to the mis­ use and degradation of land in many areas. Such misuse and degradation is evident in the use of steep land for cultivation, cutting down of forests and the spread of settlement into areas susceptible to hazards such as earth slips and landslides.

The increase in population within the municipality of Nuwara Eliya is noteworthy. The population of the area which stood at approximately 17,000 persons in 1971 had increased to approximately 21.000 by 1981- an increase of a nearly 25% over the ten year period. In 1971 there were on the average eleven persons per hectare; by 1981 this had increased to 14 persons.

The pressures created by the. increase in population within

urban areas is reflected in the housing facilities availa­

ble to the residents.1

The figures cover the other 3 urban areas in the division

as well, i.e.'Hatton Dikoya, Talawakelle-Lindula and

Pundaluoya. These three areas account for 45% of the

urban population in the district.

1. Denartr^ent of Census and Statistics - Census of Pooulation 1981. 52

1. Of the housing units only 66% are permanent

structures. 30% are semi-permanent and 2%

are improvised.

2. Nearly 50% of the permanent structures, 82% of the semi-permanent structures and 85% of the improvised structures have less than

3 rooms.

3. Only 45% of the permanent structures, 22% of the semi-permanent structures and 21% of the im­

provised' structures have access to piped

water within the premises.

4. Exclusive use of toilets is available to only 71% of these in permanent structures, 38% in ._

• semi-permanent structures and 36% in impro­

vised structures. Furthermore toilets are not

found in 5% of the permanent structures, 18%

of the semi-permanent structures and 30% of

the improvised structures.

/ The increasing population not only leads to pressures on land and housing but also to increasing demands for certain resources, particularly, fuelwood. This problem has to be considered very carefully because §§% of the persons in the urban sector, 95% in the rural sector and 87% in the estate sector within the district are dependent on firewood as a cooking fuel. It is estimated that the annual reouiremeht per person for fuelwood for cooking is 3

0.57m . This indicates a high demand for fuelwood.

Since the cost of transporting fuelwood from other areas is going to be qui fce high there is a need to establish fuelwood sources near settlements and integrate them with agriculture. 53

A disturbing trend within the project area is the increase in the extent of land given over to the cultivation of temporary highland crops. Potato cultivation has become economically very attractive and this has inevitably prompted many persons to take up to its cultivation. 3y the end of 1986 there were 375 holdings given over to the cultivation of tempo­ rary highland crops within the Nuwara Eliya cultivation officers division which covers only a part of the project area. Many of these holdings are relatively small in size* 44% are below 40 perches in extent, 21% between 40 and 80 perches and 10% between 80' and 120 perches. The proliferation of these holdings not only lead to the degradation of land in some areas where the slopes are relatively steep but also to chemical pollution of underground supplies of water because of the intensive use of weedicides and insecticides.

Although some of: the persons engaged in the cultivation of temporary highland crops, particularly potatoes are not local residents, nonetheless potato and vegetable cultivation provide a means of sustenance to many local persons who work as labourers on these holdings. Hence while there is a need to restrict cultivation to the most suitable areas, there is also a need to find an alternative means of sustenance for those agricultural labourers who will be displaced. Hitherto non-form employ ment opportunities within the project area have come from Government sponsored services, commercial and service establishments catering to the needs of the agricultural population and a few scattered small industrial establishments. But the labour absorptive capacity of these resources has been extremely low.

The demand for non agricultural employment will come not only from the displaced agricultural labourers but also from other unemployed and under employed persons . 54

particularly housewives and persons below 14 years of age who will be entering the labour force within the next few years. It is noteworthy that nearly 11% of the total male population of the district is between 10 and 14 years of age. This means that there will be approximately 32,000 new entrants to the labour force by the year 1990. Since the Nuwara Eliya A.G.A.Division accounted for nearly 30% of the male population of the district in 1981 it is reasonable to assume that another 10,000 persons within the division would be looking for jobs by 1990. It is very unlikely that this demand can be met by the expansion in the commercial sector and developments in the agricultural and government sponsored services sectors. Much of the non-agricultural employment opportunities therefore, will have to be generated at least initially by establishing small- scale industrial units in appropriate locations preferably based on local raw materials, local skills and even local demand.

The population within the Nuwara Eliya municipality (which covers a large part of the project area) expanded at the rate of 1.7% annually between 1971 and 1981 and if this trend continues there would be approximately 30,000 persons living in the area by the end of the century. This means that by the year 2000 there will be approximately 2000 persons per square kilometre and only 0.05 hectares per head of population.

It is likely that trie future increases in population would be greater because of the changing functions of Nuwara Eliva. In the past the town was essentially a service centre catering mainly to the needs of the supervising staff on the estates in the hinterland for twelve months of the year and the recreational needs of a substantial transient population in the months of Anril and May. Although this function still continues it has nonetheless, in recent years, taken on the added 55

role of an administrative and decision making centre for the development work that is being undertaken in the district. This would lead to an acceleration in the rate of growth of poDulation.

Future increases in copulation would lead to greater demands for land not only for agriculture and housing but also for other uses. The increasing pressures on land would inevitably lead to a replication of problem that urban planners have been faced to grapple within the more congested areas. The only way to present such a replication is by ensuring that decisions pertaining to the allocation of land are determined by matching each kind of land use with the areas best able to support it. 56

4.0 Pronosals and Recommendat ions

4.1 Land_Use

The foregoing chapters described the manifestations of environmental degradation and their causative factors. Mitigation measures in the short-term, as well as long- term solutions have also been discussed. The culmina­ tion of all the findings is to make broad proposals on land use for the study area. This is graphically pre- inted in.the form of a Land Use Plan (Map 4) ). sei y

The whole of the project area falls within the Agro Ecological region WU3 of the Nuwara Eliya District (H.aj). 3 ) i.e. Wet Upland 3 which is characterized by a 75% expectancy of an annual rainfall of 1400/ mm and a 75% expectancy of dryness from late January to early March. Although the average elevation i'n the wet

upland region vary from about 3000 to 5000_:ft MSL, a greater part of the area under study lies above this elevation with the highest peak at an elevation of •&2Z2~ft^ MSL at Pidurutalagala. According to the Land Classification Studies- on which the proposed jtand Use "Plan is based, the mountainous ridge and valley system has been categorized into five landscape facets having distinct agronomic properties. They are the escarpe- ments, mountain slopes, mini plateaux and benches, foothills and foot slopes and valley flats. With variations in the gradients of these land facets and their soil characteristics., different suitabilities are being recommended for their optiiaQd.;; use. In preparing the land Use Elan for the project area the land classi- ficationvand land suitability studies were referred to only as a guide. The existing land use and socio­ economic factors were given prime consideration, and changes are effected only where environmental degradation PROJECT AREA IN A6R0 ECOLOGICAL REGION WU3

ASRO ECOLOOICAL BOUNDARY S\J

A.6.A. DIVISION BOUNDARY

MAP 3 58

is great or have been manifest, thus necessitating a change in use.

The proposed land uses and the criteria adopted for selecting land for these uses are as follows :

1. Conservation forestry

(a) Strict Reserves : All lands which are part of reserve forests and have been encroached, as well as areas cultivated on steep slopes which lie in catchments of waterways are to be reafforested. It may be further necessary to reafforest parts of degraded tea lands where severe erosion has occured.

(b) Community Forestry (Woodlots) : Existing degraded forest areas to be replanted as conservation forestry in some locations and in others as community woodlots for the extraction of fuelwood and timber for other domestic needs of the neigh­ bouring settlements.

2. Agriculture : Market gardening i.e. the cultivation of exotic vegetables and / or potatoes has been of economic importance to the area. The proposals

continue to allow this type of cultivation to continue, as far as possible. ^However, it is proposed to curb such cultivation on steeper and wooded lands which have been encroached, and are clearly not suitable for such use. Diversification of agriculture on hill slopes above 30%, from annual crops to well-managed tree crops such as fruit trees should be encouraged. The culti­ vation of tree crops "simulate forest conditions, and is a recommended agricultural practice for lands subject to erosion. Displacement of some existing market gardens could be unacceptable from the socio- 59

political stand point, but with a sound extension service and an educational programme, it would be possible to overcome the difficulties in the long term. while prescribing; alternate land uses in some locations v/here market gardening is practiced, steps are also taken to suggest suitable new lands within the study area which could be used to settle any displaced persons.

Tea plantations which make up the greater part of agricultural land use consist of well managed or poorly managed plantations either as public or private small holdings.. Poorly managed plantations consist not only the degraded tea land, but also those where soil conser­ vations measures adopted are poor or even absent. All lands under tea cultivation have been shown in the Hand Use Plan without effecting any change in use. ,It is recommended that further investigations and surveys be done for an accurate assessment of degraded tea lands, so that in colloboration with the managing organizations and/or individuals (small holders) an appropriate land.:: use which is socially acceptable could be mapped out.

3. Patnas or open grasslands : The Moon Plains and the Elk Plains close to Ambewela are the main wet patnas in the project area. These areas have been encroached in some locations for cultivation purposes thereby

tending to destroy a characteristic eco-system of forested mountain slopes and wet grass lands. It has been suggested in the Integrated Rural Development Plan for the district, that such lands near Ambewela be exnloited for potato and vegetable cultivation. The Consultants firmly recommend that the Moon Plains and. the Elk Plains should be left untouched for environmental reasons. In their natural state they can be developed into sanctuaries for fauna and flora. This can be an added tourist attraction for the town: and which could 60

accrue indirect economic benefits, without causing damage to the environment.

4. Settlements : Due to the mountainous nature of the land and the large tracts of tea plantations, most of the settlements are scattered in the valley flats, with a few concentrations in or around the vicinity of the town. There are also the labour lines and a few bungalows within the estate lands. In the preparation of the land use for the town an assessment of the housing needs (residential development) has been made. •i

Xn~. the ..Land Uxse P.Ian for the project area„new land suitable for settlement of farming communities who may get displaced when implementing the recommend-

ations^.have also been identified. (Seg map & )'• In determining the settlement pattern in the overall land use of the project area, it is necessary that detailed soil studies and socio-economic surveys be done in view of the complexity of the problem, of encroachment and cultivation oh hill slopes.

Likewise the land set apart for community forests (wood lots) for fuelwood extraction and other needs has also been optimised in accordance with land suitability; and introduces a type land use which has been found

necessary, for socio-economic reasons. Some recommended species^for fuelwood plantations are Eucalyptus microCorys ,E ..grandis--and E. robusta and'-aiso-: Pittas.: ^atmla or Pinus insularis^ However,it requires further study.

The broad classification of land uses in the proposed

Land Use Plan is given on page 61 Detailed surveys

and further mapping of land capabilities are however

required for implementation purposes.

1. Ibid', de Alwis, Jayawardena and Dimantha 61

LAND USE TABLE

Description of . Use Area Percentage (Hectares) o ,0

Conservation Forest : 3623 6^2.3

Dense Forest 265)6 Ha

Degraded forest in replanting 654 Ha

Fuelwood plantations 313 Ha

Pastures,open spaces and grassland 288 5.0

streams and reservoirs 64 1.1

9.5 Tea Plantations 550

7.1 Settlement areas 410

Vegetable cultivations and market 14.5 gardens including Government farms 838

100.0 Total (Project Area) 5773.

» • • — 25 .8 Urban Land Use (N.M.C.Limits) 1490 62

4.2 II Eh a n J La n d : U s e

The urban area in the Land Use Plan (Map t> . ) is

defined by the Municipal Council limits and henceforth

referred to in this text as "the Town". This area

was studied in more detail and proposals for its land

use made in the context of the environmental condi­

tions discussed earlier, the prevailing socio-economic

conditions.and future trends, and the UDA's development

proposals.

The objectives of the Urban Land Use .?lan is to conserve the natural endowments in the Town as well as to arrest environmental degradation taking place. Most of the central part of the Town consists of the lake, recreation areas,park lands and the golf links which constitute a very high amenity area for the Town.

The Town is built on both sides of this high amenity area on elevations ranging from 6,200 ft to 6,500 ft MSL contour. The land above 6,500 ft contour consists mainly of natural ^vegetation and tea plantations. The . development to the South West of the amenity area (Golf Link and open §paces) consists of high income residen­ tial development, hotels and guest houses with spacious gardens overlooking the lake and the open area. Most of the buildings are two-storeyed and single-storeyed bungalow type development and this low profile is still maintained with very marginal additions and extensions.

The commercial hub of the Town and the activity centre is

located to the North East of the open area at the inter­

section of New Bazaar Street, Old Bazaar Street and

Lawson Street. A higher density commercial development

area also exists along Old Bazaar Street. Public build­

ings such as Secretariat and the Police Station also

have .been located within this area. 63

A ^Stable feature is that considerable extents of urban residential land are being utilized for agricul­ ture, while land reserved for other purposes are being cultivated and utilized also for housing.

Land Use : The pattern of existing land uses of the

Town may be summarised as follows :

Total Land Area = 1490 Kec.

Developed Area = 654.0 Hec.(44% of Total Area) Residential = 437.5 Hec.(67% of Developed Area Commercial = 10.5 Hec.( 1.6% - do - Industrial = 7.9 Hec.( 1.8% - do - Open Space = 117.0 Hec.(17.9% - do - Roads etc. = 81.1 Hec.(12.4% - do -

Due to the natural constraints presented by the steep hill

slopes the developed area of the Town consists of only 44%

of the total geographical area of the Town. All the urban

activities have been accommodated within this limited

extent of 654 Hectares.

The present urban form dates back to the colonial times.

"Nuwara Eliya is essentially British from its accidental

discovery through conception, gestation and birth as a

townlet. It was the British Governor, the Civil Servant,

the miiLltary official and the entrepreneur,. who acted as

its collective parents - or perhaps as its foster parents.

It became the most important holiday resort for the

Colombo-based affluent elite of the Late colonial and

immediate post-colonial periods. It was also a service

centr.©?. for the tea plantations.

The socio-economic climate has undergone a substantial change requiring, a comprehensive reassessment of the planning standards in the light of the new demands for

1. De Silva, G.P.S.H., "Nuwara Eliya : The Beginnings and Its Growth", Department of Information, Colombo 1978. 64

urban activities. With this objective in view, one has to examine the new socio-economic demands in order to

consider a suitable strategy for the development of the

Town for the future.

Population : The 1981 Census gives the total popula­ tion of Nuwara Eliya District as 630,577. The population growth during 1971 - 1981 was negative ie. -0.29%. This was due to loss of population as a result of repatriation of "stateless" persons. The total extent of land within Nuwara Eliya District is 1,703.9 sq.kilometres with an average population density of 354 persons per sq.kilometre.

The 1981 Census gives the population within the Nuwara- Eliya Municipal Council Area as 21,390 and the population had been growing at the rate of 3.4% as against the decline

of the population in the District as a whole.f One of the reasons for the increase of population within' the Town is the attraction of population for vegetable cultivation in open areas within the town limits. The "Moon Plains" area for example has now been converted to small agricul­ tural plots for vegetable farming.

Unemployment in the Town is 16.4% which is higher than

unemployment in the rural sector of the District. The

female unemployment is more than twice that of male

unemployment in the Urban Sector.

Future Population Growth Prosnects : The rate of population increase^during the intercensal period of 1971-1981 had been • .3.4%. Even if this trend will decline by about 0.5% p.a., the population will increase to 28,000 in 1996 and 39,500 in 2006. The implications of this population increase in terms of urban densities and land use is indicated in the following table: 65

Population Forecast and Density oiC Activities

Nuwara Eliya

Total area 1490 Hectares Developed area 654 Hectares

Population

2006 Activity 1981 1986 Pop.21319 Pop.24120 Pop.39500

Residential per hectare 48.78 (Persons) 55.20 (Persons) 90.43 (Persons)

Commercial 26 (Hectare) per 1000 .49 (Hectare) .43 (Hectare)

Industrial ) .20 ( -do- ) per 1000 .37 ( -do- ) .32 ( -do-

i Open Spaces 5.48 ( -do- ) 4.85 ( =do- per 1000 ) 2.96 ( -do- )

3.37 ( -do- ) 3.35 ( -do- Roads etc. ) 2.04 ( -do- )

The commercial, industrial and open space densities have been worked out in the above table on the basis of the population of the Town only . But when the demand for land space for these activities are estimated the population of the entire catchment area has to be considered. Nuwara Eliya being the capital of the District, it is at the 'apex* of the hierarchy of service centres within the District and as such has to satisfy the higher order service and commercial functions for the district population. The statistics indicate, the complete inadequacy of land space for commer­ cial and industrial activities. 66

In order to accommodate the increasing population in a satisfactory manner, not only housing but also related infrastructure facilities, employment opportunities, commercial, educational and social facilities have to be provided without sacrificing the natural endowments and basic amenities available in the area.

The population forecast (on the basis of an annual growth rate of 2.5%) indicates that the residential densities are going to increase from 55.2 in 1986 to about 90.4 in 2001. This growth of population could very well result in the creation of slums in the central areas of the Town and the development of low density settlements on the surrounding hill slopes. Such development will create not only conflicts with the objectives of preserving aesthetic amenity and optimising the land uses, but can aggravate environmental hazards. as well. .

Th.e projections of demand for commercial floor space also indicates a shortage for the future. While there had been very little re-development of commercial areas, the increases of new commercial demand is reflected in the growth of an informal sector. One of the characteristic features of Nuwara Eliya is that the commercial development has been confined to a limited area, without spreading in - corridor fashion as seen in some of t"he other towns.

The Urban Development Plan for Nuwara Eliya has to be

conceived within an appropriate development strategy,

which takes into account the land availability, infra­

structure availability, economic orientation and resource

availability for future development and also the socio­

political climate which is emerging in keeping with the

national objectives of the country. 67

Economy : In Nuwara Eliya District, nearly 80% of the labour force is engaged in agriculture, out of which 68% are engaged in tea plantations. The classification of urban employment reflects its specialisation as a commercial and service centre to a plantation based hinterland and ^.s.;;a.,.*9yris|,-resort.

The employment classification by industry within the Town is as follows : -

Agriculture - 17% Wholesale and Retail Trade - 27% (including hotels and. restaurants)

Public and Social Services,

Education and Health - 28%

Industry - 06%

Construction - 15%

Transport and Storage - 07%

This situation is unlikely to undergo a major change excepting decline in employment connected with tourism and an increase of employment in vegetable cultivation.

Housing : In terms of housing, 52.5% of houses within

the District are located in the Urban Areas out of which

more than 50% are located within Nuwara Eliya. In

Nuwara Eliya 61.0% of all houses are provided with pipe

borne water supply. The occupancy rate per dwelling'unit

is 5.7%. Most of the houses have been constructed prior

to 1971. Nuwara Eliya also has a substantial number of

houses which are used as holiday homes. They are used

by the owners during the holiday season or rented out to

tourists. A substantial amount of these houses need

renovation and repairs. 68

Objectives : To conserve and preserve natural endowments

and arrest environmental degradation;

To accommodate population and economic growth

without changing the basic character of the

town as a resort area; and

To provide for the optimum utilization of land

and other resources: ..

An analysis of the existing problems and the future prospects of development indicates, that the above objectives should form the basis of the future land use for the area. Each of these objectives have to be examined in detail in order to identify a suitable package of proposals appropriate for the area.

1. Conservation and Preservation of Natural' Endowments:

The present character and urban form of Nuwara Eliya

is based on its natural endowments which basically consist of water bodies including Lake Gregory, the hill slopes,

the attractive landscapes and scenic areas, coupled with

a unique climate. During the past ^several decades due to

increase of demands of land for residential, commercial

and agricultural purposes, the natural" endowments such as

water bodies, hill slopes, scenic areas and forest reser­

vations have been encroached upon. One of the basic

objectives is to arrest this trend and to preserve such

resources. This requires strict zoning of such areas

as conservation areas to prevent their undue exploita­

tion. The use of land for agricultural purposes has to

be confined to areas where they do not create environmental

damage.

•2• Accommodate a Reasonable Level of Population and

Economic Growth :

Due to non availability of suitable land for commercial,

residential and social facilities, the Central Area has

got over crowded with hawkers and surrounding hill slopes 69

such as Moon Plains occupied by unauthorised structures. This calls for a more carefully planned settlement pattern to be introduced taking into account the existing scale of space utilisation and infrastructure development. The need for a sewerage scheme for the central part of the Town is clearly seen in order to deal with the environ­ mental pollution and also to increase the densities. Densification in an unplanned manner without an increase in the supporting facilities such as sewerage is undesirable.

It also requires a careful survey of the land utilization and building densities and condition in order to decide on an acceptable level of density in keeping with the availability of infrastructure and land values. This is- required not only for carrying out redevelopment of derelict urban areas but also for the stipulation of a minimum floor area ratio to make optimum utilization of the land.

3. Optimum Utilization of Lands and Other Resources :

In order to ensure this requirement, a careful assess­ ment of land and ^other resource potential should be made based on which decisions regarding land to be conserved and land to be utilized, and the extent and nature of such utilization should be made. This objective has to be realised through the implementation of the land use zoning and density zoning plans. This also could form the basis of densities on re-development and provision of new infrastructure facilities.

The UDA Proposals for the Development of Nuwara Eliya:

The Urban Development Authority has prepared a Development

Plan for Nuwara Eliya which provides for an outline zoning

scheme and a series of Action Projects for Central Area

Re-development, Environmental Improvements and Preserva­

tion and also to meet specific requirements of development

The Action Projects identified in the UDA Development Plan

are as follows : 70

Inner City Redevelopment :

(a) Lawson Street Redevelopment Project

This is one of the most prime sites of Nuwara Eliya and is bounded by 3 Main Roads. The site consists of 3-i acres out of which the development proposals cover ^ of the area. As this area was completely damaged by 1983 July Disturbances the implementation of the project was expedited with the participation of about 7 private developers. The work is presently in progress. The development consists of 3 - 4 storeyed structures with Central Parking Facilities.

(b) Old Bazaar Street Redevelopment Scheme

The area consists of slum type of small old struc­ tures with small sub-divisions. This site is located at Kandy Approach Road to Nuwara Eliya and this Project i includes widening of the road and re-siting the build­ ings. Due to problems of relocation, the existing occupants have been asked to submit plans providing set back to the road and redeveloping their properties with least infrastructure of the Government.

(c) Park Road Redevelopment

The area is approximately 2 acres and has been blocked out mainly to provide accommodation for Banks and Financial Institutions. The National Savings Bank has already constructed their building but land utilisa­ tion has been very limited. \ , (d) Lake Improvement Projects

(a) Bridle Paths

(b) Dredging (c) Landscaping 71

(e) .Race Course Area Development Project

(a) Cut flower Project (b) Reservation for an air-strip

(g) Proposed Secretariat at Kachcheri Road

(h) Office of the Suptd. of Health Services and

Drug Store

(i) Rotary Club First Aid Centre near Victoria Park

(j) Canming Area near Mahagastota Bridge

The Consultants see no basic conflict between their proposals and the Action Projects identified by the UDA except for (e) above, which seems to require closer study. There are some areas of contradiction in the urban land use proposals. These will require reconcilation as has been achieved in broad terms in the Proposed' Urban Land Use Plan (Map 6).

The UDA's proposals are endorsed, subject to the following land use guidelines:

Use Percent (Approx ..) 2 Resource Conservation Reserves 50

Residential 36 Commercial and Social INfrastructure 02

^ublic and Private Open Space 03

Other 04

\ X

1. of total extent within municipal limits.

2. for water bodies, forest and land currently planted with tea. 72

The proposed zoning plan for Nuwara Eliya provides for a very marginal increase of land area to be utilised for residential; commercial and industrial purposes and this increase may not be adequate to meet the future requirements as well as to ease the present congestion.

For this purpose it is strongly felt that it will be

necessary to introduce a minimum Floor Area Ratio

(F.A.R.) for the built up area of the town.

It is proposed that three levels of densities be

introduced as follows :-

(a) High Density Zone covering the Central Area

(Minimum FAR 1.5)

(b) Intermediate density zone covering residential

areas . (Minimum FAR 1.0) /

(c) Low density areas which include fringe areas

bordering reservation and forest areas.

(Minimum FAR 0.5)

For the purpose of increasing the densities in the Central

Area it will be necessary to introduce at least a small

scale sewerage scheme which will enable higher densities

to be achieved for commercial, public and residential

buildings while at the sTtry.c? .'ti.me limiting environmental

pollution. It may be useful to consider the feasibility

of some of the lesser known types of schemes for this

purpose, such as the Oxidation Pond used very successfully

at Digana.

There seems to be no reason why some housing in the form of flats above shops and offices cannot be introduced into the commercial and public facility areas. However, 73

it will also be necessary to assess the extent of land utilization in existing housing areas and undertake Redevelopment Projects either by priv'ate or public sector to provide for higher density residential development but without basically damaging the existing character of those areas.

In order to revive the economy of the Town which has been affected to some extent by the decline of tourism, steps-- will have to be taken to promote the local tourism by making available accommodation at moderate costs and also by providing recreational activities to local tourists at much lower rates. It has to be mentioned in this connection that most recreational facilities available in Nuwara Eliya are still catering mainly to a small affluent elite and foreign tourists. The Golf Links which occupy a considerable extent of land within the Town attracts mainly the foreign tourists as the charges are beyond the affordability of local tourists and also that the municipality earns very little income out of this facility. Therefore, the extent of utiliza­ tion of the existing recreational facilities within the Town has to be re-examined and measures taken to improve such facilities with local tourism in view. The loss created by the decline of foreign tourists can be more than compensated if promotional measures are taken to attract local tourists by providing the necessary facili­ ties at reasonable costs. The preservation of the existing character of the area with the existing landscapes and scenic areas and including some of the buildings of architectural value is important to offer Nuwara Eliya as a resort area not only to the foreigners but also to Sri Lankans. Peak periods for local tourism coincide with school holidays. The potential of "nature treks" organised for students and children seems unlimited at Nuwara Eliya. 74

4.3 Conclusions

"... While on the one hand the British Government endea­ voured to foster the indigenous agriculture, British unofficial enterprise, aided by British capital, con- cieved the idea of an expanded agriculture of products for an export market ... the benefits of this new dire­ ction of agricultural activity chiefly accrued to share­ holders scattered all over the world, that in the course of the transformation... a new class of landless villa­ gers has arisen... dependent for his very means of sustenance on the prosperity of what ... are called 'major products" . . . How fictitious a prosperity founded upon such dependence can be ...

" ... it is of importance to remember the part played in the conservation of water by the forests of this country ... the wisdom of our fore fathers ... caused them to preserve unfelled and uncleared the dense vegetation of their mountain slopes. We may readily believe that they deliberately left these untouched in order to provide that abundant supply of water in which they might draw for the benefit of man ..."

(D.S. Senanayake, 1935)

The greatest damage to the environment of the Nuwara Eliya area, the hill country and indeed even to the ecology of the entire islan'd, occured during the British colonial period. It took the form of the denudation of virgin forest cover in the hills to make way for plantations. The coffee, and later the extensive tea plantations, even with the best of soil conservation measures, were an extremenly poor substitute for the dense forests they replaced. It is true that the British colonial govern­ ment did call a halt to forest felling in the higher elevations, but by then the real damage was already done.

The origins and growth of Nuwara Eliya as a town was not only due to its pre-eminent attractiveness as an annual holiday destination for the British and local elite of the late colonial period. The Town also functions as a service centre' for the plantations throughout each year. - 75

The altered face of Nuwara Eliya today reflects many important changes in the country: the democratization process begun in the 1930s and the consequent gradual emancipation of the majority; the national effort towards freedom from bondage to the colonial plantation economy; the prolonged fall in local tourism reflecting the decline in purchasing power of the Sri Lanka middle class family income; and last but not least, the much increased population'within Nuwara Eliya itself, now increasingly dependant on a changing economy based on market gardening.

The growing indigenous population of Nuwara Eliya found itself .in valleys surrounded by steep hill slopes covered either by large extents of tea or by forest reserves. The available land is now cultivated with vegetables and intensified bv use of chemical fertilizer. The need for more land and the unusually high demand for fuelwood in this relatively cold climate, has pushed some people to gradually encroach upon the forested slopes This is obviously easier to do and less conspicuous, than to illegally occupy private property within the valley, such as the gardens of vacant holiday homes, open space like the golf course, or even State owned tea plantations.

The felling of forest for land is not always done ille­

gally. Official permits are often obtained. A notable

feature is that permits have been awarded to impecunious

individuals to cultivate lands within forest reserves

and stream banks. In fact, even illicit cultivation is

hard to do in the Project Area without the concurrence

of officialdom.

Th new economy, especially potato farming is a very lucrative business. Unfortunately the persons who actually till the soil earn only a bare subsistence from 76

this agriculture. The real beneficiaries are said to be a dozen or so influential businessmen of the Town. V.There

State land has been given on permit, the lessee is often such only by name. He is in fact an agricultural labourer manipulated by his financier who has obtained the permit for him.

The most serious damage to the environment in the post- colonial period is in consequence of this new economy. The gradual, depletion of remaining forest cover is bad enough. The cultivation of steep slop'es and steam reser­ vations has been causing severe erosion and siltation problems. It also has destabilised many hillsides within the Project Area to such an extent as to create the imminent danger of landsides and rockfalls at these locations.

The siltation of Lake Gregory is serious. Airphoto inter­ pretations suggest that in the bare space of the last two decades or so, the lake has been reduced by more than a .third of its surface spread. The capacity of the lake has also been drastically reduced. It is not mearly the recreational prospects and aesthetic amenity that have been diminished. Quite apart from the adverse impact on income from tourism, the prosnects for the development of inland fisheries have been greatly reduced. It is important to note that the lake performs a regulatory function in the flow of water from it, through the Nanu Oya, to the ?lahaweli Ganga.

It is now clearly established that without a substantial curtailment of forest felling on the hill slopes for agriculture, and the introduction of proper soil conser­ vation measures to prevent erosion and the siltation of fejg.der channels and streams, the construction of

silt-traps;around the lake and the desilting of lake itself will be futile. It would be an extremely irres­ ponsible waste of public funds. 77

The excessive use of agro-chemicals in market gardening activities in the Project Area is attributable more to the greed of the financiers than to the ignorance of the farmers they support. Available evidence suggest that intolerabler levels of chemical pollution may be expected in the lands cultivated and the streams carrying water away from these lands. As the toxic substances can be expected to persist for long periods, there is always the danger of long tern damage to ground water for potable use in the Project Area and downstream from it.

The Consultants recognize the need for a new economy to sustain and improve the living conditions of the growing population of Nuwara Eliya. But should this economy be solely potato farming? Should it be allowed to continue in its unbridled course of destruction? Furthermore, are not the dangers of a 'mono culture' obvious?

Those who are old enough to recollect colonial Nuwara Eliya

and who do so with nostalgia, should also remember the

conditions of servitude upon which it was based. Most of

the changes that have since taken place were unavoidable,

inevitable and formidable. No amount of nostalgia can

return Nuwara Eliya to its past.

The pristine natural endowments of Nuwara Eliya were

given a special character by the British. It was stamped

by the aesthetic sensibilities of the colonial middle-

class British officialdom and planting community. The

character was never, one of grandeur. It was 'petty'

British but always neat and tidy. What is the character

that Sri Lankans have given to it since independence?

(See fig§ 12 ,1'3).. Must the new economy of Nuwara Eliya

have an ugly face?-

These were among the many questions addressed by the Consultants in preparing proposals for the Project Area. The principle objective was to develop- an appropriate Land Use Plan. The Consultant's team were unanimous

80

that the proposed plan would if implemented go a long way towards arresting degradation and improving the environment of Nuwara Eliya.

If the fundamental cause of environmental damage has to do with the introduction £>f plantations into the hill country, the basis for solutions to the consequent mani­ fold problems must also be sought thereffirst- in the plantation areas.

The plan envisages that encroachments into forest reserves likely to cause very serious environmental hazards shall be put back into forest forthwith. Other less serious encroachments shall be regularized and stabilized by conservation measures including where relevant, the introduction of appropriate types of tree crops. Those persons and families that may be displaced by this process shall be allocated alternate 'suitable' lands within the Project Area. It is found that, by the rationalisation of land use, some extents of land suitable for cultivation can be found within the Project Area for agriculture and settlements. But, the land needed for increasing the forest cover must come from the plantations, gradually beginning with the most degraded tea lands. 81

Summary and P.ecommendations

1. Check the depletion of forest cover by

a, Arresting the extension of market gardening into " \ 2 3 steep slopes forests and stream reservations :

b. Curtailing issue or renewal of all permits for

cultivation of steep slopes and in forest and

stream reservations;

c. Carrying out a survey of all encroachment into forest and stream reserves differentiating between (i) those that are causing most serious damage.! (to be resettled on suitable new lands

identified in the Land Use Plan; and

(ii) those other encroachments (the agriculture on these lands to be stabilized by provision of soil conser­ vation methods including diversification towards appropriate tree crops) ;

d. Adopting strategies that would indirectly help to mitigate the depletion of forest cover, these being (i) popularizing the use of improved hearths (which reduce consumption of firewood),

(ii) the use of solar panels for heating water (these are now commercially fabricated on

the basis of local research (NERD) and are less costly than imported systems).

Steep slopes are defined for this purpose as slopes of gradient over 40%. Forests are defined for this purpose as any of the following areas : (a) Strict nature reserves and sanctuaries; (b) Declared as well as proposed forest reserves; (c) Forest plantations and all other lands managed by the Forest Department; (d) Other State Forests ("OCF'-) below and above 250 Acres managed respectively (i) by the G.A., and (ii) by the CF. Reference may be made to Crown Lands Ordinance Section 34 (Subsidiary Legislation) particularly Crown Reservations for Public Stream (Section 11,page 529, Cap. 454). 82

2. Check soil erosion and siltation by:

a) the adoption of a rational land use based on

detail land classification and suitability

studies•

b) oroviding protective cover crops on erodable lands with change in the land use to be effected considering the socio economic factors;

c) rehabilitating degraded forest lands with new

planting both as conservation forestry and

economic forestry (Community woodlots);

d) adopting soil conservation measures after field investigations, with priority being given to areas worst affected (These measures should be made mandatory within the shortest possible time., say one year, and all extension services and bank facilities be subject to the adoption of such conservation measures.)' ;

e) reclaiming all cultivated land on stream reser­ vations and banks and replanting them with forest species, especially the catchment streams of Lake Gregory and Nanu Oya (Cultivations thus affected to be shifted to alternate suitable a

lands found available according to Land Use

Plan);

f) enforcing regulations framed under the Crown

Lands Ordinance to prevent future encroachments

into State lands;

g) initiating immediate action to reafforest all

marginal tea lands where degradation is bad

(This should be undertaken on a project basis,

so that detailed studies are made and according

to soil characteristics and suitabilities the

new planting could be diversified to include

tree crops (fruit trees ) as well). 83

Prevent landslides and rockfalls b_y :

a) carrying out detailed investigations in the proje

area for determining areas vulnerable to earth

slips-

b) maintaining forest cover in areas prone to earth slips, and denuded areas which are most vulnerable being replanted-

c) providing effective drainage to at all road cuts made on hill slopes, and those cut for other construction purposes;

d) curtailing dumping of waste down hill slopes.

Check pollution of land and water by : a) curtailing the dumping of industrial waste and ; garbage into streams and waterways in general and specifically at major stream feeding Bomuraella reservoir (location: Moon Plains - Eomuraella Road); b) studying the feasibility of an appropriate small

sewerage scheme for the Town (an oxidation pond

may be the answer);

c) studying the feasibility of an incinerator for the disposal of non biodegradable waste • • - (its capacity and location to be determined)

d) controlling the use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides and encouraging the use of converted ' wastes and organic manures and natural pesticides.

CONTD. 84

5 Advise an appropriate agency to commission an in-depth

study of the aesthetic environment, to include :

a) The change in visual character from the past

to the present; and

b) Specific recommendations on landscape and architecture (within the context of the new economy and the proposed land use framework) for improving the aesthetic amenity of Nuwara Eliya. PIDURUTALAGALA ,p PASS 8282'

NUWARA ELIYA LAKE AND DRAINAGE PATTER

TOWN AND ENVIRONS

SCALE. I : 31680

LE6EN0"

STREAMS

ROADS .

CATCHMENT BOUNDARY

TOWN LIMITS

GUNARATNA ASSOCIATES MAP 4 COLOMBO 86

Appendix 1

Bibliography Land suitability Evaluation and Land use de Alwis K. A. study Vol. 3 Summary Report for 1 R. D. P. Jayawardena N. S. Project, Nuwara Eliya December 1981 Dimantha S.

Integrated Rural Development Plan for Planning Division, Nuwara Eliya District July 1979 Kacheri, Nuwara Eliya

Consultants Report on Land use Planning Phase II, UNDP/FAO Project, October 1980 Stocking M A

Rural Settlement Planning in Sri Lanka and Gunaratna K. Locana some recent work in System B of the Mahaweli Wijayapala S.L.F. Project. S-.Ltl.A. Semirtatt November! >19'82 V, '.

TAMS Environmental Assessment; Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme 1980

Proceedings of the Multi-disiplinary seminar on Land Slides . - S.L.F.I. July 1986

Status Report on Soil Erosion in Sri Lanka 1983 Gunasekera J. S.

Hydrological Aspects of Soil Conservation in some aspects of viater resources in Sri Lanka 1985 Gunasekera J. S.

Hazards of water I.H.D. mid decade symposium 1972

Protection Role of Tropical Forests 1984 Hamilton L. S. and Bonel M.

Land use Planning Handbook for Sri Lanka Dent D. L. . June 1985 Ridgeway R. B.

Proceedings of the Technical Workshop on "Environment and Development" CEA, Colombo • April 1983

Strategy without Ideology: experience of Silva W... P. T. Rural Development in Sri LankaN- Human Settlement Division; Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok

Nuwara Eliya: The beginings and its growth Department of Information Colombo 1978 de Silva G.P.S.H.

Sita Eliya water supply scheme; Report May 1980 Nash Harriet G.

Enexgy-:in Sri JLankai.- -aeminetopr oceedings S. L. A. S., Colombo January 1980

Report on Land Slides; sessional paper XVII 1954 Gorrie R. Maclogan

Census Report 1981 - Dept. of Census and Statistics 8-7

Appendix 2

* Officials met in Nuwara Eliya by the Team

1 Government Agent

2 Assistant Government Agent (Hqrs)

3 Assistant Director of Agriculture

4 Irrigation Engineer ,'

5. . Municipal Commissioner

6 Divisional Forest Officer

/

7 Officers representing Director IRDP Project (in his absence)

8 Officer representing the Additional Government Agent (Lands)

9 Planning Officer (UDA) attached to Nuwara Eliya MC

*The Consultants acknowledge the considerable and ready cooperation

extended by these officials to the Team in December 1985 during

field investigations for the Study. 88

Appendix 3

The Team Members of this Study were:

1 K. Locana Gunaratna (Leader)

2 S. L. F. Wijayapala

3 J. A. J. Jayasuriya

4 J. S. Gunasekera

5 Dr. W. P. T. Silva

6 N. D. Dickson

90 PROPOSED URBAN LAND USE PLAN

MAP &

TEA

RESIDENTIAL,

COMMERCIAL

v 6 400_ - .* * - - 65O0 PUBLIC 8 SEMI PUBLIC * 6200 6100 - ~—• - 6 000 .

INDUSTRI AL

PARKS ft OPEN SPACES t NUWARA ELIYA