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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of the of copyright the copyright owner. owner.Further reproduction Further reproduction prohibited without prohibited permission. without permission. THE FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS (SATIPATTKANA)

AS A MICROCOSM OF THE

THERAVADA BUDDHIST WORLD VIEW

by

Thomas Gyori

submitted to the

Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences

of The American University

in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

in

History of Religions: The Hindu Tradition

Chair:

College or School

1996

The American University

Washington, D.C. 20016 lill

CSS AMERICAS UlilTLSSITY LIBRARY

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UMI Microform 1381807 Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS (SATIPATTHANA)

AS A MICROCOSM OF THE

THERAVADA BUDDHIST WORLD VIEW

BY

THOMAS GYORI

ABSTRACT

The following study is an attempt to illustrate the

manner in which the prescribed method of Theravada Buddhist

praxis; namely, mindfulness (sati, i.e., the seventh stage of

the Eightfold Noble Path) represents the microcosmic image of

the Theravada Buddhist v/orld view. Implicit in this work is

the fundamental notion that soteriological systems never exist

in a vacuum. Rather, they necessarily presuppose a world and

existential condition that one seeks to transcend. As per the

Theravada tradition, its salvational schema emerges directly

from its view of the cosmos (i.e., the three characteristics

of existence: anicca, anatta, and dukkha), while its specific

form of meditation manifests that view. In effect, then, this

work is aimed towards establishing a more reciprocal

relationship between theory and practice within Theravada

Buddhism.

The chosen method of research for the proposed problem is

phenomenological in nature. Mircea Eliade's significant

ii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. contributions to the phenomenology of religion have resulted

in a more profound understanding of religious consciousness,

particularly as expressed through the rich varieties of myth,

ritual (i.e., meditation), and symbolism. As such, the

phenomenological approach forces the outsider to become more

sensitive to the needs and experiences of the insider as

having liberating effects.

Finally, the conclusion seeks to reestablish (by way of

analogy) the basic underlying theme: namely, how the

synthesizing of theory and practice yields a freedom

experience.

iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would, first of all, like to acknowledge the

outstanding work and scholarship of five faculty members who,

in their own unique way, equally contributed to my success as

a student.

From the State University of New York (SUNY) at Stony

Brook (where I received my B.A.in Religious Studies), my

heartfelt gratitude goes to Prof. Sung Bae Park (Director of

Korean Studies), Prof. William Chittick (Academic

Advisor/Coordinator for Religious Studies and renowned

Islamicist), and Prof. Sachiko Murata (Director of Japanese

Studies), for giving me the kind of knowledge I can value for

the rest of my life.

At the graduate level, from the Catholic University of

America (CUA), well deserved recognition goes to Prof. William

Cenkner for having sharpened my understanding of the

comparative approach to the study of religion as well as the

religious traditions of India. Finally, from Georgetown

University (GU), I would like pay tribute to Prof. B.N. Hebbar

for his superb job in the teaching of Indian Philosophy and

Mysticism. I'm confident that the experience I gained from

iv

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On a more personal note, I would be remiss if I failed to

thank my parents for having had the patience and courage to

allow me to, in the words of the late Joseph Campbell, "follow

my bliss." Without their encouragement and emotional support,

the journey would surely have been a lot more difficult.

v

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ABSTRACT ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II. THE MIND PRINCIPLE ...... 3

III. MINDFULNESS IN THEORY ...... 16

IV. MINDFULNESS IN PRAXIS...... 31

V. CONCLUSION 4 6

vi

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INTRODUCTION

Background

In his first sermon at Benares, known as the 'Discourse

on the Turning of the Wheel of Dharma' (Dhammacakkappavatta

Sutta), the Buddha is said to have proclaimed the essence of

his teachings. Thereupon, he uttered the following words to

his disciples: "Formerly and today, monks, I teach but one

thing: Suffering and the release from suffering."1 The

existential significance of this claim, indeed, constitutes

the heart and soul of the Four Noble Truths; the foundation

upon which the entire history of Buddhist thought is

predicated. Having awoken to the fundamental nature of human

suffering (dukkha) through the recognition of its primary

causes (Skt. samudaya), and while, at the same time, having

proposed a practical method way for ending suffering (i.e.

magga or the Eightfold Noble Path) , the Buddha has often times

been portrayed as a spiritual physician. Upon curing himself

from the plague of dukkha, he showed his undying compassion by

lA.L. Herman, An Introduction to Buddhist Thought. (New York: University Press of America, 1983), p. 56.

l

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. devoting virtually the remainder of his life to accomplishing

the same for others. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga-

one of the two orthodox manuals of Theravada Buddhist

meditation) makes use of the following simile that partially

illustrates this point.

The truth of suffering is like a disease, the truth of origin is like the cause of the disease, the truth of cessation is like the cure of the disease, and the truth of the path is like the medicine. Or the truth of suffering is like a famine, the truth of origin is like a drought, the truth of cessation is like plenty, and the truth of the path is like timely rain.2

To fully appreciate the salvific import of the Four Noble

Truths it is necessary to understand the tension that existed

between the rise of Theravada Buddhism and the Upanisadic

tradition, the predominant religious trend during the period

in which the Buddha lived (563 - 483 B.C.E.).

Basically, the ultimate goal of the Upanisads was

intended to be a kind of intuitive experience that enabled one

to realize the inherent unity between the individual soul or

spirit (atta; Skt. atman) and the universal Spirit, Brahman.

This so-called "ontological identity" led to the threefold

vision of "sat (permanent being), cit (knowledge), and ananda

2Bhikkhu Nanamoli, The Path of Purification. (Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975), p. 586.

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(bliss)."3 This metaphysical substratum of eternality,

however, was a contention that the Buddha was vehemently

opposed to. What the Buddha taught, in contrast, was based on

a radical form of empiricism in which reality was not found to

be permanent, but rather impermanent (anicca). Furthermore,

life, according to the Buddha, was not viewed as this euphoric

state of bliss, but ever more painfully as one of total misery

and disjointedness (i.e., dukkha). Most of all, the Buddha

firmly denied the notion of 'substantiality' attributed by the

Upanisads to the physical and mental orders of being,

particularly the latter. The atman, declared by the ancient

rsis ("seers") of the Upanisads to be the eternal principle

immanent within every individual was, nonetheless, clearly

outside the domain of empirical analysis and hence, from the

Buddha's perspective, illusory.

As an alternative approach, the Buddha tried to convince

those who subscribed to Upanisadic doctrine that the true

nature of the human being was anatta ("non-self"). Needless

to say, the Buddha's rejection of this absolute and abiding

substance dismantled the entire world view of the Upanisads

founded upon the metaphysical assertion of the Atman-Brahman

identity. On the other hand, the three characteristics of

existence (ti-lakkhana) cited above, namely, anicca, anatta,

3Mircea Eliade, The Encyclopedia of Religion. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), p.69.

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and dukkha, when genuinely realized through a meditative

experience "become the very basis of supreme enlightenment."4

Overview of Theravada Meditation

In virtually all schools of Buddhism, the final goal of

enlightenment (i.e., nibbana; Skt. nirvana) can only be

achieved through the perfection of wisdom (panna; Skt. prajna)

which allows the practitioner to perceive reality as it

really is. Although wisdom can be initially developed by

reflecting on scriptural passages and the teachings of

spiritual masters, in order to reach full maturation it needs

to be nourished by the aid of meditative culture (Skt.

bhavana). Meditation, therefore, is regarded as the primary

vehicle for the attainment of liberation from the endless

cycle of births and deaths (Skt. samsara) . As one source

describes it,

The essence of the method is to so existentialize and internalize an awareness of the inherent nature (im­ permanent, unsatisfactory, and lacking of a permanent self) of all existence that the meditator becomes both intellectually and emotionally free from attachment to existence, thereby destroying the desire-driven karmic propulsion into ever new forms of space-time being.5

4Paravahera V. Mahathera, Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice. (Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1962), p. 346.

3Mircea Eliade, The Encyclopedia of Religion. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), p. 332.

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In terms of its overall structure, the meditative process

is typically envisaged as as organic progression through three

interdependent stages: morality (sila), concentration

(samadhi), and wisdom (panna). Limiting ourselves to a brief

discussion of the latter two phases, through the mental

capacity of 'one-pointedness' (Skt. ekagrata), one is able to

discipline the mind by gradually ridding it of all karmically

binding thoughts, be they wholsome or unwholesome. In the

final analysis, only pure equanimity and awareness are to

remain.

The highest and most aspired level of spiritual

attainment, namely, the flowering of wisdom, is the eventual

fruit of 'one-pointed' concentration. At this stage, one is

said to have obtained complete insight into the fundamental

nature of reality as such. Henceforth, as to the myriad

constituents of reality (dhammas; i.e., ideas, thoughts,

matter, perceptions etc.), "one should know their nature, how

they appear and disappear, how they are developed, how they

are suppressed, and destroyed, and so on."6 In effect, then,

the Buddha's technique of meditation aims at producing a human

condition of perfect mental health and tranquility.

‘fyalpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. (England: The Gordon Fraser Gallery Limited Bedford, 1959), p. 47.

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Doctrinal Context of Mindfulness

Even though traces of it are not altogether absent in

other religious traditions, in Theravada Buddhism alone,

mindfulness (sati) occupies a position of utmost importance.

In fact, "if one were asked what distinguishes Buddhism from

all other systems of thought, one would have to answer that it

is mindfulness... On occasions it is almost equated with

Buddhism itself."7 As the seventh stage of the Eightfold

Noble Path and the first of seven limbs of enlightenment,

mindfulness is held to be rather unique in that it is viev/ed

by Theravadins to be the pricipal means of guiding the

meditator to the brink of spiritual emancipation. To that

end, it is exclusively desigined to intensify one's awareness

of all noumena and phenomena as essentially transient, lacking

of substance, and wrought with pain. Consequently,

mindfulness literally becomes looked upon as the

methodological embodiment of the Theravada universe, of which

its axis mundi is defined by the Four Noble Truths and the

three characteristics of existence. As the living,

existential core of the Theravada world view, mindfulness is

thus considered "the best, and for Theravadins, the only means

7Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India. (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1962), p. 51.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of achieving true salvational transcendence. ir*

8Winston L. King, Theravada Meditation: The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. (University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980), p. 2.

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THE MIND PRINCIPLE

The Primacy of Mind in Buddhism

According to tradition, the Buddha, in expounding the

'Path to Freedom' (i.e., The Eightfold Noble Path), is

recorded as having said,

0 bhikkus, there are two kinds of illness. What are those two? Physical illness and mental illness. There seem to be people who enjoy freedom from physical illness even for a year or two... even for a hundred years or more. But, 0 bhikkus, rare in this world are those who enjoy freedom from mental illness even for one moment, except those who are free from mental defilements (i.e., arahants)

The above passage functions, in part, as a reminder that the

teachings of the Buddha are not concerned with the invocation

of some supernatural being (i.e., God), but are rather based

upon purifyiny the most vital principle common to all people,

namely, the human mind. Historically, Buddhism has been

renowned for designating the mind as both the starting and

culminating point of spiritual practice. The Dhammapada, for

example, one of the most popular collections of anthologies

9Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. (England: The Gordon Fraser Gallery Limited Bedford, 1959), p. 67.

8

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contained in the Pali canon, opens by saying, "Mind precedes

all things, dominates them, and creates them."10 Given this

position, it stands to reason that if the workings of the mind

are fully understood, then all dhammas within the phenomenal

world will be understood as well.

Buddhism, then, recognizes the basic root of suffering as

ignorance (avijja; Skt. avidya) as opposed to sin, which is

commonly understood as a deliberate or willful transgression

of the divine covenant. Yet while the mind is seen as

containing many defilements having deep roots, by the same

token below these roots the mind is felt to be utterly calm

and devoid of any unwholesome thoughts. In other words, the

inner most recesses of the mind are considered to be analogous

to the surface of a brightly polished mirror which reflects

things as they really are. Due, however, to the myriad

interactions of an untrained mind with the physical world,

erroneous thoughts , actions, and beliefs are bound to arise.

Thus the mind is simultaneously held to be the source of both

ignorance as well as wisdom. Once again, the following

message of the Buddha, albeit spoken in more of an ethical

tone of voice, lends support to the above argument.

Whatsoever there is of evil, connected with evil, be­ longing to evil- all issues from mind. Whatsoever there is of good, connected with good, be­

10Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 21.

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longing to good- all issues from mind.11

A key Buddhist doctrine closely related to the Four Noble

Truths (particularly the second and third), known as dependent

origination or co-arising (paticca-samuppada; Skt. pratitya-

samutpada) provides a suitable context for a preliminary

discussion of the mind. Essentially, this doctrine amounts to

the Buddhist theory of causation or creation (although not in

the Judeo-Christian sense of the term) and is formally

represented as a series of twelve preconditions which provide

a detailed explanation of the dynamic nature of samsara.

As previously alluded to, ignorance (avijja) is generally

accepted as the chief cause of human misery and thus denotes

the first link in the chain of transmigration. The eleven

remaining cogs in this so-called wheel of life (as commonly

depicted in Buddhist art) form a logical succession beginning

with: (2) kamma (Skt. karma), or predispositions that

contribute to the rebirth process owing to ignorance of the

Four Noble Truths; (3) vinnana (Skt. vijnana), or

consciousness which depends on certain habits accrued

throughout life as the karmic residue of deeds, thoughts, and

words; (4) nama-rupa, or name and form (i.e., the mental and

physical self) which, owing to consciousness, establishes the

subject-object relationship; (5) salayatana, or sixfold base

“Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 22.

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faculties of perception furnished by the mind-body; (6)

phassa, or contact of the senses with their corresponding

objects; (7) vedana, or feelings which are the psychological

effects associated with the sense organs impinging upon

material objects; (8) tanha (Skt. trsna), or desire which

arises according to the degree of passion in one's feelings;

(9) upadana, or attachment which is the immediate fruit of

uncontrolled thirst and craving. Completing the cycle,

attachment leads to (10) bhava (lit. "becoming"), or the

desire for continued existence; followed by (11) jara-marana,

or old age and death; and lastly (12) jati, or rebirth. A

point worth mentioning here is that barring an enlightenment

experience this process will continue to repeat itself ad

infinitum, hence leaving no hope for escaping samsaric

bondage.

In its abbreviated version the above scenario is often

expressed in the following pair of statements: "If B exists,

then A has existed. If A does not exist, then B will not

exist."12 Having said that, the main issue that needs to be

addressed is: Where within this endless cycle of causation

does the role of the mind begin to assert itself? First of

all, "when Buddhists use the word 'mind' they are using a

rather inadequate word for the Pali citta, which covers both

l2Richard Robinson, The Buddhist Tradition: A Historical Introduction. (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2nd Ed., 1982), p. 17.

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intellect and emotions, both head and heart."15 What exactly,

then, is meant by the term mind in this context? A classical

Buddhist response would likely include the five receptors of

consciousness: namely, eye consciousness, ear consciousness,

nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, and body (touch)

consciousness. Collectively, these five fields of

consciousness operate to produce mind-consciousness which is

ultimately responsible for the functioning of perception,

identification, recognition, memory, and feelings. In

actuality, then, the mind may refer to any one of these five

sense faculties or even mind-consciousness itself.

Transposing this description onto the wheel of samsara

one finds that the mind (in any one of its six manifestations)

makes its presence known upon contact (phassa) with the

various elements (dhammas) of material existence, since it is

at this interface v/here karmic impressions are brought to

fruition. In other words, depending upon (for instance) the

visual organ and the visible object, arises visual

consciousness. The convergence of these three is contact

which, in turn, causes the arousal of feelings. Similarly,

what one feels influences the way one perceives; and the way

one perceives determines, to a very large extent, the way in

which one's mind is programmed to think. Assuming, of course,

13Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 20.

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that the mind is functioning properly one may infer that the

world which it creates or organizes will in fact coincide

with the way things really are. On the other hand, when its

powers are impeded by the undesireable qualities of greed,

anger, and ignorance, the result is a distorted vision of

reality.

The Essence of the Buddha's Mind-Doctrine

Realizing that the human mind is constantly tainted by

personal biases and preconceived notions, and hence defective,

the Buddha sought a cure whose intent was to synchronize the

dynamics of the mind with that of reality. Basically, then,

the heart of the Buddha's message consists solely of the help

it renders the mind. As such, the Buddha's mind-doctrine is

geared towards the fulfillment of three objectives: "to know

the mind,- that is so near to us, and yet so unknown; to shape

the mind,- that is so unwieldy and obstinate, and yet may turn

so pliant; to free the mind,- that is in bondage all over, and

yet may win freedom here and now."14

This threefold process naturally demands a balanced

(i.e., right) effort on the part of the practitioner. Right

effort was examined by the Buddha in a variety of ways, the

most practical being the four factors to: (1) avoid the

uNyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 23.

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arising of unskillful states of mind which express attachment,

hatred, or delusion; (2) overcome or uproot unwholesome mental

states; (3) meditatively develop wholesome states of mind; and

(4) maintain or stabilize wholesome qualities that have been

generated by the mind. A formula borrowed from the Buddha's

discourses which illustrates how these efforts are to be

exercised is as follows:

Here a monk awakens desire for the non-arising of evil unwholesome mental states that have not yet arisen, for which he makes efforts, arouses energy, exerts his mind and endeavors (= avoidance). He awakens desire for the abandoning of evil unwholesome thoughts that have arisen, ... (= overcoming). He awakens desire for the arising of wholesome mental states that have not yet arisen,... (= developing). He awakens desire for the continuance, non-corruption, strengthening, development, and perfect­ ing of wholesome mental states that have arisen, for which he makes efforts, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and endeavors (= maintaining). This is called right effort.

It has already been suggested that the 'Way of

Mindfulness' is a message of help. It may now be more

accurately described as a message of self-help. The Buddha

emphatically declared again and again that every individual is

fully endowed with the potential to attain nibbana.

Therefore, one should notrely on the grace of a divine

savior, but rather walk the path leading to liberation alone.

Again, the Dhammapada underscores this point by insisting

15Bhikkhu Kantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 24.

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that,

Pure and impure on self alone depend. No one can make another pure. The effort you yourself must make. The Perfect Ones point out the Way.16

Without question, the simplest and yet most comprehensive

manner in which the Buddha made use of this innate capacity

was through the method of Satipattana (or "The Foundations of

Mindfulness"). Its essence may be summarized in two words:

Be mindful I "That means: Be mindful of your own mind! And

why? Mind harbors all: the world of suffering and its origin,

but also its final cessation and the path to it."17

l6Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 77.

17Ibid. , p. 77.

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MINDFULNESS IN THEORY

Etymology of Satipatthana

Historically speaking, the Pali term satipatthana has

been traced back to the combination of two roots, the first of

which, sati (Skt. snqrti) , has the original connotation of

memory or remembrance. In the case of Buddhism, however, sati

has only on occasion preserved its traditional meaning of

recalling prior events. Primarily the term refers to the

present moment and thus carries the extended meaning of

attention or awareness.

The second element of the compound, patthana, is a

modified version of upatthana, "lit. 'placing near (one's

mind)', i.e. keeping present, remaining aware,

establishing.11,5 Satipatthana, then, refers to a highly

refined mental process of bearing something in mind with utter

clarity and precision of consciousness as to one's immediate

surroundings. It is otherwise defined as unwavering

18Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 10.

16

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attentiveness or pure observation. For the purposes of this

study, however, the term should be translated to mean 'The

Presence or Foundation of Mindfulness.'

Characteristics of Mindfulness

According to Theravada epistemology, when the mind

initially becomes aware of something there is a flashing

instant of indeterminate perception (Skt. nirvikalpaka) just

prior to conceptualizing the object. For an infinitesimally

brief moment of time, the mind actually perceives a thing as

an "un-thing." This forms the very basis of mindfulness,

"often understood as a way of cleansing the mind of all

discriminations and conceptions, leading to a preconceptual

stage of perception.1,19

From a phenomenological point of view, mindfulness may be

characterized as mirror-thought, reflecting only what is

occurring at the present moment and in the exact manner in

which it is occurring. In other words, mindfulness is devoid

of all personal subjectivities and value judgements- two

traits which would otherwise undermine one's ability to

acquire an accurate view of reality. It is such cognition

that the teachings of the Buddha attempted to convey; namely,

... to one there must be in what is seen just the seen,

19David J. Kalupahana, A History of Buddhist Philosophy. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992), p. 108.

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in the heard just the heard, in the contacted just the contacted, in the apperceived just the apperceived, sc that one may be free from lust, hatred and delusion and from bondage to this or any other world.20

In terms of its non-judgemental aspect, mindfulness is

understood as the capacity of the mind to simply observe while

not engaging in the everyday criticism (be it constructive or

destructive) that the average person is normally accustomed

to. In effect, then, the mind is gradually undergoing a

reconditioning process whereby it is being trained to divorce

itself from the habitual urge to invest phenomena with emotion

and moral valence. Venerable Gunaratana, in attempting to

further illustrate the character of mindfulness, draws upon

the objective attitude of a modern physicist studying

subatomic particles through a microscope.

What we mean is that the meditator observes or exper­ iences very much like a scientist observing an object under a microscope without any preconceived notions, only to see the object exactly as it is. In the same way the meditator notices impermanence, unsatisfactori­ ness, and selflessness.21

A second trait of mindfulness that merits some

consideration has to do with the notion of non-conceptual

awareness. Mindfulness must neither be confused with

20Soma Thera, The Wav of Mindfulness. (Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975), p. 2.

21Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in Plain English. (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1981), p. 151.

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rational, discursive thought, nor is it to be mistaken for

personal ideas and opinions. "It is, rather, the direct and

immediate experiencing of whatever is happening, without the

medium of thought. It comes before thought in the perceptual

process."2-1 So although mindfulness participates in the

registering of multiple events and experiences, it, unlike

reflective and memory processes, does so without comparing,

labeling, or categorizing.

Third, mindfulness may be conceived as non-egotistic

alertness. That is to say, mindfulness is a mental activity

that makes no reference to the self. In the state of

mindfulness, then, one views all miscellaneous events (i.e.,

dhammas) while refraining from the use of selfish concepts

such as "me," "my," or "mine." Again, Gunaratana expands upon

this point by means of the following example.

Suppose there is pain in your leg. Ordinary conscious­ ness would say, "I have a pain." Using mindfulness, one would simply note the sensation as a sensation. One would not tack on the extra concept "I." Mindful­ ness stops one from adding anything to perception, or subtracting anything from it. One does not enhance anything. One does not emphasize anything. One just observes exactly what is there- without distortion.23

While wholly absorbed in this process of observation, one's

consciousness is gradually transformed and reaches a level of

22Ibid., p. 152.

23Ibid. , p. 152-3.

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awakening where the false notion of a self as a separate and

discrete entity is annihilated. Amid the presence of only

impersonal phenomena which are conditioned and ever changing,

craving and attachment are extinguished; and consequently a

great burden is lifted. "There remains only peace, and

blessed Nibbana, the uncreated, is realized.1124

Lastly, mindfulness is constant awareness of change and

impermanence. More specifically, it is the witnessing of the

birth, growth, maturity, and decay of all dhammas, both

material as well as mental. In mindfulness, one keenly

observes the universe experienced within, of which total

freedom lies in the critical examination of that universe.

The Functional Aspect of Mindfulness

Adding to its characteristic dimensions, there is one

functional aspect of mindfulness that demands attention;

namely, mindfulness as that mental process which aids the

individual in discerning the true nature of all phenomena. As

a unique method of observation having penetrating laser-like

power, mindfulness is able to reveal the most profound levels

of reality accessible to human consciousness. These modes of

spiritual realization attained through repeated practice

gradually become internalized as an embodied experience which

sees that: "(a) all conditioned things are inherently

24Ibid. , p. 191.

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transitory; (b) every worldly thing is, in the end,

unsatisfying; and (c) there are really no entities that are

unchanging or permanent, only processes. Only mindfulness,

then, can recognize anicca, dukkha, and anatta as the three

most fundamental ontological categories of existence.

This does not imply, however, that one will

instantaneously achieve liberation (i.e., nibbana) as a result

of occasional periods of effective mindfulness. Learning and

disciplining oneself to integrate this regimen into his/her

daily routine is another challenge altogether, one that will

be explored in considerable detail in the following chapter on

praxis.

Mental Divisions of Mindfulness

Part of what makes mindfuless such a distinctive tool of

Theravada meditative practice has to do with the intricacies

of its two principal modes: bare attention and clear

comprehension. Of the two, the former provides the ultimate

basis for mindfulness as a unique soteriological method. In

addition, bare attention accompanies the systematic practice

of mindfulness, from its initial surface level of raw

attentiveness to the final depths of wisdom and nibbana.

As such, it takes precedence over that of clear comprehension

25Ibid. , p. 156.

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and therefore will be treated first, and in considerably

greater detail.

Bare Attention is typically defined as "the clear and

single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in

us, at successive moments of perception."26 It is described

as "bare" because it attends soley to the naked facts of

perception. In so doing, bare attention returns the observer

to what is known as the seed state of affairs- that is, the

condition of things as such, prior to the appearance of name

and form. When applied to the inner workings of the mind,

this suggests that observation reverts back to the very first

phase of the perceptual process when the mind is in a purely

receptive state (i.e., when attention is restricted to the

bare noticing of the object) .

Admittedly, the average person is not wholeheartedly

committed to an objective account of things as they really

are, but rather with manipulating and interpreting them from

the standpoint of self-interest. Consequently, the nature of

reality becomes obscured by the superimposition of labels and

other liguistic conventions that reflect personal preferences

and desires. As a revelatory process, then, bare attention

unveils to the individual a new dimension of existence.

Elaborating on this point Nyanaponika Thera writes,

26Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 30.

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He will first find out that, where he believed himself to be dealing with a unity, i.e. with a single object presented by a single act of perception, there is, in fact, multiplicity, i.e. a whole series of different physical and mental processes presented by corresponding acts of perception, following each other in quick succession. He will further notice with consternation how rarely he is aware of a bare or pure object without any alien admixture. For instance, the normal visual perception if it is of any interest to the observer will rarely present the object pure and simple, but the object will appear in the light of added subjective judgements, as: beautiful or ugly, pleasant or un­ pleasant, useful, useless or harmful. If it concerns a living being, there will also enter into it the perceived notion: 'This is a personality, an Ego, just as "I" am, too.,v

The task of obtaining an exact replica or, in

phenomenological terms, a precise registering of how an object

intends itself, was definitely of prime importance to the

Buddha. One of the texts comprising the Pali Canon, in fact,

highlights this point by stating: "In what is seen there

should be only the seen; in what is heard, only the heard; in

what is sensed (as smell, taste or touch), only the sensed; in

what is thought, only the thought."28 Still the same, the

Buddha did not consider the content of this knowledge as being

worthy of absolute status. Nor did he even remotely indicate

that such knowledge constituted a salvific experience.

Whatever knowledge one gains through either normal or

extrasensory perception was viewed by the Buddha as a means to

^Ibid., p. 32.

28Ibid. , p. 33-4.

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an end and not as an end in itself.

As was purported earlier, the significance of the

Buddha's mind-doctrine and the emphasis layed upon right

mindfulness are evidenced by their unlimited capacity to

assist the practitioner in knowing, shaping, and liberating

the mind. It all starts, however, with mastering the

fundamentals of bare attention.

The preliminary role of bare attention is valuable

insofar as it is the state most responsible for noting the

conditioned and interconnected nature of all phenomena and

noumena (i.e., the mind). Implicit here, of course, is the

universal notion of change or impermanence (anicca)- the first

mark of existence that is so apparent and yet, at the same

time, so overlooked. Even the mind itself cannot be

understood without regarding it as a continuous stream of

flux. Hence, the once seemingly uniform and static act of

perception will, with increasing precision, begin to appear as

a rapid sequence of differentiated events that are

spontaneously arising and fading away. Moreover, owing to the

fact that bare attention yields knowledge of impermanence

concerning mental events, "it will become an immediate

certainty to the meditator that mind is nothing beyond its

cognizing function. Nowhere, behind or within that function,

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can any individual agent or abiding entity be detected.1,29

In passing, it is interesting to note how the above view

presents a completely antithetical response to Descarte's

cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am."). Given its

metaphysical line of reasoning, Cartesian philosophy affirms

the undeniable existence of a self-conscious »i»- the

irreducible thinking subject. Basing his argument on the

impermanence, identitylessness (or insubstantiality), and

unsatisfactoriness of the five aggregates (khandhas), however,

the Buddha likens this whole notion of a discrete and separate

"I" (in which the five aggregates are said to be ultimately

grounded) to a blind leap of faith, having no cogency

whatsoever. Perhaps it is the way language is structured

which leads one to believe that every thought requires a

corrosponding discrete and immutable thinker. The "I" in "I

think," however, may be of the same kind as the "It" in "It is

raining" which does not refer to anything.

Aside from the critically objective knowledge it

supplies, bare attention seeks to shape or condition the mind

in ways that help prevent ignorance, negligence, rash

behavior, and lack of self-control. In other words, bare

attention is equipped with the power to retard the transition

of thought-impulse to action, thereby allowing adequate time

29Ibid. , p. 38 .

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to choose the most prudent course of action (i.e., one in

agreement with sila). Very often, as Nyanaponika again

indicates,

... by pausing before action, in a habitual attitude of Bare Attention, one will be able to seize that decisive but brief moment when mind has not yet settled upon a definite course of action or a definite attitude, but is still open to receive skillful directions.30

Accordingly, a receptive and malleable mind will, in all

probability, undergo a spiritual maturing process since

actions having ill-fated consequences will no longer be

triggered.

The value of bare attention in knowing and shaping the

mind notwithstanding, it is perhaps its role in liberating the

mind that has proven to be most beneficial. Deeply beneath

the surface of the mind lies a mechanism which accepts what

the mind perceives as beautiful, for example, and rejects

those experiences which are felt to induce psychological pain

or discomfort. Now as alluded to earlier, subjective

attitudes such as likes and dislikes (e.g. greed, lust,

hatred, aversion, jealousy etc.) often compromise the

integrity of the perceptual process wherin what is non­

existent is made to appear as existent and what is existent is

made to be non-existent. These prejudices, however, cannot

manifest themselves when the mind is absorbed in the state of

30Ibid. , p. 39.

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bare attention, for it is the latter that lays the former's

ccmpulsiveness to rest. With the severing of one's karmic

vices, the individual is now able to experience the peace and

happiness of gaining perfect detachment. In the words of

Nyanaponika Thera,

Bare Attention bestows upon us the confidence that such temporary stepping aside may well become one day a complete stepping out of this world of suffering. It gives a kind of foretaste... that has been alluded to by the words: 'In the world, but not of the world.'51

Given the hectic schedule of most people, bare attention

can, realistically, be sustained for only a limited period of

time: namely, during physically inactive periods of the day.

Required, therefore, is the second aspect of mindfulness-

clear comprehension (sampajanna)- which concerns the more

active domain of daily life. Ideally, the function of clear

comprehension is to act as a regulating force for all karmic

deeds. Stated otherwise, its main mission is to ensure that

all actions (be they bodily, verbal, or mental) are performed

according to one's moral standards and with the most advanced

levels of understanding. Conceived in this manner, the term

"clear comprehension" is thus understood as "that to the

clarity of bare mindfulness is added the full comprehension of

purpose and of actuality, internal and external, or, in other

words: clear comprehension is right knowledge (nana) or wisdom

31Ibid. , p. 43 .

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(panna) based on right attentiveness (sati)."32

As a potentially life-transforming force geared towards

the overall purpose of mental cultivation, the power of clear

comprehension must somehow be harnessed so that one may

achieve complete insight of reality. At issue here, then, is

the task of relating the events of a day's routine into a

meditative framework. For instance, the simple and ordinary

act of eating may readily be associated with contemplations on

impermanence of the body, along with the four elements (e.g.

earth, air, fire, water) and their contingent nature. Once

this type of exercise is repeated enough times, clear

comprehension begins to manifest itself by engendering the

mind with a profound analytical understanding of reality.

That being the case, clear comprehension [of reality] (i.e.,

non-delusion) is therefore able to remove the most stubborn

and mistaken conviction of the human being- the unfounded

belief in a self-abiding, eternal soul. Hence, within the

confines of meditation, clear comprehension becomes the

intellectual source of disillusionment through its

revolutionary idea of impersonality, "or absolute fluidity of

the 'individual'."33

In summary of the above analysis, it is found that the

two modes of mindfulness- bare attention and clear

32Ibid. , p .46.

33Ibid. , p. 49.

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comprehension- operate in a tandem, complementary type

fashion. On the one hand, the keen sense of mental awareness

coupled with the rigor of analytical thinking greatly

facilitate the capacity of clear comprehension to assume

control of one's karma by not allowing the mind to fall prey

to maya (translated here to mean illusion) . Meanwhile, clear

comprehension nurtures an environment suitable for the proper

working of bare attention by exerting the corrective aid of

analytical insight upon the world of goal-seeking action and

misguided thinking, both of which presuppose the existence of

selfhood (Skt. svabhava).

Before proceeding further it might prove helpful to say

a few words about how mindfulness serves as a preparatory

phase or condition for the eighth and final step of the Path,

the jhanic stages of wisdom, which describe in exacting detail

the varying degrees of nibbana.

Regardless of its chosen object of concentration,

mindfulness is intended to be the focus for the achievement of

one-pointedness of mind that must be developed for entrance

into the higher absorption states. To accomplish this the

mind is trained to thin out its awareness of an object of

attention until it virtually becomes a desolidified nonentity.

That is to say, its specific form is transcended in

consciousness. As a leading authority on this subject notes,

"And it goes almost without saying that as an object of

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consciousness fades out, the 'self' that is thus conscious

also tends to collapse as a separable entity or center of

awareness."34 The net result is the arising of an inner

calm and collectedness brought about by the focusing power of

mindfulness.

wWinston L. King, Theravada Meditation; The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. (University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980), p. 42.

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MINDFULNESS IN PRAXIS

The Four Oiects of Mindfulness

In order to simplify the task of integrating the

theoretical elements of mindfulness into practical, everyday

life, it is necessary to give a general overview of the 'four

objects of mindfulness' which constitute the entire range of

human experience.

The MahasatipatthSnasutta testifies to the unique

soteriological efficacy of the four objects of mindfulness by

claiming that "there is but one path for the purification of

beings, for passing beyond sorrow and grief, for destroying

pain and misery, for attaining the way, for realizing nirvana:

and this is the four-fold establishment of mindfulness."35

Extending from the physical and concrete to the more mental

and abstract, the four objects of mindfulness- body (Skt.

kaya), feelings (Skt. vedana), mind (Skt. cit), mental

contents (dhammas)- form the loci for the manifestation of

mindfulness. Since the body is most easily perceived it is

35Bhikkhu J. Kashyap, Mahasatipatthanasutta in Diaha-Nikava [Collection of long discourses], (Bihar: Pali Publication Board, 1958), p. 90.

31

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appointed as the first object of scrutiny, with the promise

that it will provide the meditator with the needed vision to

discern the greater subltlties of the mind and its fleeting

nature.

Contemplations of the Body

The body is clearly the most solid and, seemingly, most

stable component of the human being. As a result, it is

frequently regarded as the 'self'. It is precisely this

deluded habit of thinking, however, that is chiefly

responsible for the ills and sorrows of human existence.

Beginning with the body, then, the underlying intent of this

chapter is to show how each of the four objects of mindfulness

gives expression to the three cornerstones of the Theravada

Buddhist world view.

Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana) opens with a

mindfulness of breathing exercise which, incidentally, should

not be confused with the practice of breath control (Skt.

pranayama), familiar to the yogic schools of Hinduism. Unlike

the Hindu tradition of yoga that emphasizes the regulating of

one's breath, in Theravada practice there is no retention of

breath as such. Rather, it is breathing with an elevated

sense of consciousness. As one scholar notes,

It begins with the awareness of 'breathing in a long breath' and 'breathing out a long breath'- the sort of breath that one is likely to have at the beginning of the practice. As far as possible, one should not think 'I am breathing in a long breath...' but just let there

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be the basic awareness of the process. As concepts of 'I' and 'mine' are the basic source of trouble one does not want to strenghten them by meditation!36

Breathing, then, is an extremely effective tool for

maintaining mindfulness insofar as it prevents the mind from

becoming scattered and dispersed. One's breath, in fact, is

the bridge which unites the body with the mind. Therefore,

whenever the mind begins to wander off and lose sight of its

focus, it is the breath whose responsibility it is to grasp

hold of the mind in order to resume the state of mindfulness.

Furthermore, with regard to the way in which mindfulness

of breathing lends insight (vipassana) into the no-self

(anatta) doctrine, one source states:

As you proceed developing the mindfulness by degrees, you will notice that there is only breath and the mind noticing it and nothing behind it- no self or any permanent ego entity or anything of that nature. That is the breath and you are not two things, there is only a process, a mere rise and fall of the breath like the waves of the sea. In the highest sense there is a meditation, but no meditator.37

Allegorically speaking, the breath [being a microcosmic image

of the wind element (vayo-dhatu)], when viewed in relationship

with the mind, gradually leads to the awareness that the body

36Bhikkhu Kantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 30.

37Piyadassi Thera, Buddhist Meditation: The Wav to Inner Calm and Clarity. (Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1978) , p. 46.

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is actually being sustained by impersonal prcocesses. In

short, the dependence of the body's survival on breathing

demonstrates its conditioned and, therefore, impermanent

nature. From this it follows that mindfulness of breathing

acts as a vehicle for the gaining of freedom from the

empirical self.

In addition to the subtle yet pivotal role of breathing

in the process of mindfulness, the process of mindfulness can

be conducted at the more overt level as well. This involves

the four bodily postures: walking, standing, sitting, and

lying down. One only needs to mention the simple fact that an

individual's entire life is spent in one of these four

positions to be convinced of how essential mindfulness is for

obtaining an accurate account of the nature of the body's

basic movements and positions. Again, in keeping with the

principle of anatta, it is strongly recommended that any

bodily activity performed ought to be performed without

reference to a permanent, self-subsisting agent. In other

words, there is no actor, only action. While walking (or

running), for example, one author suggests

... that there be mindfulness only of 'going', not 'I am going' and the same applies to the other three positions. Sitting is just the bare contact of the body on the meditation cushion, standing, just the pressure of the body on the feet and their contact with the earth, while lying down is the bare attention

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given to the body's contact with the bed.’*

Throughout the course of this exercise, however, it is not

unusual for the practitioner to be preoccupied with purposive

thoughts as to the aim of going, for instance. Yet by setting

one's sights purely on the outcome of one's actions, one

begins to lose touch with the reality of the act itself.

Unfortunately, this approach only serves to glorify the

selfish desires of the ego in its ongoing struggle to make its

presence known. In direct contrast stands the altruistic

actions of the saint "in which the growing detachment with

regard to any action, though purposeful in itself, is

completely selfless and free from any clinging."39 So despite

the fact that the world would surely consider a saint's act as

good, it leaves no karmic imprint in the saint's mind and thus

does not lead him/her to experience the pain and misery of a

renewed existence.

As one of the more effective means of practice, the

analysis of the body into its four constituent elements

(dhatu-vavatthana) has earned a highly acclaimed status in the

Theravada tradition. Much of the success of this particular

method is owed to the manner in which it rebukes the commonly

38Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), pp. 31-2.

39Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 55.

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held belief of the body's apparent resiliency and

substantiality. Essentially, this practice is aimed towards

the dissection of the body into fractional components of an

increasingly impersonal nature. This is accomplished by

reducing the body to its four primary manifestations of

matter; namely, earth, water, fire, and air- all of which are

equally empty or devoid of being (i.e., substance). The

results prove beneficial to the degree that they evoke a sense

of disenchantment, alienation, and detachment, as well as an

intensified awareness of the egolessness of the body.

According to the above scenario, then, it is only upon

final dissolution of the bodily elements that one advances

more closely to the ultimate state of nibbana without any one

of the five khandhas (which together constitute the

'individual') remaining in tact (Anupadisesa-Nibbana-dhStu).

It is here that the passionate impulses and the ensnaring

vortex of sanslra lose their grip, thus allowing the body-mind

to enter into final extinction. To cite a colloquial passage

from the Samyutta-Nikaya that beautifully illustrates this

point,

Where cease the currents, where does the whirlpool whirl no more? Where cease name and form, leaving no trace? Where earth, water, fire and air find no footing, There cease the currents, there the whirlpool whirls no more;

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There cease name and form, leaving no trace.40

In summary, a common theme to the series of exercises

discussed above has been one of bodily detachment.

Accompanied by the processes of bare attention and clear

comprehension, the meditator is able to see the body in the

light of impermanence and, eventually, death. Nevertheless,

although the body is destined to perish, the mind, having

begun to master itself, remains in a state of calm and repose.

Ultimately, however, one is summoned to "cast off" (to use the

language of Philip Kapleau, a reputable scholar of Zen

Buddhism) the mind as well for fear that it be misconstrued as

an eternal entity. This demands a closer look at the nature

of mental phenomena.

Contemplation of Feelings

After the body, feelings are the next most easily

detectable part of the human being. Contrary to popular

belief, "feeling does not mean the complex of ideas and

sensations expressed by the word 'emotion', it means simply

pleasant, painful or neutral reactions, regarded apart from

the likes and dislikes which may arise based on them."41

40Paravahera V. Mahathera, Buddhist Meditation in theory and Practice. (Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1962), p. 470.

41Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 34.

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Feelings, then, in the sense spoken of, represent the initial

response to a given sense impression. As such, they warrant

the attention of those who aspire self-transcendence.

The Pali term for feeling, vedana (derived from the root

vid) , suggests that feelings ought to be understood as a

legitimate source of knowledge to the extent that they serve

as indicators for how disciplined the mind has become in

perceiving the world objectively. In drawing upon the theory

of dependent origination once again, a guestion that is

typically brought up has to do with exactly how pleasant,

painful, or neutral feelings originate. The theory of

dependent origination maintains that one of the six senses is

first stimulated. Thus, "dependent on eye and forms eye

consciousness arises. The meeting of these three is contact,

with contact as condition there arises what is felt as

pleasant or painful or neutral."42 This implies that sense

impressions are the primary seeds of feelings; while feelings,

in turn, are the source of desire and further clinging to

existence.

The crucial point in terms of understanding the origin of

dukkha has thus been established. Namely, it is during the

arising of eye-consciousness (for example) that feelings of

indifference are likely to succumb to excessive forms of

attachment or aversion. On the other hand, if one, in the act

42Ibid. , p.35.

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of receiving a sense impression, is capable of reversing the

process by returning all ill-feelings to their latent

condition (i.e., as objects of bare attention), then feelings

will no longer possess the ability to induce craving.

Instead, only the pure observation of dhammas as pleasant,

unpleasant, or indifference remain, thereby allowing clear

comprehension the opportunity to decide what attitude or

course of action is appropriate. In this particular

situation, then, bare attention and clear comprehension

combine to help one experience both the conditioned arising of

feelings as well as their gradual passing away. The value of

this lies in one discovering the futility of pursuing or being

a slave to one's passions, since it is the passion of an

untrained mind that figures prominently in the perpetuation of

suffering.

The notions of pleasant and unpleasant referenced above

are, in actuality, considerably complex mental states and not

merely pure feelings as previously defined. Nonetheless, as

Nyanaponika asserts,

By directing bare attention to them, they will be di­ vested of their emotional components and of their egocentric reference; they will appear as mere pleasant or unpleasant sensations, and will thus no longer be able to carry the meditator away into states of excessive elation or dejection which will deflect him from the path of progress.43

43Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 69.

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So even though emotions form an integral part of one's

experiences, they are by the same token the prime cause of

added confusion, distress, and suffering. Again, the stoic­

like demeanor of mindfulness provides the cure by training the

mind not to engage in reactionary modes of observation. In

other words, as Bhikkhu Kantipalo suggests, when experiencing

pain,

Be mindful of the painful feeling, just knowing it as 'pain, pain', or wordlessly contemplating it. Anger and aversion have then no chance to arise so that they do not have to be suppressed, nor does one have to make bad kamma of expressing them.44

Contemplation of Mental States

In terms of mental development, the chief advantage of

the contemplation of mental states (cittanupassana) is its

effectiveness in increasing levels of "self-knowledge. Here,

again, what takes place is a bare registering of the mind's

present condition by passively observing the arising and

cessation of its various states.

From an ordinary or unenlightened point of view, when one

assumes a form of the lotus position for the first time and

begins to meditate, he/she is likely to do so with the

conviction that there exists an actual observer claiming to

■“Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 36.

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know certain things about his/her mind. The Discourses of the

Foundations of Mindfulness, in fact, bears this point out by

stating, "Here a bhikkhu knows the lustful citta as lustful

citta, and so on."45 That is to say, a later mental state is

aware of or knows a prior mental state as having been (in this

particular case) lustful. In other words, the later mindful

citta is fully conscious of a certain stimulus that has either

begun to wither away or is completely non-existent. Upon

continued practice, this falsely conceived notion of

personhood (i.e., atta) will gradually begin to dissolve,

leaving only the mindful arising and passing away of cittas.

Overall, the contemplation of mental states serves the

function of helping the practitioner maintain a sharply

focused mind through the diverting of outside disturbances.

If, for example, in hearing an irritating noise anger should

ensue, the bare statement "mind with anger" will have a

soothing affect on the mental discomfort one is experiencing,

thereby replacing an emotionally anxious and restless

condition with a purged mental state that is more conducive

for "self"-examination.

Contemplation of Mental Events

The contemplation of mental events (Dhammanupassana)

represents the most subtle of the four aspects of

45Ibid. , p. 37.

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Satipatthana. Therefore, mindfulness needs to be extremely

well-tuned in order to be capable of properly observing the

fleeting events of the mind as such. Auspicious, indeed, are

its rewards in that mindfulness of thought "gradually assumes

the thought-forms of the Dhamma, in the sense of the Buddha's

teaching of actuality and liberation."46 To that end, the

exercises suggested in this section are specifically intended

to invest the mind with a soteriological orientation.

One exercise that is deeply concerned with the

contemplation of mental events is known as the five hindrances

(Skt. nivarana) which consist of the following: sensual

desire, ill-will, lethargy, agitation, and doubt.

Collectively, these fivefold hindrances not only delay

entrance into the jhanic states of meditative absorption, but

also prevent the aspirant from functioning clearly and

coherently in daily life. In order to eliminate such unwanted

tendencies the practitioner is instructed to contemplate the

five hindrances using the given five-step procedure:

When present know 'sensual desire (etc.) is present'. When absent know 'sensual desire is not present'. Know how arising of unarisen sensual desires comes to be, Know how abandonment of arisen sensual desires comes to be, Know how the future non-arising of abandoned sensual

46Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 73.

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desire comes to be.47

The contemplative process as outlined above is aimed at

achieving insight (vipassana) through the application of bare

attention to that which is either present, absent, arising, or

ceasing. Moreover, in so doing one is expected to recognize

what kind of thought patterns or other stimuli are responsible

for triggering the arising process; and, similarly, what type

of thoughts are necessary in eliminating these hindrances. In

effect, this exercise amounts to a direct application of the

principle of paticca-samupadda that was discussed previously.

As such, its main purpose is to analytically reveal the mutual

interdependence and impermanence of all phenomena- mental or

otherwise.

While at the outset these contemplations are likely to

resort to the verbalizing of presence, absence and so on, to

be maximally effective these contemplations must eventually

culminate in an ineffable knowing of this entire process.

Granted, the mind that knows apart from words and concepts is

in harmony with the way things are, but it has yet to reach

the so-called "other shore" of nibbana. This notwithstanding,

the contemplation of mental events is (from a soteriological

standpoint) perhaps the most effective mode of Satipatthana in

that, first, it has a silencing affect on words and concepts

47Bhikkhu Khantipalo, Calm and Insight. (London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981), p. 41.

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which, incidentally, is very much akin to that of the koan

practiced in the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. This, of

course, contributes to the severing of one's attachment to

them by seeing the fallacy behind their becoming reified.

Second, the notion of a discrete, self-contained, and abiding

entity is repudiated, as only the dhammas themselves warrant

further consideration.

By extending the range of this exercise to include the

five aggregates (khandhas) of which the Buddha analyzed to be

the sum and substance of a person, one soon arrives at the

exact same set of conclusions: impermanence (anicca) and

essenceless or insubstantiality (anatta), from which suffering

or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) owes its existence.

Unfortunately, however, the typical individual often

resembles one who has been victimized by ignorance (avijja)

and thus fails to experience, at each succeeding moment, the

way things truly are. Although on an intellectual level one

can surely give assent to the fact that the body (for example)

is in a perpetual state of flux, to what degree is one

genuinely aware of this? Similarly, despite the fact that the

mind wavers from one moment to the next, our being mindfully

attuned to this is severely lacking.

To sum up, then, the contemplations of feelings, states

of mind, mental events, and the body equally conform to the

two central tenets of the Buddha: anicca and anatta. The

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whole Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness, in fact,

may be viewed "as a comprehensive theoretical and practical

instruction for the realization of that liberating truth of

Anatta, having the two aspects of egolessness and voidness of

substance."48 In the final analysis, Satipatthana promises

not only a comprehensive understanding of that truth, but also

a life-transforming experience of life-transcending power.

48Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. (New York: Rider & Co., 1962), p. 75.

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CONCLUSION

Buddhism is a religious tradition that for nearly twenty

five hundred years has, in large measure, owed its survival to

the truth of one basic premise, namely, apart from practice

there is no enlightenment. Although the following story is

taken from the Mahayana tradition (a later development of

Buddhism that became prevalent throughout East Asia, beginning

around the turn of the common era), its underlying message

nevertheless may, to a certain extent, be understood within

the context of the Theravada tradition as well.

A monk once observed a Zen Master using a fan. Upon

noticing this, the monk asked: "The nature of the wind is

eternal and all-pervasive- why then do you use a fan?" The

master replied, "You only know the nature of the wind is

eternal, but you do not yet know the nature of its

omnipresence." The monk asked, "What is the principle of its

omnipresence?" The master just fanned. The monk bowed.49

Interpreting this story from a Theravada perspective,

even though one may be ready to admit that life is, indeed,

49Thomas Cleary, Shobocrenzo. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), p. 35.

46

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characterized by anicca and anatta, and thus permeated by

dukkha, in the absence of practice (denoted above by the

waving of a fan) these dormant realities are never allowed to

manifest themselves as actual realities. In other words, they

are true only at the intellectual level. Yet this is

precisely where the problem lies. Enlightenment (i.e.,

nibbana) is not an intellectual truth obtained through some

type of syllogistic reasoning. Quite the contrary.

Enlightenment signifies a human experience of the most

profound kind, involving a total revolutionary way of

perceiving the world.

Having conducted a detailed investigation of

Satipatthana, the hope is that one has now become equipped

with a clearer vision of the Theravada world view. Treating

the five khandhas (body, feelings, perception,

predispositions, and consciousness) together as an example,

their constant arising and ceasing testifies to their

impermanent nature (anicca). Second, their being devoid or

empty of any selfhood (anatta) is evidenced in the fact that

they arise and cease according to a given set of conditions

(which are themselves conditioned). Finally, their

unsatisfactoriness (dukkha) is witnessed upon their gradual

decay and eventual demise.

To a disciple of the Buddha immersed in the bare

attention and clear comprehension of mindfulness, the three

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characteristics of existence are now embodied realities, fully

realized as a miniaturized model of his/her world view. In

short, the macrocosm has, in effect, become internalized as

the microcosm.

In keeping with a phenomenological approach, a few

general comments ought to be made regarding the nature of the

above experience. Unlike the profane person who considers

himself to be the sole subject and agent of history by

refusing all appeals to the possibility of transcendence, the

religious person lives his/her life on a twofold plane: one

involving human existence, and another that shares in a

transhuman life. Consequently, the latter lives in an open

world, one that is accessible to a countless number of cosmic

(i.e., sacred) experiences. Insofar, then, as one re-enacts

or recapitulates the paradigmatic model (in Eliadean terms)

which defines one's world view, one thereby assumes a new

existential situation. Without question, this represents the

very epitome of the mindfulness experience- its greatest

fruit.

With the attainment of that fruit one brings to an end birth, old age and death. All that must be done, is done, and the world holds nothing more for him. This, in short, is the way by which the meditator by gradual training attains his goal.50

50Piyadassi Thera, Buddhist Meditation: The Wav to Calm and Inner Clarity. (Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1978), p. 76.

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Cleary, Thomas. Shobogenzo. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.

Eliade, Mircea. The Encyclopedia of Religion (vols. 5 and 10). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987.

Gunaratana, Henepola. Mindfulness in Plain English. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1981.

Herman, A.L. An Introduction to Buddhist Thought. New York: University Press of America, 1983.

Kalupahana, David J. A History of Buddhist Philosophy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992.

Khantipalo, Bhikkhu. Calm and Insight. London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1981.

King, Winston L. Theravada Meditation: The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980.

Mahathera, Paravahera V. Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1962.

Nanamoli, Bhikkhu. The Path of Purification. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975.

Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. England: The Gordon Fraser Gallery Limited Bedford, 1959.

Robinson, Richard. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Intro­ duction. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2nd Ed., 1982. Thera, Nyanaponika. The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. New York: Rider & Co., 1962.

Thera, Piyadassi. Buddhist Meditation: The Wav to Inner Calm and Clarity. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society Inc., 1978.

Thera, Soma. The Wav of Mindfulness. Sri Lanka: Buddhist

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