UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date: 9-Apr-2010

I, Edward Silberstein , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Master of Arts in Art History It is entitled: And Moses Smote the Rock: The Reemergence of Water in Landscape

Painting

In Late Medieval and Renaissance Western Europe Student Signature: Edward Silberstein

This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: Kristi Ann Nelson, PhD Kristi Ann Nelson, PhD

Kimberly Paice, PhD Kimberly Paice, PhD

Mikiko Hirayama, PhD Mikiko Hirayama, PhD

9/28/2010 1,111 And Moses Smote the Rock: The Reemergence of Water in Landscape Painting in Late Medieval and Renaissance Western Europe

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School Of the University of Cincinnati In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In the Department of Art History Of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning Master of Arts in Art History

By

Edward B. Silberstein B.A. magna cum laude Yale College June 1958 M.D. Harvard medical School June 1962

Committee Chair: Kristi Nelson, Ph.D. ABSTRACT

This thesis undertook the analysis of the realistic painting of water within the history of art to examine its evolution over four millennia. This required a detailed discussion of what realism has meant, especially over the centuries of the second millennium C.E. Then the trends in the painting of water from Cretan and Mycenaean eras, through Hellenistic and Roman landscape, to the limited depiction of landscape in the first millennium of the Common Era, and into the late medieval era and the Renaissance were traced, including a discussion of the theological and philosophical background which led artists to return to their attempts at producing an idealized realism in their illuminations and paintings.

To reduce or avoid the subjectivity inevitable in my analysis of the relative quality of the

266 images of water which I found in texts and museums, a semi-quantitative scale was devised.

The scale provided descriptions and images of four levels of quality in the areas of hue, luminosity, reflection, motion, immersion, and perspective. The criteria were designed to be used by any observer, although the verbal scale and accompanying illustrative images would be used in any attempt to assess inter-observer variability.

The examination of my intra-observer variability was crucial to this thesis, since the data have no validity if they cannot be reproduced. Both the six individual components, and the summed scores (resulting from adding these components), were found to have a high degree of reproducibility on statistical testing. This fact permitted a quantitative analysis of the trends in the development of the painting of water in the medieval era where the scores were very low until the criterion of hue first rises in the duecento . Not until the fifteenth century do the slopes of the six components graded for the quality of water painting all rise significantly. The subject

ii matter of these images changes from having secular content in about 10% of images in the fourteenth century to 50% in the next century.

Comparisons were undertaken between the levels of quality scores between Italian and

Northern European artists. No differences were found in the summed scores between paintings and illuminations of the two regions except in the component of reflection, which received higher quality scores in Northern European painting than in Italian works. An analysis of which region produces the highest quality scores earlier revealed that the Northern European artists dominated in this area, led by Jan van Eyck.

iii iv Acknowledgements

This thesis is dedicated to Jonathan Reiss, Ph.D., whose generosity, friendship, commitment, and guidance were an inspiration to me.

May his memory be for a blessing.

------

I wish to express my appreciation to Kristi Nelson, Ph.D., for her encouragement, guidance, scholarship, and patience, and to Mikiko Hirayama, Ph.D., and Kimberly Paice, Ph.D., for wise counsel.

The writing of this thesis would have been impossible without the wonderful partnership I share with my wife, Jacqueline M. Mack.

I am grateful for statistical consultation provided by Zheng Shu, Ph.D., technical assistance in reproducing color imaging by Mr. David Collins, and the computer expertise of Ms. Lisa

Silberstein.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES ix

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION; THE HYPOTHESIS 1

Chapter 2. THE CONCEPT OF REALISM 5

Chapter 3. HISTORICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, AND THEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON THE DEPICTION OF WATER 10

Chapter 4. DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF THE PAINTING OF WATER 28

Chapter 5. DEFINTION AND SCORING OF THE QUALITY LEVELS 32

Chapter 6. DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 41

Chapter 7. CONCLUSIONS 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY 56

FIGURES 71

TABLES 99

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Anonymous. Fishing and Fowling in the Marshes . C. 1400 B.C.E. Painting on plaster. 66 x 93 cm Tomb of Menna. Thebes…………………71

2. Anonymous. Landscape with Boating Part, House of M. Lucretitus, Pompeii , Second Century B.C.E. Painting on plaster, d.u. Museo Nazionale, Naples………………………………………………………… 72

3. Anonymous. The Calling of Peter and Andrew . C. 520 C.E. Mosaic. 122 x 152 cm. Ravenna. Saint’ Apollinare Nuovo…………………………73

4. Anonymous. David Playing in the Harp . Tenth Century C.E. Tempera on parchment, d.u. Paris Bibliotheque Nationale…………………………..74

5. Anonymous. River Landscape (detail). C. 715 C.E. Mosaic d.u. Damascus, Great Mosque…………………………………………………..75

6. Bonaventura Berlinghieri. Miracles of St. Francis (detail). 1235 C.E. tempera on panel. (detail).d.u. (full panel 151 x 102 cm). Pescia, Church of San Francesco………………………………………………………….. 76

7. Ambrogio Lorenzetti. The Effects of Good Government in the Countryside (detail).c.1339.d.u. Siena, Palazzo Publicco…………………77.

8. Master of Guillaume de Machaut. The Mysterious Garden .c.1355-1360 Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale…………………………………………… 78

9. Jan van Eyck. Baptism of Christ . Turin-Milan Hours, f.30v.c.1420 Turin. Museo Civico d’Arte Antica………………………………………………79.

10. Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo. Hercules and Deianira .c.1470. Oil on canvas transferred from panel. 54.6 x 79.2 cm. New Haven, Yale University Gallery…………………………………………………………80.

11. Jean Pucelle. Confirmation . The Belleville Breviary, Tome I, f37.c.1330. Paris………………………………………………………………………..81

12. Pol, Jean, and Herman Limbourg. St. Nicholas Stops the Storm at Sea. Les Belles Heures de Jean, Duc de Berry.c.1410. New York: The Cloisters………………………………………………………………82.

13. Jean Fouquet. The Right Hand of God Protecting the faithful Against vii the Demons . Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier. F33v.c.1452-1460. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art…………………………………83

14. Reginaldus Piramus. Aristotle. Nichomachean Ethics . Frontispiece, Book VI.45v.c.1500. Vienna: Osterreichische Nationalbibliotek…………84

15. Cristoforo Maiorana. Ptolemy, Geography . f.296.c.1485. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale……………………………………………………85

16. Anonymous. Christ Healing the Leper . Echternach Gospel Lectionary. 8th Century. MS Lat. 9389. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale………………..86.

17. Guglielmo Giraldi. La Divina Commedia: Inferno, Canto VIII . F.20v. c.1481. Federico da Montefeltro’s Dante, La Divina Commedia Rome: Biblioteca Apostolico Vaticana……………………………………………87

18. Lucas Cranach the Elder. Nymph of the Spring.c.1510. Oil on wood. 15.2 x 20.3 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum………………………..88

19. Anonymous. The Sixth Angel Sounds His Trumpet and the Tour Angels Which Are Bound in the River Euphrates Are Loosed . Latin Apocalypse IX: 12-15.f 15r.c.1320. New York: Metropolitan Museum…………….…89.

20. Anonymous. A Boat Docked to a Whale . MS Ludwig VIII 2 (83.MK.93).f.61v. c.1270. Los Angeles: J.Paul Getty Museum………..…90.

21. Guglielmo Giraldi and Giorgio d’Alemagna. Aeneas Shipwrecked . Virgil, Aeneid.f.228.c.1458. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale………………91

22. Scatter Plot of Summed Score by Years…………………………………..92.

23. Scatter Plot of Summed Score by Years (Year>1200 C.E.)………………93

24. Scatter Plot of Scores of Each Component by Year and Source………….94

25. Cumulative Distributions of Percent of Component Peak Scores by Year……………………………………………………………………….95

26. Scatter Plot of Summed Scores for Paintings for Italian and European Sources…………………………………………………………………..96

27. Box-Whisker Plots by Painting Sources for the Six Components………97

28. Cumulative Percent to Peak Score by Year of Realistic Paintings of Water for the Six Components of Water Painting by Geographic Region…………………………………………………………………...98 viii LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Water Realism Depiction in Western Art: Scoring Criteria…………99

2. List of Images Scored……………………………………………….101

3. List of Grades of All Images………………………………………..107

4. Distribution of Scores of Each Component for 266 Images………...114

5. Distribution of Scores of Each Component for Images of Northern European and Italian Origin…………………………………………115

6. Scores of Seventy-Seven Regraded Images…………………………116

7. Quantitative Reproducibility of Rescoring Results………………….123

8. Statistical Analysis of Levels of Agreement between Two Independent Readings of Seventy-seven Illuminations and Paintings Occurring Over a Year Apart……………………………. 124

9. Uses of Landscape in the Centuries under Study……………………125

10. Slope of Each Component by Century of Images Analyzed………...126

11. Artist and Year of Attainment of the Optimal Score………………...127

12. Year of First Peak Score for Each Component: Northern Europe Versus. Italy………………………………………………………….128

13. Date and Location of Paintings First Achieving Peak Scores……….129

ix And Moses Smote the Rock: The Re-emergence of Water in

European Landscape Painting

Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly. -Numbers 20:11

Chapter One: Introduction; The Hypothesis

“Translucent waters of the sea/ Mirror of heaven’s lucid splendor” wrote Karel van

Mander in the poem which opens his Schilder-Boek, published in 1604,1 perfectly articulating the daunting challenge to those who would paint water. One of the most demanding aspects of landscape painting 2 is the depiction of water, always in motion, always reflecting the changing light of the sky. The effects of light playing on the reflective surface of water constantly vary during the day, causing significant artistic challenges to reproduce the subtle variations in color, light, reflection, and distance required for the realistic portrayal of water. Leonardo da Vinci

(1451-1519) summarized the difficulties faced by an artist when painting water:

When the sea is a little ruffled it has no sameness of color; for, whoever looks at it from the shore, will see it as a dark color, in a greater degree as it approaches the horizon, and will perceive also certain lights moving slowly on the surface like a flock of sheep. Whoever looks at the sea from on board a ship, at a distance from the land, sees it blue. Near the shore it appears darkish, on account of the color of the earth reflected by the waves, as in a looking glass; but at sea the azure of the air is reflected to the eye by the waves in the same manner. 3

1 Jenny Gaschke, Turmoil and Tranquility: The Sea Through the Eyes of Dutch and Flemish Masters, 1550-1700 (London: National Maritime Museum, 2008), 1. 2 The concept of landscape and landscape painting seems to have evolved during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, first in Northern Europe. Landschap is a Dutch word, the earliest surviving use of which appears in a contract of 1485 for an altarpiece which describes the background detail required. 3 In an older sense, in Netherlandish, German, and French, landscape signified a province, district or, more generally, any broad expanse of land, indicating the close relationship of cartography and local elements of the land that comprise the states in a map. See Walter S. Gibson, Pleasant Places: The Rustic Landscape from Bruegel to Ruisdael (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000), 281, note 137 and Walter S. Gibson, Mirror of the Earth: The World Landscape in Sixteenth Century Flemish Painting (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 53. 3 Leonardo da Vinci, A Treatise on Painting, ( John William Brown, ed. (Amherst, N.Y. Prometheus Books, 2002), 244-245. - 1 - Clearly, “….. unless this elemental unity of the unstructured elements of air, light and water is mastered, we will not get the impression of a convincing seascape,”4 or, in fact, of any body of water.

This thesis has dual goals. First I must analyze the reasons for the reappearance in

Western European painting, after approximately a millennium, of the realistic depiction of water, as well as the artistic components required for such portrayals. Secondly, I will develop an analytic methodology, employing demonstrably reproducible semi-quantitative scales, to objectify heretofore subjective judgments about the quality of the painting of water and its components.

Beginning in the late Middle Ages, the natural world, i.e. realistic landscape, slowly reappeared in European painting. In the late medieval period, when the Church was the artists’ sole patron, water was only seen as part of landscape painting. The depiction of a body of water was usually not a central component of the composition of landscape painting until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Among the stimuli for landscape painting at this time were the loss of influence of the Church during the Dutch rebellion against Catholic Spain (1568-1648) and the rise of a moneyed aristocracy and middle class. 5

Landscapes proper had first appeared as independent subjects in Flanders during the sixteenth century, but the Dutch were the first to fully develop the painting type. To all intents and purposes they invented the naturalistic landscape, claiming it as a uniquely central feature of their artistic patrimony. 6

4 Gaschke, Turmoil and Tranquility, 1. 5 This occurs in the works of such Flemish and Dutch luminaries as Pieter Bruegel (c.1525-1569), Hendrick Vroom (c.1566-1640), Simon de Vlieger (1601-1653), Jan Porcellis (1584-1632), Salomon van Ruysdael (c.1606-1670), Jan van de Cappelle (c. 1624-1679), Jakob van Ruisdael (c.1628-1682), and Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633-1707). See: Jeroen Giltaij and Jan Kelch, Praise of Ships and the Sea: The Dutch Marine Painters of the 17 th Century (Rotterdam: Museum Boijmans van Beuingen, 1996), 11-19, Wolfgang Stechow, Dutch Landscape Painting of the Seventeenth Century (London: Phaidon Press, Ltd., 1968), 110 and Gaschke, Turmoil and Tranquility, 3. 6 Peter Sutton and John Loughman, The Golden Age of Dutch Landscape Painting (Madrid: Thyssen- Bornemisza Collection Foundation, 1994), 15. - 2 - These remarkable images of water raise a number of questions. How, when, where, and why in the Western European artistic tradition does this highly developed ability to achieve verisimilitude in painting water begin? What were the early precedents? What techniques were required? How consistent over the centuries was the progress toward painting water realistically? Did all artists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries adopt the new techniques?

An approach to such an investigation must include a consideration of:

 the stimuli for the realistic painting of water;

 new techniques which made the realistic painting of water possible;

 the regions of Western Europe where the painting of water developed;

 the period of time over which the realistic painting of water developed;

 the identity of the artists, when possible, who first produced these realistic paintings of

water;

 the secular and religious contexts in which this phenomenon developed.

This approach will require:

 a consideration of the meaning of the concept of “realistic” depiction of water;

 identification and analysis of the components of painting of water;

 examination of the changes in each component of water painting from Greco-Roman

precedents to the seventeenth century;

 use of this analysis to develop of a reproducible, objective, semi-quantitative rating scale to

examine the changes in the quality of each of the components of water painting;

 a test of the intra-observer reproducibility of this potentially complex scale.

In this thesis I shall attempt to demonstrate that, through an objective, reproducible rating scale of the depiction of water, this aspect of landscape painting can be dissected into six - 3 - components. Furthermore, the temporal, qualitative, and geographic development of each of these parts, and the realistic depiction of water painting as a sum of these parts, can be chronologically traced, as can the rate of development of each of the six components of the painting of water as compared to the others.

- 4 - Chapter Two: Concepts of Realism

In examining realistic paintings of water in the Western European tradition, I must first clarify my use of the term “realistic.” We are not, of course, discussing the nineteenth-century artistic movement known as Realism, exemplified by the painterly approaches of Gustav

Courbet (1819-1877) and Edouard Manet (1832-1883) which was preceded by the Romantic

Movement and followed by Impressionism and Symbolism. I am also excluding from my analysis all drawings, etchings, and engravings of water wherein color is not employed, as hue is a component integral to the realistic depiction of water in the schema of this thesis (Table 1).

Discussing the concept of reality is problematic. The Platonic distinction between true reality and mere appearance must haunt the artist who attempts to reproduce what he sees around him on parchment, vellum, panel, or canvas, since the scenes and objects he tries to paint are ever changing.

Linda Nochlin suggests at least three meanings for the concept of artistic realism:

(a) as implying a close correspondence between the depiction and the depicted object or between a description and what it describes; (b) as implying that mere imitation or mirroring of actual objects is surpassed and we confront the thing itself; (c) as implying that what is represented is an “idea” or norm or unchanging prototype of the actual things in the world, and that it eliminates whatever is particular or peculiar to an actual object which instantiates the “idea.” 7

At its best the painter of a realistic landscape, including water, contrives to lure us out of ourselves into his artificial, two-dimensional “illusion” of a “reality more aesthetically fulfilling than any lived reality can be.” 8

Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564) superciliously commented that the Northern approach to realistic portrayals was mawkish and superficial, appealing only to the outer eye,

7 Linda Nochlin, Realism (London: Pelican Books, 1990), 14. 8 Peter Schjeldahl, “Dutch Touch: A Visiting Vermeer at the Met,” The New Yorker, 26 September 2009, 96. - 5 - while lacking the substance of disegno, 9 a concept which his contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) referred to as the deity of the science of painting, un segno di dio, “a sign of

God.” 10 In this phrase is evidence of the power of the Italian neo-Platonic idea of a duality between what was painted and its ideal representation. The philosophical discourse necessitated by the Platonic concept of universals, the ideal standing behind the imperfect reflection one sees in the “real” world, led to two opposing schools of thought in medieval philosophy. The religious-philosophic concept of Realism of St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), a word carrying almost the exact opposite of its current meaning, held that universals exist independently of, and prior to, the world, as Plato postulated. The “reality” which the senses perceived had to be, according to Aquinas, intellectually and prayerfully dematerialized in order to gain understanding of its spiritual significance and also to prove the truth of Christian doctrine employing Thomian logic. The artistic corollary of this was that streams, flowers, trees, and hills of the natural landscape were themselves unimportant and not worth recording. In opposition, the Nominalist school denied the existence of universals, since these must exist outside of space and time and therefore, to the Nominalists, were nothing but words used to describe specific objects. Nominalism received strong support from the philosophical investigations of the English Franciscan William of Ockham (1288-1348) who argued against universals separate from this world and urged mankind to direct his attention to this world in all its amazing detail, using his senses which were a valid way of knowing the world. 11 The

Nominalists further suggested that one can only look to the examples of this world when we

9 Francisco de Holanda 1517-1585), as recorded in this Portuguese painter’s memoir, Roman Dialogues, written in the 1540’s but first appearing in de Holanda’s Dialogues on Painting which he recorded a decade earlier. 10 Valerio Mariani, Michelangelo the Painter (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1964), 128. 11 Georges Duby, Medieval Art : Foundations of a New Humanism, 1280-1440 ( Geneva: Albert Skira, 1995), 34. - 6 - conceive of, or imagine, the best images and concepts of our ideals which we are capable of producing, including the ideal toward which Italian painterly objectification strove.

In Northern European painting the approach to what was visible in the world was to attempt to try to reorder and reproduce the world as it appeared to the artist as closely as possible.

….northern images do not disguise meaning or hide it beneath the surface but rather show that meaning by its very nature is lodged in what the eye can take in---however deceptive that might be. 12

Yet even a detailed Netherlandish reproduction of the artist’s world cannot be considered a true image of reality, any more than one can believe that photographic “reality” is a truly objective, truthful representation of what is present before the camera. The camera lens will have some part of the picture out of focus, will include some parts of the scene facing the photographer but will exclude others, and will infer that certain relationships exist which are not actually present. The point of view of the camera in taking the picture will vary with what the photographer perceives is present, with many layers of meaning potentially at play.

Similarly, the painter must transform his subject from three to two dimensions on parchment, vellum, canvas or panel. Considerable additional limitations are placed upon him by his physical materials, i.e., the pigment, binding material, brushes, and quality of the surface he must employ. His eyes, his biases, past teaching and experience will further filter what he sees.

One must conclude that there is no single, unequivocal, universal reality concerning any material object which can be unanimously accepted in the twenty-first century, despite “the perennially obsessive desire of artists to bring reality back alive, to escape from the bonds of convention into a magic world of pure verisimilitude.” 13

12 Svetlana Alpers, The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), xxiv. 13 Nochlin, Realism, 15. - 7 - With or without water, landscape paintings of the late Middle Ages are virtually all representations of religious or mythic themes.14 In this context, landscape (and the water represented therein) would usually be idealized as a background for the actions of Jesus, the

Virgin Mary, and the saints of the Roman Catholic Church. How real could such representations be? Or might there not there be an attempt to place these holy figures in familiar backgrounds on earth to make their transcendent “reality” more approachable to the laity, i.e. more real ? So verisimilitude could become a goal of some late medieval and early Renaissance artists who saw the works of God in their perceptions of the appearances of the reality around them.

Given these considerations, was the representation of water in these late medieval and early Renaissance paintings realistic? There is no easy answer to the paradoxes one encounters in examining the concept of representing the appearance of water “realistically.” Empirically there is probably no more to deciding what is realistic representation than simply to find some level of agreement on the myriad of observations and commonality of experiences we share as humans. We do not need to invoke ideal, Platonic counterparts to our observations and emotions in order to function, and to paint, quite well.

This thesis therefore simply, and with some traces of solipsism, analyzes the development of the Western European painterly artistic representation in two dimensions of the appearance of water as a “simulacrum….of visual reality,” 15 i.e., as it appears to this author.

An attempt to objectify this apparently subjective set of judgments underlies my collection of the data and the subsequent analyses which examine what qualities of the Western approach to

14 The Old and New Testaments provided ample thematic material for the depiction of water, which is mentioned 708 times in the Christian Bible. See: Newton Thompson and Raymond Stock, Complete Concordance to the Bible: Douay Version (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1914), 1785-1790. 15 Nochlin, Realism, 14. - 8 - the painting of water I believe are necessary to produce a realistic appearance of water in

European painting. 16

16 In Western European painting water is depicted in multiple relationships to the scene painted, including: bodies of water in nature (streams rivers, seas); water as directed by man (fountains, wells); or in the activities of man (fishing, boating, swimming, bathing. See: Catherine Gouedo-Thomas, “Usage de l’Eau: Dans la Vie Privee, au Moyen-Age, a travers l’Iconographie des Manuscrits a Peintures de l’Europe Septentrionale (XII-XVI Siecles),” (Ph.D. Diss, L’Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Science Sociales de Paris, 1995), 1-227. - 9 - Chapter Three: Historical, Sociological, Philosophical and Theological Influences on the Depiction of Water

Images of the depiction of water as early the second millennium B.C.E in European fresco (e.g. Flotilla , The West House fresco, Akrotiri, Thera, c. 1700 B.C.E.) 17 and Egyptian painting (e.g. Dynasty XVIII, 1550-1292 B.C.E.; Figure 1) 18 never occurred without a landscape setting. To discuss the reemergence of the images of water in Northern European painting in the High Middle Ages and early Renaissance, we must necessarily examine the evolution of the depiction of landscape in Western art over several millennia.

This chapter examines the early sources of landscape painting, emphasizing the appearance of water in these landscapes. These include Greek and Hellenistic, Roman, Early

Christian, Byzantine, and Islamic influences, culminating in Northern European and Italian innovations in landscape and water painting. Landscape paintings throughout these many centuries are almost always part of a narrative image which is usually religious in character.

Egyptian, Hellenistic, and Roman Landscape

In Egyptian painting of the New Kingdom (1570-1070 B.C.E.) water was frequently represented, presumably because of the vital importance of the Nile in all aspects of Egyptian society. The wave forms of Egyptian streams and rivers were interconnected “v” shapes painted perpendicularly to the direction of the flow of water (Figure 1), a direction which was never seen in the depiction of Mediterranean water painting of the second millennium, as on Crete before 1500 B.C.E. or thereafter. Landscape painting without human figures first appeared in

17 Chris Fitter, Poetry, Space, Landscape: Toward a New Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 39. 18 Kazimierz Michalowski, Art of Ancient Egypt (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1986), 234-235. - 10 - the Hellenistic period. 19 The first known use of a fully realized and naturalistic background in which to set a scene is found in the Odysseus Friezes , now in the Vatican Library, showing

the brilliance of the light dancing over a sunlit expanse of deep blue water and (the artist) had learned to unify sea and cliffs into a subtle veil of atmosphere. They preferred to paint smooth water, usually giving it a luminous opaque effect, but sometimes including forms seen through translucent water, and occasionally attempting to indicate mirror effects. 20

Theocritus, Hellenistic poet of the bucolic landscape of the third century B.C.E., first systematically conceived of “the features of the pastoral landscape--- flowers, birds, breezes, and, above all, the dominant motif of the tree-shaded waters ”21 (italics mine). Hellenistic artists of this time, while showing more interest in natural settings than their predecessors, tended to employ walls, trees, and even curtains in their backgrounds. This hindered Greek development of landscape painting requiring an expansive view of distant countryside vistas.

With the Roman conquest of Greece (146 B.C.E.) this Hellenistic style spread to Italy, where numerous depictions of landscape have been preserved in villas at Pompeii, Rome, and elsewhere. 22 Virgil’s Eclogues “deeply influenced by Theocritus, fixed forever in the European mind the idyllic landscape of pastoral tradition.” Illustrations of Virgilian texts with pastoral motifs have been traced from the Late Classical Period into the Middle Ages and Renaissance, demonstrating close visual ties between traditional motifs employed for the illustration of Virgil and new pastoral landscape themes in the visual arts 23 The Pompeii Second Style, c. 80 B.C.E.,

19 Amadeo Maiuri, Painting in Italy: From the Origins to the Thirteenth Century (Lausanne: Albert Skira Publisher, 1959), 78. 20 Margarita Russell, Vision of the Sea: Hendrick Vroom and the Origins of Dutch Marine Painting (Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1983), 6. 21 Derek Pearsall and Elizabeth Salter, Landscapes and Season of the Medieval World (Toronto University of Toronto Press, 1973), 10. 22 Stefano Giuntoli, Art and History of Pompeii (Florence: Casa Editrice Bonechi, 1989), 6. 23 Emma T.K.Guest, “The Illustration of Virgil’s Bucolics and its Influence in Italian Renaissance Art” (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 2005), 1-397. - 11 - featured illusionistic architecture with columns, gables and walls leading into an imaginary space where one can discern “harbours, headlands, shores, rivers, springs…” 24

From the extant Hellenistic and Roman painting, 30 one can discover a sophisticated artistic tradition of spatial perspective, though never systematized, which employed several illusionistic devices. There was a convention of placing a stream in the immediate foreground of landscape paintings, an early r epoussoir effect, which largely, but not completely, disappeared in medieval European depictions of landscape where the color blue was almost only used to denote distant background, rarely appearing as a foreground element. Architectural features were painted overlapping one another. Figures and scenery which were supposed to be distant were depicted as smaller in size and placed higher in the image. However, there were no successful Greco-Roman transitions between foreground and background, and the distant horizon was never seen, although atmospheric effects of light on smooth water were successfully achieved (Figure 2).25

Early Christian Landscape

The appearance of landscape of any sort, with or without water, was uncommon in early

Christian and later medieval art, and when it occurred, the trees, hills and bodies of water were usually extremely stylized and not portrayed realistically. Before the sixth century C.E.,

Christian art in Italy followed the available Hellenistic and Roman models fairly closely. While the mosaics of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, 432-440 C.E., are quite colorful, they have lost some of the Hellenistic approach to perspective, because no attention has been paid to the relative size of the characters in the foreground or middle ground. The vibrant mosaics of

24 Jacob Wamberg, Landscape as World Picture: Tracing Cultural Evolution in Images. Volume I. From the Paleolithic Period to the Middle Ages. Volume II. Early Modernity . trans. Gaye Kynoch (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2009), Vol I, 470. 25 Wamberg, Landscape as World Picture, Vol. 1, 471-472 and Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting: Its Origins and Character , Volume I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press, 1971), 9-12. - 12 - Ravenna in San Vitale and the adjacent mausoleum of Galla Placidia, c. 547 C.E., include numerous depictions of water, e.g. The Calling of Peter and Andrew who are fishing in the sea

(Figure 3); the four rivers of Eden flowing below the figure of Christ; water in the foreground of

The Good Shepherd; The Baptism of Christ ; water symbolizing states of grace and the process of transformation from one spiritual state to another; water as the Word of God, the means of conversion. 26

Water per se is rarely used solely as a symbol in Western European art, although clearly any depiction of a baptism requires the depiction of water which will not only be pictorially important but which will also symbolize the cleansing and purifying effect of the ritual. Another symbolic uses of water may be suggested in the washing of hands to declare innocence, but this will not be a feature of landscape in the way that a baptismal stream will be. Water as a symbol of trouble and tribulation may occasionally be suggested when men are depicted as threatened or challenged by a fierce storm, but most often the artist is simply demonstrating his painterly power to depict this force of nature. Thus the role of water in Western European art is far more likely to be a pictorial element aiding in the depiction of an event, and the space in which it takes place, than to be employed symbolically.

Few paintings from the early Middle Ages have survived, but these, and the mosaics of the time, demonstrate a graceful and sparkling use of colored tesserae, although landscape

(including water) is rarely apparent in the art of this era. This emphasis on otherworldly phenomena must be seen as a reaction of an embattled Christianity to the prolonged catastrophe of waves of “barbarian” invasions and to the division of Christ’s Church into often warring factions. The Christian conviction of earthly impermanence focused attention not on the

26 Lois Drewer, “Fisherman and Fish Pond: From the Sea of Sin to the Living Waters,” The Art Bulletin 63 (Dec., 1981), 533-547. Water is usually depicted at this time with undulating lines parallel to the direction of the stream, unlike the Egyptian perpendicularity described above. - 13 - insecurity of worldly goods and the ever changing landscape, but rather on the indestructible heavenly treasure of salvation. Art could only be valued as it illustrated spiritual ideas. Nature, including the sea, is essentially good, but men sanctified their “relation with nature through endeavor, through traversing it as a pathway, a corridor of light, to the Being beyond,”27 but the

Church was not a patron for realistic portrayals of this sinful world.

Throughout this first millennium C.E., memories of ancient pagan spirituality were nevertheless transmitted down the centuries, illustrating the importance of water to the human spirit for there are now some 6,000 sacred springs, streams, lakes, and wells dedicated to saints. 28

Byzantine and Romanesque Traditions

The Latin and Hellenistic tradition of realism was significantly altered by Byzantine art , which introduced into Italy a more spiritual tone, hieratic poses, and golden backgrounds.

Frontal poses became the rule after the sixth century, perhaps to convey a motionless, eternal transcendentalism to the viewer. This technique of aligning the figures made them easier to see and their relationships clearer, when such elevated, apsidal images were viewed from the nave.

These mosaics and wall paintings often became a part of the architecture, placed under arched elements or between columns. A single row of figures in a flattened space such as Sant’

Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, 29 would not conflict with the building elements into which they were fitted. These otherworldly, contemplative, hieratic images reflected the dominant

Augustinian theology that art was only of value insofar as it illustrated the Spiritual, since

27 Fitter, Poetry, Space, Landscape, 91 28 John Howe, “Creating Symbolic Landscapes: Medieval Development of Sacred Space ,” in Howe, John and Michael Wolfe, ed., Inventing Medieval Landscape: Senses of Place in Western Europe (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2002), 68. 29 Anna Maria Cetto, The Ravenna Mosaics (Berne: Hallwag, Ltd., 1960), 1-9. - 14 - earthly matters were of no consequence. 30 Neo-Platonic Realism provided a philosophical approach highly consistent with this view, contending that the universal archetypes of what we perceive in the world have a separate reality apart from time and space and thus an almost

“heavenly” existence.

Naturalism was generally foreign to Byzantine art, although one may find stylized flowers and plants in church mosaics and around the late tomb paintings of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. 31 In a remarkable tenth-century Byzantine psalter now in the Bibliotheque

Nationale, Paris (Figure 4) there appears an illumination of David playing the harp to which I have referred above, documenting the preservation of the Hellenistic convention employing a stream of water in the foreground as a repoussoir device. The stream, across which goats and lambs are stepping, is rather crudely painted, with multiple discontinuous, parallel dark blue lines placed in a ribbon of lighter blue to suggest ripples. The artist has painted a medium blue edge to the stream on the side near the viewer as it curves downward from the left to the very bottom of the painting, in a partially successful attempt to show perspective. This image is also an extremely early example of the use of the Renaissance spatial color convention 32 of a brownish foreground, use of the color green in the middle ground, and a cooler, blue background. 33

The twelfth-century treatise of the monk Theophilus Presbyter, an account of the techniques of the crafts known in the first half of the twelfth century, taught artists to produce images to “make manifest to the eyes of the faithful the Paradise of God, bedecked with

30 Kenneth Clark, Landscape into Art (London: John Murray Publishers Ltd., 1949), 10. 31 Sarah T. Brooks, “Commemoration of the Dead: Late Byzantine Tomb Decoration (Mid-Thirteenth to Mid- Fifteenth Centuries)” (Ph.D. diss. New York University, 2002.), 1-484. 32 Gibson, Mirror of the Earth, 7. 33 Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337) and Joachim Patinier (c.1480-1524) of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively would continue to employ this convention. - 15 - numberless flowers.” 34 In these instructions were techniques for the depiction of flowers in natural gardens, albeit transferred to the gardens of Paradise. Thus there are small but unequivocal clues that the beauty of nature, i.e. landscape, is never fully disregarded in

Byzantine art. Panofsky notes that

Byzantine art could not decide, as it were, to form the world in a completely linear rather than a painterly fashion; thus its adherence to mosaic, whose nature it is to hide the inexorably two-dimensional structure of the bare wall by spreading a shimmering coat over it. 35

In 533 C.E. Italy became a province of the Byzantine Empire when Theodoric, leader of the Ostrogoths, was defeated. However, the Lombard invasion of Italy in 568 C.E., the increasing authority of the Roman popes, and the absorption of Lombard power by the powerful

Franks after 774 C.E., gradually liberated the peninsula from Byzantine hegemony, leading to the participation of Italy in the rebirth of Western culture.

In Byzantine and Byzantining painting, as a rule, the form of the river bank converging into depth and the shimmering transparency of the water are still recognizable.

The Romanesque, fully mature by the middle of the twelfth century, completed the renunciation of antiquity which Byzantine art never quite carried out.

Romanesque painting reduced bodies and space to surface….

In a culture in which the state of the soul was of paramount importance, the meticulous representation of the physical world became, at least transiently, irrelevant.

Islamic Influences on the Development of the Depiction of Landscape

The revival of knowledge of Greek civilization that was so essential to the production of the Renaissance owes a great debt to Arabic preservation of Hellenistic and Roman culture. In the time of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250) Greek documents were translated

34 Theophilus Presbyter, On Diverse Arts . trans. John G. Hathorne and Cyril S. Smith (Toronto: General Publishing Co, 1979), 9-44. 35 Erwin Panofsky, Perspective as Symbolic Form (Brooklyn: Urzone, Inc., 1991), 50. - 16 - into Arabic, and then into Latin in southern Italy. 36 The astrologic signs of the zodiac, which appear prominently in early Netherlandish calendars attached to Books of Hours ( cf. infra ), were also transmitted from the East by Arabic travelers and authors. This Arabic influence on all Western culture, including the reemergence of images of the naturalistic world, cannot be underestimated.

Jewish tradition opposing the depiction of figures may have contributed to the Arabic antipathy for this form of painting, since the two groups were in close contact throughout the

Near East, and the Qur’an has strong roots in the Hebrew Bible. The Qur’an does not specifically reject depictions of nature, although one passage of the Qur’an reads, “O believers, wine and games of chance and statues and arrows (i.e., divining arrows) are an abomination of

Satan’s handiwork; then avoid it!” 37

In an eighth century mosaic of a river landscape from the Great Mosque of Damascus we may discern clear Hellenistic roots, with churning, blue repoussoir water in the immediate foreground, architectural elements suggesting perspective, and luxurious vegetation (Figure

5).38 However medieval Islamic texts subsequently rejected figurative painting, and there was no tradition of narrative painting in Islam prior to the twelfth century. 39 At this time architecture and vegetation again began to play an important part in narrative scenes of the

Hebrew Bible, which was often illustrated by Islamic artists, e.g. an eleventh century image of the Infant Moses in the Bulrushes residing in the Vatican Library ; Jonah and the Whale and

Noah and the Ark, both appearing in fourteenth century Islamic illuminations now in the British

Museum, London.

36 Fritz Saxl, A Heritage of Images (Aylesbury, Bucks, U.K.: Penguin Books), 1970, 33. 37 Qur’an, trans. Abdullah Y. Ali. (Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qur’an, Inc., 2002), Surah 5:90, 72. 38 Richard Ettinghausen, Arab Painting (Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company, 1962), 24-25. 39 Janna S. Tajibaeva, “Old Testament Images in Islamic Paintings” (Ph.D. diss, University of Louisville, 1999), 8. - 17 - The image of the Persian garden may have been known in the West by the thirteenth or fourteenth century; the Islamic Persian court delighted in this aesthetic, even though it had been proscribed in the Qur’an. The word “paradise” itself comes from a Persian word for “garden”.

A walled garden became a favorite paradisiacal site into which to place an image of the Virgin and Child in illuminated manuscripts of this time. That wall also became a metaphor for the protection the medieval city dweller felt he required from rural dangers, including wild animals, bands of thieves, and disease. 40 The countryside also represented the backbreaking toil of the peasant life. In the medieval mind then, Nature outside the city was a dangerous wilderness and hence not worthy of depiction. 41 Religion was the dominant force in these uncertain times, for this corporeal life was all too transient.

Medieval and Early Renaissance Influences on Landscape Painting

Four medieval religious and philosophical movements influenced the new interest in landscape: Nominalism; the rediscovery in Italy of classicism; the Franciscan view of nature as evidence of God’s love; and the Devotio Moderna.

Nominalism, originating in Northern Europe 42 has been discussed in Chapter Two. This new approach directed man to look at nature in all its wondrous detail, a view that would later find a remarkable artistic outlet there.

In the early Renaissance Western Europe was rediscovering its classic roots, especially in the writings of Homer (c.750-700 B.C.E.), Virgil (70-19 B.C.E.) and Pliny the Younger (61-

40 However, Giovanni Boccaccio [1313-1375] would use the plague of 1348 as a frame narrative for his collection of novellas which became The Decameron , composed between 1348-1353, and appearing in manuscript form in 1370. 41 See: Clark, Landscape into Art, 3; Paula Nuttal, From Flanders to Florence: The Impact of Netherlandish Painting, 1400-1500 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 202; and Wamberg, Landscape as World Picture , 143-44. . 42 Nominalists, mentioned in Chapter 2, denied the existence of Platonic universals. They asked, among other critical questions, how can such universals or Platonic Forms be outside of time and space? - 18 - 112 C.E.). 43 The medieval, otherworldly, emphasis and influence of the Church was slowly receding and Christian theology began to direct its adherents to the beauties of God’s creation of the earth. Abbot Suger of St. Denis (c. 1081-1151 C.E.) wrote convincingly of the devotional value of art. Almost simultaneously Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153 C.E.) declared, “Believe me, I have discovered that you will find far more in the forests than in books; trees and stones will teach you what no teacher permits you to hear.” 44 Two generations later St. Francis of

Assisi (1182-1226) preached of the image of God he found in the joyous natural world of the senses. 45 The Franciscan order subsequently accepted all the rigorous demands of Christianity yet did not reject the world but went out vigorously “to meet and conquer it.” 46 Depiction of the landscape of this world, and its streams and lakes, thus first became the background for the stories and parables of the Bible, reappearing in images found in illuminated manuscripts, or, by the thirteenth century, on panels as well. 47

The new devotional climate of the late fourteenth and fifteenth century, the Devotio

Moderna , 48 beginning in the Netherlands and spreading to much of Northern Europe, and perhaps later to Italy, emphasized meditation and the inner life, requiring the believer to imagine every detail of the particulars of the holy life, leading naturally to an increased awareness and observation of nature. This movement placed much responsibility for man’s relationship with his God on his own actions, requiring individual prayer and mediation outside of the Church and stimulating the production of the illuminated lay prayer book known as the

43 For Pliny the Younger the beauty of the surrounding countryside was on a par with his garden, but the first was natural and the latter artificial. 52 44 Fitter, Poetry, Space, Landscape: Toward a New Theory, 159. 45 Meyer Shapiro, On the Aesthetic Attitude in Romanesque Art (New York: George Braziller, 1977), 6-15. 46 Georges Duby, Medieval Art : Foundations of a New Humanism, 1280-1440 (Geneva: Albert Skira, 1995), 33. 47 As early as 1274 a panel painting by Bonaventura Berlinghieri (active 1215-1242) depicts one of the miracles attributed to St. Francis, involving salvation from drowning (Figure 6). See: Miklos Boskovitz, Florentine Mosaics and Panel Painting (Florence: Giunti, 2007), 489. 48 Geert Grote (1340-1384) founded the Brethren of the Common Life in Deventer, The Netherlands. This was the religious community which inspired the Devotio Moderna . - 19 - Book of Hours. These prayer books reflected the growth of a deep personal piety by the end of the fourteenth century, but remained a French phenomenon until about 1420. 49 So many of these texts were produced that today they form the largest category of illuminated books extant.

From the thirteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries more Books of Hours were commissioned and produced than any other text, including the Bible. 50 These Books of Hours provided a format for experimentation in realistic portrayal of religious scenes, with a remarkable exploration of the painting of landscape.

Italian Renaissance ideals, articulated by Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) and others, involved the concepts of neo-Platonism; idealizing classicism; a new humanism; harmoniously and mathematically constructed perspective; symmetry, simplicity and balance. The fine details of closely observed nature were apparently of less importance than in Northern European painting. The influence of the rediscovery of Greco-Roman forms led to the use of architecture as a background for painting more often than landscape. 51 By contrast, in early fifteenth century

Northern European, where the Devotio Moderna had begun, the artist emphasized descriptive detail, the illumination of intensely realistic surfaces and textures by illusionistic light, an intense piety, and an interest in a highly detailed landscape background.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, these two approaches to painting, including landscape (and water), were carried both ways across the Alps. The important influence of trecento Italian painting on the depiction of space and of landscape (and hence of water as well) by early Netherlandish Masters is strongly suggested from several comparisons

49 Millard Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry: Text Volume (New York: Phaidon Publishing Co., 1969), 17. 50 Roger Wieck, Time Sanctified: The Book of Hours in Medieval Art and Life (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1988), 23 and Gouedo-Thomas, “Usage de l’Eau,” 12. 51 Margaret Salisbury, “The Emergence of Landscape in Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting” (Ph. D. diss., San Diego State University, 1982), 82. - 20 - of paintings from the two traditions. 52 The portrayal of space in the Annunciation of Duccio di

Buoninsegna (1255-1319) appears quite close to that in the later illumination of the

Annunciation by Jean Pucelle (c.1300-1355) in The Hours of Jeanne d’Evreux , and Pucelle is known to have traveled to Siena where he would have seen Duccio’s Maesta, painted between

1308-1311. 53 There are remarkable similarities between the Presentation at the Temple by

Taddeo Gaddi ((1300-1366) and the same scene painted by the Limbourg Brothers (1370/80-

1416) in Les Tres Riches Heurs de Jean Duc de Berry . The first large scale Italian landscape which was “both morphologically accurate and panoramic,” 54 The Allegory of the Good

Government (Figure 7) by the Sienese artist Ambrogio Lorenzetti (1290-1348), preceded the development of this genre in the North, where Joachim Patinir (c. 1475-1524) is credited as being the first specialist in landscape and inventor of the Flemish “world landscape.” 55

However an illustration by an artist known as The Master of Guillaume de Machaut or The

Master of the Remede de Fortune, found in a collection of the works of the great fourteenth century French musician and poet Guillaume de Machaut (Figure 8), is often referred to as the earliest pure landscape in European painting, c. 1355-1360. 56 This idyllic scene of trees, flowers, birds and animals carries no trace of humanity except for a castle turret in the background. A blue stream of water in the immediate foreground recalls the Hellenistic convention (pp. 10-11), and clumps of trees on each side represent an extremely early use of repoussoir technique in late medieval illumination.

52 Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting, 29-31. 53 Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry, 19. 54 Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting, 19. 55 Peter Sutton. ed. Masters of 17 th -Century Dutch Landscape Painting . (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Rijksmuseum, 1987), 16. 56 Ingo Walther and Norbert Wolf . Codices Illustres: The World’s Most Famous Manuscripts 400-1600 . (Koln, Germany: Taschen GmbH, 2001), 220. - 21 - The Italian tradition of making detailed drawings and painting of plants in their landscape has been claimed to be an important influence on the development of landscape painting: 57

In fact, any unbiased investigation would show that it was the Italians who first designed individualized landscape settings, and that it was their influence which stimulated similar experiments in the North where landscape painting finally established itself as an independent genre.

And so in the North the discovery of nature meant finally and necessarily the discovery of landscape painting.

Italy was also the source of the first calendar landscapes in the late trecento or early quattrocento .58

Technical aspects were also important in the development of this type of painting. The

Parisian Boucicaut Master, who, with his followers, dominated manuscript painting in the first quarter of the fifteenth century, has been credited with the discovery of atmospheric perspective in landscape painting, which became an important part of the Italian approach to rendering the illusion of space in two dimensions. 59 Italian artists of the High Middle Ages and early

Renaissance were teaching their counterparts in the North both the plastic modeling of the figure, and, somewhat later, a new, mathematical view of perspective, while their Netherlandish counterparts were showing their Italian colleagues the beauty of depictions of the often symbolic Particular , using a remarkable naturalistic approach. For example, in the work of Jan van Eyck (1395-1441) the depiction of landscape and water as an important part of his religious painting appeared extremely early, as in his Rolin Madonna (Louvre, Paris), The Stigmatization of St. Francis (Philadelphia Museum of Art), the central panel of the Ghent Altarpiece

57 Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry , 15. 58 Otto Pacht, “Early Italian Nature Studies and the Early Calendar Landscape,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Inatitutes 13 (Jan., 1950), 13-47. 59 Pacht, “Early Italian Nature Studies and the Early Calendar Landscape,” 47. - 22 - (Cathedral of St. Bavo, Ghent), and the beautiful bas-de-page in the Turin-Milan Hours (Milan)

(Figure 9).

Oil painting, a technique known in Northern Europe since at least 1125 C.E. according to the manuscripts of Theophilus provided, through its transparency, great depth in depicting the appearance of water. Tempera grassa , the use of egg tempera and oil in the same painting, has been documented in Italy in a Crucifix by the Master of St. Francis (active c.1250—1270) as early as the second half of the thirteenth century. 60 Cennino Cennini’s (c.1370-c.1440) Libro dell’arte, written in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century, spends only a paragraph, less than 1% of his Handbook , on the painting of water, where he was, strangely, more concerned with depicting the fish in water than with simulating light, waves, etc. He emphasized use of the color green for water, suggesting verdaccio technique: (grey-green underpainting) and

“verdigris in oil uniformly over the whole ground.” 61 Antonello da Messina (c. 1430-1479) was deeply influenced by the works of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden and has been credited with introducing the precision of the Flemish painterly approach into Italian painting. 62

While landscape art was believed by Italian and Dutch theorists to be a lower form of artistic endeavor than religious/history paintings, the Netherlandish integration of landscape with the foreground subject was an important advance, influencing Italian masters later in the fifteenth century including Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510), Andrea de Verocchio (1435-1488)), and even

Leonardo da Vinci. 63 Kenneth Clark calls the landscapes of Pollaiuolo and Baldovinetti. from the 1460’s “the first realistic backgrounds of Italian art.” and Pollaiulo’s Rape of Deianira

60 Jill Dunkerton, “Modifications to Traditional Egg Tempera Techniques in Fifteenth-Century Italy ,” in Bakkenist, Tonnie, Rene Hoppenbrouwers and Helene Dubois, ed., Early Italian Paintings: Techniques and Analysi s (Maastricht, Limbourg Conservation Institute, 1996), 29-33. 61 Cennino d’Andrea Cennini, Il Libro dell’ Arte, trans. Daniel V. Thompson, Jr. (New York: Dover Publications, 1954), 95-96. 62 Clark, Landscape into Art, 48. 63 Margaret Koster, “Italy and the North: A Florentine Perpsective, “ in Borchert, Till-Holger, ed. , The Age of Van Eyck (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., 2002), 79-80. - 23 - (c.1475) the “first Italian picture in which landscape is not incidental but essential.” 64 In this dramatic painting a rushing river in the foreground carries greater prominence and drama than even the figures at either side (Figure 10).

Although the philosophical, religious, and technical stimuli for the portrayal of naturalistic landscape were vital, a secular impetus for this was equally important.

Socioeconomic theories abound to explain why the appreciation of the countryside, i.e. landscape, is commonly believed to have intensified in larger early fifteenth century towns and cities. The rise of European cities with an extremely successful commercial economy, and the resultant pollution, depersonalization and loss of a sense of community, led middle class merchants to yearn for the mythic simple, rustic life their families had abandoned for the city.

More generally, “….landscape gradually increases its dominance in pictorial art as urban culture takes root in civilization.” 65 City dwellers in Italy and in urban Flanders yearned for the simpler life of the beautiful countryside during this period of rapid change; they had little conception of the hardships and hazards of non-idealized rural life.

The revitalization of commerce in the eleventh through fourteenth centuries, after the end of the barbarian invasions, produced a surplus of goods, resulting in a search for international markets, especially in Flanders and in Florence, both important centers of trade and growing wealth from a prospering wool industry. Meanwhile the Hundred Years War

(1337-1453) and the War of the Roses (1455-1487), as well as intermittent plague, were exhausting England and France. So it was in Flanders and Florence that commercial success began to stimulate a wider demand for art, which had already become a symbol of nobility and display. With the rise of the aristocracy and a wealthy merchant middle class, the choice of

64 Clark, Landscape Into Art, 47. 65 Wamberg, Landscape as World Picture , 140. - 24 - subject had shifted from the Church to wealthy patrons of artists “who wanted him to show them---not, indeed, every day reality, for art became more than ever a means of escaping reality—but a world of their dreams,” 66 i.e. beautiful landscape. An increase in literacy, required for success in commerce or administration, also led to a growing demand for illustrated books and hence to a larger number of artists. The reader is referred to the work of Chris Fitter for a further discussion of the social and economic determinants of the preference for landscape. 67

There were still other stimuli for the production of landscape painting. Technological and social changes in agriculture were altering man’s view of his role in landscape, the countryside, and how the land was represented. As feudalism disappeared, man became master of his own land, leading to the emergence of a new work ethic, and an interest in seeing his labors depicted in the illuminated calendars of the time. 68 There was also a demand for images of the idealized garden, often as a setting for the Virgin in repose, frequently appearing in the medieval calendar depictions of April and May, and virtually always including a source of moving water. 69 These gardens were conventionally idealized, safe, pleasant, usually walled pockets of civilized sanctuary, derived both from the Persian ideal noted above, the locus amoenus 70 of classical poetry, and from the hortus conclusus, “a garden locked, a fountain sealed ” (italics mine) in the Song of Solomon. 71

66 Duby, Medieval Art : Foundations of a New Humanism, 1280-1440, 12. 67 Fitter, Poetry, Space, Landscapes . 68 Jacob Wamberg, “Abandoning Paradise: The Western Pictorial Paradigm Shift around 1420,” in Technologies of Landscape: From Reaping to Recycling, ed. David Nye (Springfield, MA.: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 79-80. 69 Pearsall and Salter, Landscapes and Seasons of the Medieval World, 80, 108. 70 “pleasant place” in Latin. 71 Song of Solomon 4:12: “A garden locked is my sister, my bride, a garden locked, a fountain sealed, ” (italics mine), verses which were cited by the Church as prefiguring The Virgin Mary. - 25 - Furthermore, a sense of inquiry about new scientific or allegedly scientific findings, including “Herbals” and “Bestiaries,” and concerning foreign lands arose from mercantile and missionary interests. The resultant appearance of books about astrology, astronomy, travel, exploration and history provided new subjects suitable for manuscript illumination, which might include water as an artistically challenging part of these of mandatory landscape backgrounds.

Painted water came to have multiple functions in late medieval and early Renaissance art. Initially water appeared as a decorative element, a reason to use a blue color to contrast with earth tones of the landscape. Water could also be employed as part of perspectival technique, both as a repoussoir device, and also to lead the eye from the foreground to middle ground to background, extending the apparent space within the two dimensional image. Water was, of course, also a central element of many myths and of the events depicted in the Old and New

Testaments, as in the Baptism of Christ, Noah and the Ark, and in hundreds of other places where water is mentioned in the Bible. 72 There was also the symbolic or metaphorical use of water (cf. Chapter 3), e.g. related to fertility; the Virgin Mary as Stella Maris , Star of the Sea; the turbulent, wild and savage sea as a place of mortal peril as a challenge to man to maintain control and survive, 73 and as tangible evidence of a wondrous conviction that all rivers and streams could be traced back to the stream or streams that rise from the base of the “Tree of

Life.” 74

72 A total of 708 mentions of water in the Thompson/Stock Concordance.20 73 Lawrence Goedde,“Convention, Realism, and the Interpretation of Dutch and Flemish Tempest Painting,” Simiolus 16 (1986), 139-149. 74 Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (New York, N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1995), 266. - 26 - There are numerous art history texts 75 and philosophic 76 or cultural anthropologic treatises 77 devoted to the development of landscape painting to which the reader is referred for more detailed analyses of this highly complex subject.

75 See: Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting: Its Origins and Character, Clark, Landscape into Art, Meiss , French Painting in the Time of jean de Berry, Fronia Wissman , European Vistas: Cultural Landscapes (Detroit: Detroit Institute of Arts, 2000). 76 Edward Casey, Representing Place: Landscape Painting and Maps (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002). 77 Wamberg, L andscape as World Picture . - 27 - Chapter Four. Development of Criteria for Evaluating the Painting of Water

In an earlier chapter I indicated that my approach to defining the realistic depiction of water would be, of necessity, somewhat solipsistic. I developed my own values of quality for the depiction of water found in landscape painting by studying published techniques of twentieth-century artists, 78 but, more importantly, by studying several hundred paintings of water produced over four millennia in order to develop my approach to the objectification of decisions on the quality of paintings of water.

Painting in which landscape is the dominant element occurred much earlier in manuscript illumination than the genre of independent landscape painting on panel 79 which seems to have developed during the sixteenth century.

Manuscript painting, although sometimes strongly influenced by panel painting, largely remained an independent tradition drawing on its own history of iconography and stylish innovation rather than slavishly copying panel painting.

Merrifield observed that the “rise and progress of painting is better shown by miniatures than by large pictures….” as the latter are so often repetitions of the former and illuminations are usually better preserved than fresco, which often suffer from both the elements and from retouching. 80

Therefore I searched books of illuminated manuscripts, the vast manuscript collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City, and relevant art history texts covering the history of art from the second millennium B.C.E. to approximately 1700. 81 From these texts 121 paintings of water were found. This number represents 6.5% of all 1858 images examined in

78 Charles Cochrane, Painting, Water and Weather (Tustin, CA: Walter T. Foster Art Books, n.d.) and Jackie Simmonds, “Painting Water,” The Artist 113 (No. 7, 1998), 18-22. 79 Margaret L. Goehring, “Landscape in Franco-Flemish Manuscript Illumination of the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries” ( Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 2000), 1. 80 Mary P. Merrifield, Medieval and Renaissance Treatises on the Arts of Painting (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, Inc., 1999), xxviii. 81 Please consult the bibliography for the full titles of the books by Avril, Bise, Bockhouse, Brown, d’Ancona, De Hamel, Delaisse, Formaggio, Haak, Marrow, Mazzoleni , Palladino, Porcer, Salmi, van Blanckenhagen, Voronova, Walther, Weitzman, Westwood, and Wieck. - 28 - these books, with a range of paintings containing water as a percent of all images in the books examined ranging from 1.4-12.4 %.

Paintings were also analyzed from the collections of numerous museums 82 I visited during the years required to produce this thesis. From all these sources, 266 works of art containing water were identified and scored for this thesis, after removal of twelve duplications.

A gestalt approach, i.e., deciding what overall patterns I felt to be better than others, would be unacceptably subjective. Therefore a vital part of the process was to identify the basic components of the depiction of water, with the expectation that the careful examination and scoring of each component might reduce subjectivity and enhance the reproducibility of my ratings of paintings as more or less successful in convincingly portraying realistically painted water. This analysis led to the identification of six components which I felt were essential in assessing the degree of realism in the depiction of water either in painting or illuminated manuscripts, and for which a grading system was developed:

Component A: hue , the color or colors employed;

Component B: luminosity , how the artist shows the effects of light illuminating the

water which he/she depicted;

Component C: reflection of objects in, or adjacent to, the water;

Component D: motion in the water, depicted as ripples or wave forms;

82 Twenty-two art museums were visited, including those of Cincinnati, Dayton, Detroit, J. Paul Getty (Los Angeles), Indianapolis, Louisville, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Louvre, Metropolitan Museum (New York), Menil Collection (Houston), Norton Simon (Pasadena), Pierpont Morgan (New York), Pitti Palace, Prado, Rijksmuseum, Siena, National Gallery of Art-D.C., National Gallery–London, St. Louis, Thyssen-Bornemisza (Madrid), Toronto, Uffizi). - 29 - Component E: immersion , the relationship of figures appearing to exist in or only on

the painted water, or on the adjacent bank to the surface of the water the artist painted,

i.e., did the painted figure appear to be partially immersed in the water;

Component F: perspective, painting techniques to depict space and distance.

For each of these six components I developed three or four quality level scores, a process reflecting the belief that a higher quality or criterion level should receive a higher rating score. This approach utilized semi-quantitative Likert-type scales wherein a higher numerical score indicates a greater degree of quality in the use of the specified criterion than a lower numerical score. 83 Thus the quality level score of 2+ indicates that certain painterly characteristics have been employed which, according to the criteria to be set forth, represent a higher degree of the approach to a realistic depiction of water than a value of 1+. In a semi- quantitative scale with values of 0, 1+, 2+, or 3+, the implication is that the higher ordinal represent a higher level of quality, but, since this is not a completely quantitative scale, the differences between lower and higher numbers do not indicate precisely equal differences between them, as occurs, e.g., with a linear, continuous, quantitative measurement such as the markings on a thermometer. Therefore a quality score of 2+ does not indicate that the component so graded is two times better than one receiving a score of 1+, but simply that a painting component meriting a score of 2+ met quality criteria leading it to be ranked higher than a component which met the criteria set forth for a 1+ score but did not contain the quality criteria to achieve a 3+ score.. The score of zero (0) always represents the complete absence of any of the desired qualities attached to the higher scores for a given component.

Five of the six grading components to be described carry quality grading scores of 0 to

3+, while the component of luminosity is scored from 0 to 2+. The scores of each work of art

83 Rensis Likert, “A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes,” Archives of Psychology 140 (1932), 1-55. - 30 - represent my evaluation of the artistic approaches to each of these six areas. These six numbers were added for each image to produce a summed score. 84

If the scores of each the six components, and their sum, evaluated by their designated quality levels, rise over time in the grading of the paintings under study (i.e., a positive slope), this would document the artistic trend I have hypothesized, viz. that artists provide more realistic water/landscape settings to their subjects as one moves from the medieval period into the Renaissance. With this approach I should be able to examine and compare the presumed rise in scores, i.e. improvement, in each of the six components rated. Having marked which paintings/illuminations originated in Northern Europe or in Italy, these two sources of much of the great extant late medieval and Renaissance art can be compared temporally for the changes in each component as well as their summed scores.

This approach to the evaluation of art must avoid subjectivity, so each component to be described, and its grading quality levels, must be obvious to an untrained eye. Objective criteria should lead to highly reproducible scores. This study therefore also tested intra-observer variability by scoring a randomly selected subset of seventy-seven paintings at least one year after the first rating. Inter-individual variability in the use of the rating scale is beyond the scope of this work, but has been found, in an informal setting, to be successfully eliminated with the use of an illustrated training session. 85

84 Each painting has a set of six quality or criterion scores, totaling 17 points, because five of the six criteria have a maximum of 3 quality score points and 3 x 5=15, but one criterion, luminosity, has a maximum of only 2 points. Then 15 +2=17. 85 Figures 11-21 have been produced in part for this purpose. - 31 - Chapter 5 Definition and Scoring of the Quality Levels (Table 1)

A. Hue . (the position of a color in the electromagnetic spectrum)

Blue is the first color which artists of the second millennium B.C.E. seem to have assigned to water, usually painted as a spring or rivulet in extant Cretan and Greek murals.

Water has no color, but under a blue sky it absorbs almost all the colors of the visible spectrum but reflects back more of blue, and to some extent green. In looking at streams, rivers, lakes and oceans I find that blue is rarely the only color seen. More complex blending of deep blue, blue- black and green, the latter from reflections of plants on land or from algae and plant forms in the sea, are readily apparent. In shallow water and on the banks of larger bodies of water the yellow-brown of sand or the gray of rock is usually noted. Stumpel points out that “…the color of water can run from dun-brown through all shades of green till the pure light blue of pure water.”86 Karel van Mander (1548 -1606) provides, in the highly influential Het Schilder-Boek

(The Painting Book ), his advice on the coloring of water:

86 Jeroen Stumpel. “Water Verven.” Kunstschrift SDU Openbaar Kunstbezit 43 (No.3, May-June, 1999), 12. A technical note on the colors blue, green, and brown, employed for the depiction of water by artists of ancient and medieval Europe and into the Renaissance follows. Two of the blues of the medieval palate were employed in classical antiquity, a mineral, azurite, and a paint extract, indigo. Lapis lazuli, literally “blue stone,” actually contains, besides the rich blue pigment known as lazurite or ultramarine (meaning “beyond the seas,” for it was found in only one area of the medieval world, a part of Persia which is now in Afghanistan) several other calcium- and iron-based minerals including iron pyrite or “fools’ gold”, from which it must be separated. Lazurite (different from the more plentiful azurite) has not been found in Egyptian, Hellenistic or Roman painting and appears to have been a medieval discovery. Cennini’s Handbook devotes the entirety of Chapter 62 to producing pure ultramarine (pp.36-9). Oil diminishes the majesty of ultramarine (and verdigris, discussed below) and artists were forced to add a little lead white to recover the fully saturated blue color. It is probable that artificial, chemically synthesized copper-based blue compounds were more significant to medieval and Renaissance artists than azurite or ultramarine. The greens found in the medieval depictions of water came from several sources: malachite, chemically very close to azurite; verdigris, a copper acetate made from vinegar (variants of verdigris were produced by mixing the copper with honey and salt yielding salt green, or by coating the copper with soap before exposing it to vinegar yielding a pigment called Rouen green, or by mixing verdigris with the yellow lake made from the saffron plant.). In oil verdigris tended to turn brown, an artifact which Flemish painters managed to prevent, unlike many Italian artists. Alternative greens in use by the fourteenth century were two organic colors called sap green and iris green, and several other vegetable greens. The third color which my analysis looks for in a painting of water, brown or ochre, was little used in medieval times where there was little interest in “colorless colors.” This helps explain the rare appearance of brownish colors, required to give my top score for the hue of water painting, until the umbers appear at the close of the fifteenth century. “The Middle Ages abhorred nondescript browns.” - 32 - …let the sky sometimes gradually change color from top to bottom until it merges with reflections in the water.

During the most joyful spring time…endeavor to paint the emerald green… to cover the land with its subtle variegation.

And through the midst of this let the crystal-clear murmuring stream meander between the green and grassy banks.

The objectively observable variables required for judging the quality of the depiction of hue, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

1. the presence or absence of the colors blue, green, and brown, alone or in combination;

2. an understanding that the use of black and white pigment, although

employed to show the effects of light and shadow within hue, are not involved in rating

decisions on hue. White and black represent a blending of all colors of the spectrum, or

an absence of color, respectively, so the use of these pigments in depicting the hues of

water is not given points in my schema. 87

No quality points (score of 0) are given if neither blue nor green is included as a color in the water. (Figure 11). Only one quality point (1+) is given if blue is the only color employed

(Figure 12), since the colors of water are almost always more complex than this. Green and blue are often successfully intermixed in water painting, as well as brown, gray or yellow, Therefore a score of 2+ (two points) is given when there are two hues employed in painting the water, blue or green plus either gray, brown or yellow (Figure 13). More complex water coloration requires

See: Victoria Finlay, Color: A Natural History of the Palette (New York: Random House, 2004), 290. Philip Ball, Bright Earth: Art and the Invention of Color (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 101, 236- 239. Daniel V. Thompson, The Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting (New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1956), 142-155, 160-174. 87 White and black are often used to alter color intensity to change the value or tint of a color. See Ball, Bright Earth , 19.

- 33 - at least three hues which must include blue, plus either green, gray, brown and/or yellow. The use of three or more hues receives a 3+ score (Figure 14).

B. Luminosity.

Luminosity, the use of the effects of light, usually sunlight in landscape paintings, is the second area in which I graded the painting under study. A first step toward representing the sea realistically was to rediscover the reflective properties of sunlight in deep blue water which

Hellenistic painters had succeeded in capturing. The Limbourg brothers were among the first medieval illuminators to demonstrate this, in Les Tres Riches Heures of Jean, Duc de Berry , produced between 1412-1416, in the illumination of October.

There are only three grades for the evaluation of luminosity, whereas the other five components each carry a point score from 0 to 3+, i.e. four choices for each. The objectively observable variables for judging the quality of the depiction of luminosity, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

progressive change in the color of the water, either lightening or darkening, as one looks

toward the background;

presence or absence of shadow 93 (This should be note 88 and I can’t seem to fix it)

presence or absence of a celestial source of light illuminating a focal, brighter part of the

scene.

A score of 0 results when no attempt is detected to show any painterly effect of light, such as progressive lightening or darkening of the hue of water moving to the middle ground and

93 Masaccio in his fresco of Saint Peter’s Shadow Healing (1425) in the Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria de Carmine, Florence and Robert Campin in his Virgin and Child , now in the National gallery, London, c. 1433, representing Italian and Northern schools respectively, were among the first European painters to use shadow in their compositions. Other art historians agree that cast shadow rarely appears until the Quattrocento. See: E. H. Gambrich, Shadows: The Depiction of Cast Shadows in Western Art (London, U.K.: National gallery Publications, Ltd., 1995), 21-22 and Frederick Hartt and David G. Wilkins, History of Italian Renaissance Art , fifth edition (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003), 100. - 34 - background of the painting or no evidence of the use of shadow (Figure 11). A score of 1+ is earned with evidence of a progressively lighter or darker coloration employed as one follows the flow or motion of the water in the painting (usually toward the background), and also when shadow is employed as a technique to suggest a directional light source (Figure 12). The 2+ score is given if, in addition to the light-influenced gradations of color in the water, there is clear evidence of a solar, lunar, or stellar source of light reflected in the water or nearby land, seen as a focal white and/or yellow area, also illuminating the whole scene and not only as a spotlight effect (Figure 13).

C.: Reflection.

This grading is based on the detection of a fainter painted reproduction of what was on the bank of, or in, water, simulating the directing back of light from an aqueous reflecting surface. The objectively observable variables for judging the quality of the depiction of reflection, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

1. the presence or absence of a subtle but unequivocal darkening of the water painted at its

junction with adjacent land or objects/figures in the water if no true reflection is seen;

2. detection of a fainter reproduction of at least some, but not all, of the elements in, or on

the bank of, the depicted water;

3. consistent use of the reflection on all elements in, or adjacent to, the depicted water.

The absence of any reflection received a grade of 0 (Figure 12). A subtle darkening of the depicted water at its junction with land, or with objects/figures in the water, but with no actual reflection, is the first step toward painting a reflection, and merits a 1+ grade (Figure 14). For a

2+ grade, reflections should be inconsistently found in the painting, so that not every object painted as if on the bank of a body of water, or actually in the water, has a reflection (Figure

15). The highest score, 3+ is merited when all the objects near or in the painted water are shown - 35 - as having their own, credible reflections (Figure 13). This reflected image may be distorted to some extent by movement of water around the object.

D. Motion: ripples or waves.

Water is almost always in motion because of the displacement of water by objects (e.g. ships) and by living creatures in water; the effects of wind, currents, and tides; and the force of gravity requiring that liquids always move from higher to lower points. 94

The objectively observable variables for judging the quality of depicting motion, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

1. the presence or absence of a flat surface representing water, free of linear or curvilinear

strokes suggesting ripples or waves;

2. presence of ripples or waves so stylized as to be almost completely identical in all

sections of the extent of the water;

3. presence of curvilinear marks in the water not entirely stylized and linear but still

showing too many identical wave forms;

4. ripples or larger waves which are not stylized, are almost all varied and different in

depiction; if a wave is depicted, there is a shadow beneath the crest and some degree of

white at the peak of the crest of the wave to indicate reflection of light;

5. ripples must radiate circumferentially from objects/figures in the water;

94 Depictions of water in the marshes about the River Nile showed jagged, continuous “V” shaped ripples crossing perpendicularly to the flow of the stream, while Hellenistic water tended to be smooth. In early Christian art, parallel undulating lines became the convention, also moving parallel to the direction of flow, with steeper wave forms indicating a storm. One of the first artists to demonstrate this was Jan van Eyck, in the background river of The Virgin of the Chancellor Roulin and in the depiction of the river in a bas-de-page illustration of the Baptism of Christ in The Milan-Turin Hours ( Figure 3 ). Leoonardo’s profound study of the subject has been the subject of ao thoughtful essay, “Form of Movement in Water and Air,” in E. H. Gombrich, Gombrich on the Renaissance. Vol. 3 The Heritage of Apelles (London: Phaidon Press, Ltd., 1993), 39-56. - 36 - 6. the presence or absence of a varying and focal heterogeneity in the depiction of the

color of water, which is not part of a lighting scheme such as one showing distance (cf.

infra ) but represents an attempt to show shimmering flecks of water in motion.

A score of 0 is applied to a painting with no evidence of the illusion of motion in water which is painted as a flat surface, or with only minimal heterogeneity of color, and without any attempt to depict ripples or waves (Figure 16). A 1+ score is applied to the linear depiction of stylized, or almost completely stylized, usually parallel, ripples or identical wave forms (Figure 12). The

2+ score is applied to ripples or waves which are not all stylized or identical, although too many of these are linear in depiction and hence not fully realistic. In this 2+ category a sense of motion could also be suggested by marked, non-graded heterogeneity of the color of the water with ripples only minimally suggested (Figure 17). To merit the 3+ designation one must see small ripples or larger waves which are not stylized, are varied in size, and convey a sense of real motion. These ripples must radiate centrifugally from any figure in the water. The painting of a large wave needs to show a shadow under the crest of the wave with some degree of light catching the top if the wave is to simulate foam (Figure 18).

Component E. Relationship of figures in or on water or on the bank to the water surface.

To produce the appearance that a figure is in the depicted water requires the illusionistic use of several artistic approaches. Therefore in the data analysis I will examine whether the criterion under discussion, and others previously mentioned, are truly independent of each other in judging the adequacy of the simulation of real water painted in two dimensions. The objectively observable variables for judging the quality of the depiction of the relationship of figure to water, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

1. the part of the object/figure under water is portrayed less clearly and/or is partially or

totally obscured by the water as compared to the part above water; - 37 - 2. there are ripples or waves where the object or figure is seen to enter the water;

3. the object in the water casts some shadow on the water;

4. there is some evidence of reflection of the object in the water.

A score of 0 occurs when the figure(s) or objects in the painting which are supposed to appear in some relationship to the water are placed on, or over, the depiction of water but without any sense of being in the water. For this designation the following must occur: no shadows from the object or figure appear on the water; that part of the figure or object in the water is as clearly seen as the part above the water; there are no shadows or suggestions of shadow extending from the figure to the surface of the water; no ripples appear where the water meets the partially submerged figure on the bank of the stream, river or beach (Figure 19). A 1+ designation is applied when there is some sense that all the painted figures are in, or immediately adjacent to, the depicted water; the part of the figure or object under the water is at least partially obscured by the hues employed in depicting the water; there is, however, no evidence of a thin line at the junction of the submerged part with the part which is portrayed as being above the water; there is no shadow projecting from the figure in the water; no true reflection is present, there are no thin ripples or waves at the junction where the water surface meets the figure (Figure 20). To merit the score of 2+, the figure/object which is supposed to be under the painted water is less well seen that the part depicted as not submerged, but there is, in the water at the junction of figure or the bank with the depicted water a thin, dark line or a shadow; no true reflection is present, or, if seen, it is positioned illogically relative to the light source or water (Figure17). To reach a 3+ point score the figures depicted as being in the water or on the bank next to the water must appear realistically portrayed using all of the following: credible reflection; visible shadow of the figures in the water or objects on the bank of the water; ripple/wave movement around the

- 38 - figure or at the bank; loss of clarity or disappearance of the submerged part of the object/figure in the water (Figure 13).

F. Perspective: the illusion of space and distance.

Among the first artists to recognize that water could be used as a distancing device were the Bouicaut Master in early fifteenth century Paris, who perceived that strong colors advance toward the viewer; 95 and the International Style French painter Jacquemaert de Hesdin (c.1355-

1414). Leon Battista Alberti’s treatise Della Pittura of 1435, a “judicious blend of mathematics, classical erudition, and simple common sense,” 96 provided the first scientific study of perspective. However, to employ a single mathematically correct, Albertian vanishing point required the painters of the Italian Renaissance to produce some distortions of nature, probably reducing their use of detailed description of what one wished to be included in the painting (since every object in the picture had to be mathematically scaled), in contrast to the tradition of Northern Europe.

Jan van Eyck, in his Virgin of the Chancellor Rolin , also created in 1435, was among the very first artists to use water to lead the eye into the distance, as a painted river twists into the background of this masterpiece. The Flemish illuminator Lieven van Lathem (c.1430-c.1493) perfected this device in a 1469 illumination, Christ Appearing to St. James the Greater, in the

Prayer Book of Charles the Bold. 97 wherein the artist dramatically winds his dominant image of a river into the background while the color of the water simultaneously lightens as it moves toward the background; the waves become less clear, and distant objects progressively smaller.

95 Margaret Salisbury, “The Emergence of Landscape in Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting” (Ph. D. diss., San Diego State University, 1982.), 64-65. 96 Richard A. Turner, The Vision of Landscape in Renaissance Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966.), 3. 97 Thomas Kren and Scott McKendrick, The Renaissance: The Triumph of Flemish Manuscript Painting in Europe (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2003), 129. - 39 - The objectively observable variables for judging the quality of the depiction of the illusion of distance, which should be apparent to an untrained observer , are:

1. a gradual alteration in the color and lightness/darkness of water toward the background;

2. reduction in size of objects in/on the water, including wave forms, toward the

background, found perhaps earliest in the Pearl of Brabant of Dieric Bouts (1415-

1475); 98

3. reduction in the clarity of ripples and wave forms, and of the clarity of all forms, as one

moves toward the background, also first perceived in the illuminations of the Boucicaut

Master; 119, 122

4. narrowing of a channel of water (if there is one) as it moves toward the background;

5. evidence of at least one perspectival vanishing point, to which the narrowing stream,

river, or bay etc. may contribute.

A quality score of 0 is given if there is no sense of distance or system of perspective in the water, i.e. absence of all of the characteristics listed above (Figure 20). A grade of 1+ is earned if only one of the five elements listed above is present. (Figure 21). The 2+ designation is given when two to four of these elements can be found (Figure 12); the 3+ designation occurs when all five quality score elements are present (Figure 13).

98 Salisbury, “The Emergence of Landscape in Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting,” 76. - 40 - Chapter 6. Data Presentation and Analysis

To summarize the process of data acquisition, the quality of 266 paintings produced between 1500 B.C.E. and 1663 C.E. was analyzed for each of six components, employing grading scales or criteria detailed in Chapter Five. For each painting the score for each category was recorded as a rating, using a three or four point Likert-type rating or response scale, ranging from 0 to 2+ or 0 to 3+. A score of 1+ represented a higher level of “quality” (by the criteria of

Table 1), than a score of 0 but a lower level than a grade of 2+, which, in turn was less than a

3+ designation.

Table 2 contains my personal identification number for each of 266 paintings in the first column, then the name of the artist (if known), title, year of production, 99 the media employed, and current location of the image. I have listed these paintings in Tables 2, 3, and 6 in ascending chronological order from earliest (c.1500 B.C.E.) to the most recent year of production where a painting merited analysis in this context, 1663 C.E., so that the Tables may be more easily collated visually by the reader.

Table 3 repeats my chronologic listing, my study identification number and the painting title to allow easy interfacing with the paintings identified in Table 2. The grading results for each painting follow in the next seven columns of Table.3, providing the Likert-type quality score or grade each image received in the six components described above (and listed in Table

1), as well as the total or sum score of these six grades. The sum score is followed by a column again documenting the year of production, also used to assist the reader in collating Tables 2, 3, and 6. The last column of Table 3 provides abbreviations for the site of production: Italy

(abbreviated “I”), northern Europe (abbreviated “N”), or other sites, such as Spain or England,

99 The year is often only approximate, in which case it has been marked with an asterisk, as the Latin prefix circa, or “c,” placed before the date of the images blocks the Microsoft Excel feature which organizes the data in ascending chronological order. - 41 - marked as “not I or N” in the final column. In summary, Tables 1, 2, and 3 provide the raw data for my subsequent analyses.

The dates of creation of the images I have analyzed were not randomly selected but were based on my bias that the painting of water probably achieved my predefined highest levels (i.e. summed scores of 16-17) in the early fifteenth century. I recognized that this educated guess carried a significant chance of error, so that I needed to look for earlier medieval precursors.

Therefore I also examined pre-Christian and early Christian art for signs of the development of the painting of water in landscape. The search was continued into the seventeenth century, where, as documented in my introductory paragraphs, Dutch landscapes/seascapes had achieved an extraordinary level of reproducing the illusion of water .that looked realistic in appearance.

The data in Table 3 can be summarized in a variety of ways. Descriptive statistics were developed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software from SAS Institute, Inc., Cary,

North Carolina. Table 4 displays the distribution of scores, or score frequencies, for each of the six graded components, and Table 5 separates these into the graded components for Northern

European or Italian painting. From this tabulation one can see that the top scores (2+ for illumination or 3+ for the other five) are, surprisingly, never reached by even a plurality of the artists rated. For component 3, reflection, more artists simply ignored the device entirely, i.e. received a score of zero (0), than the percentages of artists whose works appear in the other three score levels of this category. Reflection was the only criterion where this occurred, and it would appear that the painterly concept of reflection was basically ignored until the early fifteenth century. The data to be presented also indicate that reflection was an illusionistic device significantly (in the formal, statistical sense) less often used in Italy than in Northern

Europe, perhaps because reflection would add significantly to the geometric complexity required to produce Albertian one point perspective.. - 42 - A scatter plot was also constructed, graphing the sum score of each image against the year each was produced, not only for the whole data set (Figure 22) but also separately for the sum scores developed after the year 1200 C.E., when I expected the greatest improvement in sum scores (Figure 23). In Figure 24 appear the scatter plots of the scores of each category against the year of production from the beginning of the Common Era. One can observe in these plots where the peak scores occurred for each category. Two anomalous peak data points, for hue and luminosity, are present for the year 810 C.E. when an illumination in the Aachen

Gospels, produced for the court of Charlemagne by an anonymous artist, received the highest ratings in these two components. One can further see from the scatter plots for Figure 29 that there were no followers of this Aachen style, as no data points climb to these heights for centuries thereafter, so this artist had no lasting effect on subsequent illuminations or paintings, perhaps because his style had no chance to be widely disseminated at this time, with extensive travel rather hazardous and no means of reproduction of the image at hand.

A crucial issue confronting any analytic or comparative approaches to these data is to determine the variability of the scores assigned to each image, as this scoring methodology underlies the whole thesis. If the grading numbers appearing in Table 3 prove to be selected by criteria which are only random choices, then the whole schema falls like a house of cards. Table

6 documents the rescoring, a year or more after the initial grading, of seventy-seven illuminations/paintings from available texts, employing the chronological listing identical to that in Tables 2 and 3. My study number for each work and the title appear in the first two columns, followed by the results of rescoring all six components in the next. six columns with the resultant summed score in the seventh. The subsequent column documents chronologically the year of production, to enable the reader to cross reference Table 6 with Tables 2 and 3. Next in

- 43 - Table 6 is a column listing the original score from Table 3, and a final column shows the difference between the two sum scores.

Reproducibilty of Data

There are potential problems with the assessment of reproducibility in any rating schema. For intra-observer reproducibility, which I have examined as a central part of this thesis if its findings are to possess any validity, I required that at least a year must have passed between image assessments. It is theoretically possible to remember exactly what one observed in the first viewing, and this possibility cannot fully be excluded. However the viewer is always changed in some way over a year by the hundreds of intervening images encountered, and I believe that the scored elements of these images could not be recalled. Also, no record was kept by this writer of the use of a magnifying glass in examining details of water, and tiny details such as reflections may be better seen with this optical tool, which was probably employed more often in the second grading than the first, another source of potential intra-observer, and inter-observer, error.

There are other reasons for potential intra-observer and inter-observer variation to be considered. With the component of hue, the judgment whether a subtle blue-green color represents one or two colors can be a problem. The scoring of the components of luminosity and reflection could depend on observing or ignoring very subtle differences in the use of white or black to change the appearance of light or shadow, and a grading change could result from such differences of observation. Judgments about the component of motion require close examination for tiny reflections or ripples which, if missed, change that area of grading. Also, it may not be possible for all observers to agree when the ripples in water are identical, and thus stylized, versus images where ripples are not all identical. The evaluation of the component of immersion superficially appears somewhat subjective, deciding whether a figure is seen within - 44 - a body of water or painted on the surface. However, the criteria for this component which have been proposed in this thesis seem to work in my analysis, but the decision making is potentially more complex here, depending on a synthesis of the elements of reflection, shadow, wave movement, and color changes, although the grading criteria I have proposed would seem to allow simple “absent/present” decisions on each of these elements. This area would be predicted to be the most subject to observer variation. The last component, perspective, requires the presence of four elements (Table 1) to give the highest (3+) grade, and while each would seem to be an obvious decision as to the presence or absence of a defined element, the grading scale requires agreement on four elements to give that highest grade, so there is some chance for observer variation.

Data Analysis

My tabulated data are therefore examined more closely in Table 7 which documents the reproducibility of the summed scores (Table 7A) and that of each of the six components (Table

7B). In Table 7A one can see that the percent of sum scores which changed no more than one point was an excellent 83%. This result must be viewed in the perspective of a study reviewing thirty-eight different sources of data concerning expert intra-observer or inter-observer agreement, which found that excellent observer agreement occurred in only 78.7% of 2,988 observations in these multiple observational data sets,. 100 as compared to the 83% intra-observer agreement found in my data.

The difference in regrading each of the six components was also never in excess of one point (Table 7B), i.e. no score differed by even two or three points from its earlier evaluation.

The kappa statistic has been developed to evaluate chance agreements between two sets of

100 Lorrin M. Koran, “The Reliability of Clinical Methods, Data, and Judgments,” New England Journal of Medicine 293 (1975), 642-646; 695-701. - 45 - observations. The kappa score is used for categorical variables exemplified by the scoring of my six components. Kappa can be thought of as the observed agreement not accounted for by chance, divided by the possible agreement also not accounted for by chance. 124,101 The kappa scores for the regrading of all six components of water painting are presented in Table 8, along with the generally agreed upon interpretations, or qualitative meanings, of kappa. 102 The kappa scores for my six components are virtually all at the upper end of the “substantial agreement” range.

To test the variability of the summed scores of the six components, a continuous variable, the Intra-class Correlation Coefficient was employed. This statistic is the proportion of variance of an observation due to between-subject or between-observation variability in the true scores and can range from 0.0-1.0. It will be high when there is little variation between the two sets of scores. It takes into account the differences in ratings for the six individual components, along with the correlation between raters. For this study the Intra-Class Correlation

Coefficient was 0.97, indicating that there was very high reproducibility of the scoring techniques employed.

Several approaches have been suggested to deal with the problem of intra- and inter- observer agreement, emphasizing training, experience, and enhanced concentration, but it is unlikely that there will ever be perfect agreement between observers. 103 Inter-observer variation in the use of this scale was not attempted, as it would require a significant investment of time and effort by a second observer who would need to be educated in the process of using the grading scale I have presented. Nevertheless I have prepared a series of illustrations (Figures11-

101 Koran, “The Reliability of Clinical Methods, Data, and Judgments,” 643. 102 Anthony J. Viera and Joanne M. Garrett, “Understanding Interobserver Agreement: The Kappa Statistic,” Family Medicine 37 (2005), 360-363. 103 David A. Turner, “Observer Variability,” Journal of Nuclear Medicine 19 (1978), 435-437. - 46 - 21) to teach any observer how to grade the six components of painting water realistically based on the verbal scales of Table 1.

Once my component grading data were found to be reproducible, they were subjected to further analysis. The first question to be asked is what were the uses of landscape in the centuries under study and how did these change. A listing of the subject matter of the 266 images from this study appears in Table 9. The trends are fairly predictable and certainly yield no surprises in their consistency with the contents of art history texts. Most, but not all, of pre-

Christian Western European painting described the myths of the god and heroes of Greece and

Rome, but there were landscapes free of mythic content in the homes and villas of wealthy

Romans, as evidenced by the findings of villas in Pompeii which have been called the Pompeii

II Style. Early Christian and medieval paintings, on the other hand, are naturally entirely concerned with Christian themes. The Church was virtually the only patron for artists, and there were many churches and liturgical manuscripts to be decorated. However, as early as the trecento we begin to see a change in subject matter, as 9% of the paintings I rated from that time have a non-Christian, classic or mythic frame of reference when landscape and water are depicted. The quattrocento introduces the early Renaissance, and there is a dramatic shift in subject matter so that the percent of Christian-themed water-containing illustrations drops to

49% of the total in the fifteenth century, with images referring to classic or mythic subjects jumping to 28%. In fifteenth century paintings with landscape containing water, the artist and his changing patrons chose to look at (then) current, as well as past, historical events, portraits of leading figures of society, and even landscapes where man does not dominate the image.

Christian themes become more important again in the cinquecento, perhaps under the influence

- 47 - of the Counter-Reformation.104 Landscape, usually containing a body of water, emerges as the sole subject of many artists’ output in the seventeenth century, especially in the Netherlands.

Because of the demonstrated reproducibility of the scores of the six components of water painting, we may not only ask if the scores improved over time in representing water, but also whether some rose to higher levels of quality more rapidly than others, and whether there were geographic differences in these trends. Beginning with the scatter plot data for Figure 24, I have plotted the percent of images achieving the top score in each category (3+ in all categories except illumination where the peak score was 2+) against the year of achieving the top score beginning with the year 1300 C.E., when all the scores were quite low, and continuing up to the last painting studied in this dissertation, a work of Claude Lorrain dated 1663 C.E. The results appear in Figure 25. Each of the curves is statistically different from all of the others.105 This indicates that the complex components of immersion and perspective are independently evaluable and have been unaffected by the ratings of other relevant components such as reflection. Although the components of reflection and motion have similar curves, they are also statistically separate.

I have also analyzed the slopes 106 of the curves in Figure 30 over four centuries, from

1200-1600 (Table 10). If there is no change in scores over any century examined in Table 9, that slope is, by definition, zero, i.e., there is no significant change with time, and therefore the graph will be a flat line. The higher the value of a slope becomes, the more rapid the rate of

104 The Catholic Church had attempted to rein in some of the excesses of Mannerism in the 1530’s, but with the Council of Trent, (1545-1563) the issue of religious art became a matter for solemn and prolonged deliberation. In 1563 the Council declared that a bishop must approve all images “in any place or church,” a remarkable mandate. See: J. Waterworth, trans. The Council of Trent Twenty-fifth Session, Article 156.3 (London: Dolman, 1848), 236. 105 The Log-Rank test was used to test the equality of the distribution of peak scores over the years from 1300 C.E. among the six criteria I employed; all were found to be significantly different with p<0.001. The symbol p<0.001 indicates the probability that this result could occur by chance alone is under 0.001, i.e. less than one in one thousand times. 106 The slope in this study is the rate of change of a given measurement per unit of time. - 48 - change. If there is an apparent change of scores with time in a component, so that one perceives some rise in the graph during that time period, one can ask if this is really statistically different than a flat line, i.e. is this really a true change we are witnessing? We can calculate the probability that a change is occurring, that the rise in the graph is different from a flat line, if the p-value, or probability, is less than or equal to 0.05. This means that, if the p-value of the slope is less than or equal to 0.05, the chance that this is not really a significant change from a flat line

(zero slope) is one in twenty or less.

In the duecento , only hue begins to rise significantly (p=0.02, less than 0.05 and therefore statistically significant), and in the next century hue is joined only by components of immersion and perspective. The analysis further documents that there is real change (i.e., not due to chance) in all six components, with all of the probability values less than 0.05. The slopes of the components of reflection and motion are calculated to actually be different, although this is not readily apparent in Figure 25. In the quattrocento the rate of change, or slope, is the highest of all the centuries tested, and hence the rate of change in quality scores of painting greatest, as one might predict from the history of Renaissance art. These data, however, provide unique quantitative confirmation of widely held beliefs, and the beliefs, in turn, help validate the data. In the sixteenth century, the slopes of all six components of the painting of water continue to rise significantly, but clearly at a slower rate than in the previous century. The component of perspective attains the highest percent of scores reaching the peak 3+ values, documented in Figure 25 as beginning about 1480. The component of immersion, the relationship of figure to water, was projected a priori to be a difficult artistic problem, but this component achieved the next best percent of peak scores in any given year, beginning about the same time as the scores for perspective (Table 10, Figure 25). Reflection and motion give similar but statistically different scores of the percent achieving the peak score by the - 49 - Quattrocento . The component of hue received the earliest scores showing an increasing grade, in the duecento , but the slope of the peak scores given for hue begins to decrease with time to such an extent that it eventually is fifth among the six categories in percent of paintings receiving the peak score between 1500-1600. The category with the lowest slope between 1400-

1600 is luminosity, where relatively few artists chose to show beams of the sun, moon, or stars striking and being focally reflected from the earth and/or its water. In summary, my grading schema successfully separates and shows the relative development of the six different components of water painting, quantitating the differences in Table 10.

I have previously discussed the trans-Alpine influences of Northern Europe, especially

Flanders, and of Italy on each other, with multiple crosscurrents of influence leading to the

International Style in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. Differences between

Northern European and Italian art were nevertheless usually clear. The data collected in Table 3 should permit a comparison of the quality scores of the illuminations and paintings of water from the two areas. Table 5 breaks down the scores for my six criteria into Northern European and Italian categories, while Figure 26 is a scatter plot of the sum scores of graded images from the two sites. The unpaired Student t-test 107 was used to test the equality of the sum scores from the two painting sources. No significant differences were found as p=0.33; the p, or probability, would have to be <0.05 to be statistically significant.

To display the scores by the year of production of the images for of the six components of water painting from Northern European and Italian sources, a box-and-whisker diagram was employed in Figure 27. For each rating in the six components the Italian box has been placed

107 Student was the pen name of Dublin chemist William S. Gosset who introduced the test in 1908. - 50 - above that representing Northern Europe. The median 108 year for each level of scoring is represented by a vertical line in the box, and the first and third quartiles (representing the images that constitute the range, in this study, of the years comprising 25% to 75% of the paintings rated) are the edges of the box. The largest and smallest values that are not outliers 109 are connected to the box by lines called “whiskers.”

It is surprising that, while the attainment of higher quality scores is a trend we see over time, as documented in Figure 25, for both regions the data show that many artists were still painting the components required to produce a simulacrum of water at a level meriting the score of only 1+ even into the sixteenth century. Not every artist was following the latest techniques for painting water.

The Wilcoxon rank sum test was performed to test the equality of distribution of the score levels for each component from the year 1300 C.E. up to the last painting graded, dated

1663. Only the distribution of the scores for reflection, was significantly different (p=0.03) between Italian and Northern European sources, i.e., the difference would occur by chance only

3 in 100 sets of measurements. However; there were no significant difference (p>0.05) between the painting scores for the other five components from the two regions.

To further analyze this apparent difference in the quality grading of the painting of reflection between Italian and Northern European artists which had been detected, the Log-Rank test was used to further examine the equality of distributions of peak scores between images produced in Northern Europe versus Italy. Figure 28 confirms not only that the Italian and

Northern European sources differ in the scores for Component C, reflection, but also that the

108 The median observation is located in the middle or center of all observations for the data set and is different than the average or mean. 109 Mild outliers are more than 1.5 times, but less than 3 times the interquartile range, the value obtained by subtracting the first quartile number from the third quartile number. By definition, the median value is the second quartile number. - 51 - images from Northern Europe have significantly more peak scores for this component than those from Italy. Thus, according to my analysis, Northern European artists paid more attention to water, especially in the area of reflection, and they rated higher quality scores than their

Italian counterparts. No other significant differences between the two regions are seen in the other five components I rated, probably because of the long history of cultural cross- fertilization. between the two regions.

The data permit a few other comparisons between Italian and Northern European water- containing landscape. I set the peak score an image could receive at sixteen or seventeen, because fewer painters than I expected used a patch of sunlight, moonlight, or starlight reflecting off land or water than expected. Recognizing that this was frequently not s a crucial element in my summed score allowed me to set the maximum value of this score at one less than seventeen, i.e., sixteen, if the luminosity grade was a 1+ and all of the other five components graded received a 3+. Table 11 lists the artists and year of production of the illumination or painting receiving the peak scores of sixteen or seventeen, and the year when this occurred. Only fifteen artists reached this peak score of all those listed in Table 1. Six consecutive Northern European artists achieved this level of excellence in painting water before the first Italian artist, Titian, managed the feat in 1560. Claude Lorrain painted in Rome, so that

I consider him the only other “Italian” painter in this list. 110

I have listed the six components graded in Table 12 along with the name and date of both the first Northern European and the first Italian artist to achieve the peak score for each component out of the 266 images rated. Because of the scores given Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, Northern European artists preceded the Italians in every category, and using a

110 Claude Lorrain, also known as Claude Gellee,was born in the village of Champagne in the district of Lorrain c.1604, but almost all of his training was in Italy. - 52 - statistic called the sign test, this difference is also statistically significant, with p<0.02.. Table 13 completes this picture by indicating which artist from each region first achieved a score or 16 and of 17. Titian’s Venus gives the Italians the edge in achieving the score of 17, but this is an isolated phenomenon. We may conclude that Northern European artists, led by van Eyck, preceded Italian artists in the realistic painting of water, as early as 1420.

- 53 - Chapter 7. Conclusions

Several conclusions may be drawn from this thesis. First, the painting of water, primarily as a part of landscape, may be dissected into six components which can be analyzed in terms of criteria relating to the quality of the painting. These scoring criteria, and the sum of their scores, have been statistically documented to be reproducible with little intraobserver variability. An image of the score level of each component (0 to 3+) accompanying and its verbal description has been reproduced and is available for the study of inter observer variability in this analysis, as well as the application of this approach to other areas of Western painting involving the artist’s motivation to produce a realistic image prior to the mid- nineteenth century.

While the painting of water as part of landscape appeared in the second millennium

B.C.E., it was in the Hellenistic period that the quality scores of the painting of water rose to heights that would not be exceeded until the early quattrocento. However water envisioned as separate from landscape did not become the subject of painting until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the Netherlands.

The philosophical and religious underpinnings of a return to the realistic painting of water in landscape emerged in the twelfth century but did not evoke a statistically significant rise in the quality scores of all six components of the painting of water until the fifteenth century, although the concept of hue began to improve in its quality in the thirteenth century, joined by real improvement in perspective and in conveying the artistic illusion of forms being immersed in water in the fourteenth century.

While cumulative, or summed peak quality scores were not statistically different between the painting of water in Italy and Northern Europe, an analysis of each of the six

- 54 - components of that sum score revealed that reflection was more frequently scored higher in images from Northern Europe than Italy. Northern European artists also achieved the highest quality scores for all six components before their Italian counterparts, a phenomenon occurring first in the fifteenth century.

In the trecento my data document the beginning of the painting of secular subjects, a trend which rapidly rose to comprise half of artists’ subjects in the next century where the rebirth of European interest in naturalistic works of art, and a reexamination of Christian texts, became prominent. Especially in Italy there was great interest in the study of Greek and Roman authors, architecture and art.

The Quattrocento has been cited as the Renaissance since French historian Jules

Michelet employed the term in 1855 and Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt expanded on

Michelet’s concept in 1860. However there was also the earlier Carolingian Renaissance as well as the Twelfth Century Renaissance, but my historical review found that artistic change in the realistic painting of water only occurred with the last of these three Renaissance movements.

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Articles

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Billeter Erika. “Wenn Gemalte Wasser Fliessen.” DU 11(1981), 20-23.

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Doktor, Raphael. “Paintng Techniques.” Parnassus 10 (December, 1938), 28-29, 31-32.

Drewer, Lois. “Fisherman and Fish Pond: From the Sea of Sin to the Living Waters.” The Art Bulletin 63 (Dec., 1981),533-547.

Duthy, Robin. “Celebrating the Sea”. Connoisseur 213 (March, 1983), 108-115.

Dunkerson, Jill. “Modifications to Traditional Egg Tempera Techniques in Fifteenth Century Italy.” Early Italian Paintings: Techniques and Analysis. Maastricht: Limburg Conservation Institute, 1996.

Ettinghausen, Richard and Marie L. Swietochowski. “ Islamic Art.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 36 (No. 2, Autumn 1978), 1-48.

Ferbe, S.H.. “Jean Pucelle and Giovanni Pisano.” Art Bulletin 66 (1984), 65-72 - 67 - Fremout, Wim, Steven Saverwyns, Famke Peters, and Dominique Deneffe. “Non-Destructive Micro-Raman and X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy on Pre-Eyckian Works of Art— Verification with the Results Obtained by Destructive Methods.” Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 37 (2006), 1035-1045.

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Likert, Rensis, “A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes.” Archives of Psychology 140 (1932), 1-55.

Orna, Mary V. “Doing Chemistry at the Art/Archaeology Interface: 1996 Norris Award Address.” Journal of Chemical Education 74 (No. 4, 1997), 373-383.

Rutherford-Dyer, R. “Homer’s Wine-Dark Sea.” Greece & Rome 30 (October 1983), 125-128.

Schrader, J.L. “A Medieval Bestiary.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 44 (Summer, No. 1, 1986), 1-56

Simmonds, Jackie. “Painting Water.” The Artist 113 (No. 7, 1998), 18-22.

Schjeldahl, Peter. “Dutch Touch: A Visiting Vermeer at the Met.” The New Yorker (September 29, 2009), 96.

Stumpel, Jeroen. “Water verven.” Kunstschrift SDU Openbaar Kunstbezit 43 (No.3, May- June, 1999), 11-52.

Turner, David A. “Observer variability.” Journal of Nuclear Medicine 19 (1978), 435-437. - 68 - Viera, Anthony J. and Joanne M. Garrett. “Understanding Interobserver Agreement: The Kappa Statistic.” Family Medicine 37 (2005), 360-363.

Wamberg, Jacob. “Landscapes of Art: A Short History of Mentalities.” in Landscape, ed. Flemming Friborg, 139-150. Carlsberg: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 2005.

Wamberg, Jacob. Abandoning Paradise in Nye, David E., ed. In “Technologies of Landscape: From Reaping to Recycling.” Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999.

Theses

Brooks, Sarah T. “Commemoration of the Dead: Late Byzantine Tomb Decoration (Mid- Thirteenth to Mid-Fifteenth Centuries).” Ph.D. diss. New York University, 2002.

Deam, Lisa. “Mapping the Past: The ‘Fleur des Histoires.’ (Brussels Bibliotheque Royale, MS. 9231-9232) in the Context of Fifteenth-Century Burgundian Historiography.” Ph. D. diss. University of Chicago, 2001. von Dieppe, Roger D. “The Origin and Development of Continuous Narrative in Roman Art, 300 B.C.-A.D.200.” Ph.D. diss. University of Southern California, 2007.

Goehring, Margaret L. “Landscape in Franco-Flemish Manuscript Illumination of the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries.” Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 2000.

Gouedo-Thomas, Catherine. “Usage de l’Eau: Dans la Vie Privee, au Moyen-Age, a Travers l’Iconographie des Manuscrits a Peintures de l’Europe Septentrionale (XII-XVI Siecles).” Ph.D. diss., L’Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Science Sociales de Paris, 1995.

Guest, Emma T.K. “The Illustration of Virgil’s Bucolics and its Influence in Italian Renaissance Art.” Ph.D. diis., Rutgers University, 2005.

Jensen, Susan H. “Books of Hours as Icons: Devotional Imagery and Penance in Early Fifteenth-Century Flemish Lay Prayerbooks ” Ph. D. diss., University of Maryland, 1995.

Richards, Isabelle M. “Growth of a Painter Through Examination of an Earlier Era.” Ed. D. diss., Columbia University, 1992.

Salisbury, Margaret. “The Emergence of Landscape in Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting.” Ph. D. diss., San Diego State University, 1982.

Shelton, Lois H. “Gold in Altarpieces of the Early Italian Renaissance: A Theological and Art Historical Analysis of Its Meaning and of the Reasons for Its Disappearance.” Ph.D. diss, Yale University, 1987.

- 69 - Sholty, Janet P. “Into the Woods: Wilderness Imagery as Representation of Spiritual and Emotional Transition in Medieval Literature.” Ph.D. diss. University of North Texas, 1997

Tajibaeva, Janna S. “Old Testament Images in Islamic Paintings.” Ph.D. diss, University of Louisville, 1999.

- 70 - Figure 1. Anonymous. Fishing and Fowling in the Marshes . c. 1400 B.C.E. Painting on plaster. 66 x 93 cm Tomb of Menna. Thebes.

- 71 - Figure 2. Anonymous. Landscape with Boating Part, House of M. Lucretius, Pompeii . Second Century B.C.E. Painting on plaster, d.u. Museo Nazionale, Naples

- 72 - Figure 3. Anonymous. The Calling of Peter and Andrew. c. 520 C.E. Mosaic. 122 x 152 cm. Ravenna. Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo

- 73 - Figure 4. Anonymous. David Playing the Harp . Tenth Century C.E. Tempera on parchment, d.u. Paris Bibliotheque Nationale

- 74 - Figure 5. Anonymous. River Landscape (detail). c.715 C.E. Mosaic. d.u. Damascus,Great Mosque

- 75 - Figure 6. Bonaventura Berlinghieri. Miracles of St. Francis (detail). 1235 C.E. tempera on panel. (detail).d.u. (full panel 151 x 102 cm). Pescia, Church of San Francesco

- 76 - Figure 7. Ambrogio Lorenzetti. The Effects of Good Government in the Countryside (detail). c.1339. d.u. Siena, Palazzo Publicco.

- 77 - Figure 8. Master of Guillaume de Machaut. The Mysterious Garden . c.1355- 1360 Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale

- 78 - Figure 9. Jan van Eyck. Baptism of Christ . Turin-Milan Hours, f.30v. c.1420 Turin.Museo Civico d’Arte Antica

- 79 - Figure 10. Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo. Hercules and Deianira . c. 1470. Oil on canvas transferred from panel. 54.6 x 79.2 cm. New Haven, Yale University Gallery.

- 80 - Figure 11. Jean Pucelle. Confirmation. The Belleville Breviary,Tome I, f37. c.1330. Paris. Bibliotheque Nationale

- 81 - Figure 12. Pol, Jean, and Herman Limbourg. St. Nicholas Stops the Storm at Sea. Les Belles Heures de Jean, Duc de Berry. c.1410. New York:The Cloisters

- 82 - Figure 13. Jean Fouquet. The Right Hand of God Protecting the Faithful Against the Demons. Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier. f 33v. c.1452-1460.New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art

- 83 - Figure 14 . Reginaldus Piramus. Aristotle. Nichomachean Ethics. Frontispiece, Book VI. f 45v. c.1500. Vienna: Osterreichische Nationalbibliotek - 84 - Figure 15. Cristoforo Maiorana. Ptolemy, Geography . f.296. c.1485. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale

- 85 - Figure 16. Anonymous. Christ Healing the Leper . Echternach Gospel Lectionary. 8th Century. MS Lat. 9389. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale

- 86 - Figure 17. Lucas Cranach the Elder. Nymph of the Spring.c.1510. Oil on wood. 15.2 x 20.3 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum

- 87 - Figure 18 . Guglielmo Giraldi. La Divina Commedia: Inferno, Canto VIII. f.20v. .c.1481. Federico da Montefeltro’s Dante, La Divina Commedia Rome:Biblioteca Apostolico Vaticana

- 88 - Figure 19 . Anonymous. The Sixth Angel Sounds His Trumpet and the Tour AngelsWhich Are Bound in the River Euphrates Are Loosed . Latin Apocalypse IX: 12-15.f 15r. c. 1320. New York: Metropolitan Museum

- 89 - Figure 20. Anonymous. A Boat Docked to a Whale. MS Ludwig VIII 2 (83.MK.93).f 61v. c.1270. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum

- 90 - Figure 21. Guglielmo Giraldi and Giorgio d’Alemagna. Aeneas Shipwrecked . Virgil, Aeneid.f.228. c.1458 .Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale

- 91 - Figure 22. Scatter Plot of Summed Score by Years

- 92 - Figure 23 . Scatter Plot of Summed Score by Years (Year>1200 C.E.)

- 93 - Figure 24. Scatter Plot of Scores of Each Component by Year and Source

- 94 - Figure 25. Cumulative Distributions of Percent of Component Peak Scores by Year

- 95 - Figure 26. Scatter Plot of Summed Scores for Paintings for Italian and European Sources

- 96 - Figure 27 . Box-Whisker Plots by Painting Sources for the Six Components

- 97 - Figure 28. Cumulative Percent to Peak Score by Year of Realistic Paintings of Waterfor the Six Components of Water Painting by Geographic Region

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