1 Culture and identity Introduction Is there anybody else exactly like you? You’ll probably answer ‘no’. We like to think of ourselves as individuals and to see ourselves as unique. Sociology does not deny this individuality. It does not claim that everybody is the same. However, it does argue that many of us have certain things in common. For example, members of a particular society usually share the same language. In this respect, we are not unique. Most people live in social groups – in families, communities and nations – rather than as isolated individuals. As the poet John Donne said, ‘No man is an island’ (nowadays he would say that goes for women too). In other words, we are constantly coming into contact with other people. We are affected by them, we develop bonds with them. Indeed, we only become fully ‘human’ by participating in society. Sociology has sometimes been described as the study of people in social groups. In this chapter we shall explore the fascinating story of how individuals are not isolated ‘islands’ but active Unique individuals with many things in common members of society.We shall see how we learn certain values and ways of behaving, and how our membership of social groups gives meaning to our lives and shapes our identities. Sociologists do not always agree on how and why things happen. But they help us to see more clearly how we are both ‘individuals’ and members of ‘society’. And they help us see the connections between the two. chaptersummary Unit 1 identifies the main components of culture. Unit 6 describes the changing nature of ethnic cultures. Unit 2 looks at socialisation – how people learn the Unit 7 explores national and global identities. culture of their society. Unit 8 charts the shifting patterns of gender identities. Unit 3 turns to the social origins of self and identity. Unit 9 considers the importance of class identities. Unit 4 discusses age and identity. ▼▼▼▼▼ Unit 10 examines the relationships between leisure, ▼▼▼Unit ▼▼ 5 looks at disability and identity. consumption and identity. Unit 1 What is culture? something we are born with rather than something we keyissues learn. A great deal of animal behaviour seems to be ruled 1 Are humans ruled by instincts? by instincts. For example, birds seem to follow fairly fixed 2 How does culture shape human behaviour? patterns of behaviour as if they were a set part of their ‘nature’. 3 What are the main components of culture? Nowadays, a popular explanation for human behaviour is to look for the answer in our genes. People vary in their 1.1 Becoming human genetic make-up and this might explain why they behave differently. Some scientists claim there is a gene for crime, Instincts vs culture one for alcoholism, even a ‘gay’ gene. Some have offered Why do human beings behave the way they do? One view genetic explanations for why men are unable to find butter is that it is a matter of instincts – biological predispositions in the fridge, or why women can’t read maps! that tell us ‘instinctively’ what we should do. Instincts are Sociologists accept that humans have natural reflexes – Culture and identity 5 activity1 genes or culture? Item A Nappies and planes Item B A woman’s place There is no gene or brain pattern which makes men incapable of ironing, shopping, changing nappies or expressing their emotions. And there is none which stops women running governments or multinational corporations, flying fighter planes, abusing children or committing murder. It is culture which explains why women do more of some things and men do more of other things. Source: MacInnes, 1998 questions 1 What view does Item A take on the genes versus culture debate? 2 Look at Item B. a) Why are the passengers reacting like this? b) Is there any justification for their reaction? for example, we automatically flinch when someone strikes instincts, we would expect to find people behaving in us. They also accept that we have certain biological needs much the same way all over the world. But what is that must be met – for example, the need for food and regarded as normal behaviour varies from one culture to drink. But sociologists believe that human behaviour is too another. If we lived in Victorian Britain or in modern complex and diverse to be explained in simple biological China, we would follow different customs, have different or genetic terms. Rather, they see our actions as the result lifestyles. So human behaviour is flexible and diverse. It of our social and cultural environments. We learn to think varies according to the culture we live in. Even the way we and act in certain ways. And it is our culture which teaches display our bodies in public changes over time and from us how we should think and act. place to place. The social body Norbert Elias (1978) provides a detailed Feral children account of changing cultural attitudes towards the body. In People become fully human only when they are sixteenth century Europe there was little sense of shame or socialised into the culture of a society – when they learn delicacy about bodily matters. People would happily wipe the way of life of that society. It is culture which allows snot on their sleeve or blow their nose on the tablecloth. them to develop their human potential. We can see this They usually ate with their hands, and belching, farting, in the case of so-called feral children – children raised in scratching, and even urinating or defecating in public were the wilds or in prolonged isolation from human company. commonplace. But Elias describes how in the succeeding Some reported cases are pure fantasy but the few centuries people gradually became more sensitive to the authentic cases show that when these children are ‘shame’ and ‘disgust’ of bodily functions as they developed discovered and enter human society they encounter ‘good manners’ and disciplined their bodies to act in a serious problems. They often seem stupid, unresponsive ‘civilised’ way. and animal-like. Deprived of the stimulation of human company, stripped of the opportunity to acquire human Becoming human – conclusion language early in life, these children are sometimes The long-running debate over whether human behaviour is barely recognisable as human. largely the result of ‘nature’ (genes, biology) or ‘nurture’ (culture, environment) shows no sign of coming to an end. Cultural diversity Nature and nurture always interact in complex ways. Even If human behaviour really is dictated by our genes or if we have a biological inclination to behave in certain 6 Chapter 1 activity2 from monkey boy to choir boy Walking through a Ugandan forest, a woman spotted a group of monkeys. To her astonishment, she realised that one member of the group was a small boy. Local villagers ‘rescued’ this ‘monkey boy’ and identified him as John Ssabunnya who had been abandoned as a two-year-old. For the past three years, John had lived with a troupe of colobus monkeys. He had learned to communicate with them – with chatters, shrieks, facial expressions and body language. He shared their diet of fruit, nuts and berries, he became skilled at climbing trees and, like those who adopted him, he walked on all-fours. He was terrified of his ‘rescuers’ and fought to remain with his family of monkeys. John was washed and clothed – much to his disgust – and taken to an orphanage. He gradually learned to behave like a human being. Slowly John, aged 14 but surely, he began to sing, laugh, talk, play, dress and walk like children of his age. Today, John is a member of the Pearl of Africa Choir which has successfully toured the United Kingdom. Source: Daily Mail, 23.9.1999 question How does the case of John Ssabunnya illustrate the importance of learned behaviour for human beings? activity3 the body Afghanistan Brighton question What do these photographs suggest about culture and attitudes towards the body? ways, this will be channelled by society – the aggressive has a huge effect on our behaviour. We saw this in the case individual could become a violent criminal or a successful of feral children. Also, human behaviour is enormously boxer, depending on social circumstances. diverse, showing wide variations over time and between Whatever our underlying nature, it is clear that culture societies. Norbert Elias demonstrated how even our Culture and identity 7 intimate body habits are a product of society. humans are constantly creating new meanings and revising Sociologists suggest that if we want to explain social old ones – so culture can be seen as a process or activity. behaviour, then most of the answers can be found at the Values are things we regard as important, the most social and cultural level. significant standards or principles in our lives. Love is an obvious example. Other examples are religious convictions 1.2 Looking at culture and political loyalties. In everyday life, most people believe in the values of honesty, consideration towards Shared meanings and values others, justice and fairness – although we are not so good Sociologists usually define culture as the shared meanings, at living up to these values! values and norms of a society or group. Norms are social expectations or rules about how people Meanings Stuart Hall (1997) describes some of the key should or should not behave – for example, you should features of cultural meanings. First, it is largely thanks to hold the door open for others, you should not grab the last language that humans are able to create meanings and biscuit. There are different rules for different situations – make sense of the world.