MA Linguistics (TESOL) University of Surrey 2003
The use of conceptual metaphor analysis to reveal and compare political ideologies and cultural values: a study of news media editorials from the UK, US and Japan
Richard Walker Abstract
Adopting a broadly cognitive linguistic approach, this research set out to use conceptual metaphor analysis in order to compare editorials and opinion articles from news media organizations in the UK, Japan and the US. The study set out with two-fold aims: firstly, to reveal the underlying political ideologies of the writers and explore whether evidence can be found to support the hypothesis by Lakoff (2002) that two fundamental systems of morality based on the ideal family underlie conservative and liberal worldviews; and secondly, to compare the western and Japanese corpora in order to explore the extent to which the use of conceptual metaphor analysis may reveal Japanese cultural values. The study found some support for the existence of these models in all corpora, and several metaphors were identified in the Japanese corpora suggestive of particularly Japanese values. It was found that complementing conceptual metaphor analysis with aspects of critical discourse analysis formed a powerful tool for this research.
ii ©Richard Walker 2003
iii Acknowledgements
I would like to express my thanks to my dissertation supervisor, Jonathan Charteris- Black, for his help during the writing of this dissertation. I would also like to thank my parents for their ever-present support, encouragement and much more.
iv Table of Contents
Title Page i Abstract ii © Statement iii Acknowledgements iv Figures and Tables vii
Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Rationale and Aims 2 1.3 Dissertation Outline 3 1.4 Definitions 3 1.4.1 Metaphor 3 1.4.2 Metonymy 4 1.4.3 Ideology 4
Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Approaches to Metaphor 6 2.3 Uses of Metaphor 8 2.4 Conceptual Metaphor Theory 9 2.5 Conventional Metaphors 11 2.6 Conceptual Metaphor Analysis 12 2.7 Conceptual Metaphors for Morality 12 2.7.1 Strict Father and Nurturant Parent Morality 15 2.7.1.1 Strict Father Model 15 2.7.1.2 Nurturant Parent Model 17 2.8 Japanese Values 19 2.9 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 20
Chapter Three: The Study 3.1 Procedure 22 3.2 Data Analysis 23 3.3 Operationalizing the Definition of Metaphor 23 3.4 Distinguishing Between Metaphor and Metonymy 24
Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion 4.1 Introduction 25 4.2 Quantitative Analysis 26 4.2.1 Metaphor and Metonymy 26 4.2.2 Metaphors for Morality 30 4.3 Qualitative Analysis 31 4.3.1 Metaphors for Morality 31 4.3.1.1 US Corpora 32 4.3.1.1.1 Fox News 32 4.3.1.1.2 LA Times 33 4.3.1.2 Japan Corpora 35 4.3.1.2.1 Yomiuri Shimbun 35 4.3.1.2.2 Asahi Shimbun 35 4.3.1.3 UK Corpora 37
v 4.3.1.3.1 Daily Telegraph 37 4.3.1.3.2 Guardian 39 4.3.2 Metaphors Reflecting Japanese Values 41 4.3.2.1 Yomiuri Shimbun 41 4.3.2.2 Asahi Shimbun 41 4.4 Synthesis 44
Chapter Five: Conclusions 5.1 Summary 45 5.2 Pedagogical Implications 46 5.3 Reflections 47 5.3.1 Limitations of the Study 47 5.3.2 Suggestions for Further Research 48
Appendices Appendix 1: Fox News Corpus Data 49 Appendix 2: LA Times Corpus Data 51 Appendix 3: Yomiuri Shimbun Corpus Data 53 Appendix 4: Asahi Shimbun Corpus Data 55 Appendix 5: Daily Telegraph Corpus Data 58 Appendix 6: Guardian Corpus Data 63 Appendix 7: Fox News Corpus Sample Article 68 Appendix 8: LA Times Corpus Sample Article 70 Appendix 9: Yomiuri Shimbun Corpus Sample Article 71 Appendix 10: Asahi Shimbun Corpus Sample Article 73 Appendix 11: Daily Telegraph Corpus Sample Article 75 Appendix 12: Guardian Corpus Sample Article 77
Bibliography 79 Figures and Tables
Figures
Figure 1: Mapping of the Moral Accounting Metaphor 13 Figure 2: The Moral Order 16 Figure 3: Occurrence of linguistic metaphors and metonymy in the six corpora 27 Figure 4: Occurrence of metonymy type institution for people responsible 27 Figure 5: Occurrence of CMs and LMs in main corpora 28 Figure 6: Percentage breakdown of conceptual metaphor types for main corpora 29 Figure 7: Occurrence of metaphors pertaining to morality (% of total LMs) 31
Tables
Table 1: The corpora comprising the study 22 Table 2: Metaphor and metonymy in the corpora 26
vi Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction This study is grounded in mainstream cognitive theory as developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). Cognitive science is a discipline dealing with "the scientific study of thinking, reasoning and the intellectual processes of the mind" (Richards et. al. 1992: 60). It is concerned with the way in which knowledge is represented in the mind, how language and images are understood, and the elucidation of the mental processes underlying planning, learning and problem-solving (Richards, ibid.). Within this broad discipline, the field of cognitive linguistics describes an approach to language grounded in our experience, perception and conceptualization of the world (Ungerer and Schmid, 1996). Cognitive linguists thus aim to characterize language in relation to cognitive processes, and claim that human conceptualization is largely metaphorical in nature, and furthermore, that this is reflected in everyday language. Today, metaphor is acknowledged as playing a central role in our understanding of how language, thought and discourse are structured. Since Lakoff and Johnson’s seminal work Metaphors We Live By in 1980, the role of metaphor in language has been the focus of much research in linguistics, and conceptual metaphor analysis (CMA) has been shown to be a powerful tool in the analysis of public discourse, especially political1. The examination of the conceptual metaphors used in political discourse can facilitate the discovery of underlying assumptions which are often not made explicit and this can help to elucidate the ideology of the writer. Such knowledge can then allow us to critically examine these assumptions and suggest other ways of viewing the situation, which may itself involve the use of other conceptual metaphors. Thus conceptual metaphor analysis can provide important insights into underlying ideologies and so raise critical awareness of and facilitate the analysis of such texts. It may also generate insights into the belief and value systems in differing cultures. There are, therefore, clear benefits for L2 learners, especially students of political science.
However, CMA is but one tool, albeit powerful, for the analysis of public discourse. It is also vitally important to pay close attention to the actual linguistic realizations of metaphors in the texts, other salient textual features and the overall context. Although
1 Many papers have been written on metaphor and political discourse in the media. See for example,
1 the primary focus of this study is CMA, an awareness of the importance of the context and surface-level linguistic features is present throughout, and complements the CMA.
1.2 Rationale and Aims The study has two-fold aims: to use CMA to provide linguistic evidence for opposing political ideologies within cultures and to compare such ideologies and attitudes across cultures. In Moral Politics (Lakoff, 2002), Lakoff postulates that the values and beliefs held by conservatives and liberals in the US are consistent with and can be explained by two basic metaphorical systems, both using the conceptual metaphor NATION AS FAMILY, but with opposite versions of what constitutes an ideal family. For conservatives he posits a model called a Strict Father family and for liberals a so-called Nurturant Parent family. He presents a cogent argument for the centrality of these contrasting systems in US politics, however the discussion is limited to the US. The aims of this study are therefore several: 1. To analyse texts from US sources to determine if confirmatory support for Lakoff’s hypothesis can be provided. 2. To analyse texts from UK and non-western sources (Japan) to determine if any evidence supporting the hypothesis can be found pertaining to the UK and non- western cultures (Japan). 3. To analyse texts from Japan sources to determine if CMA can provide an insight into Japanese values and belief systems.
1.3 Dissertation Outline Chapter One concludes with definitions of key concepts. Chapter Two provides the theoretical background to metaphor, conceptual metaphor theory, and CMA relevant to the study. The metaphorical systems underlying Strict Father and Nurturant Parent models are presented, Japanese values germane to this study are discussed, and aspects of critical discourse analysis (CDA) relevant to the study are explored. In Chapter Three, research methods and procedure are described, and in Chapter Four results are presented, discussed and summarized. Finally, in Chapter Five, conclusions, pedagogical implications, limitations of the study and suggestions for further study are
Chilton and Ilyin, 1993; Jansen and Sabo, 1994; Lakoff, 1991, 2003. 2 presented.
1.4 Definitions 1.4.1 Metaphor The history of metaphor goes back to the time of Aristotle, and his writings on metaphor show an essentially cognitive viewpoint. Aristotle sees metaphor as the substitution of one idea for another in discourse in order to create new understanding (Cameron, 1999). For cognitive linguists today, “the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 5). Charteris-Black and Musolff (2003) provide both a broad, semantic definition and a narrow, more pragmatically oriented definition. The semantic definition states that
metaphor is a figure of speech in which at some point in the evolution of the meaning of a word or phrase there is a shift in its use from one domain to another so that it refers to something else (Charteris-Black and Musolff, 2003: 157). In contrast, the narrow definition describes metaphor as
a figure of speech in which a writer aims to achieve particular rhetorical goals such as establishing a relationship with the reader and making judgements by selecting particular words and phrases to refer to important topics when these words or phrases usually refer to other topics (ibid: 158).
It is believed in this study that the inclusion of such a pragmatic definition is important in the identification of the writer’s ideology.
1.4.2 Metonymy It is generally agreed that metonymy and metaphor are similar in that they both link separate entities but that metonymy differs from metaphor in that in the former the two entities are related in some way (Cameron, op. cit.). Lakoff and Turner (1989) and Gibbs (1994) see metaphor as transfer between two different domains and metonymy as operating within the same domain. Metaphor and metonymy are often closely linked and operate together. For example, in the sentence “We need to disarm Saddam Hussein”, the conceptual metaphor NATION IS A PERSON can be identified in addition to the metonymy of ruler for state. Metonymy in this case allows us to focus on where the responsibility lies. Like metaphor, therefore, metonymy is not merely a
3 matter of language but also influences our thoughts and actions.
1.4.3 Ideology A broad definition of ideology, such as that described by Hodge and Kress in their classic text Language as Ideology (1993), is taken in this study. Hodge and Kress define ideology as:
a systematic body of ideas, organized from a particular point of view. Ideology is thus a subsuming category which includes sciences and metaphysics, as well as political ideologies of various kinds, without implying anything about their status and reliability as guides to reality (Hodge and Kress, 1993: 6).
We can therefore see ideology as “a systematically organized presentation of reality” Hodge and Kress, ibid: 15). As Hawkins (2000: 28) points out, ideology is thus “a system of ideas conventionalized by a particular community”, and central to this system are the cognitive models and conceptual metaphors underlying ideological reasoning.
4 Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the relevant theoretical background for this study.2 Firstly, an overview of approaches to metaphor is given. There follows a discussion of conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) and CMA as developed by Lakoff and Johnson. Subsequently, conceptual metaphors for morality which are postulated to underpin Strict Father and Nurturant Parent models are explored. Following the presentation of the metaphorical systems comprising these two models, aspects of Japanese values and culture considered particularly salient are looked at. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the benefits of complementing CMA with relevant aspects of CDA to facilitate the elucidation of the ideologies underlying texts.
2.2 Approaches to Metaphor There are two basic approaches to metaphor, the cognitive or constructivist approach, and the earlier logical positivist approach (see Black, 1962; Searle, 1979; Kittay, 1987). In the latter approach, language is seen as primarily literal, with metaphor seen basically as a departure from the literal. Metaphor seen in this light is therefore a matter of language and mainly used for emphasis in poetry and literature (Cameron, 1999). In contrast, the more recent cognitive approach views metaphor as pervasive in everyday language and in the mind. Today it is generally accepted that metaphor is primarily a mental phenomenon.3
Before we examine in more detail the cognitive approach to metaphor exemplified by Lakoff and others, it is important to note that within cognitive linguistics there exist both strong and weak views on the relation between metaphor and thought. The strong view espoused by Lakoff and colleagues sees thought as itself structured metaphorically, the metaphors on the surface of the language reflecting the underlying conceptual structure which is used to understand, store and process something in terms of something else (Lakoff, 1987). Gibbs (1999) posits a hierarchy of four interrelated
2 For an overview of the three main approaches to cognitive linguistics and a discussion of prototypes, categories, frames and cognitive models, see Ungerer and Schmid, 1996. See also Lakoff (2002: 8-11) for a discussion of prototypes used in political discourse. 3 In this century, the cognitive dimension was downplayed, and some scholars, such as Searle (1979) saw metaphor as irrelevant to the formal study of language. 5 possibilities regarding the interaction of metaphoric thought and language use and understanding, ranging from a “weak” hypothesis in which metaphoric thought may play a role in changing the meaning of words over time but does not motivate a speaker's language use and understanding, to a strong hypothesis:
Metaphoric thought might function automatically and interactively in people's on-line use and understanding of linguistic meaning (Gibbs, 1999: 43).
Whilst the systematicity of surface level metaphors can clearly be shown through the inference of the underlying conceptual metaphors, Gozzi (1999) holds that the strong view implies a separation of thought and language which creates an arbitrary dualism, which he sees as doubly inappropriate because Lakoff and others have argued strongly against the traditional mind-body dualism which underlies objectivism (see Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). It would seem rather that instead, thought and language are inseparable, intertwined and each making the other possible. Furthermore, I believe it is important to view metaphor as a relative rather than an absolute concept. Charteris-Black and Musolff (2003) point out that metaphor awareness will depend to some extent on the language user's experience of language, and that
as language use becomes more conventional so metaphors become “tired” and shift from being active to inactive before becoming dead metaphors (Charteris-Black and Musolff, 2003: 155)
Thus, if language is perhaps best seen as more or less metaphorical, rather than simply metaphorical or literal, it would follow that the underlying conceptual metaphors may play a greater or lesser role cognitively. In political discourse, for example, as we shall see subsequently, metaphorical framing can be used overtly for rhetorical purposes, exerting a powerful influence on the conceptualization of an issue which may even translate into actions of some kind. In contrast, consider the utterance “That idea turns me off” – although this expression can be seen as a surface manifestation of the conceptual metaphor HUMANS ARE MACHINES, supporters of traditional theories of metaphor may argue that “turn off” is a simple lexical choice, motivated by the desire to sound colourful, modern, etc., and that its use does not necessarily imply the activation of the conceptual metaphor in the speaker's mind. Furthermore, take the example of a non-native speaker of English in whose L1 there are no linguistic metaphors such as “I
6 see what you are saying”, indicating the conceptual metaphor UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING; upon learning how to use this expression in English, does it mean this conceptual metaphor is now “activated”? It seems unlikely, which would suggest that it is possible to use linguistic metaphors without necessarily thinking metaphorically. Whilst this study is grounded in mainstream cognitive linguistic theory, it seems practical, therefore, to assume a cline of metaphoricity as argued for by Goatly (1997) and others.
2.3 Uses of Metaphor Metaphors are used for many purposes in addition to serving as a powerful rhetorical tool. Chilton and Ilyin (1993) identify three uses of metaphor in discourse. In face-to- face interaction, metaphor can be used to avoid reference to a face-threatening situation; participants may use metaphor to distance themselves from the topic of conversation, whilst inviting the hearer to make inferences based on shared knowledge. A metaphor can also create common ground by invoking a cultural frame, a device often employed in political discourse. The creative power of metaphor may also be employed heuristically in order to explore new concepts, for example in the formulation of scientific and academic theories. We also see an affective role for metaphor. Ortony (1975) suggests that linguistic metaphors combine vividness, expressiveness and compactness, while Cooper (1986) posits that the use of metaphor can facilitate emotional intimacy (Cameron and Low, 1999).
2.4 Conceptual Metaphor Theory We have seen above that metaphor is regarded by cognitive linguists as a mental phenomenon. Lakoff (1993) states that
the locus of metaphor is not in language at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another…… ‘metaphor’ has come to mean “a cross-domain mapping in the conceptual system” (In Ortony (ed), 1993: 203)
One of the basic tenets of the cognitive linguistic approach is that the production, communication and processing of meaning depends to a large extent on cross-domain mapping. A further tenet is that such human cognition is largely independent of language; the surface manifestations of cross-domain mappings – commonly termed
7 linguistic metaphors (LM) – are seen as reflecting deeper, underlying conceptual metaphors (CM) (see for example Lakoff and Johnson, 1980, Lakoff and Johnson 1999, Lakoff 1993). In this view metaphor encompasses simile and analogy in addition to metaphor in the more traditional sense.
Conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) is based on a theoretical foundation known as experiential or embodied realism. CMT argues that our primary experience arises out of our interaction with the physical environment and that these form our most basic source domains; these source domains are then called upon to provide structure when reasoning about abstract concerns, thus influencing our cognitive processes and decision-making in a covert manner. This gives rise to a set of primary conceptual metaphors such as MORE IS UP, AFFECTION IS WARMTH, and PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS, which can be seen to be derived from experiential source domains and are reflected in many linguistic metaphors.4 Thus, conceptual metaphor is claimed to be one of our primary tools for reasoning about both ourselves and the world around us, especially about abstract domains such as life or love.5 Structure is provided by primary metaphors which often combine to form complex metaphors or conceptual blends, and aspects of these source domains are then mapped onto the target domain and used in reasoning. An inference drawn in this way from the source domain and applied to the target domain via the metaphor is termed an entailment. Conceptual blending (see Turner and Fauconnier, 1995) refers to the situation in which two or more domains blend into a separate conceptual space endowed with aspects of both domains and having new properties. The term cyberspace – blending the domains of computer networks and physical space to create something new – is an example of conceptual blending (Gozzi, op. cit.).
In this cognitive view metaphor is far more than just language – the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR for example “structures and influences the actions we perform in arguing” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 4). In other words we use the cognitive model of “war” – the source domain – as underlying the way we approach “argument” – the target domain. A consequence of this is that elements salient to the source domain
4 For a list of 24 such primary metaphors, see Lakoff and Johnson, 1999: 50-54. 5 See Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 46-51 for examples of conceptual/linguistic metaphors relating to life and love. 8 will be highlighted and projected on to the target domain, and aspects of the latter will be hidden. This ability to highlight and hide certain elements, as we shall see, forms an important part of the rhetorical power that metaphor has in discourse. Conceptual metaphors such as ARGUMENT IS WAR are typically represented in capitals in the form TARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN or TARGET DOMAIN AS SOURCE DOMAIN. We will follow this convention in this study. It is important to note that the conceptual metaphor is not a proposition in itself – rather it should be seen as shorthand for a set of correspondences facilitated by the mapping.
2.5 Conventional Metaphors Lakoff and Johnson identify three basic types of conventional metaphor. The metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR is termed a structural metaphor, where “one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another” (Lakoff and Johnson, ibid: 14) The second type is orientational, where a whole system of concepts is organized in terms of another, usually spatial. An example would be HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN – the concept of happy being oriented “up”, and sad “down”, giving rise to linguistic metaphors such as “He's feeling down”. These primary metaphors are grounded both in our cultural experience and the physical world and may therefore vary from culture to culture (Lakoff, 1993). The third type is ontological – in this type of metaphor, events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., are viewed in terms of physical objects and substances, especially our bodies. Once they have assumed physical form through this process of reification, it is then possible to quantify, categorize, confer additional qualities to and reason about them (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980).
2.6 Conceptual Metaphor Analysis Two observations can be made with regard to the use of CMA in cross-cultural studies. Firstly, since humans share a similar experience of the world in most important respects, it is likely that many conceptual metaphors, especially primary metaphors are universal. Secondly, CMA can be viewed as lying in between two extremes of the methodological spectrum, at one end an approach based on the analysis of specific terminology and surface level features, at the other the approach of general philosophical theory (Slingerland, 2003). Drawing upon shared human embodied experience, the analysis of conceptual metaphors would seem to be a powerful tool for both the study of similarities and differences in human cognition across cultures.
9 2.7 Conceptual Metaphors For Morality Lakoff and Johnson (1999) claim that empirical research in cognitive science, especially cognitive linguistics shows that
our cognitive unconscious is populated with an extensive system of metaphoric mappings for conceptualizing, reasoning about, and communicating our moral ideas. Virtually all of our abstract moral concepts are structured metaphorically. ….These metaphors…all appear to be grounded in our various experiences of well-being, especially physical well-being (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999: 290).
Lakoff (2002: 41) further states that “the most fundamental form of morality concerns promoting the experiential well-being of others and the avoidance and prevention of experiential harm to others”. Health, wealth, strength, nurturance, happiness, wholeness, cleanliness, being in the light, being upright, and having close social ties are all examples of experiential forms of well-being, and these form the grounding for our system of moral metaphors. As it is usually better to be rich rather than poor, strong rather than weak, morality is conceptualized in terms of wealth, strength, etc. For example, we talk of moral purity, moral strength, moral health, and being morally upright. A common conceptual metaphor is WELL-BEING AS WEALTH, reflected in linguistic metaphors such as a rich life, profiting from experience, etc. When this metaphor is combined with the so-called Object Event-Structure, (a primary metaphor in which causation is seen as object transfer e.g. she gave me a headache) this gives rise to what Lakoff and Johnson term the Moral Accounting metaphor. The combination of these two metaphors allows us to view moral action as a kind of financial transaction, and financially balancing the books thus becomes balancing the moral books. Moral action is conceived as giving something of positive value, immoral action as giving something of negative value. Hence we talk of being in someone's debt, owing someone, etc. Another metaphor arising from WELL-BEING AS WEALTH concerns the fairness with which the “wealth” is distributed, expressed as MORAL ACTION AS FAIR DISTRIBUTION. Naturally there are many versions of what counts as fairness. The moral accounting metaphor can be mapped as follows:
10 Financial Domain Moral Domain Wealth Well-being Payments Actions that increase well-being Debts Duties IOUs Rights Debtor Person with duties Creditor Person with rights Inexhaustible credit Inalienable rights Contract Exchange of rights Figure 1: Mapping of the Moral Accounting Metaphor
Under this mapping, rights are seen as a "form of metaphorical social capital that allows you to claim certain debts from others" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999: 298). The IOU is redeemable, for example, for the freedom to vote, equal opportunities for employment, and other forms of human well-being. Rights can also be conceptualized according to the Moral Bounds metaphor. According to the Event-Structure metaphor action is seen as self-propelled motion and purposes as destinations; moral action is therefore seen as movement along permissible paths, and this in turn allows us to see a right as a right of way.
Lakoff and Johnson claim that these two conceptualizations underlie the way in which we view rights. Does this perhaps apply to all cultures? Slingerland (op. cit.) in a study of conceptual metaphors used in the Analects of Confucius, finds that the Moral Accounting metaphor and the concept of rights as IOUs is not present. Instead he identifies the conceptual metaphor MORALITY AS BOUNDED SPACE, in which morality is seen as a bounded path, being moral is being centred in moral space, and immoral behaviour is transgressing the boundaries. At first, this may seem to be synonymous with the Moral Bounds metaphor (RIGHTS AS RIGHT OF WAY), however Slingerland points out that in the latter,
everyone … has their own individual path or space, and these paths can come into conflict and encroach upon one another. In the MORAL SPACE metaphor … there is only one, shared, hierarchically structured moral path or space – the great Way – and one is either on this Way, in one's proper sub-space, or off it entirely (Slingerland, 2003: 28)
In the present study therefore, the presence of these types of conceptual metaphors will be of particular interest in the comparison of UK/US and Japan data.
11 2.7.1 Strict Father and Nurturant Parent Morality Lakoff (2002: 65-152) postulates that underlying the way in which American conservatives and liberals think are two different models of ideal family life, each of which comprises a distinct moral system and set of metaphorical priorities. These models he refers to as the Strict Father Model and the Nurturant Parent Model. Limitations of space preclude anything more than a very brief overview here.
2.7.1.1 Strict Father Model In this model, life is seen as competitive, difficult, dangerous and full of evil. The father is responsible for supporting, protecting and teaching his children right and wrong by the enforcing of strict rules through (corporal) punishment. Children build self- discipline and self-reliance through respecting and obeying their parents and are never coddled. Once they have attained this their parents do not interfere in their lives.6 This model is defined by a set of metaphors for morality as shown below.
Moral Strength The complex Moral Strength metaphor has the highest priority in this model. Inherent moral strength is built through self-discipline and self-denial, and is necessary to prevent falling to the force of evil. A morally weak person will succumb to evil. Competition is vital as it necessitates self-discipline.
Moral Authority Morality is respect for and obedience to moral authority, and those in authority must be seen as moral to prevent the spread of immorality. Moral Self-Interest This can be stated as “If everyone seeks to maximize their well-being, the well-being of all will be maximized.”7
Moral Order Using the metaphor THE MORAL ORDER IS THE NATURAL ORDER the folk hierarchy of “natural” power relations becomes moral, and is as follows:
6 Lakoff claims this non-interference by parents once the children are adults seems to be a uniquely US cultural attribute. 7 This is based on a folk version of Adam Smith’s economics: If each person seeks to maximize his own
12 God above Man Man above nature Adults above children America above other countries Western culture above non-western culture Citizens above immigrants Figure 2: The Moral Order8
Moral Health Using the metaphors MORALITY IS HEALTH and IMMORALITY IS A DISEASE, immorality is seen as a disease that can spread through contact with immoral people.
The bridge connecting this set of metaphors of morality with politics is, according to Lakoff, the metaphor NATION AS FAMILY. Thus, the government is the parent, self- reliant citizens are mature children, and non self-reliant children are dependent children. Conservatives are said to apply this Strict Father model to politics, and it can be seen that it provides a coherent explanation of seemingly contradictory values and attitudes.
2.7.1.2 Nurturant Parent Model In this model, both parents are equally responsible and their job is to nurture their children and help them becomes nurturers. Two central values are empathy and responsibility, the latter to both oneself and others – one cannot take care of others without first taking care of oneself. The building of social ties and cooperation rather than competition are stressed, and restitution not retribution is preferred to balance the moral books in response to a child doing something wrong. Metaphors underlying nurturant morality are shown below.
Empathy and Nurturance Primacy is given to MORALITY AS EMPATHY and MORALITY AS NURTURANCE. The highest moral value is being responsible to those who need care. wealth, then the wealth of all will be maximized. 8 Some variation is possible, e.g. one or more of the clauses Men over Women, Whites over Non-Whites, and Christians over Non-Christians may be present. A more elaborate version of the Moral Order is
13 There are two forms of moral nurturance, one concerning individuals and the other social relations. The following metaphors provide the link between nurturance and the maintenance of social ties. MORAL AGENTS ARE NURTURING AGENTS SOCIAL TIES ARE CHILDREN NEEDING CARE MORAL ACTION IS THE NURTURANCE OF SOCIAL TIES
Happiness The metaphor MORALITY AS HAPPINESS is based on the assumption that basically happy people are more likely to be empathetic and nurturant than unhappy people. Fairness MORALITY AS FAIRNESS allows us to conceptualize moral actions as objects given to people; distribution of fairness can be equal, impartial and rule-based, or rights- based.
This is of course a highly oversimplified account of these models. Lakoff (2002) stresses that there will be many systematic variations upon them, depending on the importance and relative strength attached to the various metaphors. Also, the Strict Father may of course be the mother. Nevertheless, the models provide a coherent explanation for fundamental conservative and liberal attitudes in the US. It is important to realize that both models use many of the same metaphors and the NATION AS FAMILY metaphor to reason about the nation and politics. It is the different priorities given to the metaphors that gives rise to very different moral systems. Moral Strength has priority in the Strict Father model, Moral Empathy in the Nurturant Parent model.
One of the questions for this study is, assuming these models to be fundamentally correct, to what extent can these conceptual metaphors be seen to underlie the use of linguistic metaphors in political discourse in the UK and/or Japan? Given the shared aspects of British and American culture, it is likely that these models or a variation on them can be discerned in British political discourse. However, before we can proceed with the analysis of the data from Japan, it is important to examine the salient characteristics of Japanese culture in order to determine how these may influence and
known as the Great Chain of Being. See Hawkins, 2000; Lakoff and Johnson, 1989. 14 underlie conceptual metaphor systems.
2.8 Japanese Values It is of course impossible to present more than a highly selective and simplified account of this large and complex topic here. The topic of Japanese ethics usually involves discussion of Confucianism, Buddhism and the concepts encapsulated in Japanese words such as on ( : personal, often overarching obligation), giri ( : social or status obligation), gimu ( : legalistic obligation), wa ( : harmony), and amae ( : dependency)9. We have already mentioned Slingerland's identification of the MORALITY AS BOUNDED SPACE metaphor in the Analects of Confucius. Yao (1997: 145), in a study of Confucianism, also refers to the importance it attaches to following the “middle way”; if not followed, courtesy becomes tiresome, caution becomes timidity, daring turbulence, and frankness effrontery.
Wargo (1990) argues that although a study of such words and Confucian and Buddhist concepts are important for a full understanding of Japanese behaviour, it is the cluster of concepts and attitudes that comprised Shinto10, Japan's indigenous faith, that provided the basic core upon which later philosophic, aesthetic and social notions were based, and that are still prevalent in modern Japan. He observes that according to these core beliefs, there is no absolute distinction between the divine, humans and nature, rather they form a continuum, with humans not seen as above nature. Kami (gods) are not therefore seen as lawgivers who must be obeyed. Furthermore, Shinto was focused on the present, and basically optimistic – Man and the world inherently good. Good and evil were evaluated as such depending on the context, and sincerity and courtesy and the promotion of community harmony (wa) valued most highly. Wa continues to be considered as one of the most important Japanese cultural attributes and Japan's group- oriented culture11 is widely cited. Indeed, much personal anecdotal evidence supports this notion.12 Wargo goes on to state that the core concepts of Shinto were purity and pollution or defilement, not virtue and sin, and that purification rituals were therefore a
9 See Wierzbicka (1997: 235-80) for an overview and insightful discussion of these and other Japanese key words and their cultural significance. 10 Wargo stresses that these original concepts should not be confused with the ideological and political State Shinto that was propounded by the Meiji Government in the 19th century and used for militaristic purposes. 11 For a discussion of the influence of geography, religion and philosophy on the shaping of Japanese culture, see Nishiyama, 1995; Takemoto, 1982.
15 central concern, although sincerity of intention was stressed. Such rituals involved the whole community, whose solidarity was paramount, which Wargo suggests translated into authority and tradition becoming the basis for behaviour. Although such a Shinto framework cannot be used to explain all aspects of modern Japan, it may form a useful analytical tool and perhaps explain in part Japanese people's fondness for ritual and formulaic language, and even perhaps the origin of their love of water and bathing. If these beliefs are prevalent in modern Japan, it is to be hoped that analysis of the linguistic metaphors in the Japan corpora will point to their existence.
2.9 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) CMA is of course only one of many possible analytic tools in (critical) discourse analysis. Complementing CMA with aspects of CDA can further facilitate the elucidation of the writer’s ideology. Fairclough (1989) states that CDA is concerned with the relationship between language, ideology and power. CDA is influenced by Halliday and systemic functional linguistics, whose central concern is to determine how language is used to accomplish everyday social life and how social worlds are created in and through language (Schmitt, 2002). Halliday (1978) argues that three functions of language – ideational, interpersonal, and textual – are simultaneously at work in any text. Related to this are Fairclough's representations, relations and identities. In the analysis of media texts, Fairclough (1995: 5) suggests the following questions are asked:
1. How is the world represented? 2. What identities are set up for those involved in the programme or story? 3. What relationships are set up between those involved?
The ideational function relates to the first question, and interpersonal functions to the latter two. The value of this kind of approach is that it facilitates the linking of linguistic analysis with “concerns of social analysis: questions of knowledge, belief and ideology, questions of social relationships and power, and questions of identity” (Fairclough, ibid: 17). It is cognizant of this background context that the analysis of the texts will be undertaken. Fairclough (1989: 110-111) provides a useful guide for text analysis, with
12 This author has lived 15 years in Japan. 16 questions that can be asked in terms of a text's vocabulary, grammar and textual features. For this study, therefore, we will also take into consideration non-metaphorical linguistic features deemed salient, in particular lexical choice and nominalization. Nominalization is one type of what Halliday calls grammatical metaphor, “situations where meanings typically realized by one type of language pattern get realized by other less typical linguistic choices” (Eggins, 1994). A high degree of nominalization in a text helps create a feeling of abstractness and distance from concrete events or situations. Nominalization can therefore be used to background something unpleasant (Fairclough, 1995). “Collateral damage” is a powerful example: the Actor is omitted and the Patient (civilians killed by “mistake”) becomes almost abstract.
17 Chapter 3: The Study
3.1 Procedure Over a period of two weeks commencing June 18, 2003, editorials or opinion/comment articles written in English were collected from six websites. Editorials or opinion/comment articles were chosen as most likely to reflect the writer’s ideology, and these were collected daily to ensure maximum objectivity. The corpora were divided into two: the US data formed a pilot study whilst the UK and Japan corpora comprised the main study (see Table 1 below). Articles were collected until a corpus size of approximately 7,500 words had been reached for each main corpus (3,000 for pilot study). The websites were chosen as representing conservative/right-wing and liberal/left-wing ideologies. The Daily Telegraph and Guardian are both respected UK broadsheets, as are the Yomiuri Shimbun and Asahi Shimbun newspapers in Japan, and in the US, Fox News and the LA Times are also regarded as representing conservative and liberal values, respectively. The Japanese websites have both Japanese and English versions – the English websites were used in this study. The articles were either translated from the Japanese originals by translators working for the newspapers or written by Japanese editors directly in English.
Corpus No. of words US (pilot study) Fox News 3,228 LA Times 2,094 Japan Yomiuri Shimbun 7,748 Asahi Shimbun 7,531 UK Daily Telegraph 7,708 The Guardian 7,544 Total 35,853 Table 1: The corpora comprising the study 3.2 Data Analysis The analysis of the 50 articles comprising all corpora was then undertaken. (A selection of these can be found in Appendices 7-12.) Words or phrases identified as metaphorical were highlighted, cases of metonymy shown in blue. Highlighted blue indicates both metaphor and metonymy operating synonymously. For each corpus data was summarized in three tables (see Appendices 1-6): 1. Metaphor – General Summary. This shows the numbers of CMs, categorized as ontological (orientational, entity and substances, and personification) and structural.
18 Structural metaphors are presented with the target domain categorized by topic – politics, economy, etc., together with the source domains. It is acknowledged that these topics may in cases overlap, however this was found to be the most efficient way to present a large amount of data in a relatively succinct and clear manner. 2. Metaphor – Detailed Summary. This shows all CMs, together with one example of a LM for each and the total number of LMs corresponding to each CM. 3. Metonymy. This shows the occurrence and types of metonymy, together with one linguistic example for each type.
3.3 Operationalizing the Definition of Metaphor Grounded in cognitive linguistics, in this study it is accepted that much of everyday language is metaphorical in nature. However, the use of many ontological metaphors, especially orientational and entity / substances is so pervasive that they would not be considered as metaphorical by most people. Such metaphors can be said to be lacking in semantic tension and in most cases it would be difficult to find a non-metaphorical way of expression. It would not therefore be useful to classify such metaphors as metaphorical for the purposes of this study. We therefore need to operationalize the definitions of metaphor given above. In addition to fulfilling the criteria of these definitions, two further criteria employed in this study are: a) The word/phrase can easily be substituted by a more literal word/phrase b) A degree of semantic tension exists between the word or phrase and its context. It is acknowledged that individual variation between researchers will exist with regard to what is classified as metaphor or not. Nevertheless, every effort was made to be consistent. Providing the same researcher identifies the metaphors in all corpora, results should be valid and comparable.
3.4 Distinguishing Between Metaphor and Metonymy As discussed above, metaphor and metonymy are sometimes very closely linked, and this naturally leads to the difficulty of distinguishing between them. For example, “Japan said it would consider…” could either be NATION IS A PERSON, or metonymy in the form of nation for nation’s leaders. The criteria for making this decision were: a) Does the word/phrase draw upon particular human attributes in addition to asking, reporting, stating, etc.? b) Does the surrounding context refer to particular human attributes?
19 Thus, for example, in the utterance “Japan asked the US for assistance”, if in the surrounding context there occurred words/phrases such as “Japan was reluctant”, “The US told Iraq to back off”, etc., it was classified as metaphor. In the absence of such human attributes, it was classed as metonymy. In cases in which both metaphor and metonymy operated together, such as “We need to disarm Saddam Hussein”, it was classified as both – ruler for state, and NATION IS A PERSON.
20 Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion
4.1 Introduction In the following sections, the presentation of quantitative findings and discussion precede qualitative analyses and discussion. Firstly, quantitative findings pertaining to metaphor and metonymy are presented; these are followed by those related to metaphors of morality and the Strict Father / Nurturant Parent models. Qualitative analyses are then presented, firstly with regard to metaphors for morality in the three data sets, and finally for those metaphors considered to pertain to Japanese values.
Constraints of word length require a focus on findings primarily related to metaphors identified in Chapter Two as pertaining to the Strict Father and Nurturant Parent models. Particularly salient similarities and differences between corpora are also discussed. An examination of metaphors other than those relevant here is beyond the scope of the study, although it is of interest to note that many conceptual metaphors are present in all corpora, including both primary metaphors and structural metaphors such as POLITICS IS WAR, pointing perhaps to their universality.13 Indeed, the latter metaphor was found to be the most frequently occurring metaphor in the Telegraph corpus, and second most frequently occurring in both the Asahi and Guardian corpora. It is also of possible significance that occurrences of metaphors relating to the target domain topic of society/people in the Guardian corpus are more than double those in the Telegraph corpus, which itself has double the number of metaphors relating to politics (see Appendices 5 & 6). This seems consistent with Nurturant Parent morality with its focus on empathy, people and the community. As the findings are presented and discussed, the interested reader is recommended to refer to the Appendices for examples of linguistic realizations of metaphor and metonymy and additional information as described above.
4.2 Quantitative Analysis 4.2.1 Metaphor and Metonymy The two corpora from the pilot study together with the four main corpora comprise a total of 35,853 words with 650 linguistic metaphors (LM) identified, corresponding to
13 In most corpora, for example, metaphors were identified using the source domain BUILDING (see Chilton and Ilyin, 1993) and the source domains SPORT , WAR, and BUSINESS (see Jansen and Sabo, 1994; Lakoff, 1991) 21 an average of one LM per 55 words, and 352 cases of metonymy, or one per 102 words. Table 2 shows the breakdown.
Corpus Number of: words LMs Cases of words per words per metonymy LM metonymy
US Fox News 3,228 28 16 115 202 LA Times 2,094 20 19 105 110 Japan Yomiuri 7,748 129 131 60 59 Asahi 7,531 131 81 58 93 UK Telegraph 7,708 171 42 45 184 Guardian 7,544 171 63 44 120 Total 35,853 650 352 Table 2: Metaphor and metonymy in the corpora
Figure 3 below shows the proportion of LM and cases of metonymy expressed in percentage values of each corpus14.
14 Values are calculated by dividing the nos. of LM / metonymies by the total corpus size (in words) and expressing as percentages. 22 Metaphor Metonym y
2.5 2 1.5 Percentage 1 0.5 0 Fox LA Times Yomiuri A sahi Telegraph G uardian
Figure 3: Occurrence of linguistic metaphors and metonymy in the six corpora
This data reveals some interesting facts. Firstly we can see that the percentage of LMs for each set of data – US, Japan, and UK – are remarkably consistent. Fewest LMs are seen in the US corpus, and most in the UK corpus with Japan in between. This would seem to provide some evidence that there is a style of writing consistent between data sets, with the greatest degree of metaphor being employed by writers of editorial/opinion articles in the UK, and least in the US. Focusing on the main corpora, a second fact can be highlighted: metonymies are less frequent than cases of metaphor for all but the Yomiuri corpus. In the UK data, frequency of metonymy is approximately 25-35% that of metaphor, in the Asahi corpus approximately 60%, whereas metonymy occurs slightly more frequently than metaphor in the Yomiuri corpus. On average cases of metonymy are double in the Japan corpora. An analysis of the types of metonymy reveals that the most common, institution for people responsible occurs to a greater extent in the Japan corpora than in the UK.
1.5
1 P e rc e n tage Metonymy type: institu tion for 0.5 people responsible
0 Yom iuri Asahi Telegraph G uardian
Figure 4: Occurrence of metonymy type institution for people responsible
23 Figure 4 shows that metonymy occurred four times as frequently in the Yomiuri corpus than in the Telegraph corpus. As mentioned in Chapter Two, it is commonly noted that Japanese culture is group-oriented, with a great degree of importance attached to consensus-building and maintaining harmony with the group. The greater degree of metonymy found in the Japanese corpora in this study is perhaps one linguistic manifestation of such a cultural attribute, where typically the importance of the group rather than the individual is emphasized. Interestingly, we shall see findings consistent with this notion when we come to the analysis of the conceptual metaphors.
Another fact of interest concerns the number of underlying CMs identified in each corpus and the proportion of the numbers of LMs in relation to this number. Figure 5 shows the percentages of both CM and LM occurrence in each main corpus.
2.5
2
1.5 P e rc e n tage Conceptual metaphor 1 Linguistic metaphor 0.5
0 Yom iuri Asahi Telegraph G uardian
Figure 5: Occurrence of CMs and LMs in main corpora
On average there are nearly five LMs for every CM in the Yomiuri corpus, nearly three in the Asahi corpus, whereas there are only two LMs per CM in the UK corpora. Thus taken together, there are almost double the number of LMs per CM in the Japan data. In order to account for this difference, it is necessary to examine the types of CM identified. This is shown in Figure 6 (orientational and entity/substances metaphors are grouped together owing to the low numbers of the former category).
24 Orientational/Entity Personification Structural
100% 80% Percentage 60% 40% 20% 0% Yom iuri A sahi G uardian Telegraph
Figure 6: Percentage breakdown of conceptual metaphor types for main corpora
These data reveal that personification metaphors occur twice as frequently in the Japan corpora than in the UK corpora. By far the most commonly occurring metaphor in this category is NATION IS A PERSON – this metaphor accounts for 47% of all LMs in the Yomiuri corpus and 24% of all LMs in the Asahi corpus, an average of 36%; in other words one in three LMs are classified as NATION IS A PERSON in the Japan corpora. In contrast, whilst also present in the UK corpora, the frequency is considerably less: 8% for the Telegraph corpus and only 2% in the Guardian corpus; this gives an average of 5%, or 1 in 20 LMs. There is thus a surprising seven-fold difference between the Japan and UK corpora in terms of the percentage frequency of this metaphor. Another interesting and possibly significant difference concerning this metaphor relates to the difference between the frequency it is used within the Japan / UK corpora. It occurs twice as much in the Yomiuri corpus than in the Asahi corpus and three times as much in the Telegraph corpus as in the Guardian corpus.
These results lead us to postulate two reasons for the high degree of salience of this metaphor in the Japan corpora and in the corpora categorized as more right wing. The first provides further support for the hypothesis above regarding the frequency of metonymy category institution for the people and how this could relate to Japan's oft-
25 cited group-oriented culture: the use of the metaphor NATION IS A PERSON is highly likely to occur in a society in which the interests of the group and group harmony is placed very highly and in which many citizens are often noted to regard themselves as members of a “homogenous” culture;15 this metaphor may also be employed to encourage such feelings of solidarity. This leads to the second suggestion, itself more tentative than the first: that this metaphor is more likely to be used by rightwing sources, as the nurturance of such feelings seems likely to facilitate the maintenance of power relations. One of the powerful uses this metaphor has is of course the highlighting of the “oneness” of the nation and the obfuscation of non-homogenous elements within society, elements that may perhaps be desirous of change in the status quo – what the NATION wants and feels is usually synonymous with what those in power want and feel.
4.2.2 Metaphors for Morality We now turn to examine the evidence for the presence of metaphors for morality as discussed in Chapter 2. Figure 7 below shows the occurrence of such metaphors in all corpora, which corresponds to between 0 and 20% of the total number of LMs. The small size of the US corpora does not permit us to draw significant conclusions from this. The presence or lack of these metaphors in the UK and Japan corpora, whilst possibly significant, could be simply because of the larger number of conceptual metaphors employed by the writers of the articles comprising the UK corpora: the greater the number the greater the likelihood of such metaphors appearing. Thus, this quantitative data alone cannot be said to be providing significant empirical support for Lakoff's assertions that Strict Father/Nurturant Parent CMs underlie conservative and liberal ideologies.
15 See Nishiyama, 1995. 26 Occurrence of metaphors for morality as % of total no. of LM s
20
15
Percentage 10
5
0 Fox LA Times Yomiuri A sahi Telegraph G uardian
Figure 7: Occurrence of metaphors pertaining to morality (% of total LMs)
4.3 Qualitative Analysis In any text, both quantitative and qualitative aspects usually play an important rhetorical role. Repetition of a theme or particular lexical elements is a well-known rhetorical strategy commonly used in public discourse, especially political; also, of course, is the use of particularly powerful LMs/CMs. Broadening the context of the analysis of the articles reveals an interesting finding: underlying ideologies fully consistent with conservative and liberal values as predicted. These findings highlight the importance of a full consideration of the actual LMs in the texts, the overall context, and other textual features in the analysis. An interesting observation at a general level of comparison can be made here prior to the more detailed analyses below. In the Fox corpus, views were found to be particularly strident – marked lexical choices clearly indicated the writer’s ideology, and a strong sense of the polarization of liberal and conservative attitudes was detected. This was less clearly visible in the UK corpora and least clear in the Japan corpora.
4.3.1 Metaphors for Morality In the following sections LMs identified as pertaining to morality are analysed for their degree of potency and salience. This will be undertaken corpus by corpus. When relevant, other LMs present in the article and their underlying CMs will also be discussed.
27 4.3.1.1 US Corpora - Pilot Study 4.3.1.1.1 Fox News In the Fox corpus, the use of two LMs in particular should be noted. The first is REGIME/NATION IS (WORTHLESS) ENTITY. The LM example is
Is Iran next? Yes -- at least I hope. But, no -- not like Iraq. Yes, Iran sure deserves going next, right onto the ash-heap of history (Fox News, June 24, 2003). By the use of this metaphor, the writer seems to be making a clear moral judgement about the current Iranian regime, implying it is not worthy of existence. He goes on to state that the regime is “corrupt”, “tyrannical” and “incompetent”, and suggests that the US has a important role to play in the “liberation of oppressed muslims” (see Appendix 7 for full text). He concludes with the use of the CM POLITICS IS BUSINESS / (WAR IS POLITICS PURSUED BY OTHER MEANS16) suggesting that the US “could help bring liberation on the cheap”.
The second metaphor is NATION IS BROKEN OBJECT, linguistically represented as (this example also contains metaphor NATION AS BUILDING):
Bush doesn't need to go to another country to know that it's better here, or to understand why everyone there is breaking down the door to get here. He doesn't need to visit these places; he just needs to fix them (Fox News, June 26, 2003). The sentence preceding that containing the metaphor is given to clarify the context – the “he” is President Bush and “these places” refers to other countries. Both these metaphors would seem to be invoking a version of the Moral Order metaphor, in the form of The US/(Christian nations) have moral authority over other/(non-Christian) nations. The Moral Order metaphor is part of the Strict Father morality system as discussed above and its appearance in the Fox corpus is therefore consistent with Lakoff’s hypothesis that Strict Father morality underlies conservative worldviews.
Before we examine the salient metaphors in the LA Times corpus, it is useful to comment on the frequently occurring CM NATION IS A PERSON, exemplified by
The notorious failures of the U.N. to effectively disarm Saddam Hussein (Fox News, June 25, 2003)
16 Known as Clausewitz’s metaphor, its use invokes the use of the mathematics of cost-benefit calculation and game theory (see Lakoff, 1991). 28 The combination of the metaphor and the metonymy ruler for state allows the writer to refer to Iraq as a single person rather than an amorphous state. This person may then be presented as a villain who must be fought and defeated.
4.3.1.1.2 LA Times Three CMs can be identified in this corpus as pertaining to metaphors of morality. The first is NATURE AS OBJECT. The LM is:
Pryor contends that the Constitution does not grant the federal government power to protect the environment (LA Times, June 30, 2003).
In this editorial the case against the nomination of Pryer to the federal appeals court is being argued, and it is clear that protecting the environment is considered by the writer to be good. This is consistent with Nurturant Parent morality, in which nature is regarded as nurturer and provider and should therefore be respected, protected and sustained. This contrast with Strict Father morality, in which nature is seen via the Moral Order metaphor as something over which man has moral authority and responsibility but which is nevertheless a resource to be used (responsibly) and not necessarily sustained17.
The remaining two metaphors are both consistent with Nurturant Parent morality, in which empathy plays a central role. The first is COMMUNITY IS A PERSON, and a LM example is:
I've been able to see what a 300-hour commitment means to a community (LA Times, June 28, 2003)
The second is PROGRESS IS FORWARD MOVEMENT, with the LM being:
I won't stand by while Omar and the other children in El Jardin's preschool program get left behind (LA Times, ibid.).
Both LMs are present in one article (see Appendix 8), which concerns a programme for
17 See Lakoff, 2002: 212-221 for Strict Father and Nurturant Parent morality metaphors and views of nature. 29 underprivileged preschool-age children and which the writer supports. Within Nurturant Parent morality, empathy for others in society and the helping of those who need it is considered crucial, thus both of these metaphors are consistent with this model. It is perhaps significant that no mention is made of the community or the need to help underprivileged members of society in the Fox corpus – under Strict Father morality, giving such help is seen as giving an unfair advantage to certain people and undermining the system, which depends on competition and reward for self-discipline.
4.3.1.2 Japan Corpora 4.3.1.2.1 Yomiuri Shimbun No metaphors were identified as directly pertaining to metaphors of morality in the Yomiuri corpus. As discussed previously, the most salient feature is the frequency of occurrence of the metaphor NATION IS A PERSON, double that in the Asahi corpus. A typical example of a LM is:
Japan will be left the odd man out in the global market if it continues to hamstring itself by being overconcerned with objections to free trade from domestic farmers (Yomiuri Shimbun, June 18, 2003).
The use of this CM in a corpus in which Strict Father morality views are reflected is I believe to be expected. The situation of less privileged members of society can be hidden and the views of the dominant sections of society (“Japan”) highlighted. An analysis of the articles comprising this corpus shows an overriding concern for “Japan” – its relations with other countries, its corporations, its needs and its economy. Interestingly there is no expression of concern for specific segments of society or communities, unlike in the Asahi corpus. Thus, there may be said to be some indirect support for the Strict Father / Nurturant Parent models.
4.3.1.2.2 Asahi Shimbun In contrast to the Yomiuri corpus, nine LMs (five CMs) were identified relating to metaphors of morality in this corpus, all consistent with Nurturant Parent morality. We consider several examples below. First we have the CM SOCIETY AS ENTITY, the LM being:
Surely the government ought to be far more concerned about making life more
30 rewarding and meaningful for young mothers and the elderly who are still healthy enough to contribute to society (Asahi Shimbun, June 19, 2003).
We also see the CM ECONOMY IS A PERSON, with one of the two LMs:
In the growth period, the economy functioned well in ensuring that young people entering the workforce acquired the skills they needed and in rewarding them with heftier earnings and steadily improved living standards (Asahi Shimbun, June 20, 2003)
Next we have NATIONS ARE COMMUNITY MEMBERS together with GROUP OF NATIONS IS A PERSON, a total of five LMs; one example is:
Europe must play a key role in standing up to U.S. opinion when necessary, and guiding American policy in a direction more acceptable to the international community (Asahi Shimbun, June 23, 2003)
In the first example specific reference is made to less powerful members of society; the implications are that all such members able to do so should contribute to society and that the government has a responsibility to all its citizens. This is very much a Nurturant Parent morality view and contrasts with the Strict Father morality system in which (at least in the US) the government is seen as a parent who should not “meddle” with his or her children once they are adult. The second example also indicates a nurturant mentality, that of the economy functioning as nurturer of young people. The last two metaphors also point to a similar ideology. The import of the sentence seems to be that there is a way nations should behave and that this should be “acceptable” to other nations. The use of “guiding” also suggests a non-confrontational approach to the achievement of this. This is clearly in contrast to the Moral Order metaphor, in which the most powerful (in this case the US) have moral authority over those less powerful.
4.3.1.3 UK Corpora 4.3.1.3.1 Daily Telegraph In the Telegraph corpus, 10 CMs (16 LMs) were identified, and interestingly all but one are consistent with the Moral Order metaphor, providing further support for the models. The one exception is the LM “the cost of failure would be huge” (Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003), with the underlying CM WELL-BEING IS WEALTH, a central metaphor to the Moral Accounting metaphor. The most salient examples are shown below.
31 The CM NATION IS A PATIENT underlies three LMs; one example is:
The country is on its knees and needs to be steered carefully back to health (Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003).
Related to this is the CM THE THIRD WORLD IS A CHILD, exemplified by:
But this is not the way to feed the Third World (Daily Telegraph, June 20, 2003)
The first example refers to Iraq, the second to the possible use of GM crops. In both, the Moral Order metaphor seems to be underlying: Western/industrialized nations have moral authority over non-western/developing nations. Five other CMs also relate to the Moral Order metaphor. First, the CM TERRORISM IS AN ORGANISM with LM (itself containing several other metaphors): Failed states, as the Government often reminds us, are the breeding ground of terrorism, so the rescue of Iraq from confessional, ethnic and tribal division, or from a new totalitarianism, can be presented to Western audiences as part of the fight against global terror (Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003)
This sentence makes use of several powerful rhetorical strategies. Nominalization of actions and their labelling as “terrorism” allows this metaphor to be employed and the fact that it is taken as assumed by the writer allows the world to be represented in a way consistent with the ideology of the writer. Notice also the use of “failed states”, which can be seen as justifying some form of action to “fix” them, and also “rescue of Iraq”, which has the effect of presenting Iraq as a victim needing a hero18 (in this case the West). “Global terror” is a further nominalization/grammatical metaphor which has the effect of creating the image of an enemy which can be identified and therefore fought and vanquished.
Four other CMs employ the Moral Order metaphor including:
PERSON AS INSECT: “He was swatted down” (Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003) POLITICIANS AS WOLVES: “Labour's baying chorus” (Daily Telegraph, June 20,
18 This seems to invoke the Rescue Story, a fairy story with a crime, a villain, a victim and a hero – see Lakoff, 1991, 2003. 32 2003) PERSON/ENEMY AS NON-HUMAN: “pity for the monster” (Daily Telegraph, June 22, 2003)
One further CM should be mentioned: CITIZENS ARE CHILDREN. The LM refers to the “world's great nanny health declaration” (Daily Telegraph, June 22, 2003). This is the one example identified in this study of the aspect of Strict Father morality said by Lakoff to be particularly American: that the government is often seen as a meddling parent and should not interfere.
Finally, it is of interest to note the further use of grammatical metaphor/nominalization, examples being “the Islamist threat” (Daily Telegraph, June 19, 2003) and “fight against global terror” (Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003), both of which employ the CM THREAT/TERROR AS PERSON. Again, this has the effect of creating a visible enemy which can therefore be fought and beaten.
4.3.1.3.2 Guardian Nine CMs (11 LMs) were identified in the Guardian corpus. Two are basic metaphors of morality: WELL-BEING AS WEALTH, exemplified as “social and human cost of the invasion” (Guardian, June 19, 2003), and MORALITY IS PURITY / IMMORALITY IS IMPURITY, shown by the LM:
It is hard for her to brush off the sleaze that has already, fairly or unfairly, accrued to her family (Guardian, June 26, 2003).
Two CMs relate to the Nurturant Parent model and the centrality of empathy. An example is SOCIAL PROGRAMME IS DEVELOPING ORGANISM, the LM being:
Professor Norman Glass, who nurtured SureStart through its early days (Guardian, June 27, 2003)
Four CMs are again found to employ the Moral Order metaphor, two of which are particularly powerful (see Appendix 12). The first is ENEMY AS INSECTS/LOWER ORDER ORGANISM, and the LM is:
33 When Fox star Bill O'Reilly interviewed retired generals before the attack on Baghdad, he airily dismissed their caution and told his viewers that the US should go in and "splatter" the Iraqis (Guardian, June 20, 2003)
The second is similar, the CM PERSON AS OBJECT (FLAME), exemplified by:
On radio, Savage gave his solution to the Middle East conflict: "We are the good ones and they, the Arabs, are the evil ones. They must be snuffed out from the planet and not in a court of law." (Guardian, June 20, 2003)
Both these examples are consistent with Strict Father morality and the moral order as mentioned above: The US/Christian nations have moral authority over other/non- Christian nations. Describing Iraqis as lower forms of life or even non-human through the use of this metaphor, thus placing them low down on the Great Chain of Being19 creates a powerful statement and shows the writer's ideology most clearly. In addition, the second example shows a further use of Strict Father morality – the clear division into good and evil is central to the metaphor of Moral Strength, where evil is reified as a force, either external or internal, and Morality is seen as Strength (needed to stand up to the evil waiting and lurking). One further point can be made: because they are “evil”, the implication is that it is morally right and one's duty as “good” people to expunge them from existence; this perhaps explains the reference to lack of the need of legal authority. It should be noted that although these examples are from the Guardian corpus, the writers are unequivocal in their condemnation of such views. This is therefore consistent with Strict Father and Nurturant Parent models.
4.3.2 Metaphors Reflecting Japanese Values We conclude our discussion of the results of this study with an examination of metaphors that are indicative of Japanese values as discussed above. The high degree of salience of NATION IS A PERSON and its possible implications has already been mentioned.
4.3.2.1 Yomiuri Shimbun Only one CM was identified in this corpus as unique to the Japan corpora: POLITICAL POLICY/PLANS AS AN ANIMAL, of which there were 11 examples. One is:
19 See Hawkins, 2000: 44 for this elaborated version of the Moral Order. See also Section H. 34
The third in the series of Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's so-called big- boned policies (Yomiuri Shimbun, June 19, 2003)
All such examples refer to these “big-boned” policies, a metaphor used by the Japanese prime minister. It would seem to be a novel metaphor as inverted commas or the use of “so-called” are used in all cases, however to verify this would require the analysis of the original Japanese – the use of inverted commas could also be the acknowledgement that such a metaphor is unusual in English. However, whether novel or not, it does not seem to generate any insights of significance for this study.
4.3.2.2 Asahi Shimbun In the Asahi corpus there are several examples of CMs that are perhaps particularly indicative of Japanese values. The first is the primary metaphor HIGH STATUS IS UP. Although this metaphor underlies LMs in many if not all cultures, the LM is interesting:
Still, all people see is the same old vertically compartmented administrative structure (Asahi Shimbun, June 19, 2003)
This example, referring to the Japanese ministries, seems to illustrate the hierarchical nature of Japanese society and seems to draw upon the Moral Space metaphor identified by Slingerland. Also, consider again the LM:
Europe must play a key role in standing up to U.S. opinion when necessary, and guiding American policy in a direction more acceptable to the international community (Asahi Shimbun, June 23, 2003)
The concern with behaving in a manner “acceptable” to other nations was found to be a salient feature of the Japan corpora, and this again would seem to draw upon the Moral Space metaphor and the importance of being “centred”.20 A further CM is KNOWLEDGE IS AN ENTITY / (NATION IS A PERSON), exemplified by this LM:
Japan today is squandering what our predecessors accumulated and passed down from generation to generation (Asahi Shimbun, June 24, 2003)
20 In Japanese society great importance is attached to acting in the manner that befits the circumstances. 35 This example is referring to the lack of opportunities for young people to develop leadership qualities. Whilst certainly not unique to Japan, it nevertheless does seem to draw upon the Confucian notion of the importance of one's ancestors and the respect one should show towards them, views still very much prevalent in modern Japan.
Broadening the focusing from CMs/LMs to include other salient linguistic aspects, we conclude this part of the analysis with the illustration of several noteworthy linguistic features of the Asahi Shimbun editorial of June 26 (see Appendix 10) which concerns the scandals and corrupt nature of many politicians (itself not unique to Japan!). The writer talks of the need to “reestablish Diet dignity”, criticizes corrupt politicians for taking advantage of their “noble calling”, and refers to one politician as “a man of honor when put up against all his shameless colleagues”. These sentiments, although readily understood in the West, do seem to indicate a sense perhaps more prevalent in Japan of the notion of honour and fulfilling one's role in the “correct” way, or being centred in one's “moral space”, as discussed above. It is perhaps significant that these sentiments were not voiced in the UK or US corpora.
Mention is also made in the Asahi corpus of the “big-boned” reform plan of the Japanese prime minister (two LMs). There are also two other CMs which seem to be novel: POLITICAL POLICY AS HIGHER ORDER BEINGS, expressed by “the ‘holy trinity’ of reform – a three-point reform package” (Asahi Shimbun, June 28, 2003).21 Finally, referring to the large amount of corruption in Japanese politics, a politician used the metaphor SCANDAL AS COMMODITY / PARLIAMENT AS STORE, calling the Diet (Japanese Parliament) a “department store of presumed scandal” (Asahi Shimbun, June 26, 2003).
Thus, it can be seen that several CMs/LMs seem to indicate such Japanese values as discussed above, although this is a small proportion. No metaphors directly pertaining to the Shinto concepts of purity and pollution were identified. As mentioned previously, many conceptual metaphors are present in all corpora, and a range of factors make this
21 This actually refers to the same “big-boned” policies, and seems to be evidence the prime minister is invoking several metaphors as a rhetorical strategy in order to convince others of the sincerity of his will to implement reform (a major issue at the time in Japan). 36 unsurprising – these include the experiential nature of conceptual metaphors, the impact of globalization, cross-cultural influences, and of course the fact that the editorials are written in English, either directly by a native Japanese speaker, or translated from the Japanese original. Nevertheless the features identified above I believe do reflect underlying Japanese values.
4.4 Synthesis The quantitative and qualitative analyses described above allow us to draw several conclusions summarized below. a) The proportion of LMs is consistent within data sets. b) The US corpora show the least, the UK the most. c) Cases of metonymy in the Japan corpora are double those in the UK corpora. d) The CM NATION IS A PERSON occurs in the Japan corpora on average seven times more frequently than in the UK corpora. e) Occurrence of this metaphor in the “right-wing” corpora (Yomiuri and Telegraph) is two to three times that in the “left-wing” corpora (Asahi and Guardian) f) Quantitative analyses cannot be said to provide significant empirical support for Strict Father / Nurturant Parent models. g) Qualitative analysis of both CM and LMs provides clear support for Strict Father / Nurturant Parent models. h) Several CMs and other linguistic features were identified as reflecting Japanese values. i) Common structural metaphors (e.g. POLITICS IS WAR) and primary metaphors are found in all corpora, indicating the universality of many CMs.
37 Chapter Five: Conclusion
5.1 Summary This study has shown conceptual metaphor analysis to be a useful tool in the elucidation of the ideologies underlying media articles. In particular it has shown the importance of paying attention to surface-level linguistic features, the overall context and the incorporation of relevant aspects of CDA, suggesting that complementing conceptual metaphor analysis with these elements creates a more powerful tool for the analysis of public discourse.
The quantitative findings of this study do not provide strong empirical support for the existence of Strict Father / Nurturant Parent systems of morality underpinning conservative and liberal ideologies. There are at least three possible reasons for this: a) such models do not in fact underlie political ideologies; b) the models exist but the small size of the corpora prevented identification of salient metaphors; and c) the models exist and underpin ideological thinking but are seldom revealed through surface linguistic manifestations. However, qualitative findings in all corpora are consistent with these models, and it has been shown that the models provide a consistent and coherent explanation for the political views and ideologies identified and discussed. I believe therefore that this study provides some limited support for the existence and functioning of these models in both western and non-western cultures.
The finding of two to three times the occurrence of the metaphor NATION IS A PERSON in the Yomiuri and Telegraph corpora allows us to suggest that conservative or more right-wing ideologies are likely to make greater use of this metaphor than more liberal or left-wing ideologies. This metaphor can allow the interests of more powerful elements of society to be highlighted and represented as serving the interests of all whilst obfuscating those elements of society whose interests may not be best served. It may also reflect the writer’s likely identification with the dominant sections of society. The greater emphasis on less powerful members of society (for example the elderly and the very young) in the liberal corpora seem to support this conclusion.
38 The study also allows us to draw some tentative conclusions regarding the Japan corpora. Whilst it was found that many conceptual metaphors were present in all corpora, suggesting their universality, some significant differences were also found. Double the cases of metonymy and seven times the occurrence of the metaphor NATION IS A PERSON in the Japan corpora would seem to be two forms of linguistic evidence of the group-oriented nature of Japanese society, whose members are often said to regard themselves a part of a homogeneous culture. Some limited evidence was also found as support for the presence of the Moral Space metaphor and the importance of behaving in the manner deemed correct, dignity and honour, the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, and the Confucian notions of respect for one’s ancestors.
5.2 Pedagogical Implications There are several implications arising out of this study for students of English, particularly students of political science, higher level students learning for academic purposes, and non-native teachers of English. Using CMA to identify underlying conceptual metaphors and the way they are represented in a text linguistically can provide an organizational framework and shed light on the choice of lexical items that at first glance may seem almost arbitrary. An understanding for example of how many linguistic metaphors can arise out of the conceptual metaphor POLITICS IS WAR or the Moral Accounting metaphor can perform at least three functions: it allows a learner to see the underlying connections between the various linguistic expressions employed, thus helping provide a deeper understanding of the text and adding to the perception of coherence; it facilitates an insight into the underlying ideology and less overt aspects of the text; and thirdly it can afford cross-cultural insights into the conceptual metaphors shared by people of a similar culture or society. Although the study provides incidental support for the universality of many conceptual metaphors, some will not be shared by all cultures. A learner from a culture that does not use a metaphor commonly employed in English-speaking cultures may thus be afforded an insight into how people in the latter cultures can be seen to do so and how this may be reflected through their thought processes, language and even possible actions. For example, an awareness of the uses of metonymy, the uses of the metaphor NATION IS A PERSON and the manner in which they may differently be employed by writers of different political ideologies and/or cultures will encourage deeper insights into a text, aiding both comprehension and production skills.
39 5.3 Reflections 5.3.1 Limitations of the Study The following limitations to this study should be acknowledged: a) Data size. The relatively small size of the corpora naturally impacts on the representativeness of each corpus, possibly preventing the identification of less frequent metaphors. b) Data collection period. The short timescale in which articles were collected will also affect the representativeness of the sample. c) Data collection sources. The constraints on a study of this scope prevented the use of more sources. d) English articles were used in the Japan corpora. The presence or absence of metaphors will naturally be affected by the fact that the medium was English. e) Statistical analyses were not employed in this study. Although several interesting findings and suggestions have emerged from this study, it is acknowledged that they only pertain to the actual data collected and analysed, and quantitative data cannot be said to be significant in terms of statistical probability.
5.3.2 Suggestions for Further Research In conclusion, several recommendations are offered to further research in this area. Firstly, in order to confirm any of the tentative conclusions drawn in this study, the use of larger and a greater number of corpora is recommended. The use of statistical analyses would also strengthen any quantitative claims. A longer time frame would also allow a broader and more representative selection of articles and hence corpus. Another approach that may further facilitate the identification of metaphors pertaining to Shintoism, Confucian notions or the systems of morality described in this study would be to analyse articles related to one specific topic area or relevant current issue, especially topics involving issues of morality. Finally, in order to elucidate more clearly the conceptual metaphors and linguistic metaphors underlying Japanese values, texts written in Japanese by Japanese writers could be analysed and compared with texts in English.
40 Appendix 1: Fox News Corpus Data
1. Fox – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – Entities and substances Target Domain NATION 2 ORGANIZATION 1 ATTITUDE/BELIEF 3 Total 6 (21%) Ontological – Personification NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 3 ORGANIZATION(S) AS PERSON 2 Total 5 (18%) Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics War Law Society/People Total Human realm Game 2 2 Business 1 1 War 1 1 2 Non-human Animal / Organism 3 1 4 living realm Physical realm Physical environment 1 1 3 5 Building 1 1 Vehicle 1 1 Other objects 1 (broken) 1 Total 8 1 1 7 17 (61%) GRAND TOTAL 28
2. Fox – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR EXAMPLE NO.* Ontological – Entities substances REGIME IS (WORTHLESS) ENTITY Iran deserves going onto the ash-heap of history 1 NATION AS ENTITY drag the country into war 1 GOVERNING AUTHORITY AS ENTITY "mullahcracy" has disintegrated 1 ATTITUDES/EMOTIONS ARE ENTITIES a cluster of intellectual moods first collided with 3 totalitarian realities Ontological – Personification GOVERNMENT IS A PERSON birth of … government 1 NATION IS A PERSON The notorious failures of the U.N. to effectively disarm 3 Saddam Hussein GOVERNING AUTHORITY IS A PERSON The administration has dragged its feet 1 Structural ATTRIBUTES OF BIRD AS DEGREE OF Playing "hawks versus doves" within the mullahcracy 1 AGGRESSION POLITICS IS A GAME The Bush Administration should take the playbook 2 POLITICS IS BUSINESS We could help bring liberation on the cheap 1 SOCIAL SITUATIONS ARE A PHYSICAL There's a swamp out there called poverty and injustice 1 ENVIRONMENT NATION IS A BUILDING everyone there is breaking down the door to get here 1
* It should be noted that NO. refers to the total number of linguistic metaphors corresponding to the conceptual metaphor. This does not necessarily indicate equivalent lexical realization of the LMs.
49 LIFE IS A JOURNEY / PERSON AS Life is more a journey in discovery of self 2 MULTIPLE SELVES HUMAN AS ORGANISM / GAINING They are not sponges craving to absorb 1 EXPERIENCE IS PHYSICAL ABSORPTION ACTIONS ARE VEHICLES get the enlightened classes aboard our anti-terrorism 1 efforts ACTION AS MOTION WITHIN BOUNDED should they ever make the mistake of bombing The 1 PHYSICAL SPACE Guggenheim, they'll be crossing the line POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR IS AN (UNRULY) Senate Democrats threaten to filibuster legislation 2 ANIMAL designed to rein in abusive litigation LEGAL ACTION IS WAR litigation targeting the firearms gun makers 1 NATION IS BROKEN OBJECT He doesn't need to visit these places; he just needs to fix 1 them STRONG EMOTION IS A STORM Their strong anti-gun sentiment has not abated 1 3. Fox – Metonymy Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realization (LR) Total % Institution for people The Bush administration should take the playbook 9 56 responsible Ruler for state to effectively disarm Saddam Hussein 1 6 Religious leader for religious the impulse to hijack Jesus and the "gospel of love" 1 6 ideals Specific for superordinate These men don't have to … go running around the globe 1 6 Part for whole cluster of intellectual moods first collided with totalitarian realities 1 6 Controller for controlled horrors that Saddam inflicted 3 20 Total 16 100 Appendix 2: LA Times Corpus Data
1. LA Times – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – Entities and substances Target Domain NATURE 1 STATE 2 TOTAL 3 (15%) Ontological – Personification COMMUNITY AS PERSON 2 GOVERNING AUTHORITY AS PERSON 2 CITIZENS OF NATION AS PERSON 1 NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 2 WORLD AS PERSON 2 HISTORY AS PERSON 1 Total 10 (50%) Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics Education Law Society / People Total Human realm Game/Sport 1 1 Business 1 1 War 3 3 Physical realm Physical environment 1 1 2 Total 4 1 1 1 7 (35%) GRAND TOTAL 20
2. LA Times – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR NO. Ontological – 50 Entities and substances NATURE AS OBJECT Power to protect the environment 1 STATE AS ENTITY reality gets shrouded in uncertainty 2 Ontological – Personification COMMUNITY IS A PERSON communities eager for the help 2 GOVERNING AUTHORITY IS A The administration acts on what it declares to be good 2 PERSON intelligence CITIZENS OF NATION AS A PERSON if their conduct threatens public safety 1 HISTORY IS A PERSON history has decided 1 NATION IS A PERSON how will they inspire American … confidence 2 THE WORLD IS A PERSON the world learned that U.S. troops wiped out a tiny village of 2 Bedouins Structural PROGRESS IS FORWARD I won't stand by while Omar and the other children … get left 1 MOVEMENT behind ACTIONS AS MOTION WITHIN Now President Bush and his administration march perilously 1 BOUNDED PHYSICAL SPACE close to crossing the line POLITICS IS WAR Dick Cheney told Senate Republicans …to back off 3 LEGAL ACTION IS SPORT One amendment …was just a fishing expedition against Cheney 1 and the CIA EDUCATION IS BUSINESS Congress should not be in the business of public education 1
3. LA Times – Metonymy Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realization (LR) Total no. % of LRs Institution for people responsible The White House argued 18 95 Controller for controlled Franklin Roosevelt quietly shipped destroyers 1 5 TOTAL 19 100
Appendix 3: Yomiuri Shimbun Corpus Data
1. Yomiuri – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – entities and substances Target Domain ORGANIZATION 2 ATTITUDE/BELIEF 1 OTHER (DEFLATION) 1 Total 4 (3%) Ontological – Personification NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 63 NATIONS AS COMMUNITY MEMBERS 4 51 ORGANIZATION(S) AS PERSON 7 CITIZENS OF NATION AS PERSON 3 Total 77 (60%) Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics Business / Economy Society / Total Trade People Human realm Game/Sport 2 1 3 War 3 1 4 Non-human living Animal / Organism 6 8 26 realm Physical realm Physical environment 3 3 Building 1 5 10 Other objects 2 fluid 2 Total 24 8 11 5 48 (37%) GRAND TOTAL 129
2. Yomiuri – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR NO. Ontological – Entities and substances ORGANIZATION AS OBJECT / stock market sagging under the weight of the deflation-led 2 RECESSION IS A BURDEN recession PUBLIC TRUST IS AN OBJECT Public trust in the market has been shaken to the core 1 DEFLATION IS AN ENTITY Efforts to overcome deflation 1 Ontological – Personification NATION IS A PERSON Japan will be left the odd man out in the global market if it 61 continues to hamstring itself GROUP OF NATIONS IS A PERSON Russia and the European Union -- despite their … objection 2 … both adamantly opposed NATIONS ARE COMMUNITY MEMBERS international community's coordinated efforts 4 GOVERNING AUTHORITY IS A PERSON relationship between the central and local governments 3 CITIZENS OF A NATION ARE A PERSON Presenting the public with 3 CORPORATION/COMPANY IS A PERSON corporations began setting their own standards 3 WHALING INDUSTRY IS CONDEMNED the noose around the whaling industry was being tightened 1 PERSON Structural POLITICAL PROGRESS IS FORWARD after Japan had lagged behind other countries in opening up 2 MOVEMENT ALONG A PATH domestic markets OBSTACLES TO PROGRESS ARE Panel has more mountains to climb 1 ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL TERRAIN POLITICAL DEBATE IS A GAME/SPORT discussions by both councils … reduced to a tug-of-war 2 POLITICS IS WAR China is gaining the upper hand over Japan 3 FINANCIAL TRADE IS SPORT To take the lead in futures and derivatives 1 FINANCIAL TRADE IS COMBAT drive a major bank to the wall 1 STOCK EXCHANGE IS ORGANISM Bourse must revitalize itself 2 MONEY IS LIFE-GIVING FLUID inject public funds totaling 1.96 trillion yen into Resona 3 Holdings Inc. FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS ARE stagnation in the flow of money in the nation's economy 2 FLUID MOVEMENTS COMPANY IS ORGANISM corporations that have suffered losses 3 ECONOMY IS ORGANISM plan may bleed economy dry 6 GOVERNMENT FINANCES AS reform three pillars of central and local government finances 1 BUILDING INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT IS A the Japan-U.S. alliance framework … 4 BUILDING NATION IS A BUILDING help rebuild Iraq 5 POLITICAL POLICY/PLANS AS AN Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's so-called big-boned 11 52 ANIMAL policies NATION AS (WILD) ANIMAL United States and Britain leading the pack 1
3. Yomiuri – Metonymy Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realization (LR) Total no. % of LRs Institution for people responsible The Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy … drew up 100 76 Nation for nation's representatives / Japan's request to be allowed to resume 14 11 authorities Nation for nation's fleet Japan catches about 400 minke whales 1 1 Event for people at event The IWC meeting also adopted 4 3 Place for institution Tokyo has long enjoyed 10 7 Part for whole (Institution for U.N. body pointed the finger of suspicion 1 1 people responsible) Controlled for controller Man Gyong Bong (a ship) has been conducting 1 1 Total 131 100
Appendix 4: Asahi Shimbun Corpus Data
1. Asahi – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – orientational HIGH STATUS IS UP 1 TOTAL 1 (1%) Ontological – entities and substances Target Domain ORGANIZATION 3 ATTITUDE/BELIEF 1 IDEAS/KNOWLEDGE 5 ACTIONS 3 TOTAL 12 (9%) Ontological – Personification NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 45 NATIONS AS COMMUNITY MEMBERS 3 ORGANIZATION(S) AS PERSON 28 CITIZENS OF NATION AS PERSON 1 Total 77 (59%)
Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics Business Society Economy Total People Human realm Business / Trade 2 1 3 War 12 12 Religion 1 1 Non-human Animal / Organism 4 2 1 7 living realm 53 Physical realm Physical environment 8 1 1 10 Building 3 2 5 Other objects 3 clothes 3 Total 33 2 4 2 41 (31%) GRAND TOTAL 131
2. Asahi – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR NO. Ontological – Orientational HIGH STATUS IS UP vertically compartmented administrative structure 1 Ontological – Entities and substances ATTITUDE AS ENTITY / SOURCE OF such a half-baked attitude will only serve to shackle the 1 WELL-BEING AS ENTITY party's better interests PARLIAMENT AS ENTITY the Diet has deteriorated 1 POLITICAL POLICY AS ENTITY how robust legislative and institutional reforms will be 4 ACTION AS ENTITY / (ACCEPTING IS having to swallow pay cuts 1 EATING) SOCIETY AS ENTITY contribute to society 2 ACTS OF WARFARE AS ENTITY encounter hostilities 2 KNOWLEDGE IS AN ENTITY / (NATION Japan today is squandering what our predecessors 1 IS A PERSON) accumulated and passed down from generation to generation Ontological – Personification NATION IS A PERSON The United States may be confident that neither China nor 31 Russia would object NATION IS A PERSON / POWER IS AN if America becomes intoxicated with this power and yields 1 INTOXICANT to the temptation GROUP OF NATIONS IS A PERSON Europe must play a key role in standing up to 9 NATIONS ARE COMMUNITY MEMBERS acceptable to the international community 3 GOVERNING AUTHORITY IS A PERSON the Bush administration has stood firm, refusing to be 7 threatened, while working to SOCIETAL CATEGORY IS PERSON cooperation of government, education and business 3 CITIZENS OF A NATION ARE A PERSON restore order for the public good 1 ECONOMY IS A PERSON Economy functioned well in ensuring that young people 2 … acquired the skills they needed SOCIETY IS A PERSON Society no longer needs your aged mantle 1 COMPANY IS A PERSON / BUSINESS IS a chance to return to the ring in a consolation match 7 SPORT INDUSTRY IS A PERSON Industries now hamstrung 1 CORPORATION/COMPANY IS A help struggling companies get back on their feet 7 PATIENT/VICTIM NATION IS A PATIENT Japan can help itself to its feet 4 Structural LIFE IS A JOURNEY / CAREER IS A PATH The freeter route to pursue lifestyles free of obligations 1 POLITICS IS WAR bureaucrats already had their fallback positions ready 12 POLITICS IS BUSINESS while hanging out the same old shingle 1 POLITICAL POLICY AS CLOTHES Party needs new clothes 3 POLITICAL PROGRESS IS A PATH the "European way,'' which is bent on avoiding any lasting 9 OBSTACLES TO PROGRESS ARE obstacles on the long-term road to unification, is definitely ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL TERRAIN / alive and well POLITICAL POLICY IS AN ORGANISM POLITICAL POLICY AS AN ANIMAL "big- boned" reform plan 2 POLITICAL POLICY AS HIGHER ORDER "holy trinity'' of reform - a three-point reform package 1 BEINGS POLITICAL PARTY IDEOLOGY IS The party's leaders need to lower the walls around them, 2 PROTECTED BUILDING / VIEWS ARE and devote more energy to the job of incorporating views ENTITIES from the outside world 54 POLITICAL SYSTEM IS A vested interest protection framework long harbored and 2 BUILDING/ORGANISM nurtured by the LDP SOCIAL SYSTEM IS BUILDING system … is now teetering 1 NATION IS A BUILDING reconstruction of Iraq 1 NATION IS A CORPORATION problems of Japan Inc. 1 MONEY IS SOURCE OF HEALTH injecting money 2 STATE OF THE ECONOMY IS STATE OF reviving the nation's economy 1 HEALTH SCANDAL AS COMMODITY / called the Diet "a department store of presumed scandal 1 PARLIAMENT AS STORE SOCIAL SITUATIONS ARE A PHYSICAL Japan's bad asset problem turned into a quagmire 1 ENVIRONMENT 3. Asahi – Metonymy Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realization (LR) Total no. of % LRs Institution for people responsible The ministry has decided 73 90 Nation for nation's representatives / No other countries supported 4 5 authorities Action for emotion Sigh heavily at 2 3 Place for institution Pyongyang must accept 1 1 Part for whole protect peaceful and affluent lifestyles 1 1 Total 81 100
Appendix 5: Daily Telegraph Corpus Data
1. Telegraph – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – orientational BAD IS DOWN / UP IS GOOD 4 TOTAL 4 (3%) Ontological – entities and substances Target Domain NATION 5 STATE 2 BEHAVIOUR 1 IDEAS 4 ORGANIZATION 2 OBJECT 1 TOTAL 14 (8%) Ontological – Personification NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 19 ORGANIZATION(S) AS PERSON 12 GROUP OF PEOPLE AS PERSON 5 GROUP OF COUNTRIES AS PERSON 4 STATE/SITUATION IS A PERSON 6 IDEAS/BELIEFS 4 Total 50 (29%)
Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics War / Society / Economy Total Terrorism People Human realm Vision 2 2 Movement 1 1 3 5
55 Eating 1 1 Life / Health 2 1 2 5 Weight 2 2 Type of person 3 1 4 Game/Sport/Show 17 1 18 Business / Trade 3 2 5 War 16 1 17 Religion 4 4 Wealth 1 1 Non-human Animal / Organism 10 1 1 12 living realm Monster 1 1 Physical realm Physical environment 13 13 Balance 3 3 Building 1 1 2 Vehicle 1 1 2 Other objects 2 book 1 machine 6 3 intoxicant Total 78 3 17 5 103 (60%) GRAND TOTAL 171
2. Telegraph – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR NO. Ontological – Orientational BAD IS DOWN / UP IS GOOD Mr Blair's descent into torment 4 Ontological – Entities and substances NATION AS ENTITY Disintegration of Iraq 5 STATE AS ENTITY an enormous blow to Western prestige 1 POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR AS ENTITY Some rituals are so deeply embedded in British politics 1 POLITICAL POLICY AS ENTITY reforms which got caught up in the reshuffle mangle 4 MONEY AS SCARCE/DIFFICULT TO you will have to scrape up the money 1 FIND ENTITY DEMOCRACY AS ENTITY plan for restoring democracy 1 SOCIETY AS ENTITY force for restructuring society 1 CIVILIZATION AS ENTITY oppression, any injustice, any hatred, is a wedge designed 1 to attack our civilization Ontological – Personification NATION IS A PERSON a country that, having been decapitated 13 NATION IS A PATIENT The country is on its knees and needs to be steered carefully 5 back to health GROUP OF PEOPLE AS PERSON support for the democratic Iranian resistance 2 GROUP OF NATIONS AS PERSON complaint against the European Union over its foot- 2 dragging NATIONS ARE COMMUNITY MEMBERS Rice's message to the international community 1 THE THIRD WORLD IS A CHILD the way to feed the Third World 1 CITIZENS OF A NATION ARE A PERSON not just for Mr Blair but for his people's health 3 PROBLEM AS OPPONENT you are grappling with the problems 1 TERROR AS PERSON fight against global terror 1 THREAT AS PERSON the Islamist threat 2 FANATICISM AS PERSON fanaticism that pursues this subject relentlessly in defiance 2 of the evidence ORGANIZATION/COMPANY AS PERSON businesses and organisations which have to deal with 5 56 government POLITICS AS PERSON the system will cover up for you 1 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AS PERSON Labour can still defend treating the Tories … 6 POLITICAL POLICY/IDEOLOGY AS reform … would first be knackered by Gordon Brown, and 4 PERSON then definitively polished off SOCIETY AS PERSON society might find it objectionable 1 Structural UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING Multiply that effect across Whitehall and the picture begins 1 to build KNOWLEDGE IS SEEING good idea to obscure good news … constitutional reforms 1 PAYING ATTENTION IS GRASPING Mr Meacher … has never really gripped the nation 1 GOOD IS BALANCED the stability of a shattered Europe 3 FRIENDLINESS IS WARMTH Everyone … has warmed to him 1 STATE/EMOTION AS WEAPON oppression, any injustice, any hatred, is a wedge designed 1 to attack our civilization STATE (RIVALRY) AS COMMODITY rivalry sadly exported from the Potomac to the Tigris 1 NATION IS A MACHINE Failed states 1 STATE AS VEHICLE Tony Blair to relaunch their commitment 1 INSTITUTION IS A VEHICLE The European Congress on Obesity … has been gathering 1 steam since it was launched INFLUENCE IS WEIGHT The best way for Mr Blair to help … is to use his weight to 1 force SIGNIFICANCE IS WEIGHT weighty constitutional implications 1 LIFE IS WEALTH measures that devalue life 1 WELL-BEING IS WEALTH the cost of failure would be huge 1 ABIDING BY THE LAW IS FORMING A the British would form a queue even when they are alone 1 QUEUE TERRORISM IS AN ORGANISM the breeding ground of terrorism 1 ENCOURAGEMENT IS FOOD / the British state is all carrot and no stick 1 DISCOURAGEMENT IS PHYSICAL BEATING PERSON/ENEMY AS NON-HUMAN pity for the monster 1 PERSON AS INSECT / (IMMORAL IS he was swatted down … in order to crush a further 1 DOWN) pretender PERSON AS COMMODITY Mr Hain intended to sell himself as future leadership 1 material POLITICIAN AS LUNATIC while Clare Short rants, Robin Cook raves 2 POLITICIAN AS PROPHET Cassandra, prophesying doom … could turn out to be 1 Michael Meacher ACTION AS ANIMAL seeking to give multilateralism some real teeth 3 ACTION IS MOVEMENT the decision to enter the euro is a decision to swim in the 3 European sea STATE IS LOCATION Not only can Britain be half in and half out of Europe 4 HISTORY AS WRITTEN RECORD Alastair Campbell might take the rap … but that will be a 2 footnote LOSING A JOB IS LOSING A LIFE Nor can Alastair simply be sacrificed 1 WAR AS GAME the ace of diamonds in the US Army's deck of "most 1 wanted" cards CITIZENS ARE CHILDREN great nanny health declaration 1 POLITICS IS SPORT / (BOXING) Mr Hain's contribution was that of a cocky newcomer, 8 quickly knocked from the ring by meatier fighters POLITICS IS WAR she was also firing some shots … in the internal Whitehall 16 battle POLITICS IS GAMBLING The stakes for the occupying powers in Iraq are very high 4 POLITICS IS BUSINESS how government runs itself 2 POLITICS IS A GAME making ministers play musical chairs 2 POLITICS AS RITUAL the reshuffle itself is the ritual which is now ripe for reform 1 POLITICS AS NATURAL What is the point of reshuffles? I can ask this question as 1 DISASTER/ACCIDENT someone who is neither an aggrieved victim nor a relieved survivor POLITICS AS SHOW reshuffles … the kind of capricious effects that these near- 2 annual performances have 57 POLITICS IS RELIGION What miracles did they perform 4 POLITICAL LIFE IS REAL LIFE loss of ministerial position … 1 has a sclerotic effect on political life POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IS The Prime Minister …is a creature of the Campbell 5 ARTIFICIALLY CREATED LIFE political laboratory DECIDING IS EATING Mr Blair ... must bite the carrot 1 POLITICAL PARTY AS POLLUTION treating the Tories as a form of democratic pollution 1 POLITICIANS AS WOLVES Labour's baying chorus 1 CONSTITUTION AS COMMODITY a constitution … needs to be sold to the Iraqis 1 STATE/CONCEPT AS INTOXICANT America as a concept …You have to allow yourself to be 3 intoxicated by it, as Americans are: drunk with idealism, drunk with freedom, drunk with power STATE/SITUATION AS LOCATION / Blair… Why not just walk away 2 AVOIDANCE IS WALKING AWAY NATION AS BUILDING commitment to nation-building in Iraq 1 ENTERING A BUILDING IS STARTING A innocent new minister coming through the door 1 JOB STATE OF ECONOMY IS STATE OF reviving the economy 2 HEALTH (POLITICAL) PROGRESS IS FORWARD getting from A to B on the delivery of actual results 4 MOVEMENT ALONG A (LINEAR) PATH / RESULTS ARE OBJECTS
3. Telegraph – Metonymy Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realizations (LR) Total no. % of LRs Institution for people responsible Government's alleged misuse of intelligence 24 57 Nation for nation's citizens / enabling poor countries in Africa to feed themselves 4 10 military Physical response for brought a lump to my throat 1 2 emotion/attitude Part for emotion my heart is touched 3 7 Place for institution exported from the Potomac to the Tigris 2 5 Controller for controlled Saddam systematically trashed Iraq 3 7 Ruler for state war against Saddam Hussein 3 7 Job attire for job Derry Irvine, swings his redundant tights around his head 1 2 Place for situation there Africa is a problem 1 2 Total 42 100 Appendix 6: Guardian Corpus Data
1. Guardian – Metaphor: General Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TOTAL Ontological – orientational LOW STATUS IS DOWN / HIGH STATUS IS UP 4 BEING IN CONTROL IS BEING UPRIGHT 1 Total 5 (3%) Ontological – entities and substances Target Domain NATION 3 STATE 8 ATTITUDE/BELIEF 4 IDEAS 7 PERSON 1 Total 23 (14%) Ontological – Personification NATION OR NATIONS AS PERSON 4 ORGANIZATION(S) AS PERSON 29 GROUP OF PEOPLE AS PERSON 2 WORLD IS A PERSON 3 STATE IS A PERSON 7 OTHER (TELEVISION PROGRAMME) 3 Total 48 (28%) 58 Structural Metaphors Target Domain Topic Source Domain Politics War Business / Society Economy Total Trade People Human realm Vision 4 4 Speech 4 4 Food / Drink 1 5 1 7 Life / Health / Disease 2 2 Size 1 1 Game/Sport/Show 3 1 1 5 Business / Trade 4 1 5 War 11 5 1 17 Wealth 1 1 2 Non-human Animal / Organism 8 4 8 20 living realm Physical realm Physical environment 2 10 12 Building 2 1 3 Vehicle 1 1
Other objects 1 matches 1 fabric 3 container 12 1 tool 2 flame 1 machine 1 cloth 1 dirt 1 book Total 35 9 6 44 1 95 (55%) GRAND TOTAL 171
2. Guardian – Metaphor: Detailed Summary CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR LINGUISTIC METAPHOR NO. Ontological – Orientational LOW STATUS IS DOWN / HIGH STATUS IS deskilled woman left with children drops into an abyss 4 UP BEING IN CONTROL IS BEING UPRIGHT women can get back on their feet 1 Ontological – Entities and substances NATION AS ENTITY we are both glued together 2 NATION AS ENTITY / STATES AS Iraq is sinking deeper into chaos and insecurity 1 (BOUNDED) LOCATIONS PERSON AS INANIMATE ENTITY sweeping up many innocents in the process 1 TREND AS ENTITY cultural trends … slip seamlessly across the Atlantic 1 STATUS AS ENTITY They enjoyed their husband's social status 1 OPPORTUNITY AS ENTITY redistributing opportunity in education 1 HUMANITY AS ENTITY Man's inhumanity to man was first invented 3 DEBATE AS ENTITY squash a proposal 2 LAW/POLICY AS ENTITY the law … is seen … as a loophole through which some 4 serious child abusers have escaped PREJUDICE AS ENTITY shatter prejudices 1 ATTENTION AS ENTITY focus on her marriage as personal stuff that will blow away 1 ATTITUDES AS ENTITY expectations that surround women 2 LIFE/SURVIVAL AS ENTITY survived and carved out a living 1 HOPES AS ENTITY ill-formed dreams of a better life disintegrated 1 SOVEREIGNTY AS ENTITY undermine the sovereignty of constitutional democracies 1 Ontological – Personification 59 NATION IS A PERSON Self-delusion on the part of the invading states 4 GROUP OF PEOPLE AS PERSON the Iraqi resistance, which is now killing 2 WORLD IS A PERSON The world should have a better way of responding to it 3 GOVERNING AUTHORITY IS A PERSON Bush administration, fresh from handing out contracts 7 DEMOCRACY IS PERSON their work is a threat to democracy 1 COMPANY IS A PERSON giants of American media might be following me 5 ORGANIZATION AS PERSON / CHILD NGOs aren't independent and can't speak for themselves 15 about what they see and think TELEVISION (PROG.) IS A PERSON Hours of cloned entertainment jostle with 3 POLITICAL PARTY IS A PERSON New Labour had nothing to fear 2 SECURITY IS A PERSON national security required 5 STATE IS A PERSON The entrenched advantages 1 Structural KNOWLEDGE IS SEEING programmes to help poor children's chances are invisible 3 GOOD IS LIGHT Every penny spent in the first five years outshines all other 1 interventions SIGNIFICANT IS BIG she is not so much aggrandised as shrunk by association 1 BODY AS CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONS / as she subsides from a spiky, independent-minded lawyer to 1 ANGER/STRONG EMOTION AS HEAT a smooth-voiced, smooth-haired political wife MIND AS MACHINE The ability to compromise … has been put into operation 1 SYSTEM OF THOUGHTS AS FABRIC the unravelling of … the "bureaucratic" pretext for war 1 INSTITUTION/INDIVIDUAL AS TYPE OF patchworks of minders, nursery schools, grandmothers and 1 CLOTH neighbours WELL-BEING AS WEALTH social and human cost of the invasion 1 CRIME IS DISEASE epidemic of murder and robbery 1 MORALITY IS PURITY / IMMORALITY IS brush off the sleaze that has already, fairly or unfairly, 1 IMPURITY accrued to her family SITUATION IS NATURAL EVENT drawing Iran into the maelstrom 1 EVENT/ACTION IS AN ORGANISM resistance would grow 2 ARGUMENT IS WAR Deploying arguments used by business 1 IDEAS AS WEALTH see the political gold dust 1 TELEVISION (PROGRAMME) AS FOOD programmes … bland and tasteless 4 TELEVISION PROGRAMME / programmes at the top of a food chain 2 ENTERTAINMENT AS ORGANISM ATTRIBUTES OF TELEVISION AS the wasteland that is the rest of US television 1 ASPECT OF PHYSICAL TERRAIN ORGANIZATION AS INSECTS sweep up those pesky non-governmental organisations 1 DISCOURAGEMENT IS PHYSICAL the American Enterprise Institute …is wielding the sticks 2 BEATING MARRIAGE AS ANIMAL / SUPPORT IS If … she succeeded … on the back of her marriage to a 1 RIDING ON BACK powerful man ENEMY AS INSECTS/LOWER ORDER “splatter” the Iraqis 1 ORGANISM PERSON AS OBJECT/FLAME the Arabs … must be snuffed out from the planet 2 PERSON AS PLANT Places in which their roots were deep 1 LAW AS PLANT A law with 140-year-old roots is ripe 2 HISTORY AS WRITTEN RECORD The drowned wretches … will merit merely a footnote in 1 history DESIRE AS THIRST the global thirst for knowledge 1 INSTITUTION AS CONTAINER / ANGER the media exploded 2 AS HEAT (MEDIA) BUSINESS IS GAME Never one to miss a trick, Fox has 1 POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR IS STARTING A playing with matches when we don't need to start a fire 1 FIRE INFLUENCE IS COMMODITY As for influence, few peddle it quite like 1 POWER IS A BUILDING equality in the corridors of power 1 ATTRIBUTES OF BIRD AS DEGREE OF military superhawks were balanced by regular strength hawks 1 AGGRESSION POLITICS IS SPORT Blow the whistle on their own governments 2 POLITICS IS WAR War on NGOs is being fought on two clear fronts 11 POLITICS IS BUSINESS the scheme yields high returns 4 POLITICS IS AN ORGANISM mature politics has suffered 3 60 POLITICS IS A GAME Before launching any new foreign adventures 1 POLITICS AS PHYSICAL TERRAIN dividing lines in British politics 1 PROGRESS IS FORWARD MOVEMENT This could be the great leap forward 4 SOCIAL PROGRAMME IS ORGANISM Professor Norman Glass, who nurtured SureStart 2 POLITICAL POLICY AS TOOL the policymaker's toolbox 1 POLITICAL POLICY AS TRAIN under-fives were shunted off to a junior minister 1 POLITICAL DEBATE AS ORAL With hardly a voice raised for young children 4 WAR IS SPORT Fox News led the way as the military cheerleader 1 BUSINESS IS WAR American majors will defend their bottom line 4 EXPRESSING OPINION AS ILNESS dismissed for a mild case of expressing his opinion 1 STATE AS LOCATION fleeing from the twin curses of famine and landlordism 5 STATE AS ENEMY triumph over adversity 1 NATION IS A BUILDING US plans to impose on the ruins of an independent Iraq 2 NATION IS AN ANIMAL This is not a lone wolf we are dealing with 1 ORGANIZATION AS ANIMAL which of the NGOs will play the sheep 1 POWER IS FOOD Even a power-hungry politician 1 ECONOMY IS AN ORGANISM A global economy is fed 1
3. Guardian – Metonymy
Type of metonymy Example of linguistic realizations (LR) Total no. % of LRs Institution for people responsible The US administration is far from confident 36 57 Nation for nation's citizens / The US plans to impose 6 10 authorities / military Place for institution Written and produced by the White House 6 10 Part for whole some of the finest minds 6 10 Physical response for turn our faces against it 3 5 emotion/attitude Controller for controlled courtesy of George Bush 3 5 Controlled for controller Purpose of the website 1 1 Place for people living there better-off homes 2 2 Total 63 100
61 Appendix 7: Fox News Corpus Sample
Is Iran Next? Tuesday, June 24, 2003 By Ken Adelman
Is Iran next? Yes -- at least I hope. But, no -- not like Iraq.
Yes, Iran sure deserves going next, right onto the ash-heap of history.*
Since the fall of the Shah in 1979, the Iranian regime has been distinctly corrupt and tyrannical to its own people. Plus it’s a clear and present danger to its neighbors, and to us, by backing terrorism and pursuing a nuclear weapons capability.
What Michael Ledeen cleverly calls the “mullahcracy” has disintegrated into an incompetent clique of corrupt mullahs, straining to govern a major Islamic state. Iran today, like Afghanistan yesterday, stands as the poster child of a fanatical Muslim state.
In one respect, at least, that’s fortunate. The birth of a new, democratic and competent Iraqi government -- America’s prime goal now -- comes at a prime time. The long-pulverized Iraqi people can glance across their border -- or afar, across Iran’s border into Afghanistan -- and see what disasters arise when fanatics seize power.
In 1991, former U.N. Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick and I journeyed to South Africa to meet with President F. W. de Klerk and ANC leaders around Nelson Mandela. When we asked about the ANC’s communist rhetoric and links, the just-freed South African blacks shrugged that off. Look, they told us, at what disasters came from communism in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. We’re bound to make new mistakes, they delightfully admitted, but surely not to repeat mistakes made before.
By then, communism was a known failure. Likewise, by now, radical Islamic rule is a known failure. Thinking Iraqis today will want to make their own mistakes, and not rerun the ruins of the Taliban or the mullahcracy.
Ditto for thinking Iranians today. That’s why, yes, the Iranian regime may be the next to fall.
But, no, not by a liberation of coalition forces. For unlike in Saddam’s Iraq, which was competent in its tyranny, Iranian students, workers and academics can liberate themselves. And that’s precisely what they’re doing now. Hardly a week goes by without protests in a major Iranian city.
The mullahs will crack down, as best they can, but eventually they too will face a “Ceausescu moment” -- the stunning instance when the decades-ruling tyrant of Romania, Nicolae Ceausescu, stood on the balcony delivering another vapid speech when “his” people suddenly rose up. For a few seconds, Ceausescu tried to continue his babble. Then, suddenly, he and his dastardly wife froze, and fled. They too realized that their people had quite enough. A few days later, the pathetic pair were caught, and on Christmas Day 1989, tried and shot for their crimes against Romania.
But great historical events don’t just happen. They’re made to happen. Hence, the Bush administration has a big role to play in the third great liberation of oppressed Muslims (fourth, if you count Kosovo).
The big “don’t” is to avoid legitimizing the Iranian government through State Department contacts. Playing “hawks versus doves” within the mullahcracy will work no better than did playing hawks vs. doves within the Sovietocracy. It gained us nothing, but gained some of those rulers legitimacy.
The main “do” is accordingly to legitimize, and assist, the Iranian liberators. The Bush administration** should take the playbook used by the late Carter and Reagan administrations in Poland, when Solidarity was getting going. Both presidents spoke directly to the oppressed people, subtly encouraging them.
Secretly, both supplied tools of liberation -- outside broadcasting of the truth, especially about the ongoing protests, plus some walking-around money to fund internal communications, money for striking workers, publications, etc.
Back then, in Poland, we used the AFL-CIO to launder our funds. Where there’s a will, there’s surely a way to pass along sums to the Iranian protestors now.
With some un-American subtlety, we could help bring liberation on the cheap. That would be another major achievement of this Bush administration for Muslim decency -- and for our security. 62 Kenneth Adelman is a frequent guest commentator on Fox News, was assistant to U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld from 1975 to 1977 and, under President Ronald Reagan, U.N. ambassador and arms-control director. Mr. Adelman is now co-host of TechCentralStation.com.
©Fox News, June 24, 2003. (639 words)
N.B. * Words/phrases identified as metaphorical are highlighted ** Cases of metonymy are shown in blue Highlighted blue indicates both metaphor and metonymy
Appendix 8: LA Times Corpus Sample
An American Hero Takes a Stand for the Children June 28, 2003 By Danielle Watson (Danielle Watson has been a Jumpstart member in Los Angeles since February.)
President Bush called me a hero, and as a hero I won't stand by while Omar and the other children in El Jardin's preschool program get left behind. That's what will happen unless we convince Congress and the president not to cut funding for AmeriCorps, the federal community-service program.
As a student at Cal State Northridge, I have spent this school year working with children at El Jardin in North Hollywood as a part of Jumpstart, which recruits, trains, places and supports college students in mentoring underprivileged preschool-age children. In this program, I have seen children who rarely spoke a word begin to speak in sentences. I had planned to serve as a Jumpstart member again next year, but now I can't. Jumpstart, a leading member of the AmeriCorps network, forms an integral link between young Americans like myself, who wish to volunteer their time, and communities eager for the help, such as the students and teachers at El Jardin.
Twice a week during the school year I head to El Jardin with the rest of my AmeriCorps team. I work with Omar, one on one; we read books together and talk about the story or the pictures. During Jumpstart, children also interact in a group to develop the language and social skills that are important to future academic and social success. Jumpstart encourages children to reach their fullest potential through literacy, initiative and social skills development.
So when I heard that the funding for AmeriCorps might be drastically cut, that meant something to me. As a member of Jumpstart Los Angeles, I've been able to see what a 300-hour commitment means to a community. Now I worry about what it would mean for Jumpstart to lose its funding. Many children would miss the crucial educational development that Jumpstart provides.
I'm frustrated that such an obviously beneficial program is in danger. As a member of the community, I see that there is so much work to be done here in L.A. schools and neighborhoods. I know that I am just one of thousands who are eager to jump in and make changes happen.
President Bush called Jumpstart's AmeriCorps members "heroes" for our service and held us up as role models for others who want to serve our country. First Lady Laura Bush said that the nation was fortunate to have people like Jumpstart Corps members, "who aim high, work hard and inspire others along the way."
As a hero, role model and someone who wants to answer the president's call, let me inspire those with power to ensure that AmeriCorps and Jumpstart receive the funding they deserve. Please allow us to keep building Los Angeles one AmeriCorps member and one child at a time. ©LA Times, June 28, 2003 (454 words Appendix 9: Yomiuri Shimbun Corpus Sample
63 Japan lagging in FTAs June 18, 2003
Japan will be left the odd man out in the global market if it continues to hamstring itself by being overconcerned with objections to free trade from domestic farmers.
There is good reason to be apprehensive if one looks at what efforts the nation is making to conclude bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs).
Earlier this month, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi held talks with the leaders of South Korea, Thailand and other East Asian nations in Tokyo. The meeting came after official and unofficial discussions between Japan and these countries concerning proposed FTA accords.
Therefore, the meeting raised hopes that progress would be made in efforts to start negotiations aimed at concluding such agreements. However, the Tokyo meeting produced no such accord.
Next week, Koizumi is scheduled to hold talks with Indonesian President President Megawati Sukarnoputri. It remains to be seen whether the two leaders will be able to reach an agreement to set up a joint study meeting on FTA-related issues.
===
Domestic fears hurt intl opportunities
A major challenge facing Japan and the other nations is how domestic objections to ending restrictions on farm trade can be surmounted.
For example, the proposed FTA between Japan and Thailand has been made the subject of bitter controversy not only by agricultural organizations but also by Liberal Democratic Party members who can exert influence over farming issues. Major exports from Thailand include rice and chicken. During his meeting with Koizumi, Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra insisted that the two nations initiate government-to-government negotiations. However, all Koizumi could do was pledge to "begin preliminary work."
Admittedly, care must be exercised in reducing restrictions on farm imports, because this is essential to ensure a stable food supply at home. However, objections to all forms of farm trade liberalization would hamper efforts to make headway in FTA talks. Such an inflexible attitude would undermine attempts to encourage the Japanese economy through free trade.
Japan should waste no time in starting government-level negotiations with nations that want to sign FTA agreements with this country. To accomplish this, it is advisable to ensure that the negotiations seek agreements on specific demands submitted by each nation. Pertinent issues include how far each country will open up its agricultural market and what kind of approach will be employed in attaining such a target.
In January 2002, Japan signed an FTA accord with Singapore, the first of its kind to be concluded by this country. The move came after Japan had lagged behind other countries in opening up domestic markets through FTA agreements.
Admittedly, there was no major hurdle to bilateral efforts to sign the FTA because agricultural trade between the two nations was negligible. However, Japan has since been unable to reach FTA agreements with any other countries.
===
China gaining upper hand
This is already beginning to cost Japan dearly. For instance, Mexico has signed FTA accords with the United States, the European Union and others and abolishing tariffs on mutual imports and exports. However, the list of these countries does not include Japan, which has taken an estimated 400 billion yen in annual losses from a reduction in its exports to Mexico.
The government is negotiating an FTA agreement with Mexico in the hope of concluding a treaty in autumn. However, Japanese corporations are taking losses because they have, in effect, been shut out of the bidding for the purchase of goods by the Mexican government.
In May, Singapore became the first Asian country to sign an FTA agreement with the United States, which is seeking to conclude similar accords with other Asian trade partners.
64 China is gaining the upper hand over Japan in concluding FTA accords with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. In autumn, the Chinese and Thai governments are scheduled to eliminate mutual tariffs on 200 agricultural products.
Japan could even lose the East Asian market to the United States and China if it does not rethink its policies on FTAs. This is highly disturbing in that nations in that region are major targets of Japanese trade and investment.
©The Yomiuri Shimbun, June 18, 2003 (675 words)
Appendix 10: Asahi Shimbun Corpus Sample
EDITORIAL: Re-establish Diet dignity June 26, 2003 We elect lawmakers; we must monitor them, too. Maybe the scandals involving Diet members have inured us to shock over such events. But the latest case is somehow different.
Upper House legislator Hideyo Fudesaka of the Japanese Communist Party submitted his resignation Tuesday in response to allegations he had sexually harassed a woman. The resignation of a Diet member because of sexual harassment is unprecedented recently.
We do not know the details. All we know is that a woman filed a formal complaint against Fudesaka for having harassed her at a drinking party, and Fudesaka has admitted the accusation. End of story. But the explanation from the JCP is insufficient.
The Japanese Communist Party has led all other political parties in insisting upon vigorous investigation of scandal of any kind. Fudesaka, in particular, was notable in that many TV viewers saw him as something of a hero for his unrelenting style to Diet questioning. He cannot simply resign and call the case closed.
Sexual harassment can never be condoned, but especially so if the offender has taken advantage of his social status in the process. While every caution must be taken to protect the privacy of the victim, Fudesaka has an obligation to tell people exactly what led him to resign. Surely that is the least that could be expected of someone in an exceptionally high-profile Diet position.
One junior high school civics textbook explains that democracy is conducted by the Diet, which is made up of elected representatives of the people.
But we could hardly consider those who have been snarled in scandal as our representatives. Consider all those who have refused to resign even after their secretaries were caught peddling favors, or who let their aides' salary partially paid by gangsters. We must conclude that such Diet members are simply so lacking in principle that they take advantage of their "noble calling.''
We certainly do not intend to defend Fudesaka. But even he comes across as something of a man of honor when put up against all his shameless colleagues. This is just one more sad example of how the Diet has deteriorated from our understanding of common decency.
One former lawmaker has called the Diet "a department store of presumed scandal.'' How apt. Among the names of miscreants that come readily to mind are Kenshiro Matsunami, Tadamori Oshima, Michihiko Kano and Fukushiro Nukaga. The truly deplorable element is that some of them continue to strut through the Diet halls after admitting the allegations against them.
65 An even tougher line is taken by Muneo Suzuki and Takanori Sakai, who still draw Diet salaries, even though they are behind bars for corruption.
These politicians might as well establish a new party with a platform that says, "Never resign from the Diet, no matter what.'' Perhaps they should be called the Nihon Giwaku-to (Japan Scandal Party) for clarity.
Some professional baseball players have been permanently banished for allegedly rigging games. It pains us to realize that our elected representatives are smugly insulated against such harsh punishment.
Some have resigned, among them Joji Yamamoto, Koichi Kato, Makiko Tanaka and Kiyomi Tsujimoto. In the Upper House, Takao Koyama and Masakuni Murakami had to quit after being arrested in the KSD scandal. Yutaka Inoue quit his post as president of the Upper House in disgrace over allegations his secretary was fiddling funds.
Perhaps even these people are "better'' than those who cling to their Diet seats. But resignation does not mean the case is closed. And Fudesaka's resignation reminds us of this.
That junior high school civics book also admonishes us this way, "We must keep an eye on what our elected Diet members do.'' Truly, that is our ultimate responsibility. ©The Asahi Shimbun, June 26, 2003 (618 words)
Appendix 11: Daily Telegraph Corpus Sample
Winning Iraqi hearts
June 18, 2003
The stakes for the occupying powers in Iraq are very high, and the evidence to date is that they are in danger of losing. The report from Baghdad on our front page yesterday shows both a woeful lack of strategic direction on the part of the Bush Administration, and a failure to deliver basic services, whether protection of citizens, payment for work done or provision of electricity. Paul Bremer, an able, hard-working administrator, has succeeded the inept Jay Garner as head of the Coalition Provisional Authority, but he does not have the means to fulfil his mandate.
Iraq needs more coalition soldiers to provide security, and more foreign officials to run a country that, having been decapitated by the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, has swiftly slid into chaos. The Americans are right to pursue de-Ba'athification with more vigour than the British, but the consequence of such purges will be even greater reliance on outside help while new people are trained. 66 All this needs to happen within a coherent, long-term plan for restoring democracy and reviving the economy. America and Britain, the occupying powers, have as great a responsibility to Iraq as they did to Germany in 1945. Then, the stability of a shattered Europe was at stake. Today, it is the creation of a state that can serve as a model for a region condemned to decline by corrupt and autocratic government.
Nearly seven weeks after George W Bush declared that the second Gulf war was over, it is time for him and Tony Blair to relaunch their commitment to nation-building in Iraq. From the President must come leadership that transcends the inter-departmental rivalry sadly exported from the Potomac to the Tigris; the inability to decide on a currency, mentioned in yesterday's front-page report, is the most glaring consequence of such dissension.
The adjective will not find favour in Washington or London, but the two leaders need to espouse an overtly imperial cause, rather than vaguely repeating that it is up to the Iraqis to decide.
For decades, Saddam systematically trashed Iraq; if the Americans believed it could be easily reconstituted, they were guilty of extraordinary naïvety. The country is on its knees and needs to be steered carefully back to health. Mr Blair and Mr Bush should openly commit themselves to a clear, long-term plan for their patient; at the moment, Iraqis have no sense of what the coalition wants to do, or whether it is prepared to see the job through.
The two leaders have to persuade their electorates of what is at stake. The disintegration of Iraq into warring factions, or the emergence of another dictator, would be an enormous blow to Western prestige and give great heart to those who would drive us out of the Middle East and Israel into the sea. Failed states, as the Government often reminds us, are the breeding ground of terrorism, so the rescue of Iraq from confessional, ethnic and tribal division, or from a new totalitarianism, can be presented to Western audiences as part of the fight against global terror.
Within Iraq itself, the coalition has hardly begun to communicate with the people for whom it has assumed responsibility. On one hand, more telephones and better broadcasting facilities are required. On the other, the Americans need humbly to recognise that they are not necessarily seen as saviours. Once furnished with a coherent plan, they need to persuade Iraqis of its merits.
Iraq has the advantage of oil wealth. Within the next few weeks, its politicians, for far too long sidelined by the coalition, will form a political council and appoint senior advisers to the Americans. Within six to eight months, a convention is expected to start work on drafting a constitution, which will be ratified by a referendum, thus paving the way for elections. Economically and politically, there is much to look forward to. But it needs to be sold to the Iraqis with more imagination and vigour, for the cost of failure would be huge. ©Daily Telegraph, June 18, 2003 (668 words)
67 Appendix 12: Guardian Corpus Sample
The war, brought to you by the White House John Willis Friday June 20, 2003 To see what media consolidation will do to British television, look no further than the US - where Glutton Bowl is typical fare. During my year as a television executive in the United States, I was continuously struck by the difference between the two countries. Oregano is not a herb, but an erb. The former head of the FBI was J Edgar Oover and Bill Clinton was married to Illary. In religion, society, politics and culture, the differences are starker.
Yet we are both glued together in a world where what happens in Yemen or Yugoslavia affects lives in Boston or Bristol. A global economy is fed and powered by a worldwide information system, and cultural trends - reality TV, Harry Potter, rap music - slip seamlessly across the Atlantic.
There is much to admire on American television. It is hard to imagine a long-running British network series as literate as The West Wing or as brilliant and enduring as The Simpsons. But these are a tiny number of programmes at the top of a food chain that is long, bland and tasteless, like the endless fast-food restaurants on the edges of American towns, where Arby's and Denny's, McDonald's and Taco Bell compete for neon attention.
Hours of cloned entertainment jostle with lame comedies and drama-by-numbers. Every hour is crammed full of commercials, encouraging a form of television attention deficit disorder. In this environment, Americans watch anything. An eating contest, The Chicken Wing Bowl, attracted 20,000 stadium spectators. Never one to miss a trick, Fox has run a televised food-guzzling contest, The Glutton Bowl.
But it is on news and current affairs that American TV is shown at its most dispiriting. No nation needs independent and impartial media more than the US, a sprawling and diverse democracy in which only 16% of people hold passports.
Yet during the Iraq conflict the problem wasn't just the US flag fluttering in the corner of the screens or the loose language from embedded reporters using "we"; it was also that much of the coverage, particularly on the cable channels, could have been written and produced by the White House.
When Fox star Bill O'Reilly interviewed retired generals before the attack on Baghdad, he airily dismissed their caution and told his viewers that the US should go in and "splatter" the Iraqis. Interviews with military superhawks were balanced by regular strength hawks, dissenters reduced to soundbites at protest rallies and described as "the usual protesters" or even "the great unwashed".
Chillingly, the media consulting firm Frank Magid Associates warned that covering war protests might be harmful to a station's bottom line. Another consultant group urged radio stations to make listeners "cry, salute, get cold chills!" Go for the emotions, and air the national anthem each day.
Fox News led the way as the military cheerleader, apparently giving both viewers and politicians what they wanted. Contra scandal star Oliver North reported on the ground for Fox. The channel's proud slogan is "Real Journalism, Fair and Balanced", but as columnist Tom Shales put it: "The only word with any truth in it is 'and'."
The success of Fox has pushed other stations to the right. MSNBC recently hired Michael Savage, whose radio programme Savage Nation makes Fox News look like the Guardian. On radio, Savage gave his solution to the Middle East conflict: "We are the good ones and they, the Arabs, are the evil ones. They must be snuffed out from the planet and not in a court of law."
There was little or no debate. America's leaders remained unchallenged. Any lack of patriotism was punished with McCarthyite vigour, even in the television industry, where CBS's Ed Gernon was summarily dismissed for a mild case of expressing his opinion.
For all the warts on British television, a year in America taught me just how lucky we are to have not just the BBC but also a range of diversely funded channels with different layers of public service ambitions and obligations. The lesson from America is that, if news and public affairs are left purely to the market, it will most likely give the government what it wants.
68 This swamp of political cravenness was a timely reminder of the values and obligations of public television. Its birthmarks - independence, universality, diversity of opinion and quality - should be especially visible at times of war. Now, as I return home, it looks as if the giants of American media might be following me. I am being stalked by Viacom and Disney.
We have to hope that Ofcom makes a better fist of regulation than the US Federal Communications Commission, which has overseen a dramatic reduction in the diversity of ownership in US radio and recently voted to allow media consolidation in television. But defending the independence, quality and range of British television culture against the muscularity of the US media giants is a tall order for a start-up regulator.
Media consolidation is a careless risk that should never have been contemplated - we are playing with matches when we don't need to start a fire. American majors will defend their bottom line with all the political influence, commercial muscle and legal firepower they can muster.
If the government has its way over the next few weeks, we have to hope that Ofcom rises to the task and that in 10 years' time American television's influence here still represents the distinctiveness of The Sopranos, not the wasteland that is the rest of US television.
I will leave the final word to a friend named Bill, who runs a small New England restaurant. He said to me: "British television, now that's a nice piece of cheese. I heard on the radio that our guys might be moving in there. John, for heaven's sake, stop it - by the time they finish there'll be no cheese at all." (John Willis is the BBC director of factual and learning, and former vice president in charge of national programmes at WGBH in Boston. This is an edited extract from a speech given at the Royal Television Society this week.) ©The Guardian, June 20, 2003 (955 words) Bibliography
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