Chapter - IV J\OBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AND BUDDHIST THOUGHT

4.1 Introduction

Research methodology and sources of data for this study were discussed in the preceding chapter. The researcher decided to follow historical method and philosophical analysis to study the from educational perspective. In this chapter, textual documents and discussions are presented and attempts are made to inquire into Buddhist thought from primary sources.

First, a brief history of the and his teachings are presented as the necessary background of the study. After this introduction, the status of literary sources which contain the Buddha's teaching are critically evaluated. Then, textual documents taken from the primary sources on the Noble Eightfold Path are presented. In the last section, Buddhist thought as reflected in the Noble Eightfold Path is discussed.

4.2 The Buddha, His Teaching and

There is no dearth of literature on the Buddha and his thought. In A History of Educational Thought, Frederick Mayer (1960, p. 40) wrote: "He [the Buddha] was not only a man of unusual religious insight, but also a philosopher and educator of great depth and penetration." Mayer had attempted to disperse the cloud of numerous legends surrounding the Buddha, in order to reach the path which was advocated by the Buddha. In doing so, Mayer called the Buddha an "outstanding and most provocative saint" in history, because he offered "the best solution" for human problems. However, he had not proved the Buddhist educational thought with persuasive explanation and evidence.

In this section, the life of the Buddha, as a philosopher and educator, is introduced with textual evidence taken from primary sources. And it is followed by a brief introduction to his teachings and texts in which his teachings are preserved.

4.2.1 The Buddha

One of the earliest texts describing the life of the Buddha was the Ariyapariyesana-sutta of the Majjhima-nikaya?^ Based on the narration in this text, together with other internal evidence drawn from the whole Tipitaka, Buddhist scholars (Berchert, 1991; Nanamoli, 1998; Prebish, 2008; Schumann, 1989) have reached a general agreement that the historical Buddha, bom as Siddhattha Gotama, lived in ancient Northern India in the 5''^ and 6"^ centuries BCE. He was most likely bom in c.563 BCE in Kapilavatthu (a territory of Indian-Nepalese border today) and passed away in c.483 BCE^' in Kusinara (now District, Uttar Pradesh, India).

The Buddha was a man of flesh and blood (Schumann, 1989, p. 8), who walked on the rich soil of the Ganges plain over 2500 years ago. He was bom to the Sdkyan clan. By his potentially awakening orientation and strenuous efforts, he became fully-awakened {sambodhi). With Full-Awakening, he was entitled the Buddha or the Awakened One (Schumann, 1989, p. 56). Since then throughout the history, his words have been the source for the development of a unique culture that brings in unparallel prestige to many communities and institutions in Asia (Harvey, 1990, p. 5; Swearer, 2000, pp. viii-xxv), which proclaim their allegiance to his teaching. The Buddha's teaching in brief is called Dhamma, which is bound to the Indo- culture in which the young Siddhattha Gotama was bom and brought up.

Today, the advent of the Buddha and his teaching is perceived in different ways, depending upon background of the person who approaches him. To a historian of , the Buddha may represent a consummate enlightened being. To a

•"' See Chapter III, Section 3.2.1. "" Though some researchers hypothetically suggest other dates, most of the scholars support the dates 563 - 483 BCE and this dating is generally accepted in the circles of .

75 philosopher, the Buddha may represent a great thinker or a sage, who reahsed the eternal state of Being. To a meditator, the Buddha represents a yogin, who had attained the intrinsic quality of awareness and so on and so forth. The diversity of -point reflects the resonance of and shares allegiance to the Buddha's life and his teaching, the Dhamma?^

The students of the Buddha, from the Buddha himself down through all the schools to the present, who wish to learn the Dhamma and attain wisdom, have acknowledged two phases of the path. First comes learning the words of truth that was originally uttered by the Buddha himself; and the second is reflecting and practising his teachings within our own experience. In other words, theory and practice in the Buddha's Dhamma always go together hand in hand.^^ One balances and corroborates the other. In this connection, theory or study of the theory is a stepping stone towards our practice. Studying the Buddha's Dhamma from educational perspective, and more importantly in education discipline, makes sense only when the combination of theory and practice is kept in mind.

4.2.2 The Dhamma

The Buddha's Dhamma can be summarised, in brief, in the Four Ennobling Truths: the {diikkha), the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering and the way leading to the cessation of suffering. The first truth points to the reality of life, which is inherently impermanent, non-substantial in nature and

"" Dhamma is a multiplex term. Essentially, Dhamma is a means, a raft for crossing over from the shore of ignorance and suffering to the shore of wisdom and peace (Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995, p. 25; MN.22.13). To know more about the philosophical significance of the variety and variability of usages and applications of Dhamma, see Bodhi's discussion on this term in his introduction to Nanamoli's translation of the MaJJhima- nikaya, The Middle Lenghth Discourses of the Buddha, and also to his translation of the Samyittta-nikaya, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. •' The Buddha's emphasis on this inseperable combination is depicted in the 19-20. The Buddha likened the bookish scholars to cowherds, who protected other people's cows without themselves getting the benefits of milk and milk products. Theory without practice becomes a mere intellectual game; while practice without theory tends to journey without direction. 76 causing pain and suffering in life. With the second truth, the Buddha identifies craving as the main cause of suffering. The third truth points to Nibbana, the highest state of well-being, which he had realized by walking on the Middle Path {majjhimd-patipadd). This path is the fourth truth, which is also called the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya-atthahgika-magga). It includes:

1. Right-view {samma-ditthi)

2. Right-resolve {sammd-sankappo)

3. Right-speech (5(7wwfl-vaca)

4. Right-action {sammd-kammanto)

5. Right-livelihood {sammd-djivo)

6. Right-effort {sammd-vdydmo)

1. Right- {sammd-)

8. Right-concentration {sammd-samddhi)

During his teaching career, the Buddha also explained the Dhamma in terms of the (ti-sikkhd), the four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthdna), the seven enlightenment factors (bojjhanga), and so on, to meet the individual differences. In this process, he also introduced some philosophical doctrines such as the five aggregates (pafica-khandha), dependent-arising {paticcasamiippdda) and moral efficacy of action (kamma). In this study, attempt is made to focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. In fact, all these teachings are included in the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore, they will be discussed when the Noble Eightfold Path is presented and explained.

4.2.3 Buddhist Texts

After the Buddha's demise, his teachings were collected and gathered by his immediate disciples. They compiled them into the three parts, viz. -pitaka (collection of disciplines), Sutta-piiaka (Collection of Discourses) and Abhiddhamma-pitaka (Collection of higher Teaching). They are all preserved in an Indian ancient language, named . The Sutta-pitaka contains approximately 77 12,632 discourses of varied lengths given by the Buddha (some by his great disciples, and approved by him). They were compiled into five main collections (Table 4.1). The rich themes in these numerous discourses include almost all aspects of thoughts and practices of human life. For this reason, the Sutta-pitaka is selected as the primary source for this study.

Table 4.1: Number of Suttas

Sutta-pitaka More than 12,632 discourses

DTgha-nikaya 34 discourses

Majjhima-nikaya 152 discourses

Samyutta-nikaya 1889 discourses

A nguttara-nikaya 9557 discourses

Kh uddaka-nikaya 15 minor collections of short discourses

However, Dipak Barua (1966, pp. 2-3) points out that there are some late interpolations in the Sutta-pitaka. Part 1 of the DTgha-nikaya, the Assalayana- sutta of the Majjhima-nikaya, the -samyutta and the Bhikkhuni-samyutta of the Samyutta-nikaya, among others, are some of such instances where interpolations are evident.

Norman (1983, p. 37) also proves that there are some later additions in the Pali texts. According to him, many passages were added to the Mahaparinibbana- sutta (DN.16) as we have today, which contains the story of the wanderings of the Buddha during the last few months of his life. Norman also points out some other evidence of later insertions in the DTgha-nikaya. Most of these later insertions are related to miraculous and mythical elements (Norman, 1983, pp. 38-39). He (p. 84) especially emphasised that a large number of stories found in the Jataka

78 collection of the Khuddaka-nikaya were composed and added after the development of different Buddhist schools.

As regards the evolution of ideas, there are a number of doctrinal differences in (Bronkhorst, 1993, pp. 112-122; Gombrich, 1996, pp. 131- 132), and it is very difficult to distinguish which formulations can be considered to be authentic (Wynne, 2003, p. 1).

The distance from the Buddha's time to the period of compiling the Sutta-pitaka is considerable. And so is the distance from the Sutta-pitaka compilation to our present time. Because of the later interpolations and the evolution of ideas, historical criticism is very much essential in studying Buddhist thought recorded in the Sutta-pitaka, even though it is the most original and authentic source of the Buddha's teachings.

4.3 Authenticity of the Data

Historical criticism is important in historical research in the field of Buddhist Studies, and there have been rigorous research studies conducted focusing on this task to justify the authenticity and accuracy of Buddhist texts. Therefore, in order to avoid duplication, historical criticisim is not considered as an essential part of the present work. Furthermore, the task of establishing the critical evaluation of the textual material requires a complex and large-scale investigation, which may involve various approaches such as philological, doctrinal, cultural, and so on.^"* That is simply impossible in this kind of research in the field of education.

Therefore, the researcher relies on the findings of previous studies and treats the Sutta-pitaka as the most authentic source of early Buddhist teaching. According to Sujato (2005, p. 225), Samyutta-nikdya constitutes the historically oldest strata of Buddhist scriptures, and this collection was the prime work codified at the First Council. However, Suttas in other Nikavas also contain

^ Bhikkhu Sujato (2005, p. 20) even says that to get firm answers regarding the matter of authenticity of early Buddhist texts necessarily requires a very large scale statistical analysis of linguistic, doctrinal and other features. 79 features of the historically earliest strata of Buddhist scriptures (Wynne, 2003). Though the Digha-nikdya and Ahguttara-nikaya possess some evidence of later interpolations [even extrapolation, Wynne, 2003, p. 108], the main part of these two Nikayas were compiled rather early, at least in 3'"'' century BCE, in the history of Buddhist literature. Some collections in the Khuddaka-nikaya also share this characteristic.

We do not wish to delve into the complex question of historicity in this study, but a brief discussion on this matter is necessary for a study of ancient thought. There are two main problems regarding the authenticity of the Sutta-pitaka. One is that we don't have any written evidence of the early form of Buddhist texts. Another problem is that there was the development of ideas within the Sutta-pitaka itself

Recently, many attempts have been made to justify the originality and authenticity of texts in the Sutta-pitaka. Most of the scholars (Barua, 1966; Malalasekera, 1928; Norman, 1983) agree that there are some inevitably later additions in the Sutta-pitaka. However, in the process of critically evaluating the Sutta-pitaka, they have established the antiquity and authenticity of this collection.

In addition, at present there are two rigorous studies closely related to this matter, viz. A History of Mindfulness by Bhikkhu Sujato and 77?^ Origin of by Alexander Wynne. Along with this main work, Wynne has also published a couple of important research articles especially discussing the problem of authenticity of the Pali texts. To some extent, these two studies have sufficiently informed us when the Pali texts represent accurately what the Buddha really said and have provided guidelines for critical evaluation of the Sutta- pitaka.

4.3.1 Structural Analysis of the Nikayas

Bhikkhu Sujato suggests a holistic approach to study the Buddha's teachings based on a general hypothesis regarding the origin and development of the Buddhist texts, namely, "General Integrated Sutta Theory" and he calls this

80 approach, making an acromyn, "GIST theory." Sujato used a method of structural analysis of the Nikayas to support this hypothesis. According to his structural analysis, there are three strata of early texts: the first discourses, the first collection of discourses, and the first Abhidhamma?^ He analysed these three strata using the two criteria: concordance of the texts and the testimony of the traditions. The agreement of the three strata is confirmed as a means to justify the consistency in the Buddha's teachings at different layers of the texts.

According to Bhikkhu Sujato, confirming the concordance of texts preserved by the different schismatic schools is one of the most powerful tools to identify early texts. He specially compares the Pali Nikayas of the tradition with the Agamas of the Sarvastivdda tradition. He provides several examples with supported reasoning and proves that the traditional narration can be maintained in the face of modem criticism. According to him, many "narrative cladding" were added to the Suttas of the Sutta-pitaka in the process of changes and editions. On one hand, he warns the researchers to be careful and critical in distinguishing between the teachings themselves and the narrative cladding in which the teachings appear. On the other, he asserts that there is a magnificent spiritual literature, which had been produced and maintained for 2500 years. He (2005, p. 179) writer:

Despite everything, the NikdyasIAgamas offer us a vast body of teachings springing from a remarkably uniform vision, a clarity and harmony of perspective that is unparalleled in any comparably large and ancient body of writings.

Bhikkhu Sujato comes to two important conclusions. First, the Samyutta-nikdya constitutes the historically oldest strata of Buddhist scriptures. It was widely learnt by the Buddhists during the Buddha's lifetime and used as the prime work codified at the First Council (Sujato, 2005, p. 225). Second, the holistic paradigm of the Buddha's teaching must stem from the Four Ennobling Truths.

•'' In Bhikkhu Sujato's study, Ahhiddhamma is a specific formulation of early Buddhist texts. It does not indicate one of the three Pitukas. 81 4.3.2 Authenticity of the Nikayas

Among various studies on the Sutta-pitaka, Alexander Wynne's The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (2003) is one of the most critical studies. Though the main objective of this doctorate research was to trace the origin of Buddhist meditation, Wynne devotes a large part of his work to justify methodologically the historicity and authenticity of the Buddha's teachings, and further extended to the reliability of the Sutta-pitaka. In this study, Wynne takes into consideration all the sceptical views of influential scholars. He points out the main problem which these critics have faced, and proposed a new solution to it (p. 2). His method is summed up as follows:

1 - Historical facts about the Buddha's life, particularly those which pertain to his intellectual development, are established.

2 - The intellectual content of the facts is suggested by the facts themselves. This helps to develop a more detailed understanding of the Buddha's intellectual development.

3 - Dialogues in the early literature, which contain ideas and evidence relevant to the Buddha's intellectual development, are identified. If the Buddha's teaching in the dialogues shows that he fully understands these ideas, and responds to them in a way concordant with the theory of his intellectual development, the text is likely to be historically authentic.

4 - The authenticity of the texts in question is further enhanced, if the text contains its own evidence suggesting its antiquity and/or authenticity (p. 110).

In fact, this argument is based on the method of deduction. With this method, he attempted to establish authentic teachings of the Buddha on the basis of historical facts deduced from the early literature (pp. 62, 108). He provided sufficient evidence from the Sutta-pitaka to justify the historical authenticity of facts about the Buddha's early life (pp. 8-23), his efforts and attainment (pp. 64-98), and the formulation and development of his teachings (pp. 99-108). He (p. 109) puts:

82 [T]he knowledge that the Buddha was exposed to particular idea and responded to them in a certain way, presents us with some criteria that can be used to establish the authenticity of a teaching ascribed to him... [T]he Buddha, of such a training and intellectual background as we have established him to be, responds exactly as expected to an adherent of his old beliefs... [T]his is no coincidence: provided the historical information on the personality of the Buddha is reliable, the correspondence most probably reveals an authentic teaching of the Buddha.

He proves that although the doctrinal formulations including long tracts could have been moved in and out of different texts by reciters at will, most of his teachings in the Pali Tipitaka are historically authentic (p. 109). He argued that there was no reason to be sceptical about the historical worth of the biographical accounts of the Buddha in the Ariyapahyesana-sutta and the accounts of his dialogue with Brahmins UpasTva, Posala and Udaya in the Paryana-vagga of the Sutta-nipdta. The peculiarities of the texts contain compelling historical evidence. It is surely old and contains much authentic information. It is, therefore, irrevocably true that the Sutta-pitaka is the most authenthic source of the Buddha's teachings.

Acknowledging the autheticity of the Sutta-pitaka does not mean that the researcher relies on the assumptions of these scholars and holds a view that the discourses as found today must be word-by-word exactly identical with the original teachings of the Buddha. But what the researcher wants to say here is that, as Bhikkhu Sujato (2005, p. 18) puts it:

[T]hese teachings, in largely the same words and phrases, have been treated since earliest times as the most fundamental doctrines, and the traditions give us a plausible reason why this should be so.

For the purpose of this study, the researcher agrees with Bhikkhu Sujato's and Wynne's opinions and follows the majority of the modem scholars in presuming the Sutta-pitaka available in the present form, as the most authenthic source of the Buddha's teaching. 83 4.4 Noble Eightfold Path: Texts and Contexts

For the present study, an attempt is made to sort out the primitive expressions of the Noble Eightfold Path and related concepts from the five Nikayas. The contexts in which these expressions were given and the literally intended meaning of these expressions are examined. Brief explanations based on the original meaning of texts in the early Sitttas will be provided. In-depth analyses of the Noble Eightfold Path and discussions on the relevance of the path will be considered in the next sections.

The Noble Eightfold Path is said to be the heart of Buddhist thought (Bodhi, 1999, p. 5; Harvey, 1990, p. 27). Both the main traditions of Buddhism, Theravdda and Mahaydna, acknowledge the Noble Eightfold Path as the essential teaching of their traditions. It is the Noble Eightfold Path that caught the interest of the liberal Western thinkers in the later decades of the 19"^ century (Miyamoto, 1952, p. 224). And it resulted in the dramatic emergence and development of centers and institutions as well as the explosion of academic studies in Buddhism across the globe at the end of the 20"^ century (Prebish & Baumann, 2002, p. 1). We learn from the Buddhist literature that the Buddha taught the Noble Eightfold Path to people in the then social context of ancient India more than 2500 years ago. What we know about the Buddha's teaching of the path is preserved in various sources of the Buddhist texts, especially those in the Sutta-pitaka. In this section, textual data on the Noble Eightfold Path sorted out from the Sutta-pitaka is presented.

4.4.1 Noble Eightfold Path in the Sutta-pitaka

In the , Ariya-atthangika-magga is the name for the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path is referred to (in the name oi Ariya-atthangika- magga) at least 563 times in the Sutta-pitaka. In this main collection of the Buddha's teachings, there are altogether more than 12,632 Suttas delivered by the Buddha and his disciples, of which about 30 are long, 150 medium, and the remaining are short (Bullitt, 2010). In several instances found in this vast

84 collection, the Noble Eightfold Path is explained in details. In other places, the Noble Eightfold Path is introduced with certain specific emphasis, for one or the other reasons.

Based on the preliminary investigation, there are at least five important Suttas which focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. They are the Saccavibhanga-sutta (MN.141 at MN III 248); the Mahacattarisaka-sutta (MN.117 at M III 71), the Mahasatipat Mill 71), (DN.22.21 at DN II 312), the -sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) and the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN.56.11 at SN V 421) (Table 4.2).

Besides, there are many Suttas such as the Mahasihanada-sutta (DN.8.13-21), the Sammaditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47), the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta (MN.28.28 at MN I 190-191), the Mahavedalla-siitta (MN.43.13 at MN I 294), the Culavedalla-sutta (MN.44.7-12 at MN I 299-305), the Kosambiya-sutta (MN.48), the Mahasaldyatanika-siitta (MN.149.1I at MN III 289), the Kaccayanagotta- siitta (SN.12.15 at SN II 16), the Paccaya-sutta (SN. 12.27 at SN II 42-43), the Bhikkhu-sutta {S^.\2.28 at SN II 43-45), the Panvimamsans-sutta (SN.22.51 at SN II 82), the Sikkha-sutta (AN.3.88 at AN I 235), and many Suttas of the Magga-vagga (SN.45 at SN V 1-62), in which one or more factors of the path are explained. In some Suttas, only one factor is explained at varying degrees, while in some other Suttas, two or more factors of the path, being grouped together according to their nature and characteristics, are introduced and/or analysed. There are also numerous occasions (DN.6.14; DN.16.5.27; DN.19.61; MN.88; MN.129.24; MN.139.13; SN.12.65; Dhp.273-276, etc.) on which the Noble Eightfold Path is mentioned, as a way of living which leads to the highest goal of life, i.e., the nibbana.

Textual sources where key terms related to the Noble Eightfold Path are presented and explanation is given respectively. It is presupposed that the textual evidences sorted out from these selected Suttas provide relevant material and meaningful data for exploring and focusing on the main topic of the study.

85 Table 4.2: Textual sources

Textual Sources

Key Suttas Explanatory Suttas

Dhammacakkappavattana Rasiya-sutta (SN.42.12 at SNIV 331) -sutta Kaccdyanagotta-sutta (SN.12.15 at SN II 16) (SN.56.11 at SNV421) Paccaya-sutta (SN. 12.27 at SN II 42-43) Bhikkhu-siitta (SN. 12.28 at SN II 43-45) Vibhanga-sutta Parivimamsam-sutta (SN.22.51 at SN II 82) (SN.45.8atSNV8-ll) Magga-vagga ('SN.45 at SN V 1-62J -sutta (MN.IO at MN I 62) Saccavibhanga-siitta Aranavibhahga-sutta (MN. 139.3 at M III 231) (MN.141 at MN III 248) Sammdditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47) Culavedalla-sutta (MN.44 at MN I 301) Mahdcattdnsaka-sutta Sikkha-sutta (AN.3.88 at AN I 235) (MN.117atMNIII71) Kayagatasati-sutta (MN.l 19 at MN III 88-99) -sutta (MN. 118 at MN III 78-88) Mahdsatipatthana-sutta Mahdsihandda-sutta (DN.8.13-21) (DN.22.21 at DN II 312) Sammdditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47) Mahdhatth ipadopama-sutta (MN.28.28atMNl 190-191) Mahdvedalla-sutta (MN.43.13 at MN I 294) Kosambiya-sutta (MN.48 MN I 321) Mahdsaldyatanika-sutta (MN.149.11 at MN III 289)

4.4.2 Historical Context

Among the five important Suttas in which the Noble Eightfold Path is explained, the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN.56.11 at SN V 421) is believed to be one of the most important discourses, and is the first one, delivered by the Buddha after his Awakening. This Sutta provides a gist of the Noble Eightfold Path.

86 The Mahasatipatthana-sutta (DN.22.21 at DN II 312) appears to be an extended explanation of the Noble Eightfold Path. The second half of this Sutta is substantially identical with the analysis of the Noble Eightfold Path in the Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11).

According to Bhiidchu Sujato (2005, p. 171), the explanation section on the Noble Eightfold Path in the Mahasatipatthana-sutta is a shift and insertion to this Sutta at the hands of Theravadins. Whether Sujato's view can be proved satisfactorily or not is a different story, but his structural analysis of the Sutta-pitaka shows that the Magga-vagga of the Samyutta-nikaya is one of the most authentic collection of the Buddha's teachings available to us. The Vibhanga-sutta belongs to this collection. Therefore, the Vibhanga-sutta is the main text from which the definitive explanations of the eight factors are taken for this study.

The Saccavibhahga-sutta (MN.141 at MN 111 248) is an extensive discourse in which Elder Sariputta was asked to explain the Noble Eightfold Path to a large group of . In this Sutta, the Buddha only introduced the path and asked Sariputta to explain the teaching. It is noteworthy that the place where this discourse was delivered is the deer park at Isipatana oi Benares, exactly the same place where the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta. Therefore, the way the Buddha related this significant event and reminded it to Sariputta and the audience appears to be a way of celebrating the "Foundation Day" with which he started his teaching mission! In such a way, the content of the discourse concentrates on the Noble Eightfold Path and it is almost identical to that of the Vibhanga-sutta except the introduction given by the Buddha. This makes the discourse significant.

The other discourse is the Mahacattansaka-sutta (MN.l 17.12 at M 111 73). This is a unique Sutta in which the path is analysed from a different perspective. Some aspects of the path, which are not found in the above mentioned Suttas, are presented in this Sutta. In other words, this Sutta is another elaborative exposition of the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta.

87 What this brief textual investigation illustrates is that among thousands of discourses given by the Buddha and his disciples, the Dhammacakkappavat-tana- sutta is the gist of the Noble Eightfold Path. Based on the internal evidences of several Suttas of the Sutta-pitaka (MN.26; MN.36; MN.139), we learn that the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN.56.11 at SN V 421) is the first discourse, which the Buddha gave after his Awakening.^'' From historical perspective, this Sutta is very important, because it reveals the vision of a great Teacher and marks the beginning of his mission. It is supposed that the content of the Sutta also shares profound significance from the philosophical perspective.

In this Sutta, three important aspects of the path are described: the content of the path, the goal of the path and the context in which the path was taught. The content of the path and the goal of the path will be discussed in the following sections. Here the context is examined.

In the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the context in which the Buddha taught the Noble Eightfold Path is first presented:

The pursuit of in sensual pleasure is low, vulgar, individualist, ignoble and unfruitful; and the pursuit of self-mortification is painful, ignoble and unfruitful.^''

This is the context in which the two extremes {anta) are prevalent. One is self- indulgence {kdmasukhallikamiyoga), and the other is self-motification {attakilamathanuyoga). These are the two practices, which truth-and-peace

The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta is available in both the Sainyiitta-nikaya of the Theravada tradition and the Agamas of the tradition. It is also availible in at least the five Vinaya texts. At present, at least 17 existing versions of the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta are found. Although there are some variations in different versions, the basic content is substantially similar. There is a remarkable consistency in both the basic narratives and the doctrinal teachings. The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta is one of the few discourses that survive in the four main Buddhist languages of Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan (Sujato, 2005, p. 16). SN.56.11 at SN V 421: Yo cayam kamesu kamasukhallikamiyogo hlno gammo pothiijjaniko anahyo anatthasamhito. yo cayam attakilamathamiyogo diikkho anariyo anatthasamhito. 88 The Buddha's stance is innovative and clear. Facing the two ignoble and unfruitful extremes, the Buddha chose the middle ground. And he intentionally and clearly proclaimed the goals of the path which he was going to teach. The set of goals includes vision (cakkhu), knowledge (nana), peace (upasama), insight {abhinfia), full-awakening {sambodhi) and emancipation {nibbana).

It is interesting to note that a slightly adjusted set of goals is found in many other Suttas (at least 21, the number outweighing that of the initial proclamation of goals, see Table 4.3). In the adjusted statement, vision and knowledge in the initial proclamation of goals are replaced by equanimity {nibbida), dispassion {virago) and cessation of craving (nirodhd).

Table 4.3: Goals-set

Goals-set

Initial proclamation Adjusted statement

Dhammacakkappavattana- Sakkapanha-sutta (DN.21.2.7 at DN II 285)

siitta Mahdsunnata-siitta (MN.122 at M III 113)

(SN.56.11 at SNV421) Viggdhikakathd-sutta (SN.56.9 at SN V 419)

A ranavibhahga-sntta Tiracchanakatha-sutta (SN.56.10 at SN V 420)

(MN.139.3atMNIII231) Cinta-sutta (SN 56.41 at SN V 448,19-20) Dhammaddydda-siitta Vitakka-sutta (SN.56.7 at SN V 418) (MN.3atMNl 15) Culamalukya-sutta (MN.63.10 at M 1 431) Rasiya-siitta Simsapa-sittta (SN.56.31 at SN V 437)

(SN.42.12atSNIV331) Maghadeva-sutta (MN.83.21 at MN 11 83)

In the Simsapa-siitta, the adjusted statement of goals is as follows:

90 Bhikkhus, this is beneficial and relevant to the fundamentals to the holy life, and leads to equanimity, dispassion, cessation of craving, to peace, insight, flill-awakening, and nibbana?'^

Why are they replaced in such a way? This is an important question we encounter. There are two things that are important in this change. The first thing is that the frequency of occurrence of the two sets indicates the difference. The initial proclamation of goal is found in the four Suttas (Table 3), including the Dammaccakappavattana-sutta. In these Suttas, the account depicts the first occasion at which the initial proclamation was declared. It is simply a repetition. It appears that this proclamation includes the goals which the Buddha had achieved.

In the meanwhile, the so-called adjusted statement occurs at least in 21 Suttas in drastically different contexts. Sometimes, this set of goals were proclaimed by the Buddha as expected achievement, when he guided his disciples to direct, cultivate and regulate their actions {Sakkapanha-sutta, DN.21.2.7 at DN II 285), speech {Mahasuhhata-sutta, MN.122 at M III 113, 115; Viggdhikakathd-sutta, SN.56.9 at SN V 419; Tiracchdnakathd-sutta, SN.56.10 at SN V 420), and thoughts {Cintd-sutta, SN 56.41 at SN V 448; Vitakka-sutta, SN.56.7 at SN V 418) appropriately. Sometimes, the Buddha just referred to these goals to remind his disciples of the nature and characteristics of the path they were walking {Culamdlukya-siitta, MN.63.10 at M I 431; Simsapd-siitta, SN.56.31 at SN V 437). At other times, the Buddha pointed straightly to the Noble Eightfold Path and emphasised its goals to inspire the learners {Maghadeva-siitta, MN.83.21 at MN II 83). The exploration of these internal evidences infomis the second important change, which is the hypothetical answer to the question we have put, that is, appearantly, a paradigm shift in formulating and articulating the goals of

SN.56.31 at SN V 437: Etanhi, hhikkhave, atthasamhitam etam adihrahmacariyakam etam nihhidaya viragaya nirodhaya upasamaya ahhinnaya samhodhaya nihbcmdya samvattati. the Noble Eightfold Path. This paradigm shift reflects the Buddha's pedagogical approach.

This means that not only the Buddha's resolve and attitude towards the then existing extremes are evident, but the goal of path is also revealed in the texts. The Buddha thought carefully over the path, which he was going to teach, and intentionally formulated its contents and goals.

As far as the terms nana (knowledge), cakkhii (vission), nibbida (equanimity), virdga (dispassion), (cessation of craving), upasama (peace), abhinnd (insight) and sambodhi (full-awakening) inform, the goals are the destinations at different levels of cognitive transformation and emotional balance, which ultimately culminate in nibbana. Nibbana is related to the Path, just as the top of a mountain is related to a path which leads upto it.

Though proclaiming the goal is crucial, in Buddhist philosophical tradition, however, it appears to be more appropriate to describe this path than to try and describe its goal (Harvey, 1995, p. 63). We now consider the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta to explore the path.

4.4.4 The Noble Eightfold Path

After a brief introduction to the context in which the Buddha started his teaching and the proclamation of goals, the Sittta goes on with the gist of the path leading to that goals.

What, bhikkhus, is that awakened to by the Tathagata which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to peace, insight, full awakening, and nibhanal It is the noble eightfold path, i.e. right-view, right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort, right- mindfulness, and right-concentration. This, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to peace, insight, full-awakening, and nibbdna.^^^

SN.56.11 at SN V 420: Katama ca sa, bhikkhave, majjhima patipada tathugatena abhisamhuddha cakkhukaram ncinakanmi iipasamaya ahhiniiaya samhodhuya 92 This passage recurs in the Saccavibhanga-sutta (MN.141 at MN III 248), the Aranavibhahga-sntta (MN. 139.3 at M III 231), the Dhammaddydda-sutta (MN.3.8-15 at MN I 15-16), and the Rdsiya-sutta (SN.42.12 at SN IV 331).

The path which the Buddha taught is called the Noble Eightfold Path {ariya- atthangika-magga) or the middle way {majjhimd-patipadd) interchangeably. This is the path which avoids the two extremes: indulgence in sensual pleasures (kdmasukhallikdnuyoga) and self-motification {attakilamathdnu-yogd). This is the path which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to equanimity, dispassion, cessation of craving, peace, insight, full-awakening and nibbdna.

The path consists of the eight factors: sammd-ditthi (right-view), sammd- sahkappo (right-resolve), sammd-vdcd (right-speech), sammd-kammanto (right- action), sammd-djTvo (right-livelihood), sammd-vdydmo (right-effort), sammd-sati (right-mindflilness) and sammd-samddhi (right-concentration).

Samma-ditjhi

In this section, textual sources taken from the Sutta-pitaka, especially the Vibhahga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) of the Samyutta-nikdya, on different meanings of right-view {sammd-ditthi) are presented.

First, right-view is doctrinally explained in terms of understanding the Four Ennobling Truths:

Knowledge with regard to dukkha, knowledge with regard to the origination of dukkha, knowledge with regard to the cessation of dukkha,

nibbdnaya sainvattati? Ayameva ariyo at/hangiko maggo, sevyathidam - sammdditthi sammasankappo sammavaca sammdkammanto sammaajlvo sammdvctyamo sammasati sammasamddhi. Ayam kho set, hhikkhave, majjhima patipadu tathdgatena abhisambuddhd cakkhukaram ncmakaram iipasamava abhinnciya samhodhdya nibhandvci samvattati. 93 knowledge with regard to the way of practice leading to the cessation of dukkha: This is called right-view.'*'

Right-view is expounded in more details in the Sammaditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN I 46), the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta (MN.28.28 at MN I 190-191), the Mahdcattdrisaka-sutta (MN.l 17.4-9 at M 111 71-73), the Mahdsaldyatanika-sutta (MN.149.11 MN 111 289), the Kaccdnagotta-sutta (SN.12.15 at SN II 16), the Mahavedalla-sutta (MN.43.13 at MN 1 294), the Paccaya-sutta (SN. 12.27 at SN II 42-43), the Bhikkhu-sutta (SN. 12.28 at SN II 43-45), the Parivimamsans-sutta (SN. 12.51 at SN II 82), the Anattalakkhana-sutta (SN.22.59 at SN III 66) and the Nandikkhaya-sutta (SN.22.51 at SN III 51). These Suttas provide rich sources of textual evidence regarding the meaning of right-view in Buddhist thought. Besides, they also offer a comprehensive image of the context in which the concept of right-view is better understood.

Second, right-view is the appropriate understanding of the wholesome and the unwholesome. The Sammdditthi-sutta represents the person of right-view as the one who understands (pajdnati) the unwholesome (akusala) and its root {akusala- mula), as well as the wholesome (kusala) and its root (kusala-mula). The person who has right-view to such an extent is called a noble learner {ariya-savaka).'^^ In fact, understanding of the wholesome and the unwholesome and their roots is the knowledge of the law of cause and effect. It is called the theory of kamma in Buddhist thought.

Third, another important aspect of right-view is the appropriate understanding of the impermanent nature of the five aggregates {panca-kandha), which constitute the personhood. The five aggregates are physical body (rupa), feelings (vedana), perception {samd), mental formation {sahkhdra) and consciousness {vihndna).

SN.45.8 at SN V 8-9: Yarn kho, hhikkhave, dukkhe nanam, diikkhasamiidaye fianam, diikkhanirodhe nanam, dukkhanirodhagaminiya patipadaya nanam, ayam vuccati, hhikkhave, sammaditthi. IVIN.9.3 at MN I 46-47: Yato kho, avuso, ariyasavako akusalahca pajanati, akusalamulahca pajanati, kiisalahca pajdnati, kusalamiilahca pajanati ettavatapi kho, avuso, ariyasavako sammaditthi hoti. 94 One who understands: form is ever-changing (rupam aniccanti passati), feelings is ever-changing (vedanam aniccdti passati), perception is ever-changing {sahham aniccdti passati), mental formation is ever-changing {sahkhdre aniccdti passati) and consciousness is ever-changing (yinndnam aniccanti passati) is the one with right-view.'^^ As the five aggregates are ever-changing, they are all non- self'*'' According to the Mahdvagga (Vin I 13-14), the second discourse which the Buddha gave after his Awakening focuses on this theory of non-self (anattd). Understanding the five aggregates is the knowledge of impermanent and non- substantial nature of being. This is known as the theory of anattd.

Fourth, right-view is also explained in terms of understanding of the principle of dependent-arising (paticca-samuppada). In the Sammdditthi-sutta, the principle of dependent-arising is explained in terms of the twelve links: aging and death (Jardmarana), birth (Jdti), being (), clinging (updddna), craving (tanhd), feeling (vedand), contact (phassa), the sixfold base (saldyatana), mentality- materiality {namarilpa), consciousness (vinndna), mental formations {sahkhard) and ignorance {avijjd).'^^ As an important tenet of Buddhist thought, this principle is explained in many other Suttas (MN.28.28 at MN I 190-191; MN.38 at MN I 255; MN.79.7-8 at MN II 32; SN.12.15 at SN II 16; SN.12.61 at SN II 94).

• SN.22.51 at SN III 51: Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu rupam aniccanti passati. Sassa hoti sammaditthi. Sammd passam nibbindati. Nandikkhayd ragakkhayo, rdgakkhaya nandikkhayo. Nandirdgakkhaya cittam vimuttam suvimiittanti vuccati. Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vedanam aniccanti passati... Anicceyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sahham aniccanti passati... Anicceyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sahkhdre aniccdti passati. Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vihhanam aniccanti passati. Sassa hoti sammaditthi. Sammd passam nibbindati. Nandikkhayd ragakkhayo, rdgakkhaya nandikkhayo. Nandirdgakkhaya cittam vimuttam suvimuttanti vuccati. SN.22.59 at SN III 66: Anattalakkhana-sutta: Ruparn anattd, vedanam anattd, sahham anattd, sahkhdre anattd, vihhanam anattd. MN.38.17 at MN I 261: Avijjdpaccayd sahkhdrd, sankhdrapaccayd vihhdnam, vihhdnapaccayd ndmaruparn, ndmariipapaccayd saldyatanarn, saldyatana-paccayd phasso, phassapaccayd vedand, vedandpaccayd tanhd, tanhdpaccayd updddnam, updddnapaccayd bhavo, bhavapaccayd jdti, jdtipaccayd jardmaranam sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupdydsd sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti. 95 Understanding the principle of dependent-arising is very important and it is emphasised in the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta that:

One who comprehends the principle of dependent-arising, comprehends the Dhamma. One who comprehends the Dhamma, comprehends the principle of dependent-arising."*^

This important principle is explained in different ways in the Sutta-pitaka. The Kaccayanagotta-sutta reads:

The world, Kaccayana, is generally inclined toward two views - the view of existence and the view of non-existence. But for one who sees the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, there is no notion of non-existence with reference to the world. And for one who sees the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, there is no notion of existence with reference to the world."*^

The Sutta goes on explaining that one who does not get involved with or cling to such views, but understands the arising of dukkha when it arises, and understands the passing away of dukkha when it passes away, is one with right-view.

Again, in a dialogue with Udayin, the Buddha explained the principle of dependent-arising in a very brief formula:

When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases."*^

MN.28.28 at MN I 190-191: Yo paticcasamuppadam passati so dhammam passati; yo dhammam passati so paticcasamuppadam passatiti. SN.12.15 at SN 11 16: Dvayanissito khvayam, kaccana, loko yehhtivvena - atthitanceva natthitanca. Lokasamudayam kho, kaccana, yathahhiitam sammappaiifiava passato ya loke natthita sa na hoti. Lokanirodham kho, kaccana, yathahhiitam sammappahhaya passato ya loke atthita sa na hoti, upayitpaddnahhinivesavinihandho khvayam, kaccana, loko yebhuyyena. MN.79.7 at MN II 32: Imasmim sati idam hoti, imassuppada idam uppajjati; imasmim asati idam na hoti, imassa nirodha idam niriiJJhatJ' ti. 96 Here, the arising of this factor is conditioned by that factor, and the ceasing of this depends on the ceasing of that.

To sum up, according to the textual sources, right-view includes understanding of the Four Ennobling Truths, the (un)wholesome, the impermanent nature of the five aggregates, and the principle of dependent-arising.

Samma-sahkappo

The second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path is right-resolve {samma- safikappo). The Vibhafiga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) explains right-resolve in terms of renunciation, non-ill will, and non-violence. It reads:

What is right-resolve? Aspiring to renunciation, aspiring to non-ill will, and aspiring to non-violence: This is called right-resolve."*^

At the heart of right-resolve are renunciation, good-will, and non-violence. Exposition on these three mental qualities are scattered in many Siittas, such as the Mahacattarisaka-sutta (MN.l 17.10-15 at M III 72-74), the Mahddukkhakkhandha-sutta (MN.l3.32 at MN I 89), the Dvedhdvitakka-sutta (MN.l9 at MN I 115), the Kakacupama-sutta (MN.21.20 at MN I 129), the Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-10) and the Cunda-sutta (AN.10.176 at AN V 267-268).

Focusing on renunciation, the Saleyyaka-sutta reads:

Here someone is not covetous; he covets not the property of others... He is not malevolent of heart, the thoughts of his heart are not corrupt... He cultivates his mind thus: May these beings be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety. May they live happily."^"

'*' SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamo ca, hhikkhave, sammascwkappo? Nekkhammasahkappo abyapcidasankappo avihimsasankappo, uycim viiccati hhikkhave, sammascmkappo. ^" MN.41.14 at MN I 288: Idha, gahapatayo, ekacco anahhijjhalii hod, yam taip parassa paravittiipakaranam tain ndhhijjhatu hoti - 'aho rata yam parassa tarn mamassa'ti! Ahyapannacitto kho pana hoti appadiitlhamauasahkappo - 'ime satta avera ahyahajjha anlgha siikhi attanam pariharantii 'ti. Sec also AN. 10.176 at AN V 267-8.

97 Similarly, focusing on good will, the Kakacupama-sutta reads:

Even if bandits brutally severed you limb from limb with a two-handled saw, students who entertained hate in his heart on that account would not be the one who followed my teaching. Herein, you should train thus: Our mind will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no words; we will abide compassionate mind for their welfare, with a mind of loving- kindness, without inner hate.^'

The Mahadukkhakkhandha-sutta refers to right-resolve as thought free from harm:

He does not choose for his own affliction, or for others' affliction, or for the affliction of both."

With these explanations, it is clear that right-resolve is the mental practice which promotes the three positive qualities: renunciation, good-will and non-violence, and eliminates the three negative mental states: covetousness, - ill-will and harmfulness.

Samma-vaca

The next factor of the path is right-speech {samma-vaca). In the Vibhahga-sntta, right-speech is explained in terms of refraining from lying {musavada), slanderous speech (pisundya-vdca), harsh words (pharusaya-vacd) and frivolous chattering {samphappaldpa).

What is right-speech? Abstaining from lying, from divisive speech, from harsh words, and from frivolous chattering: This is called right-speech.^^

MN.21.20 at MN I 129: Uhhatodandakena cepi, bhikkhave, kakacena cora ocaraka ahgamangcmi okanteyyum, tatrapi yo inano padi'iseyya, na me so tena sasanakaro. Tatrapi vo, bhikkhave evaip sikkhitabbam - 'na ceva no cittam viparinatain bhavissati, na ca papikam vacam niccharessama, hitamikampJ ca viharissama mettacitta na dosantara. MN. 13.32 at MN I 89: Neva tasmim samaye attabyabadhavapi ceteti, na parabyabddhdyapi ceteti, na ubhayabydhudhayapi ceteti. 98 It is explained in more details in the Sdleyyaka-sutta and the Cunda-sutta as well. A person who abstains from lying, when being asked, should respond as per the truth:

Someone avoids lying and abstains from it. He speaks the truth, is devoted to the truth, reliable, worthy of confidence, not a deceiver of men. Being at a meeting, or amongst people, or in the midst of his relatives, or in a society, or in the king's court, and called upon and asked as witness to tell what he knows, he answers, if he knows nothing: 'I know nothing,' and if he knows, he answers: '1 know'; if he has seen nothing, he answers: '1 have seen nothing,' and if he has seen, he answers: '1 have seen.' Thus he never knowingly speaks a lie, either for the sake of his own advantage, or for the sake of another person's advantage, or for the sake of any advantage whatsoever.^'*

Similarly, slanderous speech (pisimaya-vdcd), harsh language {pharusdya-vdcd) and frivolous talks {samphappaldpa) are explained in details in these two Siittas.

He avoids slanderous speech and abstains from it. What he has heard here he does not repeat there, so as to cause dissension there; and what he has heard there he does not repeat here, so as to cause dissension here. Thus he unites those that are divided; and those that are united he encourages. Concord gladdens him, he delights and rejoices in concord; and it is concord that he spreads by his words.^^

^' SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamu ca, bhikkhave, sammavacci? Miisavada veramam pisimaya vacaya veramam pharusdva vacdya veramam samphappaldpa veramam, ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, sammdvdcd. ^^ MN.41.13 at MN I 288: Ekacco miisdvddl hoti. Sabhaggato va parisaggato vd hdtimajjhagato vd pugamajjhagato vd rdjakiilamajjhagato vd ahhinlto sakkhipiittho - 'ehambho piirisa, yam jdndsi tarn vadehVti so ajdnam vd aham jdndmi' ti, jdnam vd aham 'na jdndmi' ti, apassarn vd aham 'passdmi' ti, passam vd ahani 'na passdmV ti. Iti attahetu vd parahetu vd dmisakihcikkhahetu vd sampajdnamusd bhdsitd hoti. Sec also AN.10.176atAN V267. '^'^ MN.41.13 at MN I 288: Pisiinam vdcam pahdya, pisiindya vdcdya pativirato hoti ~ na ito siitx'd amiitra akkhdtd imesam hheddva, na amiitra vd siitvd imesam akkhdtd amusam 99 The third practice is:

He avoids harsh language and abstains from it. He speaks such words as are gentle, soothing to the ear, loving, such words as go to the heart, and are courteous, friendly, and agreeable to many.^^'

The fourth practice is:

He avoids frivolous talks and abstains from it. He speaks at the right time, in accordance with facts, speaks what is useful, speaks of the Dhamma and the discipline; his speech is like a treasure, uttered at the right moment, accompanied by reason, moderate and full of sense.^^

The description of right-speech in the Suttas is so clear on both letter and spirit.

Sammd-kammanto

Right-action {samma-kammanto) concerns the non-harming of others in any way by abstaining from taking life {panatipcita), stealing {adinnddcina), and sexual misconduct {kamesumicchdcard). The Vihhanga-sutta reads:

What is right-action? Abstaining from taking life, from stealing, and from illicit sex. This is called right-action.^^

bhedaya. Iti hhinnanam va sandhala sahitcmain va amippadata samagguramo samaggarato samaggcmandi samaggakaranim vacain hhasita hoti. Sec also MN.27.13 at MN I 179; AN. 10.176 at AN V 267. '^' MN.41.13 at MN I 288: Phurusam vacam pahayci, phcviisaya vcicciya palivirato hoti. Yci SCI vaca nela kannasiikha pemanJya hadayangama pon hahiijanakanta hahujanamanapa, tathcirupim vacam hhasita hoti. Sec also MN.27.13 at MN I 179-180; AN.10.176atAN V267. "^ MN.41.13 at MN 1 288: Samphappalapaiii pahaya, saniphappa/apa palivirato hoti kalavadl bhiitavadi atthavadl dhammavadl vinayavadi; iiidhanavatim vacam hhasita hoti kaleria sapadesam pariyantavatiiii atthasamhitam. Evam kho. ciinda, catuhhidham vacaya soceyyam hoti. See also MN.27.13 at MN I 180; AN. 10.176 at AN V 267. SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamo ca, hhikkhave, sammdkammanto? Panatipcita veramanl adinnadana veramanl kamesiimicchacdi-c'i veiximanJ. uvam viiccati. hhikl

Right-action is further explained as follows:

Here someone, abandoning the killing of living beings, becomes one who abstains from killing living beings; with rod and weapon laid aside, gentle and kindly, he abides compassionate to all living beings. Abandoning the taking of what is not given, he becomes one who abstains from taking what is not given; he does not take as a thief another's chattels and property in the village or in the forest. Abandoning misconduct in sexual desires, he becomes one who abstains from misconduct in sexual desires: he does not have intercourse with such women who are protected by mother, father, brother, sister, relatives, as have a husband, as entail a penalty, and also those that are garlanded in token of betrothal. That is how there are three kinds of bodily conduct in accordance with the Dhamma, righteous conduct.^'

Samma-ajTvo

Right-livelihood {sammd-djivo) points to being involved with wholesome occupations (honest and conducive to individual and social development) that allows one to live a moral life.

MN.41.12 at MN I 287: Idha, gahapatayo, ekacco panatipatam pahaya pcmatipata pativirato hoti, nihitadando nihitasattho lajji dayupanno sabhapanabhutahitanii-kampi viharati. "Adinnadanam pahaya adinnadana pativirato hoti. Yam tarn parassa paravittupakaranam, gamagatam va aranPiagatani vd, tam nadinnam thevvasahkhatam adata hoti. "Kamesumicchacaram pahaya kamesumicchacara pativirato hoti. Ya ta maturakkhita piturakkhita matapiturakkhita hhatiirakkhita bhaginirakkhita hatirakkhita gottarakkhita dhammarakkhitu .sassamika saparidandci antamaso malagidaparikkhittapi, tatharupasu na carittam apajjita hoti. Evam kho, gahapatayo, tividham kayena dhammacariya-saruacariya hoti. 101 What is right-livelihood? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones, having abandoned dishonest livelihood, keeps his life going with right-livelihood: This is called right-livelihood.^°

Regarding the dishonest livelihood, the Buddha mentions five specific kinds of livelihood which bring harm to others and are therefore to be avoided. They are dealing in weapons, in living beings (including raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution), in meat production and butchery, in poisons, and in intoxicants.^'

Samma-vayama

In the Vibhanga-sutta, right-effort {samma-vayamo) is explained in a fourfold formula:

There is the case where a monk generates desire, endeavors, arouses persistence, upholds and exerts his intent for the sake of non-arising of evil, unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen... for the sake of abandoning of evil, unskillful qualities that have arisen... for the sake of arising of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen... (and) for the maintenance, non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development, and culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen: This is called right- effort.^'^

SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamo ca, hhikkhave, samma-ajJvo? Idha, hhikkhave, arlyasavako miccha-ajlvam pahaya sammaajlvena jlvitam kappeti, ayam vuccati, hhikkhave, samma-ajlvo. AN.5.177 at AN III 207: Satthavanijja, sattavcmijja, mamsavanijja, majjavcmijja, visavanijja - ima kho, hhikkhave, pahca vanijja itpasakena akaramya' ti. '' SN.45.8 at SN V 8-10: Idha, hhikkhave, bhikkhii anuppannanam papakanam akusalanam dhammcmam amippadaya chandam Janeti vayamati viriyam drabhati cittam pagganhdti padahati, iippannanam papakanam akusalanam dhammanam pahanaya chandam janeti...pe... anuppannanam kusaldnam dhammanam iippaddya chandam janeti...pe... iippannanam kusaldnam dhammanam thitiya asammosdya hhiyyohhdvdya vepiilldya hhdvanaya pdripilrivd chandam janeti vayamati viriyam drabhati cittam pagganhdti padahati - ayam vuccati, hhikkhave, sammdvdydmo. 102 Right-effort, to put it in simple words, is the fourfold effort: to avoid (unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen), to overcome (unskillful qualities that have arisen), to develop (skillful qualities that have not yet arisen), and to maintain (skillful qualities that have arisen). Right-effort is explained in details in the Padhana-sutta (AN.4.13-14 at AN II 14-16). In addition, the Vitakkasanthana- sutta gives fivefold model of efforts to overcome. Basically these are mental efforts. It consists of five practical methods of removing unwholesome thoughts.

1. Directing mind to another and wholesome object, if it is distracted by unwholesome object of thought.

2. Reflecting on misery of these thoughts

3. Paying no attention to these thoughts

4. Considering the compound nature of these thoughts

5. With teeth clenched and tongue pressed against the gums, restraining, suppressing and rooting out these thoughts.^^

Samma-sati

Right-mindflilness {samma-sati) is described in the Vibhanga-sutta as follows:

There is a case where a monk remains focused on the body in and of itself - ardent, alert, and mindful - putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world. He remains focused on feelings in and of themselves... the mind in and of itself., mental qualities in and of themselves - ardent, alert and mindful - putting aside greed and distress with reference to the world. This is called right-mindfulness.^"*

''"' Five methods arc explained at length in the Vitakkasanthana-sutta (MN.20 at MN I 119). SN.45.8 at SN V 8-10: Idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu kaye kayamipassi viharati atapi sampajuno satima, vineyya lake abhijjhadomanassam; vedanasu vedananiipassi viharati atapi sampajano satima, vinevva loke abhijjhadomanassam; citte cittanitpassi viharati atapi sampajano satima, vineyya loke abhijjhadomanassam; dhammesu dhammamipassl viharati atapi sampajano satima, vineyya loke abhijjhadomanassam - ayaiii viiccati, bhikkhave, sammasati.

103 The Satipatthana-sutta (MN.IO at MN I 55) contains a detailed explanation on this factor. Besides, we find a detailed explanation on the practice of mindfulness of body in the Kayagatasati-sutta (MN.1I9 at MN III 88-99). As a method of practice of mindfulness of body, mindfulness of breathing is very important and the whole Andpanasati-sutta (MN.118 at MN III 78-88) focuses on this method.

In addition, the Sammd-sati is also explained in the Dantabhumi-sutta (MN.125 at MN III 128), the Satipatthdna-samyutta (SN.5.47 at SN V 141), the Sati-vagga (AN.8.81-3 at AN IV 306-309), and the Jhdna-vagga (AN.21.47-53 at AN I 45- 46).

Samma-

Right-concentration {sammd-samddhi) is defined as cultivation of the four deep states of meditation.

What is right-concentration? There is a case where a monk - quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful (mental) qualities - enters and remains in the first meditative concentrafion: rapture and pleasure bom from withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought and evaluation. With the stilling of directed thought and evaluafion, he enters and remains in the second meditative concentration: rapture and pleasure bom of composure, unification of awareness free from directed thought and evaluation - intemal assurance. With the fading of rapture he remains in equanimity, mindfiil and alert, physically sensitive of pleasure. He enters and remains in the third meditative concentration, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous and mindful, he has a pleasurable abiding.' With the abandoning of pleasure and pain - as with the earlier disappearance of elation and distress - he enters and remains in the fourth meditative concentration: purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is called right-concentration.''^

65 MN. 117.28-33 at M III 75: Idha, hhikkhave, hhikkhii vivicceva kamehi vivicca akiisalehi dhammehi savitakkam savicaram vivekajam pJtisukham pathamam jhanam 104 Besides, the Sdmanhaphala-sutta (DN.2), the Mahd-assapura-sutta (MN.39), the Mahavedalla-sutta (MN.43), the Culavedalla-sutta (MN.44), the Mahasalayatanika-sutta (MN. 149.11 at MN III 289), the Sallekha-siitta (MN.8.4- 11, 17-18), the Indriyabhdvand-sutta (MN.125.18), among others also explained what right-concentration is and how it can be developed.

We have explored the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path in several selected Suttas. The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta is a very important Sutta, in which the first discourse of the Buddha was preserved. In this Sutta, the Buddha introduces and explains the Noble Eightfold Path briefly.

The Vibhanga-sutta is the main Sutta, in which the whole eight factors of the path are defined and described with standard expressions. A similar description is found in the Saccavibhahga-Sutta, which contains a talk given by Elder Sariputta with the introduction and approval of the Buddha. In this Sutta, the Buddha only introduced the path and asked Elder Sariputta to explain the teaching. Before leaving the audience, the Buddha confirmed and emphasised that he had fully realized the path and set the path in motion like a rolling wheel.

In the Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta, we cannot understand why the Buddha use symbol of the wheel and what is the meaning of setting the wheel in motion. The Saccavibhanga-sutta helps us to clarify this point. The Buddha emphasised that the wheel of Dhamma {dhammacakka), which is matchless {anuttara, unexcelled, unsurpassable) has been set in motion and no one in the cosmos can stop the wheel of Dhamma from rolling. The Buddha himself explained the symbolic term rolling ipavatteti) as announcing (dcikkhati, tell, inform, declare), teaching (deseti), describing (pamcipaneti, express, declare, indicate, point out, make upasampajja viharati. Vitakkavicarcmam viipasamd ajjhattam sampasadanaw cetaso ekodihhavam avitakkam avicaram samadhijam pJtisukham dutiyam jhanatn upasampajja viharati. Pitiya ca viraga upekkhako ca viharati sato ca sampajcmo, sukharica kayena patisamvedeti, yam tarn ariya acikkhanti - 'upekkhako satimd siikhavihari'ti tatiyam jhauam upasampajja viharati. Sukhassa ca pahana dukkhassa ca pahcmd pubbeva somanassadomanassdnam atthahgamd adukkhamasukham upekkhcisatiparisuddhim catuttham jhanani upasampajja viharati - ayam vuccati, hhikkhave, scmvnasamadhi' ti. 105 known), establishing {patthapanetilpatitthatil patitthahati, set up, set forth), reveahng {vivarati, open, disclose, clarify), expounding {yibhajati, explain, distinguish, analyse, divide, distribute, dissect, classify, go into details, deal with something in detail) and exhibiting {uttamkamma, uttdnikaroti, make clear, open, make plain, manifest) (PED). This series of synonymous verbs reflect the teaching aptitude and practice of the Buddha, and bear significance for education. The way and the context he set up for Elder Sariputta to teach indicates that he had not only worked effectively as a great teacher by himself, but also successfully trained prospective generations as a good teacher. Elder Sariputta explained the path factors with standard definition and, of course, as usual, the Buddha gave authority to Elder Sariputta's elaboration.

Besides, there are some other specific descriptions of the path factors which were scattered in the Sutta-pitaka. For instance, we find in the Mahdcattdrisaka-sutta a description of the path from another angle. Or in the Culavedalla-sutta we find how the path factors are categorised and grouped together.

Generally, many Suttas together describe different contexts in which the whole Noble Eightfold Path is presented, or some factors are explained while others are not, or some features of the path are pointed out and emphasised. Through the literature survey, important passages on the factors have been pieced together and put in the order of the Noble Eightfold Path.

Upto this point, we find that the Saccavibhanga-sutta and the Vibhanga-siitta are extensive discourses, which explain further some aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path. That is not explained in the Dhammacakkapavattana-sittta. These aspects • are concerning the factorial analysis and standard definitions of the eight factors. 4.5 Buddhist Thought as Reflected in the Noble Eightfold Path

In the foregoing section, we have seen that there is a large portion of textual evidences explaining the Noble Eightfold Path. In this section, we shall first clarify some important concepts, in order to understand the Noble Eightfold Path properly, then explore the Buddhist thought as it is reflected in this path.

106 4.5.1 Noble Eightfold Path and Humanistic Nature of Buddhist Thought

In this section, the four important terms, ariya, magga, anga and sammd will be clarified so that they will help to comprehend the Noble Eightfold Path properly.

Ariya. The term ariya in the Ahya-atthafigika-magga, at the first sight, may give a mistaken impression that this is the path intended for the Ariyan people (a particular racial ones) or the people of high social status only. However, this is not the comprehension one gets from the Pali texts. Although the term ariya was originally used to refer to the who invaded India from Central Asia and became people of high social status in India (Chakravarti, 1996, p. 6), ariya was not used in the Buddhist literature in a racial sense. But rather, the term ariya has a moral connotation (Chinchore, 2006; p. 112; Harvey, 1990, p. 29; Kalupahana, 1995, p. 77). In the Siitta-pitaka, ariya occurs frequently and it is multivalent (Harvey, 2009; Norman, 1997, p. 21). There are at least four meanings derived from the term.

1. Individual: Ariya is used to characterize an individual, but not with the racial implication in Indian tradition. One who is perfectly ennobled [intellectually, emotionally, morally and spiritually] (SN.46.31 at SN IV 245-237)*'^ and one who is striving in a right (skillful) way^^ is called ariya (noble).

2. Way: Ariya is repeatedly used in the Siitta-pitaka to characterize the path, that leads to peace, insight, full-awakening and nibband. It is regarded as ariya (ennobling). In this case, ariya is used to characterize the way.^

^'^ Ariyo in this Siitta means the Perfectly Ennobled One, referring to the Buddha. '''' This is used in the normal sense of the term, like in Ariyasavako (noble learner) (MN.2.9 at MN I 8; MN.9.2 at MN I 47; and passim), Ariyo {ariyana, noble one) (MN.1.3 at MN I \), Ariyo (sottiyo, holy scholar) (MN.39.22 at MN I 280). ''** ''Ariyo al/hangiko maggo'' (DN.6.14 at DN 1 15,3, DN.22.21 at DN II 313, SN V 422, and passim). This meaning is also found being used to characterize the path factors, CAriyo sammac/illhi,'' ''Ariyo sammasamadhi'^ (MN. 117)) and the four ennobling truths C'Catmu ahyasaccesur (DN.22.17 at DN II 304,23; MN.10.44 at MN I 62,19). Note that meaning o^ariya in "Ariyo sanvnasamadhi,'' and other path factors is extended to a 107 3. Condition: Ariya is also used to characterize a condition. Pure and peaceful environment conducive to safety and peace, well-being, and happiness is regarded as ariya (holy).

4. State: Ariya can also be understood as a mental state of a person. It is the state of the person who has conquered enimity within and outside, and has friendly relations with all. And due to this, he becomes calm and happy; hence honourable one.

Therefore, being described as ariya, the Noble Eightfold Path conveys the meaning of noble, ennobling and holy. The assumption that it is called ariya because it is taught by the Buddha (Chinchore, 2006, pp. 112-113) is reasonable and acceptable. Obviously, it does not mean that the path is restricted to the Ariyans or the noble persons only.

The other two meanings - characterizing the path and the environment - are more significant. In these two, the Noble Eightfold Path is the method of practice (Pidya) that is capable of ennobling those who are prepared to tread the path, and that helps to build up a holy environment, viz. safety, peace, well-being, and happiness (SN.45.24 at SN V 19; SN. 12.41 at SN 11 68). This elucidation supports the idea that is proposed earlier that the middle path reflects both individual and social concerns.

higher level. In such cases, as Bhikkhii Bodhi (1995, p. 1322) points out, ariya means "supranuindanc" or "pertaining to the supramundane [path]" (MN.l 17.2), distinguishing it with the "mundane" [path]. The criterion of an environment which the Buddha regards as being holy (ariya) is associated with safety and peace (lihema), well-being {sovattiiil

Magga. In the early Suttas, the term magga means "path." Obviously, this term was first used by the Buddha to specifically refer to the ahya-atthafigika-magga. Patipada which means "method" is taken as its synonym. Though the range of its meanings both the terms includes way, means, method, mode of progress, practice or course of action, process, etc., it is basically a figurative expression (Piyadassi, 1979, p. 78). It points to a method of pracfice leading to awakening and liberation. Therefore, both the terms magga and patipada are used figuratively. Each component of the path is a factor to be learnt and practiced to improve skills of living. Eight angas are the eight factors to be cuhivated, not only in sequential order, one after the other at one level, but also in an inter­ connected and integrative manner at different levels.''" The path as a whole is a practical direcfive for living. Magga possesses no religious meaning, but it is figurative and pragmatic in the sense that this is a path for the aspirants.

Based on the textual evidences presented in the foregoing section, it is reasonably surmised that the image of the path used for this set of practical teaching has two

The idea that the Noble Eightfold Path is open to all has been mentioned by many scholars (Bodhi, 2000, p. 1495; 2005, p. 226; Burns, 1968, p. 90; Chakravarti, 1996, pp. 131-135; Goenka, 2006, p. 82; Gowan, 2003, pp. I68ff; Singh, 1997, p. 146; Nyanaponika, 2006, pp. 16, 32; Oldcnberg, 1992, pp. 162, 383). SN.45.24 at SN V 19: Gihino vaham, hhikkhave, pahhajitassa va sammapatipadcm vannemi. ' With a certain degree of progress all the eight factors can be present simultaneously, each supporting the others. However, until that point is reached, some sequence in the unfolding of the path is inevitable (Piyadassi, 1979; Bodhi, 1994). 109 functional meanings. First, the image implies that the path is a means to an end, not an end in themselves. This inference is supported by the dispositionally conditional characteristic {sankhata) of the path.^^ It is also supported by the simile of a raft given by the Buddha himself.^"^

Second, the path leads to the goal, rather than cause the goal. Nibbana is not an all-or-nothing affair, which one can reach unintentionally or spontaneously. It is not a gift or a divine surprise or revelation. But rather, the path and the goal requires strenuous efforts to be followed consistently and progressively. The path is intended to be followed intentionally, gradually and persistently.^^ The two functional meanings of the path allow for a greater degree of flexibity in applying the path in different disciplines of study and practice.

Anga: In Indian literature, anga means "section" (Sujato, 2005). In Buddhist texts, it is used to name the path and path-factors figuratively. Each anga is a factor, a part, an element, an aspect, a component, a constituent, a principle of the path. It serves as a guideline for life.

Because these living-guidelines are conditional, they can be modified depending upon the ever-changing physical, emotional and intellectual status of learners as they progress along the situations and contexts they confront (Kalupahana, 2008b, p. 58). This does not mean that each constituent of the path is understood as solely a random one and has no consistent connection. In fact, the unity of the path is regulated and determined by its ultimate goals. It is a means to the end.^''

' MN.44.10 at MN I 300-301: Atthangiko maggo sahkhato. ^•* In the Alagaddinipama-siitta (MN.22.13 at MN I 135), the Buddha told his students that the Dhamma he taught was only a raft for safely crossing over to the other shore, and not for grasping. ^' This view is held by many scholars (Bodhi, 2005, p. 302; Chinchore, 2006; p. 112; Gowan, 2003, p. 164; Thanissaro, 1996, pp. 195ff.) ^'' This point is indicated in the Paclnunhma-siitta (SN.45.91 at SN V 38) as the sloping orientation of the path. It is like a gem in the ocean of Dhamma which has only one taste, the taste of emancipation {viimittirasa) (AN IV 203). It is the best means (Dhp.273). 110 The eight guidelines are supplementary and complementary in making an organic whole. With this meaning of anga, it is understood that though it is part, it should not be the barrier that prevents us from seeing the whole.

Samma. While ariya is used to characterise the path, the Buddha used another concept, samma, as a common criterion for each and every eight path factor. Samma is usually understood as right. However, this term conveys the sense of comprehensiveness which avoids shortcuts in deciding what is right and wrong (Kalupahana, 1995, p. 78). In order to evaluate each factor of the path, every possible senario and whatever is relevant should be taken into account. This is the reason why some scholars, who are not satisfied with the word "right" in English, generally used to render "samma," translate it as "perfect" (Sangharakshita, 2004) or "skillful" (Gunaratna, 2001). In brief, to be ''samma," all central human activities should be regulated (Chinchore, 2006) in accordance with the eight factors of the path and they should be "set aright" (Analayo, 2003) in order to bring about happiness and liberation.

Etymologically examining the term in its context, Kalupahana (1975, p. 78) adds that, in the theoretical framework of the eightfold path, function of the term samma is to qualify all the eight constituents. As ''atthasamhita" pragmatically means "fruitful" and this term makes it somehow appear to be selfish, samma keeps it noble. Furthermore, he contends that samma implies a non-absolutist and moderate sense, avoiding any kind of extremism, including radical empiricism and inductive reasoning.

As it has been pointed out, the Noble Eightfold Path is the earliest formulation of the Buddha's teaching. They are eight guiding principles of an integral programme for living. The eight components function together conjointly in a systematic structure like a moving process towards the goal of life. Therefore, the goals of the path are the goals of life and the factors of the path are the governing principles that regulate our life aright.'^ Because of the guiding and setting aright function of the path-factors, they are called regulative factors.

Buddhist Humanistic Philosophy: Putting the meanings of the four terms together, we may conclude that the Noble Eightfold Path is a system of humanistic thought. It is a progressively transformative path leading towards perfection. As the path can be practised by anyone who wishes to arrive at the noble human status, this system of thought can be learnt, adopted and applied by all universally.

The Noble Eightfold Path not only justifies the philosophical identity as a system of thought contained in itself, but it also opens the gateway towards the practical implications of it. It opens a way of living which is good and practical at the beginning, at the middle and at the end of the path.^^

4.5.2 Buddhist Thought and Goals of Human Life

By the time of the Buddha, in Indian philosophical context, the significance of memorizing the and performing complicated ceremonials of sacrifice had been gradually substitued by philosophic meditation (Dasgupta, 1922, p. 13). According to Dasgupta, self-knowledge is believed to be the highest goal of life. At the Buddha's time, his contemporaries (especially, his two former teachers, Ajara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta) tended to rely more on meditative practice than philosophic speculation to strive to achieve the goal of self-knowledge (Wynne, 2003, p. 105). It is the Buddha who experienced a 'middle way' between pure meditation and cognitive practices and introduced it as a path to full- awakening.

According to the Buddha, the goal of path is also the goal of life. It seems to share some similar features of the goal which the other thinkers and meditative masters of that time claimed and pursued. The set of goals of the Ariya-

^** For more details on the regulating function, see Dhp.80, Chinchore (2006, p. 113) and Nyanaponika (2006, p. 16). DN.2.40 at DN I 63: Adi-kalyana majjhe-kalycma paiiyosana-kalycma. 112 atthahgika-magga, which was examined and presented in the foregoing section, illustrates this fact. They include the knowledge, purification, and liberation of the "self."

However, it seems that the Buddha intentionally set the goals of the path to make it specific and distinguish his teaching mission from the other systems of thought and practice. As they are represented in the Sutta-pitaka, the goals of the Noble Eightfold Path are vision, knowledge, equanimity, dispassion, cessation of craving, peace, insight, full-awakening, and nibhana. These goals are repeated frequently in various Suttas in the Sutta-pitaka.

This set of goals with nibbana as their culmination functions is a series of nine values that help learners to direct and regulate what they think and do, making sure that they lead to the goals. Nibbana is not a remote ideal, it is not just a state one goes to after death, but it is a reality full of long lasting happiness which can be realised in everyday life here and now. It can be called nibbanic happiness.

However, the Buddha did not use many words for philosophical analysis of Nibbana ^^ The reason is that the Buddha's objective of teaching is practical. It aims at leading to end suffering. To show nibbana as the aim of striving, the Buddha described it as the highest bliss, the supreme state of sublime peace.*^^

^" MN.6.19 at MN I 35-36: Akankheyya ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhu - 'asavanam khaya anasavam cetovimnttim pahhavimuttim ditthevadhamme sayam abhinha sacchikatvd upasampajja vihareyyan 'ti, sJlesvevassa paripiirakan ajjhattam cetosamathamamiyiitto anirakatajjhano vipassanaya samannagato bnlheta sunnagaranam. Nibbana is often explained in negative terms. However, the Siitta-nipata provides an attempt suggesting the positive content ofnihhdna (Sn.812; Sn.845). See also Bhikkhu Nanananda(1997, p. 109). ^^ Dhp.202, 203, 204: Nattiii khandliasama, dukkha, natthi santiparam sukham... Etam natva yathdbhutaw, nibbdnam paramain ... Vissasaparama had, nibbanam paramam,sukham (There is no illness like the aggregates and no bliss higher than the peace oiNibbana... Knowing this as it really is, the wise realize Nibbana, the highest bliss... A trustworthy person is the best kinsman, Nibbana the highest bliss). 113 According to Johansson (1969, p. 20), the Buddhist concept of nibbana has "very much to do with our ordinary psychological functions" and "our ability to know about and change our fate." In the series of values, of which nibbana is the last link, there is concern for well-known facts in human experience such as dispassion, non-craving, detachment, peace, experiential knowledge. This gives us a general view of the fundamental values of Buddhist humanistic philosophy.

4.5.3 Guidelines for Human Life

In the preceding section, we have only presented textual sources on the eight factors of the path with their brief definitions. Now we move further to a philosophical examination of the path to see how the factors of the path are taught to guide human life.

We find in many Sulfas that the Noble Eightfold Path is often presented and explained in the framework of Four Ennobling Truths. This fourfold formula corresponds to the fourfold method in ancient Indian medical science: disease, diagnosis, cure and medicine. It describes a practical way to look into the nature of human experience and reality: unsatisfactory conditions, their causes, expected improvement and transformation, and the way to change unsatisfactory conditions and eliminate their causes. This description is called the Four Ennobling Truths {catimna-ariya-saccdna, MN. 141.2).

Teaching the Noble Eightfold Path in the theoretical framework of the fourfold truth seems to indicate that the Buddha intentionally decided to teach only those teachings that have a practical value. To him, nothing is more important and urgent than knowing the way to emancipation from unsatisfactory conditions of

'^' Prior to the Buddha, this fourfold method is used only in ancient medical science. After the Buddha, Patafijali (c. 2'"' century BCE) also used this formula in his - siitra (Pandc, 1999, p. 398; Analayo, 2003, p. 158). In the Majjhima-nikaya and the Anguttara-nikaya, the Buddha is described as a doctor (MN. 105.27 at MN II 260: hhisakko sallakattoti kho, simakkhatta, tathagatassetam adhivacanam) and his teaching is compared to effective treatment. AN.4.194 at AN III 238: Seyyathapi, bho, piiriso cihadhiko ditkkhito bdlhagilano. Tassa kiisalo hhisakko thcmaso ubadham nlkiareyya: cvamevam kiio. hiio, yato yato tassa blioto gotamassa dhammam siindti ... tato tato sokaparidevadiikkliadomanassupayasd abbtiattham gaccfianti.

114 life; nothing needs to be known and to be done more urgently than to pursue this way.^^

The Buddha said that, it is by not understanding and fully comprehending these four truths that we wander aimlessly in this world, are caught between birth and death, and subject to innumerable .^^ At this point, right-view is very much needed.

4.5.3.1 Leading Role of Right-view and Riglit-resolve

Of the eight components, sammd-ditthi is the primary factor that plays an important role with regard to cognitive knowledge in the field of contemporary education. As literary sources reveal, right-view basically refers to the proper understanding of Four Ennobling Truths {catii-ariya-), the law of cause and effect {kamma), impermanent and non-substantial nature of being {anicca, anattd), and the principle of dependent-arising {paticca-samuppdda).

Clearly understanding of the Four Ennobling Truths is extremely important in Buddhist thought. This is illustrated in the Anurddha-sutta in which the Buddha is represented to claim that throughout his life, he "made known just dukkha and the solution of dukkha." On another occasion, the Buddha said that it was lack of understanding the Four Ennobling Truths that we all had to wander so long throughout this circle of rebirths. This idea is repeated here to emphasise that to believe that one can realise awakening without having understood the Four

Dhp.146: Ko mi haso, kimanando, niccam pajjalite sati. Andhakurena onaddha, padipam nci gavesatha (What laughter, why joy, when constantly aflame? Enveloped in darkness, don't you look for a lamp?) DN. 16.2.2 at DN II 90: Catunnam, hhikkhave, ariyasaccdnam ananuhodhd appalivedha evamidam dlghamaddhanam sandhdvitam samsaritam mamaiiceva tumhukanca. SN.22.86 at SN III 119: Pubhe cdham, amtradha, etarahi cci ditkkhaPiceva pafmapemi, dukkhassa ca nirodha' nti (Formerly and also now, Amirddha, I make known just dukkha and the ending of dukkha). 115 Ennobling Truths is like trying to construct the upper floors of a house without 87 first constructing the foundation and its lower floors. The Noble Eightfold Path itself is presented in the framework of the Four Ennobling Truths. And again, the first aspect of the first factor of the Noble Eightfold Path is the understanding of the Four Ennobling Truths. Taken all together, these statements underline the central importance of the Four Ennobling Truths. Emphasis on the importance of the Four Ennobling Truths does not mean that Buddhist thought is pessimistic. But rather, it reflects the pragmatic and humanistic view of the Buddhists.

The statement of "making known just diikkha and the solution of diikkha'' made by the Buddha, reveals the practical sense of the matter. That is, it was the Buddha himself who travelled for the whole of his life through all walks of life to

QQ look into the problems of human beings and help them to solve their problems.

The Four Ennobling Truths are dukkha,^'^ its cause {dukkha-samudaya), its cessation {dukkha-nirodha) and the way leading to its cessation {dukkha-nirodha- gaminiyd-patipadd). Dukkha means pain and suffering, stress, problems (PED) or annoying states of affairs (Chinchore, 2007, p. 195). According to Buddhist thought, there are lot of problems and there are also ways to solve all of these problems. The way for the successful solution is known as the middle path {majjhima-patipadd). It opens the door to happiness.^° With the introduction of

^'' This simile was given by the Buddha himself, in the Kutagarasiitta (SN.56.44 at SN V 452): Aham kiitagarassa hetthimam gharam karitva uparimam gharam aropessami'ti

**** He travelled to teach, guide and care for the welfare of the many in spite of criticism (DN.1.1 at DN I 1), opposition (Ud 78; Strong, 1902, p. 108) and misunderstanding (MN.22.5 at MN I 132). He has paid attention to even the unwholesome ways of playing of the children in the village (Ud 11, 51), the impoverished people (Th.620-631), and the most dangerous bandit (MN.86 MN II 98). **'' No single English word captures the meaning of this term (Rhys Davids, 1993, p. 324), therefore, it is best to leave it untranslated (Analayo, 2003, p. 244). Dukkha is not glorified in Buddhist thought as suffering is expressed in Nieztche's (Noddings, 2003, p. 43) and Goethe's thought (James, 1902, p. 178). the solution, the Buddhist thought turns out to be optimistic, or more exactly, to be realistic.

In short, a person with right-view is supposed to understand to some extent that one is in trouble because of the lack of knowledge and one needs to do something about it. That is the basic meaning of right-view.

Right-view is also explained in terms of understanding the cause-and-effect law. According to this explanation, right-view involves a correct understanding of the moral efficacy of action. The significance of the moral efficacy of action is that all good and bad actions produce their corresponding results, and that the respective person who performs the action is responsible for their results. This view is illustrated in the Culakammavibhahga-siitta as follows:

Beings are the owners of their actions, the heirs of their actions; they spring from their actions, are bound to their actions, and are supported by their actions. Whatever deeds they do, good or bad, of those they shall be heirs. 91

Table 4.4: Ten Unwholesome Deeds

Ten Unwholesome Deeds

killing living beings Bodily action taking what is not given {kayakamma) misconduct in sensual pleasures

false speech Verbal action malicious speech (Vacikamma) harsh speech gossip covetousness, Mental action ill-will, and {manokamma) wrong-view

MN.135.4 at MN III 203: Kammassaka, manava, sattu kammuduyuda kammayom kammabandhu, kammappalisarana. Kainmam satte vihhajati yadidam hlnappanl tataydti. 117 The ten courses of unwholesome deed {akusala-kamma) are killing living beings, taking what is not given, misconduct in sensual pleasures, false speech, covetousness, ill-will and wrong-view (see Table 4.4). The ten courses of wholesome deeds {akusala-kamma) are the opposites of these, viz. abstaining from the first seven courses of unwholesome deed, and being free from covetousness and ill-will, and holding right view.

The {miila) of unwholesome deeds are greed (lobha), aversion (dosa), and delusion (); and the three wholesome roots are their opposites: non- greed (alobha), non-aversion (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha). The function of the cause-and-effect process extends beyond one life-span, because life is not completely ended with death.

Another important aspect of right-view is understanding of impermanent (anicca) and non-substantial {) nature of being and universe. All are ever- changing.^^ It seems that this kind of understanding is what Dewey desperately expects when he says "If classic philosophy says so much about the eternal and permanent, and so little about change,... it may be well because ambiguousness and ambivalence of reality are actually so pervasive" (Dewey, 1958, p. 46). In fact, if the Buddha is a representative of Indian classic philosophers, we can assure oppositely that Indian classic philosophy did say so much about change and so little about the eternal and permanent. Ambiguousness and ambivalence of reality are so pervasive in the perception of the unenlightened mind, but not in enlightened ones.

Regarding human existence, the Buddhist thought rejects the conception of permanent self The Buddhist thought explains individual existence (as well as the whole world) in terms of the five aggregates {panca-khandha). Individual existence is in reality nothing but a process of ever-changing phenomena which are all comprised in the five aggregates: physical body (rupa), feelings (vedana),

' Dhp 277: Sahhe scwkhara anicca. 118 perception (saPina), mental formations {sahkhara) and consciousness (yihhdna). According to this theory, human personaHty is a dynamic aggregate of the five interactive personality-factors. There is no self as an enduring and substantial ground of personal identity. It is important to note that, to deny the existence of an enduring self does not imply a denial of the conditioned and impermanent interaction of the five aggregates (Analayo, 2003, p. 211; Harvey, 1995, p. 27). In the Potthapada-sutta, the Buddha is represented to call the collection of empirical components of a person "assumed self {attapatildbhd), "gross assumed self (oldriko attapatildbho), "mind-made assumed self (manomayo attapatildbho), "formless assumed self (arupo attapatildbho) (DN.9.21 at DN I 186).

The Vajird-sutta (SN.5.10 at SN I 135) makes the point that in the Buddhist thought, instead of self {attd), the concept of 'being' {sattd) is used to denote merely a conventional designation (a pure heap of constructed things, suddha- sankhdra-pimja) for the personality-factors. In this sense, the Buddhist concept of anattd, as in the saying ''sabbe dhammd anattd" (Dhp.279), should be seen in the sense of the "absence of an independent true self" Attd is equivalent to sattd, which is an empirical being, a flow of changing conditioned phenomena. The functional aspects of an empirical being is well illustrated by the simile of a chariot (SN.5.10 at SN I 135). Drawing upon this simile, (2003, p. 211) writes:

Just as the term 'chariot' is simply a convention, so too the superimposition of 'I'-dentifications on experience are nothing but conventions. On the other hand, to reject the existence of an independent, substantial 'chariot' does not entail that it is impossible to ride in the conditioned and impermanent functional assemblage of parts to which the concept 'chariot' refers.

Just as a chariot does not exist as a substantial thing apart from or in addition to its various parts, a self does not exist as a substantial thing apart from or in addition to its five aggregates.

119 It is noteworthy that the denial of the existence of a true self might lead to the misunderstanding that there is no causal retribution and no moral responsibility, because there is no true agent or subject involved. In fact, as central components of empirical personality, the five aggregates possess their functional aspects and these interrelated aspects themselves function according to the law of cause and effect. The unenlightened mind wrongly identifies either form or feelings or perception or the like or all as 'self with the "I-am-attitude" (Analayo, 2003, p. 211), while the enlightened one realises those interrelated components as they are. By realizing them as they are with wisdom, the enlightened one becomes disenchanted with {nibbindati) them. Being disenchanted with them, the enlightened one maintains equanimity {virajati). Through equanimity, one is librated {vimitcati)^^

According to the Parijdnam-sutta (SN.22.24 at SN III 27), clearly recognising and understanding the five aggregates is of considerable importance, since without fiilly understanding them and developing non-attachment from them, it will be impossible to gain complete freedom from diikkha. In fact, the Buddha's account for the so-called empirical nature of self was not a simple overturn of the atman concept in classical Indian metaphysics into nullity, but it is a unique overhaul of the understanding of human experience (Inada, 1979, p. 145).

Another important aspect of right-view is the understanding of the principle of dependent-arising. According to the principle of dependent-arising ipaticcasamuppadd), human life is conceived as a process conditioned by a multiplicity of causal factors which are co-existent and mutually dependent. The arising of this factor is conditioned by that factor {imassa uppada idam iippajjati), and the ceasing of this is dependent on the ceasing of that {imassa nirodha idam ninijjhati). The whole universe functions in this way. It is not governed by any God or Eternal Self Human personality is a dynamic aggregate of the five

MN. 109.17-18 at MN III 19: Evam passam, hhiklihave, sutava ariyasavako nipasmimpi nibbindati, vedandyapi nibbindati, saMayapi nibbindati, sahkharesiipi nibbindati, viManasmimpi nibbindati; nibbindam virajjati, viraga viimiccati. Vimiittasmim vimiittamiti fianam hoti.

120 interactive personality-factors: material form (rupa), feeling iyedand), perception (sanPia), mental formations {sahkara) and consciousness (vinndna). There is no self as an enduring and substantial ground of personal identity.

In the perspective of dependent-arising principle, the so-called self or five aggregates of an empirical self is social, changing, relational, inter-connected self According to this principle, both subject and object are relational. Both are constituents of conscious experience, arising interdependently and recurrently .^"^

From the above discussion, it is revealed that religion and metaphysics are not the concern of Buddhist thought^^ but rather, embedded in the concept of right-view is a system of pragmatic and humanistic thought. According to P. D. Premasiri (2006, p. 253), this system of thought provides a wholesome ideological orientation as a prerequisite for anyone who seeks for the and wishes to make intelligent choices regarding the way one ought to conduct oneself He argues (p. 254) that a wholesome ideology as such is the basis for transformation not only of individuals but of social organizations and institutions as well.

The second factor of the path is right-resolve. The textual data describes that right-resolve is the practice of mental cultivation in accordance with the three types of intentional determination: resolve of renunciation, resolve of good-will and resolve of non-violence. As the position of this factor in the sequential order indicates, right-resolve is closely connected with right-view in that immediately followed right-view is right-resolve. This connection is also described in the Avijjd-sutta, in which it is said that it is through right-view, right-resolve arises.'^^^

'''^ For more explanation on relational self, sec Eyndc (2004, pp. 46-47), Harvey (1995), Kurak(2003, p. 350)andNhatHanh(1998, p. 182; 2000, p. 172). ''^ Buddhist tradition of education for a good life has been wrongly understood as a religion. SN.45.1 at SN V 1-2: Sammaditthissa sammasahkappo pahoti; sammasahkappassa sammavacci pahoti; sammdvacassa sammdkammanto pahoti; sammdkammantassa sammdajivo pahoti; sammddjivassa sammdvavdmo pahoti; sammavdvdmassa sammdsati pahoti; sammdsatissa samindsamddhi pahoti 'ti. 121 Similarly, as this Sutta goes on, it is through right-resolve, right-speech arises. It is through right-speech, right-action arises. It is through right-action, right- livelihood arises. It is through right-livelihood, right-effort arises. It is through right-effort, right-mindflilness arises. It is through right-mindfulness, right- concentration arises.

4.5.3.2 Interconnected Nature of All Factors

This description in the Avijjd-sutta shows that the eight factors of the path are connected in a serial or sequential pattern. Each path-factor emerges from its predecessor. Bhikkhu Thanissaro (1996, p. 199) calls this pattern "linear causal loops." Working towards a practical manual of the path, (2000, p. 1495) considers this linear causal pattern as "a key for sketching a picture of how the path unfolds in actual experience." There may be no doubt about the mechanism of this linear causal pattern when at the beginning, learners of the path gain right-view as a type of knowledge which has awakening power.

However, there is a difficulty. The linear causal pattern seems to be unfeasible in the case in which the acquired knowledge is merely conceptual knowledge.^^ For instance, a student intellectually understands the teaching of right-view and adopts it as his/her ideological orientation of life, but s/he may still harbour hatred in his/her heart and generate an ill-will towards some person because of a certain reason. Another example is that, at the conceptual understanding level, there may be no causal relation between right-livelihood and right-effort.

In finding an answer for this difficulty, suggestions can be found from the above presentation of the path. In order to support the cultivation of mind, learners of the path should avoid immoral actions and promote good conduct. This is one suggestion which is indicated in the Culavedalla-sittta. What is meant by right- speech, right-action and right-livelihood and how to practice these factors have been described in the previous section. To some extent, the practice of right-

'" According to Bhikkhu Bodhi (1991, p. 4; 2005, p. 302), at the beginning, conceptual knowledge is also crucial for the learners of the path.

122 speech, right-action and right-livelihood depends on the practice of right-resolve. At the same time, the good conduct in accordance with these three factors supports the cultivation of right-resolve.

Another suggestion which the Culavedalla-sutta reveals is that the cultivation of mind always needs appropriate effort and attention. Here is the function of the three other factors of the path. They are right-effort and right-mindfulness and right-concentration. As it is described in the Culavedalla-sutta, right- concentration is the inevitable result of practising the other factors; and the function of right-view is again emphasised in the combination with right-effort and right-mindfiilness.

These three factors, viz. right-view, right-effort and right-mindfulness, "run and circle around" {anuparidhdvanti amiparivattanti) right-resolve to directly support the working of the mind. Similarly, these three factors also run and circle around right-speech, right-action and right-livelihood to support the modification of good conduct. In this way, right-view, right-effort and right-mindfulness support right- resolve indirectly through good conduct. This illustrates the interconnected nature of all factors of the path.

Both the suggestions have special implications for education, which we will discuss in the next chapter. In order to lay the foundation for discussion on Buddhist thought of education, there are two points to be highlighted here.

With the first suggestion which has just been pointed out, we find that right- livelihood is a factor of the path which reflects the Buddhist view on economics and vocational education. It has considerable relevance to the contemporary

9X society. With the second suggestion, we find the significant role of right-mindfulness in Buddhist thought. Mindfulness is the energy of being aware of or being awake to what is going on in the present moment. This factor has special implications for education. And of course, the important role of right-view is re-affirmed here.

''** For extensive elaboration of this factor, see Schumacher (1973). 123 One more thing to be noted is that, according to Buddhist thought, the eight factors of the path are not merely philosophical doctrines but they signify eight mental and behavioural patterns. Obviously, the eight components of the Noble Eightfold Path are the eight guiding principles, but figuratively, they are also eight personality qualities to be cultivated and developed {bhavetabbd) (DN.34.2.1 at DN III 286).^^

The Noble Eightfold Path, as David Kalupahana (2008e, p. 83) points out, is not only the path that the Buddha realized and taught, but it is also the way of life that the Buddha lived for the whole of his awakened life (SN.1.45 at SN 1 33; Sn.l77). In fact, these eight qualities are already present, to at least some extent, in every human being. Therefore, the eight factors are not only the eight constituents of a doctrine, but also eight steps of learning and practicing (MN.65.34 at MN 1 447- 448). As the eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path point to the qualities of human character, they encourage learners to regard the Noble Eightfold Path not as a path, a model, a system in itself, but as a tool for looking directly into one's own character where the sources and solutions to human problems are available.

4.5.4 as a Way of Life

As it has been pointed out in the previous section, Buddhist thought began with the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path or the Middle Path. Still, from philosophical perspective, some questions can be raised. Can the Buddhist teaching stand as an independent system of thought or is it merely a tradition of religion? If Buddhist teaching can stand as an independent system of thought, what is the role of the Noble Eightfold Path in this system? Can it open up new pathways of knowledge and describe new modes of living?

Various studies on Buddhist thought have partly answered these questions. Most of the scholars in Buddhist studies (Bodhi, 1999; Gowan, 2003; Kalupahana, 1992; Keown, 1996; Piyadassi, 1979; Premasiri, 2006; Sangharakshita, 1957; Thanissaro, 1996) agree that the Noble Eightfold Path is the most important

"" See also Fuller (2004, p. 11) and Nhat Hanh (1998, p. 56). 124 teaching of the Buddha. Among these scholars, Kalupahana (1992, p. 102) especially investigates the ethical aspect of the Noble Eightfold Path, saying that this path illustrates the comprehensive guideline of moral perfection. It is this comprehensive guideline of moral perfection that makes up the Buddhist system of thought. More importantly, Keown (1996) explores and represents Buddhist thought independently as a model of intellectual, emotional and moral reorienting and restructuring towards individual and social fulfilments.

Coming to the primary source, the Sutta-pitaka provides sufficient textual evidences to support the exploration of the previous studies regarding the Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist thought. The Buddha's proclamation of the Noble Eightfold Path and its goals illustrates the evolutionary nature in the his thought, that is rejecting the ignoble (anariya) and unfruitful {anatthasamhito) ideologies and practices, and establishing the Middle Path leading to nibbana, which he had been awakened to.

Although the world views of the Buddha have their roots in both the intellectual mastery which he gained before Awakening (MN.26.15 at MN 1 164; Wynne, 2003, p. 12), his system of thought after Awakening, as it is represented in accordance with the Middle Path, is evolutionary and novel in contrast to his contemporaries. The novelty of his evolutionary thought and practice was the resuh of his meditative practice, viz. his experiential knowledge or insight {abhinnd) and full-awakening {sambodhi)}^^ It is his evolutionary thought and

'"" The Buddha did learn the meditation techniques from Ajara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, whose teachings were influenced by early Brahminic thought (Wynne, 2003, pp. 96, 102). Their practices, mainly, element-meditation (dhatii-yoga) and formless-meditation {cinipa vimokkha) must have been borrowed from Brahminic sources. However, Wynne points out that the Buddha discovered and practiced a new technique in which awareness {sati) and clear comprehension {sampajaHPia), not ariippaa vimokkha and dhatu-yoga, play important role. Wynne says that Bames has described the difference between meditation in and Brahminism well and quotes: "A vital difference is that [in early Buddhism] sati and sampajaniia are to be developed at all times, whereas for a yogin there is no such similar thing. He should not practice when defecating, but the hhikkhu should maintain awareness. This is due to the yogin 's desire for a gnosis of an object outside the world; for the 125 practice that establishes Buddhist philosophical identity, viz. opening up new pathways of knowledge and describing new modes of living.

The Buddha formulated the Middle Path in the model of Noble Eightfold Path, and with this model he started his teaching mission. Since then the Noble Eightfold Path is the quintessential expression of the Buddhist thought. It is the most comprehensive formulation of the Buddha's teaching. It is the most practical part of the Buddhist teaching in the sense that it controls and regulates action of body, speech and mind, and transforms ordinary conduct, motivation and attitude into those of the noble ones. It is capable of accommodating within itself almost all the components of the teachings, which the Buddha taught for the entire life.

There is a very important account in the Mahdparinibbana-sutta (DN. 16.5.27 at DN II 151) regarding the significance of the Noble Eightfold Path. According to this account, when the Buddha was about to pass away, a young man named Subhadda came and asked whether the prominent comtemporary masters had been fiilly enlightened or not. The Buddha guided him without a waste of time that, in whatever Dhamma and Discipline {dhamma-vinaydf^^ the Noble Eightfold Path was found there were people of nobility. This episode represents the Buddha's last confirmation of the significance of the Noble Eightfold Path.

It is, therefore, the most consistent formulation that remains the same from the beginning of his teaching career to the end of his life. Furthermore, it is so consistent that through more than 2500 years and over the whole world, it has been accepted as the noblest way of life'"" as it was declared when the Buddha started his teaching.

hhikkhii, sensual experience in the world is the object which only needs to be purified" (Wynne, 2003. p. 72). "" According to Premasiri, the tenns dhamma and vinaya are used in some contexts seperately. But when they are used conjointly, dhammavinaya signifies the Buddhist theory of reality and its practical implications. And this dhammavinaya appropriately justifies Buddhism as an independent system of thought (Premasiri, 1996, pp. 42-43). '"" Rhys Davids, a great scholar, once said: "Buddhist or not Buddhist, 1 have examined every one of the great religious systems of the world, and in none of them have I found 126 Regarding the Middle Path as a pathway of Buddhist thought, a quotation from P. D. Premasiri (1996, p. 50) can be taken to illustrate:

When the Buddha's teachings are evaluated as 'philosophy as a way of life,' the most central concept in his teachings is the concept of the Middle Path. The concept of the Middle Path encompasses a certain world view as well as certain prescriptions regarding how we ought to live, which is in accordance with that world view.

According to Premasiri, the Middle Path is the most appropriate point to start with Buddhist thought.

4.5.5 Middle Approach of Buddhist Thought

The consideration of the Noble Eightfold Path as a way of life and a system of thought takes us back to the textual data which have been presented. The two ways of living known to the Buddha at that time were self-indulgence {kdmasukhallikanuyoga) and self-motification {attakilamathdnuyoga). Both are extremes. The Buddha started his teaching mission directly addressing this issue. This means that he started with individual, not with the state like the case of Plato (The Republic). The Buddha is first concerned with individual life - his practices and happiness. Just as happiness is our chief concern in modern time,'""' happiness is also the chief concern of human being in ancient times. However, happiness, from the Buddhist perspective, is not episodic,'"'' rather, it should anything to surpass, in beauty and comprehensiveness, the Noble Eightfold Path and the of the Buddha. I am content to shape my life according to that path" (Singh, 2000, p. 45). '"' H. H. The Dalai (2006, p. 17) says that happiness is the fundamental goal of individual human being as well as of different , ideologies and political systems. William James, a well-known psychologist and philosopher (1902, Lectures IV & V, p. 102) once said: "If we were to ask the question: 'What is human life's chief concern?' one of the answers we should receive would be: 'It is happiness.' How to gain, how to keep, how to recover happiness, is in fact for most men at all times the secret motive of all they do, and of all they are willing to endure." '*'"' According to Nel Noddings (2003, p. 9), episodic happiness is merely related to health, wealth and the ups and downs of everyday life in a certain period.

127 apply to a whole process of being as a kind of long lasting peace and freedom. It is called nibbdnic happiness, nibbdnic well-being or nibbdnic peace. To achieve this kind of happiness, one has to lead a moderate life, avoiding self-indulgence and self-mortification. Both are the extremes to be avoided in our practice, in our life. In Buddhist literature, this middle approach is often illustrated by the simile of a musician. Just as an expert player should keep his vina neither too taut nor too loose, but tuned to be right on pitch, in the same way, a practitioner of the path should be neither over-aroused persistent nor over slack, but determine the right pitch for one's own progress (AN.6.55 at AN III 373).

If we take a closer look at the textual evidence literally, it is revealed that though both the extremes are ignoble (anariyo) and unfruitful {anatthasamhito), their characteristics and affects are different. While self-indulgence is low (hmo), vulgar (gammo) and individualist (pothujjaniko), self-mortification is simply painful (dukkho). The former reflects the Buddhist sociological perspective, while the latter indicates its psychological view (Kalupahana, 2008c, p. 56). If this psychological view is the resuh of the Buddha's concern with the individual happiness, ethical consideration must be the basis of his sociological perspective. Therefore, the Buddhist thought holds the middle approach not only in actual practice, but also in ethical sense. According to the Buddha, whatever is ethically condemned to be low (hmo), vulgar (gammo) and individualist (pothujjaniko), one should not engage in. That is to say, although the Buddha started with the individual, he also kept an eye on social challenges. In other words, Buddhist thought is not only concerned with individual problems but also with social issues.

In addition to psychological and ethical middle-stance, the middle approach in Buddhist philosophy, or more exactly, in Buddhist epistemology and logic, is also significant. This aspect have been elaborated extensively in Buddhist philosophical literature (Bums, 1963; Jayatilleke, 1963; Kalupahana, 1976, 1992, 1995, 2008). With the middle approach, the Buddhist thought avoids the extremes of the true and the false (in logical thinking), and those of existence (atthitd) and

128 non-existence {n'atthitd) (in both epistemology and ontology) (Kalupahana, 1995, p. 45; 2002, p. 368).

A quotation from the Kaccayanagotta-sutta (SN.12.15 at SN II 16) in the foregoing section illustrates that there existed two main systems of ideology at the Buddha's time. One was inclined towards the notion of existence {atthitd) and the other was inclined toward the notion of non-existence {n 'atthitd).

The existence-view (atthitd) is regarded as either etemalist theory {sdssata- vdda/atthika-vdda) or classical idealism, while non-existence-View (n'atthitd) is regarded as either annihilationist theory (iiccheda-vdda) or nihilism (n'atthika- vdda). The latter is also called natural materialism (svabhdva-vdda) (Dasgupta, 1922, pp. 79-80; Jayatilleke, 1963, pp. 69ff, 1975, p. 12; Kalupahana, 1976, pp. 11-14). According to Kalupahana (1992, p. 13), the emergence of the extreme form of natural materialism in Indian thought was, to some extent, a reaction to the classical idealism of the earlier period, which reached its culmination as early as the period of the Upanisads.

The materialistic view was mostly followed by common people. These people were the victims of annihilationist or nihilist view (uccheda-vdda/n'atthika- vdda). It is likely to induce people to believe that life is restricted to this life-span only, beginning with birth and ending with death. This is the philosophical view behind the way of life pursuing physical and materialistic entertainment (kdmasukhallikdnu-yoga) for one's own enjoyment. That is why it is likely to be condemned as hino (low), gammo (vulgar), and pothujjaniko (individualist). This type of person is also known as the hardened sensualist (AN.3.151 at AN 1 294).

On the contrary, the idealistic view was followed by the ascetic circle. These ascetics were clouded by the dogma of eternalist theory (sassata-vdda). This dogma leds them to believe in metaphysically pre-occupied perceptions of etemality and certainty (Jayatilleke, 1975, p. 13). Therefore, they were least related to the contextually present problems of human life and the way to solve them practically. This is the philosophical view behind their practice of self- motification (attakilamathdmi-yoga), with the hope to realize the eternal truth by 129 unifying themselves with the universe.'°^ This type of person is also known as the self-tormentor (AN.3.151 at AN I 294).

These two systems of thought and practice are prominent at the Buddha's time. Before Awakening, the Bodhisatta^^^ had followed these views and practices. After Awakening, he realized that both are extremist. According to the Buddha, the two extremist views do not lead to worthwhile (ariya) practices, which in turn, lead to real happiness, to nibbdna. Only insight {abhihd) which sees the reality as it comes to be {yathdbhutandna) does.'"'' Hence, he introduced the path that leads to that goal. It is the Ariya-atthahgika-magga, the Middle Path.

To sum up, there are at least three dimensions of the middle approach. The first is applied to the actual practice of mental and behavioural transformation for individual betterment and well-being. This dimension is based on psychological considerations. The second is applied to the judgement of moral values. This dimension is based on sociological considerations. And the last is middle approach in understanding of reality. It is the philosophical consideration of the Buddha.

The middle approach with the three dimensions based on the three main foundations is not only the salient feature of Buddhist thought, but it also has considerable implications for education, especially in the contemporary world.

"^' Sec more Bhikkhu Bodhi (1978). '"^ Traditionally, the term Bodhisalla (great being) is used to refer the Buddha before his Awakening. "" In the Sala-sutta (SN.47.4 at SN V 144), the Buddha told his students to practice self-observation (the fourfold mindfulness) as a way to fully understanding of reality - Ye te, hhikkhave, hhikkhu navd acirapahhajita adhitnagata imam dhammavinayam, te vo, hhikkhave, bhikkhu catunnam satipatthcmanam bhcivandya samadapetahhci nivesetabba patiithapetabha. For the relevance of self-observation practice, see Dhar (2007). The Buddha taught a 'middle way' between pure meditation and cognitive practices. The states of absorption induced by meditation were considered useful and necessary, but in distinction from the meditative mainstream their ultimate aim was insight. In Buddhist practice, it is vitally important that the meditative adept should apply his conccntrative state to the practice of mindfulness (Sn.l070; Sn.l 111; 5?7.1113) and work towards the attainment of insight (Wynne, 2003, p. 105). 130 4.5.6 The Path of

As it has been presented, there are at least four important Suttas which focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. So far, the contents of the Dhammacakkappavattana- sutta, the Vibhanga-sutta and the Saccavibhanga-sutta have been discussed. While the first one is a gist of the Noble Eightfold Path, the other two provide the extended explanation on it. The last selected Sutta is the Mahdcattansaka-siitta (MN.117 at M III 71). According to a description in the Mahdcattansaka-sutta, the path factors are expounded at two levels. At one level, the path factors are "affected by taints, partaking of merits, ripening on the side of attatchments" {sdsavd umabhdgiya upadhivepakkd). At the other level, the path factors are "noble, taintless, supramundane" {ariya anasavd lokuttard).

There are number of variant interpretations of these two levels of the path (Harvey, 2000, pp. 37-78; Kalupahana, 1995, pp. 77-78; Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995, p. 1322; Thanissaro, 1996, 196). Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi distinguish the two as mundane (lokiya) and supramundane {lokuttard). David Kalupahana and Peter Harvey distinguish the two as the ordinary and the transcendent. Bhikkhu Thanissaro regards the two as mundane and the noble. I wonder if there are possibilities of the other distinctions such as the path to Awakening and the path o/Awakening, the empirical path and the trans-empirical path, the path for the unenlightened learner and the path for the enlightened one, the path for the lay learners and the path for professional learners, the path for the ordinary and the path for the expert. It is very difficult to determine whether any of these distinctions are implied in the Sutta. Anyway, despite of the sophisticated nature of this teaching,"^** there is a general agreement that the mundane path leads to good results, while the supermundane leads to nibbdna.

'"** For instance, Bhikkhu Bodhi, elsewhere (1994, p. 25; 2005, p. 303) seems to base on these two levels and go too far to consider the understanding of the path (right view) at conceptual level and experiential level. Again elsewhere, he (2000, p. 778) points out the distinction between the "path of insight" {pubhahhuga-pafipadd) and the "path to enlightenment" (lokuttara-inagga) as the meanings of the two levels. Peter Harvey (2000, pp. 37-38) seems to hold the view that the mundane path consists of only the first 131 What is obviously indicated in this Sutta is that, in teaching the two levels of the path, the early Buddhist thought was concerned with not only the ultimate goal (nibbana), but also the need of humanity here and now in this very world. Therefore, the path is intended for those who wish to liberate from the circle of birth and death, and at the same time, it is also open to those who wish to search for peace, security and prosperity in this very life. The key for both, as it is described in the Sutta, is the combination of the three factors: right-view, right- effort, and right-mindfulness. These are the three all-supporting-factors. This is one of the unique features of Buddhist thought.

Another important point, which is also indicated in the Sutta, is that, the Noble Eightfold Path is the path of gradual progress. Right-view comes first (and with the support of right-effort and right-mindfulness), right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood arise and develop gradually (and again, with the deepened and strengthened right-view, right-effort and right-mindflilness). The eight factors, as Bhikkhu Thanissaro (1996, p. 198) points out, are interconnected at both the levels. The path is described as being gradual also in the sense that the mundane level is the first step and the prerequisite for the supramundane level. It seems to be impossible for a learner to travel the supramundane path without having walked the mundane path of the eight right factors.

The Pacmaninna-sutta, the course of gradual training according to the Noble Eightfold Path is compared to the geographical sloping orientation of India's five great rivers.

Bhikkhus, just as the river Ganges slants, slopes and inclines towards the east, so too a bhikkhu, who develops and cultivates the noble eightfold path slants, slopes and inclines towards nibbana.^^^"^

five factors. This is may be because, in this Sutta, the explanation of the path ends at the fifth factor. But according to Bhikkhu Thanissaro, mundane path also consists of the eight factors.

SN.45.91 at SN V 38: Seyyathapi, hhikkhave, gahga nadlpacinaninna paclnapona pacwapabhhara; evameva kho, hhikkhave, bhikkhu ariyam atthahgikam maggam 132 This is a very important factor of the Buddha's teaching. In many other Suttas (AN.6.14 at AN IV 200-201; MN.70.22 at MN I 479; MN. 107.3 at MN III 2; Ud.5.5), the Buddha emphasised the path to nibbdna as the path of gradual practice (anupubbakiriyd), gradual training (anupubbasikkhd), and gradual mode of progress and development (anupubbapatipadd).

4.6 Conclusion

In this chapter, the Buddha and his teaching were introduced. It specially focuses on the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path with authentic primary sources. From these sources, Buddhist thought is explored.

The Sutta-pitaka contains thousands of discourses delivered by the Buddha over the course of his teaching career. They are diverse and complex in both the content and the form. However, in many ways, all the diversities and complexities of his teachings can be seen as variant ways of clarifying the Buddhist teaching in its theoretical aspects. The diversity and complexity also reflect different ways of adaptation of the practical guidelines for living of the Buddha's teaching.

Among thousands of discourses, the Dhammacakkappavattana-siitta is one of the most important ones. This discourse forms the doctrinal core of the earliest Buddhist teaching. It is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. All the discourses in the Sutta-pitaka revolve around this path. The Vibhanga-siitta and the Saccavibhahga-sutta are the two main discourses which explain the Noble Eightfold Path in details. The Mahdcattdnsaka-sutta offers a peculiar description of the Path which opens the way for applications of the path in both secular and rigorous spiritual contexts. Besides, there are many Suttas which explain the path factors seperately or doctrinal questions related to the path. These Suttas are especially helpful in providing the contexts in which the Path was taught.

bhavento ariyam atthafigikam maggam hahulikaronto nihbananinno hoti nibhanapono nibbdnapahhhdro. 133 In most of the cases, definitions and explanations of the path factors seem to be "standardized." And this characteristic of the Hterature make it consistent regarding the central teaching of the Buddha. This consistency in turn helps to develop a sound system of thought. From the above presentation and elaboration, some conclusions can be made as follows:

The Noble Eightfold Path is the path of eight factors: right-view, right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort, right-mindflilness and right-concentration. This path gives rise to vision and knowledge and leads to equanimity, dispassion and cessation of craving, peace, insight, awakening and nibbana. This path is also called the Middle Path, because it is taught based on an approach which is called majjhimd (middle), avoiding the extremes.

The Noble Eightfold Path actually concerns human life and it is philosophical in nature, because no philosophical questions are not included in the description of the Noble Eightfold Path. The philosophy embodied in the Noble Eightfold Path anchors its root in its conception of human nature and human conditions. To be human, in Buddhist philosophy, is to encounter a very particular and inescapable predicament (dukkha). Buddhist thought and practice fiindamentally aim at solving the dukkha of human beings. This is the humanistic characteristic of Buddhist thought. The path is not only descriptive, but it is also prescriptive in the sense that it offers an ideal orientation and provides guidelines for action. As the path is open to all, everyone can go, and as the path is gradual, there is space on the path for everyone to start at the very juncture where one is standing.

There are textual evidences which show that the teaching of the path is based on a sound psychological foundation. As we have seen, all the concepts such as magga (path), patipada (practice), ariya (noble), riaya (method), cakkhii (vision), nana (knowledge), iipasama (peace), ahhinnd (insight), sambodhi (full-awakening) and nibbana (emancipatory happiness) bear their specific implications for contemporary education. Therefore, implicit in this path is a viable scheme of global education. This scheme is explored and presented in the next chapter.

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