The Date of the TLV Mirrors from the Xiongnu Tombs Guolong Lai University of Florida, Gainesville (USA)

Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 In the summer of 2005, the square center field (also Silkroad Foundation and the called knob-seat), which is Mongolian National University decorated with a large, Fig. 3. TLV mirror fragments conducted their first season of joint simple quatrefoil. The main from Feature 109, Tamir 1 excavation at a Xiongnu cemetery decorative zone is framed site. in Arkhangai aimag in Central between the center square Mongolia. Among their findings and two outer bands, one a were three bronze mirrors. After narrow band with a comb-tooth cast inscription (Fig. 4), which describing them, I shall focus in pattern and the other a wide rim reads: this short essay on the first two, ornamented with three concentric … do not know aging; when TLV mirrors of Chinese rings with a saw-tooth pattern. thirsty, [they] drink from the provenance. My goal will be to Four pairs of T’s and L’s are placed spring of jade; when hungry, establish their date in the context on two perpendicular axes through [they] eat of jujubes. [They] of a broader discussion of the the mirror’s center point, while the roam… problems of dating bronze mirrors four inverted Vs are located at the but not to attempt an examination upper outside corners of the four of other issues such as Han- quadrants thus created. On the left According to similar inscriptions Xiongnu relations. and right sides of each T are placed (see below), it appears that these two nipples; two birds, in elegant descriptions refer to the immortals The first specimen from Feature simple relief, stand on either side dwelling in a transcendental 100 is a beautifully decorated of each inverted V. Furthermore, paradise. Mirrors of this type are intact mirror about 10 centimeters comma-shaped curves and short significant not only because they in diameter (Fig. 1, facing page). lines punctuate the spaces It belongs to a type referred to as between these elements. The ‘TLV’ mirrors in Western Sinological overall design of the mirror is literature, because the shapes of perfectly symmetrical, simple, and the main decorative elements on elegant. the back of the mirrors resemble the Latin letters T, L, and V. At the The second specimen (this one center of the back of the mirror is from Feature 109) is a fragment a hemispherical knob pierced for of another TLV mirror, further a ribbon or textile cord, to facilitate broken into two pieces that were the holding of the mirror (Fig. 2). found in different locations in the The knob is surrounded by a tomb (Fig. 3). The main decorative zone is largely missing; only one corner of the fragment has the elements of the L and V and a pair of birds with long tails. This mirror is larger than the one excavated from Feature 100. Unlike the intact one from Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh Feature 100, this Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh fragmentary mirror Fig. 2. Center of TLV mirror from Feature 100, bears a section of a Fig. 4. Section of TLV mirror from seen from an angle. Feature 109, showing inscription.

37 collections and scholarship on bronze mirrors, the museums (Bulling TLV mirror consists of the basic and Drew 1971-72). motifs of the letters T, L, and V. They used to be referred to as The problems guiju mirrors in Chinese literature with these sources (J: kiku), because it was have been further considered that the V and L exasperated by the resembled the compass (gui) and preference of col- a carpenter’s square (ju). Early lectors for mirrors scholarship focused on the with inscriptions connections between the TLV containing dates, mirror and the sundial (Yetts 1939, which in turn only pp. 148-165) and between the TLV Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh encouraged the mirror and the diviner’s board (shi) Fig. 5. Detail of mirror from Feature 160, Tamir 1 production of fake site. (Kaplan 1937), for several dated mirrors. As a specimens of sundials and diviner’s represent the best specimens of result of this situ- boards were available for bronze production in the Han ation, the mirror chronologies have comparison at the time. period, but also because their been skewed, because of the inscriptions reflect changing reliance of scholars on inscriptions As many scholars later realized, religious ideas in early China. with dates (Loewe 2001-2). Many however, these motifs actually distinguished scholars, including constitute the board of an ancient The third mirror, from Feature the Japanese scholar Umehara game called liubo, a popular 160, is about 7 centimeters in Sueji, who were connoisseurs of pastime among the elite during the diameter (Fig. 5). It is intact, but Chinese mirrors, were clearly Warring States and Han periods its craftsmanship is rather poor, aware of the situation and had paid (Yang 1947; Komai 1953). Thus compared with that of the other particular attention to the issues scholars have suggested that the two. The decorative scheme is of forgery. Yet in the end, they too TLV mirrors should be renamed as barely discernible. Only a small were occasionally duped by fakes. boju, ‘game board,’ mirrors (Zhou knob is found at the center of the Fortunately, in the last half 1987). But the Japanese scholar mirror back. This type of mirror century, many bronze mirrors have Hayashi Minao commendably seen in Xiongnu tombs is most been discovered under scien- insisted that although the TLV likely a low-quality, local imitation tifically-controlled archaeological pattern shared many similarities of Han mirrors. excavations in China. It is now with the liubo game board, it is not possible to establish a chronology a game board per se; rather the The chronology of bronze of bronze mirrors solely based on TLV mirror, the liubo game board, mirrors, along with dating by archaeological materials. Since the and the sundial, all share the same coinage and pottery vessels buried 1950s, all studies of Han mirrors cosmographical symbolism in tombs, have been important have incorporated, to different (Hayashi 1989, pp. 8-9; also methods used in cross-dating early degrees, the newly available Cammann 1948, pp. 160-1). It Chinese and Xiongnu burials. archaeological materials (Loewe now becomes clear from However, the dating of bronze 1979); yet so far no systematic archaeological evidence that there mirrors is a thorny issue for and methodologically rigorous was more than one type of liubo scholars of Chinese art and study that utilizes exclusively game board in early China, and the archaeology. Almost all of the excavated specimens has been configuration of those are slightly existing chronologies have attempted. We will have to wait to different from that of the TLV included in their studies clearly see how significantly an mirrors (it has only four V’s and spurious pieces or other mirrors of archaeologically-based new two L’s, and six I’s; see Li 2002). dubious origins (Umehara 1943, chronology would differ from the Thus it is inappropriate to equate Bulling 1960, Okamura 1984 and extant chronologies. Though a full the liubo game boards with the TLV 1993, except Zhou 1986; see also reinvestigation of the chronology motif. In current Japanese the discussion in Cammann 1961, of Han bronze mirrors is beyond literature, the TLV mirror is still Bulling 1962, Cammann 1962). the scope of this essay, some of called a kiku (Ch: guiju) mirror. For Bronze mirrors have been highly the issues involved in dating TLV convenience and consistency, and valued and collected since the mirrors will be mentioned below. because it is more descriptive North Song dynasty (960-1126). In my examination, I shall consider rather than interpretational, I shall As a result of their high value, only excavated materials. use TLV to refer to these mirrors forgeries and replicas have been throughout this essay. produced – some of which have Long having been the focus of found their way into private Japanese, Chinese and Western

38 Fig. 6. One of the six TLV coinage is often more accurate for mirrors excavated in dating the burials, because in Hunan (the largest, 14.4 many cases buried coinage is in cm). After Zhou 1986, No. large quantities and was the 2, p. 106. currency of the time. This type of TLV mirror lasted into Emperor and other princely Wu’s reign (140-87 BCE). A kingdoms of the Han famous example, with the same dynasty. Some of the inscription as the Hunan mirror, is earliest known ex- the one discovered in the tomb of amples are six inscribed Dou Wan (d. ca. 113 BCE) (Fig. bronze mirrors exca- 7), the consort of Emperor Wu’s vated from an early elder half-brother Liu Sheng (d. Western Han tomb in 113 BCE), at Mancheng in Hubei Hunan province (the province. largest d. 14.4 cm) (Fig. 6), in which TLV The TLV motif also appeared on mirrors with dragon other types of mirrors, such as the arabesque (panchi) so-called caoye ‘grass-leaf’ decoration were found mirrors, named after the leaf-like The TLV pattern appeared on with funerary coins — clay decoration found on the back of the the liubo game board earlier in the imitations of real coins of Emperor mirrors. The specimen in Fig. 8 is Warring States period, a mirror (d. 11.6 cm) discovered but it did not appear on in Tomb no. 23 in the Western Han- bronze mirrors until the period cemetery near Lou- early Han dynasty. The zhoucheng, Qichun, Hubei Swedish scholar Orvar province. Similar mirrors have also Karlbeck, an avid been discovered in Shaanxi, collector of early Sichuan, and Yunnan (Kong 1992, Chinese bronzes, pp. 203, 204, 206). speculated that the TLV motif on bronze mirrors The majority of extant TLV was first introduced by mirrors are associated with a Liu An (?179-122 BCE), decorative motif called sishen, the Han prince of ‘four spirits,’ the four imaginative Huainan, who was animal symbols of the cardinal famous for his keen directions (along with the color interest in astronomy symbolism): the Green Dragon of and cosmology and who the East, the White Tiger of the patronized the com- West, the Vermillion Bird of the pilation of a compre- South, and the Dark Warrior (a hensive astronomical, combination of a tortoise and a topographical, and snake) of the North. Developed philosophical treatise during the Warring States and Han called Huainanzi (cited periods, these creatures often from Bulling 1960, pp. filled the spaces between the T’s, 20-21). However, it Fig. 7. Bronze mirror from Mancheng M2, d. 18.4 cm. appears in archaeological records that the Wen’s reign (r. 179-156 BCE) — introduction of the TLV motif onto for the dead to use in the afterlife mirror decoration was earlier than (Zhou 1986, p. 70). Similar clay Liu An’s time, and the cosmological coins also appeared in the famous significance of the decorative motif Mawangdui tomb no. 1 (datable to was more widely appreciated in shortly after 168 BCE), roughly Han society than in the small circle contemporaneous with Emperor of Liu An’s court. Wen. These examples show why

The TLV mirror was popular not Fig. 8. Bronze mirror excavated from only in Liu An’s court in Huainan Louzhoucheng in Hebei province. Af- but as well in the imperial court ter Louzhoucheng 2000, p. 186.

39 characteristics: 1) found in ancient Japanese tombs one mirror carries an in which these mirrors were inscription specifically discovered, and he emphasized the dated 10 CE, the importance of paying particular second year in Wang attention to mirror typology Mang’s reign (Loewe (whether it was a TLV mirror, 2001-2, pp. 240-4); pictorial mirror, etc.) in applying 2) the others either Tomioka’s theory. Umehara further mentioned the pointed out that the regular type important political of TLV mirror was not limited only events during Wang to Wang Mang’s reign, but instead, Mang’s reign, such as it ranged from the late Western the establishment of Han to the Eastern Han and even the idealized Con- later (Umehara 1919). fucian ritual struc- tures Biyong and In retrospect, Tomioka’s theory Mingtang; 3), or is marred, however, by the contain the formula questionable examples he used. ‘Wangshi zuo jing’ First, as Michael Loewe has (‘The Wang family pointed, the 10 CE mirror is of has made the dubious provenance. Among all the Fig. 9. Bronze mirror excavated in Xi’an. After Cheng mirror’); 4), or extant inscribed TLV mirrors, only and Han 2002, fig. 38, p. 132. another formula ‘Xin two have precisely dated you shantong’ (‘The inscriptions; and both of them are L’s, and V’s. Since the spaces Xin has good copper’). likely counterfeit (Loewe 2001-2, between the T and the L on the pp. 240-5). Second, only three axes are often too narrow to fit the Because Wang Mang’s dynasty mirror inscriptions, as far as I animals, they are often moved off has long been considered know, refer to the establishment the axis to fill the eight spaces illegitimate, and his usurpation was of the Biyong and/or Mingtang; flanking the four inverted V’s. Such condemned in the subsequent and the doubtful 10 CE mirror is is the case in the TLV mirror Chinese history (especially during one of the three. One of the other excavated near Xi’an, Shaanxi the Eastern Han dynasty), it seems two is now in the collection of the province (Fig. 9). As a result, the reasonable to assume that 1) the Shanghai Museum (Kong 1992, p. four spirits were elaborated into Han imperial workshops would stop 323). In my opinion, the eight figures; in addition to the four producing mirrors with explicit authenticity of it is also ques- spirits, there are a bird, a toad, a association with the Xin dynasty tionable. Most importantly, there goat, and a winged immortal. The after the fall of Wang Mang; 2) is no scientifically excavated mirror Xi’an mirror was buried together later mirror manufacturers and bearing the references to the with a type of coinage (‘xiaoquan consumers would also consciously establishment of either the Biyong zhi yi’) minted only during Wang avoid this association. If these two or the Mingtang. The absence of Mang’s currency reform during the statements could be proved valid, corroborative archaeological Xin dynasty (9-23 CE), an then those mirrors with an explicit evidence does not necessarily interregnum between the Western reference to the Xin in their mean that the mirrors in question and Eastern Han dynasties. Thus, inscriptions would be a good are fakes. But this should at least the combination of the TLV and the indication of their date. alert us to do more investigation ‘four spirits’ motif and its variations regarding the authenticity of the marks the regular, or classical, TLV Tomioka’s theory was accepted mirrors. We should exercise utmost mirror in early China. immediately by scholars in Japan caution for those mirrors of as well as in China; no one has unknown provenance when their In the 1910s, Japanese scholar questioned the validity of the two authenticity is not backed up by Tomioka Kenzô published several assumptions. Furthermore, comparable archaeological articles, arguing that the word ‘xin’ Takahashi Kenji attempted to materials. (‘new’) which appeared on ten extend Tomioka’s conclusions by inscribed TLV mirrors actually arguing that mirrors with similar Third, although the formula referred to the Xin dynasty, inscriptions found in Japan were ‘The Wang family has made the established by the usurper Wang also manufactured during Wang mirror’ is attested on excavated Mang. Thus, these mirrors could Mang’s era (Takahashi 1919). But mirrors, these mirrors are either be dated to Wang Mang’s time Umehara Sueji soon pointed out not TLV mirrors or are datable to (collected in Tomioka 1920). These that Takahashi’s assertion a much later period in the Eastern mirrors have the following contradicted the material evidence Han dynasty. Such is the case for

40 the pictorial mirror excavated in some low-quality mirrors bearing With these caveats added, now Yangzhou, Jiangsu province (Wang the formula ‘the Xin has good we can test the rest of Tomioka’s et al 1985, p. 95). As Umehara copper’ are dated to the Eastern theory using archaeological noted above, the ‘wang’ on bronze Han rather than Wang Mang’s era evidence. One example is a TLV mirrors did not necessarily refer to (Higuchi 1953). Therefore, the mirror of high quality excavated in Wang Mang and his dynasty. second assumption on which Hunan. It has the following Fourth, the references to the ‘xin’ Tomioka based his theory could not inscription (Fig. 10): or ‘xinjia’ (the Xin family, i.e. The Xin [dynasty] has good the Xin dynasty) or the copper, which comes from formula ‘the Xin has good Danyang, it is refined…; copper’ on mirror in- this excellent mirror scriptions are not always an manufactured in the indication that these mirrors Shangfang [i.e. the could be dated to the Xin imperial workshops] is truly dynasty. For example, a very skillfully made, above bronze mirror from a private are the immortals who do workshop excavated from not know aging; when Hunan that archaeologist thirsty, [they] drink from Zhou Shirong dates to the the spring of jade; when middle of the Eastern Han hungry, [they] eat of the period bears the following jujube. [They] roam about inscription (Zhou 1986, no. all under the heaven and 80. p. 143): swim the four [seas]. The Du family has made the mirror, which is greatly without blemish; the Xin has good copper, which came from Danyang; it is refined with silver and tin, Fig. 10. Bronze mirror excavated in Hunan. It seems that the first half of After Zhou 1986, no. 52, p. 124. and it is pure and bright; the inscription was truncated to the left the Dragon and to and followed immediately by be viewed as valid, since there are the right the Tiger eliminate the another set of inscriptions. In cases in which later private mirror inauspicious; may you forever general, mirror inscriptions are workshops still used the formulae prosper and have joy without often formulaic; that is, set referring to the Xin after the fall end. phrases were picked and chosen of Wang Mang. to create a new inscription. It probably reflects the operation of The use of ‘xin’ and ‘wang’ in a certain modular system in the inscriptions even after the fall designing mirror inscriptions and of Wang Mang deserves further mirror motifs (see Ledderose exploration. The use of the family 2000). And sometimes carelessly In this inscription, the mirror name Wang could be a pure two sets of inscriptions were designer mistakenly exchanged coincidence since Wang has been discretely put on the same mirror. the characters for yang (in a common family name in China, What interests us here, in addition ‘Danyang’) and xiang (in ‘buxiang,’ and there is no evidence to the similar content on our mirror ‘inauspicious’). Although there is suggesting that this Wang refers from Feature 109, is the word ‘xin’ the reference to the Xin, the to Wang Mang. The use of the at the beginning of the inscription. content of the inscription and the formula ‘The Xin has good copper’ Although it is sometimes mis- archaeological context suggest in private workshops could have takenly translated as ‘in recent that this mirror be dated to the just followed the formula and times’ (Cheng and Han 2002, p. middle Eastern Han rather than to models created during Wang 107), its reference to the Xin Wang Mang’s time. Admittedly, this Mang’s imperial workshop for dynasty is clear when we contrast is also not a TLV mirror. This again commercial reasons. But on the it with another formula of a similar supports Umehara’s afore- other hand, the first assumption TLV mirror of the early Eastern Han mentioned qualification to still seems to be valid. I am not period (Fig. 11, next page), which Tomioka’s rules. aware of any case of similar carries the following inscription: reference to the Xin on products The Han [dynasty] has good Furthermore, Higuchi Taka- from the Eastern Han imperial copper, which comes from yasu’s research indicates that workshop. Danyang; it is pure and bright.

41 of TLV mirrors could looked at the elements of the A be dated to the Xin and B types on non-TLV mirrors, dynasty; furthermore, and found that the Type A on stylistic ground, elements (four nipples, plain rim, mirrors with similar and oblique comb-tooth band) are decorative scheme shared by many Western Han could be datable to mirrors, while the Type B elements the Xin dynasty. belong to the Wang Mang and the Eastern Han period. Thus, TLV Japanese scholar mirrors with plain rim and four Fujimaru Shôhachirô nipples could be dated to the late has attempted to use Western Han period. This is largely a typological method corroborated by archaeological to refine the TLV data from Luoyang in Henan mirror chronology by province (Fujimaru 1982, 939- distinguishing the late 940). Archaeological materials also Western Han TLV confirmed that, as Umehara and mirrors from those of Higuchi pointed out, that regular the Xin dynasty and TLV mirror lasted into the Eastern later (Fujimaru 1982). Han period; and after the middle Fig. 11. Early Eastern Han bronze mirror. After He divides the de- of the Eastern Han, simplified TLV Zhou 1986, no. 59, p. 130. corative elements into mirrors appeared in the four categories — the archaeological record, many of To the left the [Blue] Dragon rim decoration, the saw-tooth them produced in private and to the right the [White] band, the number of the nipples, workshops rather than in the Tiger rule the four quarters. and the inscription. He classifies imperial workshop of the Eastern Eight sons occupy the center. different known TLV mirrors Han dynasty. The Vermilion Bird and the Dark according to these categories. Warrior conform to the Yin and What he found is an interesting According to their stylistic Yang forces. pattern of correlation: the TLV characteristics, the two TLV mirrors mirrors have four nipples and with excavated from the Xiongnu tombs or without the four animal figures belong to the classical TLV mirrors, are always decorated with plain rim and are datable to the Xin dynasty with oblique comb-tooth between or to the early to middle Eastern This mirror is of high quality. the rim and the main decorative Han period. An example similar to Similar examples bear the zone. He called this group Type A the complete mirror from Feature inscription ‘Shangfang,’ the mirrors. And the Type B mirrors 100 was found at Shangsunjiazhai, imperial workshop in charging of always have eight nipples and Datong in Qinghai in a brick- the production of bronze and various rim decorations. Then he chambered tomb of the early to lacquer utensils for imperial middle Eastern Han consumption. Although the basic period (Fig. 13, next formula created during the Xin page). The Shangsun- dynasty is still in fashion, here ‘the jiazhai mirror is about Han’ replaces ‘the Xin’ in order to 11 cm in diameter, and avoid the connection with Wang decorated with a simple Mang’s Xin dynasty. In some cases, quatrefoil knob-seat the formula ‘The Xin has good and three rings of saw- copper’ changed to ‘Here is good tooth pattern on the copper, which came from Danyang’ rim. In the main (Fig. 12). decorative zone, among the TLV motifs, Through the above analysis, it there are eight birds on seems clear that imperial both sides of the four workshops of the Xin dynasty did Vs, which is the same create the classical TLV mirrors as those on the mirror with formulae such as ‘The Xin has from Feature 100. good copper.’ Therefore this type There is no clear indication of the Fig. 12. Eastern Han bronze mirror. ethnicity of this tomb After Zhou 1986, no. 63, p. 133. occupant, but in a

42 evidence for the Xin or References early Eastern Han date of the fragmented Bulling 1960 mirror , since this was the time when the cult Anneliese Gutkind Bulling. The was at its peak. Decoration of Mirrors of the Han Period: A Chronology. Artibus In this essay, I have Asiae, Supplementum 20. Ascona, discussed the date of Switzerland, 1960. two TLV mirrors excavated from the Bulling 1961 Xiongnu tombs in Anneliese Gutkind Bulling. Central Mongolia “Rejoinder to Schuyler Cammann’s through a reexam- Review of The Decoration of ination of previous Mirrors of the Han Period.” Journal theories on dating the of the American Oriental Society, TLV mirror. The extant 82/2 (1962): 206-212. chronology of early Chinese mirrors should Bulling and Drew 1971-72 be rigorously reinves- tigated against the Anneliese Gutkind Bulling and large number of Isabella Drew. “The Dating of mirrors available now Chinese Bronze Mirrors.” Archives Fig. 13. Bronze mirror from a brick-chambered through archaeological of Asian Art, 25 (1971-72): 36- tomb at Shangsunjiazhai, Datong, Qinghai. Af- excavations in the past 57. ter Qinghai 1993. sixty years. These similar brick-chambered tomb of scientifically excavated bronze Cammann 1948 late Eastern Han period at the mirrors, such as these from the Schuyler Cammann. “The ‘TLV’ same cemetery, archaeologists Xiongnu tombs, are essential for Pattern on the Cosmic Mirrors of discovered a bronze seal with the the reconstruction of a reliable the Han Dynasty.” Journal of the official title that the Han framework in which the past of American Oriental Society, 68/4 government bestowed upon the cultural contacts and cultural (1948): 159-67. leader of the Xiongnu. The events can be placed. excavators suggested that these Cammann 1961 brick chamber tombs all belong to the Xiongnu (Qinghai 1993). Schuyler Cammann. Review of: The Decoration of Mirrors of the About the Author The fragmented mirror from Han Period. Journal of American Feature 109, moreover, is probably the Oriental Society, 81,3 (1961): a little bit earlier that the intact Guolong Lai is an assistant 331-336. mirror from Feature 100. The professor of Chinese Art and Cammann 1962 original inscription must have run Archaeology at the University of over 30 characters based on the Florida. Trained as an archae- Schuyler Cammann.”Surrejoinder.” size of the mirror and the ologist and paleographer at Beijing Journal of the American Oriental arrangement of the characters. University, he received his Ph.D. Society, 82/2 (1962): 212-214. The content of the inscription, like at UCLA in 2002. His recent that in Fig. 12, describes the realm publications include “The Diagram Cheng and Han 2002 of the immortals, which is of the Mourning System from Cheng Linquan and Han Guohe. connected with the cult of the Mawangdul,” Early China, 28 Chang’an Han jing. Xi’an: Shaanxi immortals that developed in the (2003); “Valuing the Past in China. renming chubanshe, 2002. middle Western Han dynasty and The Seminal Influence of Liang gained great popularity during the Sicheng on Heritage Conservation” late Western Han, the Xin and the (co-authored), Orientations, 35/2 Cheng and Han 2002a Eastern Han dynasties. The (2004); and “Death and the Cheng Linquan and Han Guohe, ubiquitous presence of the TLV Otherworldly Journey in Early edited and translated by Bruce motif on mirrors, coffins, and other China,” Asia Major, 18/1 (2005). Gordon Doar. “A Study of Gaming objects reflected this religious He is currently working on a book Board (TLV) Mirrors Unearthed in frenzy in late Western Han and manuscript using archaeological the Northern Suburbs of Xi’an.” Wang Mang’s time (Suzuki 2003). materials to study early Chinese Chinese Art and Archaeology That is also the circumstantial religions. E-mail: . Digest, 4/4 (2002): 97-110. (This

43 article is largely based on the Hubei sheng jingjiu tielu kaogudui, Tomioka 1920 section on the TLV mirrors that the (comp.) Louzhoucheng and Han Tomioka Kenzô. Kokyô no kenkyû. two authors published in Cheng mu. Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, Kyoto, 1920. and Han 2002, pp. 130-140, but 2000. many careless errors were Umehara 1919 introduced into the English Loewe 1979 translation). Michael Loewe. Ways to Paradise: Umehara Sueji. “Iwayuru Ômô The Chinese Quest for Immortality. jidai no kagami ni tsuite no gimon.” Fujimaru 1982 First published 1979; Taipei: SMC Kôkogaku zasshi, 10/3 (1919): 137-155. Fujimaru Shôhachirô. “Hôkaku Publishing Inc., 1994. kiku shishinkyô no kenkyû.” In: Loewe 2001-2 Umehara 1943 Kôkogaku ronkô, Kobayashi Yukio Hagase koki kinenronbunshô. Michael Loewe. “Dated Inscriptions Umehara Sueji. Kan Sangoku Tokyo, 1982, pp. 931-946. on Certain Mirrors (A.D. 6-105): Rokuchô kinen kyô zusetsu. Kyoto: Genuine or Fabricated?” Early Sômyô Bunseidô, 1943. Hayashi 1989 China, 26-27 (2001-2): 233-256. Wang et al. 1985 Hayashi Minao. Kandai no Okamura 1984 kamigami. Kyoto: Rinkawa shoten, Wang Qinjin, Li Jiuhai, and Xu 1989. Okamura Hedenori. “Sen Kan Yuliang. “Yangzhou chutu de kagami no hennen to yôshiki.” Handai mingwen tongjing.” Higuchi 1953 Shirin, 67/5 (1984): 1-42. Wenwu, 1985/10: 90-96.

Higuchi Takayasu. “Chûgoku kokyô Okamura 1993 Yang 1947 meibun no reibubetsu teki Okamura Hedenori. “Go Kan Lien-sheng Yang, “A note on the kenkyû.” Tôhô gaku, 7 (1953): 1- kagami no hennen.” Kokuritsu 14. so-called TLV mirrors and the game rekishi minzoku hakubutsukan liu-po.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic kenkyû hôkoku, 55 (1993): 39-83. Kaplan 1937 Studies, 9/3-4 (1947): 202-6. Qinghai 1993 Sidney Kaplan. “On the Origin of Yetts 1939 the TLV Mirror.” Revue des Arts Qinghai sheng wenwu kaogu Asiatiques, 11 (1937): 21-24. yanjiusuo, Shangsunjiazhai Han Jin W. P. Yetts. The Cull Chinese mu. Beijing: Wenwu, 1993 Bronzes. London, 1939. Komai 1953 Zhou 1986 Komai Kazuchika. Chûgoku kokyô. Suzuki 2003 Tokyo: Iwanami, 1953. Suzuki Naomi. “Hakukyoku mon to Zhou Shirong. “Hunan chutu enin rokuhaku to—sono seikaku to Handai tongjing wenzi yanjiu.” Kong 1992 Zen Kan matsu no hayari yôin.” Guwenzi yanjiu, 14 (1986): 69- 175. Kong Xiangxing. Zhongguo Chûgoku shutsudo shirô kenkyû, 7 (2003): 103-123. gongjing tudian. Beijing: Wenwu Zhou 1987 chubanshe, 1992. Takahashi 1919 Zhou Zheng. “‘Guiju jing’ ying gai Ledderose 2000 Takahashi Kenji. “Ômô jidai no cheng ‘buju jing’.” Kaogu, 1987/ 12: 1116-1118. Lothar Ledderose. Ten Thousand kagami ni tsuite.” Kôkogaku zasshi, Things: Module and Mass 9/12 (1919): 691-702. Production in Chinese Art. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Li 2002 Li Ling. “Ba Zhongshan wang mu chutu de liubo qiju.” Zhongguo lishi wenwu, 2002/1: 8-15.

Louzhoucheng 2000

Huanggang shi bowuguan, Hubei Photo © Daniel C. 2005 Waugh sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo, The bronze mirror fragment with the inscription, as it emerged in the excavation of Feature 109, Tamir 1 site.