1 Culture and identity Introduction Is there anybody else exactly like you? You’ll probably answer ‘no’. We like to think of ourselves as individuals and to see ourselves as unique. Sociology does not deny this individuality. It does not claim that everybody is the same. However, it does argue that many of us have certain things in common. For example, members of a particular society usually share the same language. In this respect, we are not unique. Most people live in social groups – in families, communities and nations – rather than as isolated individuals. As the poet John Donne said, ‘No man is an island’ (nowadays he would say that goes for women too). In other words, we are constantly coming into contact with other people. We are affected by them, we develop bonds with them. Indeed, we only become fully ‘human’ by participating in society. Sociology has sometimes been described as the study of people in social groups. In this chapter we shall explore the fascinating story of how individuals are not isolated ‘islands’ but active Unique individuals with many things in common members of society.We shall see how we learn certain values and ways of behaving, and how our membership of social groups gives meaning to our lives and shapes our identities. Sociologists do not always agree on how and why things happen. But they help us to see more clearly how we are both ‘individuals’ and members of ‘society’. And they help us see the connections between the two.

chaptersummary

Unit 1 identifies the main components of culture. Unit 6 describes the changing nature of ethnic cultures. Unit 2 looks at socialisation – how people learn the Unit 7 explores national and global identities. culture of their society. Unit 8 charts the shifting patterns of gender identities. Unit 3 turns to the social origins of self and identity. Unit 9 considers the importance of class identities. Unit 4 discusses age and identity.

▼▼▼▼▼ Unit 10 examines the relationships between leisure,

▼▼▼Unit ▼▼ 5 looks at disability and identity. consumption and identity.

Unit 1 What is culture?

something we are born with rather than something we keyissues learn. A great deal of animal behaviour seems to be ruled 1 Are humans ruled by instincts? by instincts. For example, birds seem to follow fairly fixed 2 How does culture shape human behaviour? patterns of behaviour as if they were a set part of their ‘nature’. 3 What are the main components of culture? Nowadays, a popular explanation for human behaviour is to look for the answer in our genes. People vary in their 1.1 Becoming human genetic make-up and this might explain why they behave differently. Some scientists claim there is a gene for crime, Instincts vs culture one for alcoholism, even a ‘gay’ gene. Some have offered Why do human beings behave the way they do? One view genetic explanations for why men are unable to find butter is that it is a matter of instincts – biological predispositions in the fridge, or why women can’t read maps! that tell us ‘instinctively’ what we should do. Instincts are Sociologists accept that humans have natural reflexes – Culture and identity 5 activity1 genes or culture? Item A Nappies and planes Item B A woman’s place There is no gene or brain pattern which makes men incapable of ironing, shopping, changing nappies or expressing their emotions. And there is none which stops women running governments or multinational corporations, flying fighter planes, abusing children or committing murder. It is culture which explains why women do more of some things and men do more of other things. Source: MacInnes, 1998

questions 1 What view does Item A take on the genes versus culture debate? 2 Look at Item B. a) Why are the passengers reacting like this? b) Is there any justification for their reaction? for example, we automatically flinch when someone strikes instincts, we would expect to find people behaving in us. They also accept that we have certain biological needs much the same way all over the world. But what is that must be met – for example, the need for food and regarded as normal behaviour varies from one culture to drink. But sociologists believe that human behaviour is too another. If we lived in Victorian Britain or in modern complex and diverse to be explained in simple biological China, we would follow different customs, have different or genetic terms. Rather, they see our actions as the result lifestyles. So human behaviour is flexible and diverse. It of our social and cultural environments. We learn to think varies according to the culture we live in. Even the way we and act in certain ways. And it is our culture which teaches display our bodies in public changes over time and from us how we should think and act. place to place. The social body Norbert Elias (1978) provides a detailed Feral children account of changing cultural attitudes towards the body. In People become fully human only when they are sixteenth century Europe there was little sense of shame or socialised into the culture of a society – when they learn delicacy about bodily matters. People would happily wipe the way of life of that society. It is culture which allows snot on their sleeve or blow their nose on the tablecloth. them to develop their human potential. We can see this They usually ate with their hands, and belching, farting, in the case of so-called feral children – children raised in scratching, and even urinating or defecating in public were the wilds or in prolonged isolation from human company. commonplace. But Elias describes how in the succeeding Some reported cases are pure fantasy but the few centuries people gradually became more sensitive to the authentic cases show that when these children are ‘shame’ and ‘disgust’ of bodily functions as they developed discovered and enter human society they encounter ‘good manners’ and disciplined their bodies to act in a serious problems. They often seem stupid, unresponsive ‘civilised’ way. and animal-like. Deprived of the stimulation of human company, stripped of the opportunity to acquire human Becoming human – conclusion language early in life, these children are sometimes The long-running debate over whether human behaviour is barely recognisable as human. largely the result of ‘nature’ (genes, biology) or ‘nurture’ (culture, environment) shows no sign of coming to an end. Cultural diversity Nature and nurture always interact in complex ways. Even If human behaviour really is dictated by our genes or if we have a biological inclination to behave in certain 6 Chapter 1 activity2 from monkey boy to choir boy Walking through a Ugandan forest, a woman spotted a group of monkeys. To her astonishment, she realised that one member of the group was a small boy. Local villagers ‘rescued’ this ‘monkey boy’ and identified him as John Ssabunnya who had been abandoned as a two-year-old. For the past three years, John had lived with a troupe of colobus monkeys. He had learned to communicate with them – with chatters, shrieks, facial expressions and body language. He shared their diet of fruit, nuts and berries, he became skilled at climbing trees and, like those who adopted him, he walked on all-fours. He was terrified of his ‘rescuers’ and fought to remain with his family of monkeys. John was washed and clothed – much to his disgust – and taken to an orphanage. He gradually learned to behave like a human being. Slowly John, aged 14 but surely, he began to sing, laugh, talk, play, dress and walk like children of his age. Today, John is a member of the Pearl of Africa Choir which has successfully toured the United Kingdom. Source: Daily Mail, 23.9.1999 question How does the case of John Ssabunnya illustrate the importance of learned behaviour for human beings?

activity3 the body

Afghanistan Brighton question What do these photographs suggest about culture and attitudes towards the body? ways, this will be channelled by society – the aggressive has a huge effect on our behaviour. We saw this in the case individual could become a violent criminal or a successful of feral children. Also, human behaviour is enormously boxer, depending on social circumstances. diverse, showing wide variations over time and between Whatever our underlying nature, it is clear that culture societies. Norbert Elias demonstrated how even our Culture and identity 7 intimate body habits are a product of society. humans are constantly creating new meanings and revising Sociologists suggest that if we want to explain social old ones – so culture can be seen as a process or activity. behaviour, then most of the answers can be found at the Values are things we regard as important, the most social and cultural level. significant standards or principles in our lives. Love is an obvious example. Other examples are religious convictions 1.2 Looking at culture and political loyalties. In everyday life, most people believe in the values of honesty, consideration towards Shared meanings and values others, justice and fairness – although we are not so good Sociologists usually define culture as the shared meanings, at living up to these values! values and norms of a society or group. Norms are social expectations or rules about how people Meanings Stuart Hall (1997) describes some of the key should or should not behave – for example, you should features of cultural meanings. First, it is largely thanks to hold the door open for others, you should not grab the last language that humans are able to create meanings and biscuit. There are different rules for different situations – make sense of the world. It is through language and other you can let your hair down at an end-of-term party, but symbols, for example visual images, that people express the same behaviour would be frowned upon during their emotions and thoughts and communicate with one normal class time. Norms also vary in their degree of another. Second, culture is about shared meanings. People seriousness. Committing murder will result in severe legal produce meanings together and so over time each social punishment but bad table manners might only provoke group builds up shared understandings of the world. Third, irritation in others. activity4 meanings, values, norms Item A Meanings Item B Values The Cheyenne lived on the Great Plains of North America. This account describes their traditional culture. The Cheyenne believe that wealth, in the form of horses and weapons, is not to be hoarded by the owner. Instead it is to be given away. Generosity is highly regarded and people who accumulate wealth and keep it for themselves are looked down upon. A person who gives does not expect an equal amount in return. The greatest gift they can receive is prestige and respect for their generous action. Bravery on the battlefield is one of the main ways a man can achieve high standing. Killing an enemy, however, does not rank as highly as a number of other deeds. Touching or striking an enemy with the hand or a weapon, rescuing a wounded comrade or charging the enemy alone while the rest of the war party looks on are amongst the highest acts of bravery. Source: Hoebel, 1960

Cheyenne photographed in 1889 8 Chapter 1

Item C Norms Culture defines appropriate distances between people when they hold a conversation. In The Silent Language, Edward Hall observed that these distances are different in North and South America. This can cause problems when North meets South. In Hall’s words, ‘The result is that when they move close, we withdraw and back away. As a consequence, they think we are distant or cold, withdrawn and unfriendly. We, on the other hand, are constantly accusing them of breathing down our necks, crowding us and spraying our faces.’ Source: Hall, 1973

questions 1 What meanings does the symbol in Item A communicate? 3 Norms are important. Discuss briefly with reference to 2 a) Identify the values of the Cheyenne described in Item B. Item C. b) How do they indicate that values vary from culture to culture?

Roles are the parts we play in society. For example, in harmony in society. Members of society tend to learn the today’s society, most of us play the roles of son or daughter, same culture – the same meanings, values and norms. father or mother, student or worker. Culture provides However, as societies grow larger and more complex, it guidelines on how these roles should be played. And just becomes increasingly difficult to talk about one culture as culture varies from society to society, so do the cultural which everybody shares equally. Rather, people select guidelines for role-playing. particular norms, values and lifestyles from the wide range on offer. For example, in Britain today there are groups Whole way of life who share many aspects of mainstream culture, but who Anthropologists specialise in studying whole societies, also have certain beliefs, attitudes and ways of behaving of especially small-scale, less technologically developed their own. In other words, they have their own subcultures. societies. Perhaps, as a result of this, they tend to adopt a sweeping definition of culture. Clyde Kluckhohn (1951) High and low culture described culture as the distinctive ‘way of life’ of a group High culture refers to artistic and intellectual work which of people. This way of life includes their typical patterns of is seen to be of the highest quality. It covers ‘great works behaviour – their common lifestyles, the skills and of art’ such as the paintings of van Gogh, the compositions techniques they use to make a living, and all their routines, of classical musicians such as Mozart, and highly regarded customs and rituals. literature such as the writings of Shakespeare. High culture is seen to be created by a talented few and is thought to Subculture be enjoyed mainly by people with refined and The functionalist perspective in sociology sees society as a sophisticated tastes. giant system that ‘works’ because its various parts support High culture is sometimes contrasted with low culture one another. Each part of society has a function – it makes which, as its name suggests, is seen as inferior, of lower a contribution to other parts and to society as a whole. In quality, as less worthy. Thus the high culture of classical this view, the culture of a society is seen as providing a sort music is contrasted with the low culture of pop music of social ‘glue’ which creates bonds between people. An and the high culture of a Shakespearian play is contrasted over-arching culture provides shared values and moral with the low culture of Eastenders. Where high culture is consensus – an agreement about what’s right and wrong. seen to be enjoyed by the ‘refined and sophisticated few’, These are regarded as essential for ensuring cohesion and low culture is enjoyed by the ‘ordinary and Culture and identity 9 unsophisticated’ majority. And the ‘mindless’ entertainment it provides dulls any Clearly the idea of high and low culture is based on a critical awareness, produces feelings of well-being, and value judgement – one is judged to be superior to the disguises the reality of an oppressive society. other. Sociologists usually try to avoid value judgements. Global culture Popular culture Global culture refers to those aspects of culture which are Popular culture refers to the cultural pursuits of, and worldwide. Many sociologists argue that there is a cultural products used by, large numbers of the steadily growing global culture. They point to global population. Examples of popular culture include football, music styles – for example, MTV Asia’s top 10 singles pop music, websites such as Facebook and YouTube, chart for January 2008 with artists such as Britney Spears, television, movies, bestselling novels, DVDs and CDs, Rihanna, KT Tunstall and Kelly Clarkson is similar to newspapers and magazines. It also includes popular many other charts across the world. Many sports such as fashions and lifestyles. soccer, motor racing and boxing have an increasingly The term popular culture does not usually carry the global audience and sportspeople such as David same value judgements as high and low culture. As used Beckham enjoy worldwide fame. Brands such as Nike by sociologists, it simply refers to the cultural products and Gucci, drinks such as Coca-Cola, and fast-food and pursuits which have widespread appeal. restaurants such as McDonald’s are increasingly global. And cultural icons such as Princess Diana and Nelson Mass culture Mandela are no longer limited to particular nations. Mass culture is culture which is produced for and marketed This growth in global culture is seen as part of the to the mass of the population. It is mass produced for mass development of globalisation – the increasing consumption. It is seen as ‘dumbed down’, trivial, bland, connections between various parts of the world. Many superficial and undemanding. Examples of mass culture companies, for example BP, Ford and Sony operate on a include Hollywood movies, reality TV, newspapers like the global basis and trade is increasingly worldwide. The Sun and the Star, and celebrity magazines like OK and Now. internet has provided a means of global communication. Globalisation and a global culture go hand-in-hand. The consumers of mass culture are seen to be passive. They ‘sit there’ and consume what they’re given. They buy what the ads tell them to buy, participate in the pursuits key terms provided for them, and ‘live’ the fantasies created for their entertainment. As such, the masses are easily manipulated Instincts Genetically-based directives for behaviour. and open to exploitation. They ‘buy in’ to mass culture Culture The learned, shared behaviour of members of a with little thought or critical awareness. They uncritically society. Culture includes meanings, values and norms. consume soap operas, celebrity gossip and the latest Meanings Things which give sense and significance to fashions. This lack of critical judgement prevents them people’s experiences. from questioning the society they live in and from Values Beliefs about what is important, what is worth having, what is right and wrong. discussing the major issues of the day. Norms Social expectations or rules about how people should Marxism This view of mass culture has certain similarities behave. Guides to behaviour. to the ideas of Marxist sociologists – sociologists who have Roles The parts people play in society. developed the ideas of Karl Marx (1818-1883). They argue Subculture Certain meanings, values and norms which are that there are two main classes in capitalist society – the distinctive to a particular group within society. ruling class who own private industry and the subject High culture Artistic and intellectual work seen to be of the class made up of workers who sell their labour in return highest quality and enjoyed mainly by a sophisticated minority. for wages. Workers produce wealth in the form of goods Low culture Cultural products judged as lower quality and and services, but a large part of this wealth is taken from enjoyed mainly by the unsophisticated majority. them in the form of profits by the capitalist ruling class. In Popular culture The cultural pursuits of and the cultural this way, the ruling class exploit the subject class – they products used by large numbers of the population. gain at the expense of the workers. Mass culture Cultural products produced for the mass of the The workers are unaware of their exploitation. They see population which, some argue, are used to manipulate them the world in terms of ruling class ideology – a false and disguise their exploitation. picture of reality which supports the position of the ruling Ruling class ideology A false picture of society which class. The mass media is largely responsible for supports the position of the ruling class. broadcasting this ideology. It presents the capitalist Global culture Those aspects of culture which are worldwide. system as normal, reasonable and perfectly acceptable. 10 Chapter 1

Looking at culture – conclusion From a sociological viewpoint, human behaviour is primarily organised and directed by culture. We are not ruled Culture is essential to the operation of human society. by instinct, governed by our genes, or directed by biological Without shared meanings, people would be unable to needs and impulses. If we were, then human behaviour communicate. Without shared values, they would be would be much the same in different times and in different pulling in different directions. And without norms societies. It isn’t, as can be seen from the wide variation directing behaviour, there would be no order in society. between cultures in different time periods and places. activity5 global culture Item A Movies Item B 50 Cent in Venice

Buying pirated videos and DVDs in Shanghai, China. Titles include ‘Gone With The Wind’ and Disney’s ‘Sleeping Beauty’

American rapper 50 Cent performing in Venice

Item C Chinese hip-hop fans

Vietnamese edition of ‘8 Mile’ and Russian edition of ‘Lord of the Rings’

question What evidence do Items A, B and C provide for a global culture? Chinese hip-hop fans in Beijing Culture and identity 11

summary 1. Although animals sometimes learn new ways of behaving, 6. Culture provides meanings, values, norms and roles to guide they are largely controlled by more or less fixed biological our behaviour. instincts. 7. Sociologists try to avoid making judgements about cultures. 2. Human behaviour is too complex and too diverse to be 8. As societies become larger and more complex, there are explained solely by biologically-based instincts, needs growing numbers of groups with their own subcultures. or drives. 9. The idea of high and low culture is based on a value 3. From a sociological view, human behaviour is largely directed judgement. The term popular culture does not usually carry a by culture. Culture is learned rather than biologically based. value judgement. 4. The example of feral children shows the importance of culture 10. The idea of mass culture often pictures the majority as easily in making us fully human. Culture provides us with language, manipulated and uncritically accepting their position in society. values and a sense of our human identity. 11. Many sociologists argue there is a steadily growing global 5. Culture varies from society to society. culture which they see as part of the process of globalisation.

Unit 2 Socialisation

receive later in life, from a wide range of people and keyissues agencies. They include peer groups, teachers, media and 1 What is socialisation? casual acquaintances. Sometimes they play a supportive 2 How do people learn social roles? role, adding to the primary socialisation of earlier years. But teachers also introduce us to new and more complex 3 Who are the main agents of socialisation? knowledge and skills. And friends sometimes introduce us to values and lifestyles which wouldn’t win the approval of our parents! 2.1 The learning game Re-socialisation We usually have to learn new ways when our roles change. This may be a gradual process – for In this unit we turn to the question of how individuals example, growing into adulthood. At other times it can be adopt cultural values and roles. The answer is that we dramatic and abrupt. For example, army recruits experience learn culture through a process of socialisation. Since the shock of basic training, when they have to abandon culture is not an innate thing, something we are born with, their civilian identity and submit to strict discipline. it has to be passed down from one generation to another. Anticipatory socialisation In many cases we have already So we have to be taught the norms and values of our ‘rehearsed’ roles before we take them on. We imagine society or group. Over time we internalise many of these – ourselves in them, we read about them, we learn something they become part of our personal set of norms and values. about them beforehand. For example, the young person But socialisation is not a simple one-sided process of who enters medical school already knows a bit about the instruction in which we passively accept what we are told. life of a doctor from personal experience as a patient and We are not empty vessels into which culture is poured. from watching television shows such as ER or Casualty. Each of us actively participates in our own cultural learning, trying to make sense of society’s values and beliefs, accepting some of them but rejecting others. 2.2 Agents of socialisation Types of socialisation The agents of socialisation are the people or groups who play a part in our socialisation. Sometimes they play an Primary socialisation The early years of life are important important role without us realising it. Sometimes we in the learning process. This is the stage of primary overestimate the influence they have on us. For some socialisation, when we are normally in intimate and views on this, see Table 1. prolonged contact with parents. Our parents are significant others – they have a great influence on us and we care Parents about their judgements of us. Significant others play a key The majority of children still grow up in a family headed part in teaching us basic values and norms. by both their natural parents. But over the last thirty years Secondary socialisation This refers to the socialisation we there has been an increase in the numbers of lone-parent 12 Chapter 1

acceptable – asking politely – and unacceptable – rudely Table 1 Survey of young people aged 11-21 interrupting. As they get older they use their parents as role ‘From whom do you think you have learned the most about sex models. Girls may play with dolls ‘just like mummy’. Later and growing up?’ in life the roles might be reversed – young people Parents 7% sometimes have to teach their parents about things like Teachers 22% mobile phones and computers! The internet 7% Friends 27% For their part, parents try to instil social norms by setting Brothers and sisters 4% an example and teaching their children how to behave. Newspapers and magazines 12% They use sanctions (rewards and punishments) to guide TV and radio 13% and control the learning process. If children follow the Church/clergy 0% ‘proper’ norms, their parents will reward them with smiles, Don’t know 9% loving attention, praise and treats. But if they misbehave Source: The Observer, 21.07.2002 they are likely to be punished by frowns, reprimands, the denial of treats, and maybe even a smack. and step-families. So family life has become more diverse. This system of rewards and punishments does not But whatever the particular family set-up, parental figures guarantee that children will always behave ‘correctly’ – remain the main agents of primary socialisation. In their sometimes they will test the boundaries of acceptable first years of life children spend most of their time with behaviour, and sometimes they will show open defiance. their parents and are highly dependent on them. A sense of But over a period of time they get a pretty good idea of the security during early childhood life is often seen as crucial social norms held by their parents! for developing a stable personality and for effective Diversity The socialisation process may vary according to learning of norms and values. the particular family structure. For example, an ‘absent Learning from parents One way in which young children father’ may find it difficult to act as a role model for his learn about social norms is by imitating their parents. They children, while a step-father may not feel entitled to may copy the way adults talk, or their table manners for control his step-children in the same way as their example. By a process of trial and error, they learn what is biological father could.

activity6 learning the drill

Getting married question What types of socialisation apply to the people in these US army recruits during basic training photographs? (More than one type may apply.) Culture and identity 13

The experience of growing up within a family also varies mothers, by contrast, had more of a struggle to make ends according to its social and cultural values. For example, a meet and so had less time and energy. They also had fewer devout Muslim family will ensure that religion plays a cultural resources such as verbal confidence and strong part in the child’s upbringing. knowledge of how the education system operates. This Class and parenting Diane Reay (1998) made a detailed meant they were less effective in compensating for poor study of 33 mothers in London. All of these women put schooling and in persuading teachers to act on their great effort into ‘practical maintenance’ of children – complaints. feeding, clothing and so on – as well as emotional work – Paranoid parents? Frank Furedi (2001) describes a change reassuring and encouraging their children. All of them tried in the role of parents in recent years. Traditionally, ‘good’ to support their children’s schooling. However, Reay parents tried to care for and stimulate their children. identified major class differences. The middle-class mothers Nowadays, they often see their main task as protecting had time and energy to spend reading to their children and their children from danger (accidents, paedophiles, bullies). were confident when talking to teachers. The working-class Furedi believes parents have become paranoid. He thinks activity7 parents and socialisation Item A We have ways … Item B Keeping in touch

Professor Kevin Warwick and Danielle Duval, with the chip that will be placed in her arm

The parents of an 11 year-old girl are having her fitted with a microchip so that her movements can be traced if she is abducted. The miniature chip implanted in her arm will send a signal via a mobile phone network to a computer which will be able to pinpoint her location on an electronic map. questions Some children’s charities have claimed that these parents are over-reacting as the chances of a child being 1 What ways do parents have of ‘making their children conform’? abducted are small. 2 In what ways does Item B support Furedi’s views? Source:The Guardian, 3.9.2002 14 Chapter 1 the risks of harm to children have been exaggerated and the new focus on protection is unhealthy. Children are activity8 learning chauffeured and shepherded from place to place by anxious parents. All sorts of risks – adventure trips with schools, even messing around in school playgrounds – are increasingly closed off to them. This may prevent children from developing a healthy sense of adventure.

Education Modern Western societies are too complex for young people simply to ‘pick up’ their culture as they go along. They are required to undergo a long period of formal education. In school they are formally taught the culture of their country – its history, language and religions. They also learn technical knowledge such as maths and science that often has practical applications in daily life. Pledging allegiance to their country The hidden curriculum School pupils also learn from the unofficial hidden curriculum – the background values and expectations that run through the school system. For example, they learn the importance of hard work and success through the exam system. When they take part in sports they learn the value of competition and teamwork. They learn the importance of conforming to rules when they get punished for being late, misbehaving, or not handing in work on time. School is also a setting where children’s social horizons are widened. They may mix with people from different social classes, ethnic groups and cultural backgrounds. They also become more aware of the different identities of people from various ethnic, gender and social class groups. The importance of schools It is difficult to judge whether schools are becoming more or less important as agents of socialisation. On the one hand, educational qualifications are now seen as essential for getting good jobs. This means that pupils are working harder than ever, with increasing numbers staying on after the minimum leaving age. On the other hand, schools often complain that they have to fight a battle over values. Some pupils may not share the values expressed by the school. Also, teachers often feel they have to compete against the attractions of mass media and youth culture for the attention of pupils. Schooling the boys An example of the tough uphill task some schools face is provided by Christine Skelton’s (2001) study of a primary school in the North East. This school was set in an economically deprived area with a reputation for crime. The teachers regarded many of the local parents as ‘inadequate’ and so they felt the school had the important task of socialising children properly. When young boys came to school they brought with them the attitudes they Playtime in a London primary school picked up from the local ‘lads’ and ‘hard men’ – aggression, physical toughness, dominance and hierarchy. The school attempted to maintain social control by question relying on firm measures. It created a sort of fortress What do you think these pupils are learning from the (locked gates, fences, security cameras) as a defence activities shown in the photographs? against violence and theft. Also, the teachers (both male and female) adopted ‘masculine’ styles – firm eye Culture and identity 15 activity9 peer groups – the good and the bad Item A Talking Item C Friends ‘I can talk to my friends about things I can’t really talk to my parents about, because well – they seem to understand me more, and my parents don’t really listen to me, and my friends do, because they’ve been in the same situation as me’. Source: Young girl, quoted in Tizard & Phoenix, 1993

Item B ‘Behaving badly’ Britain has the worst behaved teenagers in Europe. They are more likely to take drugs, have sex at an early age, indulge in binge drinking and get involved in fights. The collapse of family life is partly to blame. With no guiding hand from the family, youngsters are more likely to fall victim to peer group pressure. Just 64% of teenagers eat with their parents, compared with 89% in France and 93% in Italy. British children spend half their spare time watching television, playing computer games and using the internet. Source: Sunday Times, 29.7.2007

questions 1 What do Items A and B reveal about peer groups? 2 Why do you think Friends is so popular with young people? contact, intimidatory body language – to gain ‘respect’, Within them, young people begin to develop show who was ‘boss’ and instil some ‘fear’ in the independence from their parents. This prepares them for troublesome pupils. Skelton points to the irony that the taking on adult roles themselves. school’s control strategies were in many ways a reflection Peer power Adler and Adler (1998) studied a group of of the ‘tough’ values that were prized in the local white middle-class children in the United States. They community! found that the peer group was enormously important in the lives of these pre-adolescent children. Being popular and Peer group having friends made children feel good about themselves, but being socially isolated had the reverse effect. Adler and A peer group is a friendship group formed by people of Adler describe how friendship groups shift and change as roughly the same age and social position. They meet each children move in and out. Over time a hierarchy develops, other as equals rather than being supervised by adults. In both between groups (the leading cliques have higher the early years of life, children like to play with one prestige) and within groups (some members have greater another for fun and amusement. But play is also a valuable power and influence than others). Friendship cliques learning experience. In play situations they learn about exercise their power by accepting some children and social norms (eg, treating others properly) and they develop excluding others. Within each group, friends are expected social skills (eg, negotiating over toys). They can also to be loyal to the peer values, but ‘weaker’ members are experiment with social roles (eg, playing shop assistants often bullied and manipulated by the rest. and customers). When children become teenagers, they spend increasing amounts of time away from their families and in the Mass media company of their friends. Parents often worry that peer Mass media consume an enormous amount of our time – group pressures will encourage their children to steal, take just think of all those teenagers locked away for hours on drugs, or have sex. Young people themselves often worry end in their bedroom with their own music centre, TV, about their popularity within the peer group. Nevertheless, game console and computer. We seem in constant danger these groups perform valuable functions for their members. of being overwhelmed by the sheer volume of print 16 Chapter 1

(newspapers, magazines, books) and electronic messages can see this when people undergo a religious conversion – (TV, radio, the Internet). So it seems only reasonable to it usually means far-reaching changes in their behaviour assume that the media have some effect on our attitudes, and lifestyles. values and behaviour. Secularisation? The long-term decline in church Admittedly, media seldom have a direct hypodermic attendance in Britain suggests the country is becoming effect – they do not inject their content into us and make more secular – non-religious. Does this mean that the us immediately accept what they tell us. But they help to influence of religion is on the decline? Not necessarily. A create the cultural climate within which we live. They give decline in churchgoing does not automatically mean that us a sense of what values and behaviour are acceptable in people have abandoned religious ideas and beliefs. Over the modern world. They provide us with role models – 70% of the population still say they believe in God, while they hold up certain sports stars or showbiz celebrities for a minority are turning to New Age beliefs and practices us to admire and copy. such as the use of crystals, Tarot cards, astrology and feng Magazines and gender stereotypes The view of the world shui. Religion also plays a significant role among many of we get from the media is often highly stereotyped. For Britain’s minority ethnic communities. example, magazines such as Cosmopolitan seem to project Muslim girls Charlotte Butler’s study (1995) of a group of an image of women as obsessed with sex and fashion. teenage Muslim girls in the East Midlands shows how Likewise, men’s magazines such as Maxim have been religious beliefs can be adapted to fit changing criticised for celebrating a crude ‘lad culture’ of lager louts, circumstances. These young women, born in Britain, were football and ‘babes’. However, some people say these moving away from the traditions of their parents. They magazines are just escapist fun, and most people have little remained firmly committed to their Muslim identity but difficulty in separating media stereotypes from the ‘real’ they were modifying it in certain ways. Their experience of world. living in Britain had led them to regard certain Pakistani and Bangladeshi customs as irrelevant to their lives. Bollywood Mass media can play an important role in Consequently, they were rejecting customs such as socialisation. Marie Gillespie (1993) demonstrates this in arranged marriages which were not regarded as essential her study of Sikhs in Southall. She shows how the videos features of Islam. produced by the Indian film industry (known as ‘Bollywood’) are enormously popular in this community. So these young women were developing more Whole families watch them together. Gillespie found that independent lifestyles to fit more easily into the British way these videos have important socialising functions – they of life, while at the same time maintaining their create links between Asian communities throughout the commitment to Islam. world, they socialise younger children into Asian cultures and languages and they help to reinforce a sense of Asian Work identity. But Gillespie adds that Sikhs are not just a passive audience for these films. Family members respond to them When we enter the workforce we have to be introduced to in different ways: older people watch them for nostalgic the skills, norms and values attached to the job. reasons while younger people are more critical – they Occupational socialisation is a form of secondary sometimes mock the films and complain that they portray socialisation as it occurs later in life, when we already India as a backward country. have considerable cultural knowledge and skills. It may well involve different forms of learning. Religion Anticipatory socialisation We may have learned a bit about the job beforehand, possibly by talking to people Although religions deal with spiritual matters, they also about it or taking a course in preparation. have an influence on social attitudes and behaviour. The major world religions – Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Re-socialisation When we start work we have to learn new Hinduism, Buddhism – have had a deep impact on the ways of behaving, such as submitting to workplace societies in which they are dominant. This influence discipline (things like regular work hours and obeying the operates at a number of levels. boss). This also applies when we move jobs because organisations vary in their styles and traditions. First, each religion offers a set of moral values. Over time these become part of the culture of a society. People are Agents of workplace socialisation include bosses, exposed to these values even if they do not personally colleagues, even customers. Some of these agents socialise attend a place of worship. Second, the rituals and us in formal ways, while others socialise us in a more ceremonies of religion have traditionally been seen as a informal fashion. force for social unity. Collective acts of worship such as Formal socialisation The management of a firm takes marriages, baptisms and funerals bring people together and formal responsibility for socialising employees. For remind them of their common bonds and shared values. example, they may provide training courses to develop the Third, religions provide a moral code (eg, the Ten necessary work skills. In addition, they usually lay down Commandments) which guides our earthly behaviour. We norms about appearance, attitudes and behaviour. Some Culture and identity 17 activity10 McJobs Item A May I help you? Item B Have a nice day Young people often get their first experience of work in ‘McJobs’ – unskilled, low paid, part-time jobs in fast-food restaurants. They are trained to perform simple tasks in a predictable manner, doing each action in exactly the same way. They have little scope for using their initiative. Workers are even restricted in what they can say on the job. Every interaction with customers is tightly scripted – ‘May I help you?’, ‘Would you like a dessert to go with your meal?’, ‘Have a nice day!’ They are given scripts for any situations that may arise. Workers are no longer trusted to say the right thing. Source: Ritzer, 2002

questions 1 What are the key features of socialisation into McJobs? 2 Why might these skills be less useful in other kinds of jobs?

workplaces impose strict dress codes (eg, collar and tie for boosts their occupational self-esteem by giving them a men). Behaviour may be controlled by official codes of ‘heroic’ identity (they are out there on the front-line conduct (eg, rules against private telephone calls and bravely facing ‘trouble’). It reinforces their sense of emails). Many firms also try to win the loyalty and ‘mission’ (they are doing a valuable job by fighting motivation of their staff by encouraging them to identify crime). It also celebrates certain values that are useful in with the company – some Japanese firms even have their police work (such as a ‘macho’ emphasis on physical own company song! strength and courage). Informal socialisation This is the socialisation provided by peer groups at work. They introduce us to the informal culture of the workplace. They have their own rituals, such key terms as playing jokes on newcomers (eg, sending them to the stores to fetch a tin of ‘tartan paint’). They also have their Primary socialisation Intimate and influential socialisation own norms, many of which may not be approved by (usually from parents) in the early years of life. management. For example, they may ignore the official Secondary socialisation Socialisation that comes later in life, rules and do things their own way. Or they may try to slow from various sources. down the pace of work – any colleague who works too Agents of socialisation The individuals, groups and hard may be bullied or mocked. institutions which play a part in the socialisation process. Sanctions Rewards and punishments. Canteen culture Canteen culture is the term given to Role models People we use to give us ideas about how to play describe the informal culture of police officers as they hang particular social roles. around the station or spend their off-duty hours together. Peer group A friendship group formed by people in the same Waddington’s research (1999) shows how canteen culture social situation. can help socialise police officers. They learn from listening Secularisation The view that religion is declining in to other officers telling their ‘war stories’ – how they importance in society. overcame tricky situations – and pick up practical advice Occupational socialisation A form of secondary socialisation such as ‘you can’t always play it by the book’. by which people learn the skills, norms and values of the workplace. Waddington argues that this canteen chat actually helps police officers deal with their stressful job. It 18 Chapter 1

Socialisation – conclusion Socialisation is an essential element in any society. There summary are a variety of agents who perform socialisation tasks, but 1. Socialisation is a key feature of any society – it experts disagree on which ones exercise the most transmits the cultural heritage from one generation influence. Traditionally it was thought that parents, and to the next. It is the way in which people learn social perhaps the church, had the greatest effect. In modern norms, roles and values. society the school, peer group and mass media seem to 2. Socialisation is not a one-way street in which people have growing influence. passively accept society’s norms and values. They There is also disagreement about whether these agents participate in internalising, modifying or rejecting have a sufficiently ‘responsible’ attitude to their these norms and values. socialisation tasks. For example, parents are sometimes 3. There are different forms of socialisation. Primary accused of simply putting their kids in front of the TV socialisation is often thought of as the most rather than talking to them. Peer groups offer us friendship important and influential. But secondary socialisation but they also introduce us to dangerous temptations. Mass is increasingly significant in fast-changing modern societies. media inform us about the world, but sometimes they distort that world. 4. Socialisation is performed by different agents – parents, school, peer group, mass media, religion and work. These agents come into play at different stages of our life, and they have different effects.

Unit 3 Self, identity and difference

groups. Sometimes these identities are given to us at birth – keyissues we are born male or female or with a white or black skin 1 What is identity? for example. But some social identities involve a greater degree of choice. We may actively choose to identify with 2 How are social identities formed? some groups such as New Age Travellers or surfers. 3 What is distinctive about postmodern and late We become more sharply aware of our group identities modern society? when we can contrast them with groups who are not like us. Social identities are often framed in terms of contrasts – eg, young/old. 3.1 Defining identity This contrast is illustrated by Cecil’s (1993) study of Protestants and Catholics in ‘Glengow’, a small town in Identity refers to the way we see ourselves in relation to Northern Ireland. In Glengow a person’s religion was other people – what makes us similar to some people and regarded as the most significant way of separating ‘us’ from different from others. Identity operates at different levels. ‘them’. Both sides relied heavily on stereotypes. Protestants The inner self At one level identity refers to the inner self, saw themselves as hard-working, thrifty, independent, that ‘little voice’ inside our heads. Susan Blackmore (1999) clean and tidy, but they accused Catholics of being lazy, describes this as the ‘real you’, the bit of yourself that feels dominated by priests, untidy and untrustworthy. Catholics those deep emotions like falling in love or feeling sad. It is saw themselves as easy-going, friendly, generous, the bit of you that thinks, dreams and has memories. It is intelligent and educated, but saw Protestants as dour, something which seems to persist throughout your life, bigoted, mean and lacking in refinement. giving it some kind of continuity. Personal identity This kind of identity is public and visible – it can be recorded in things like birth certificates, 3.2 Constructing identities passports, medical files and career records. Each of us is All identities, even our ‘inner’ ones, are social to some unique on account of our special combination of personal extent. We would have little sense of identity unless we details – our date and place of birth, name, personal had a language to reflect on it. And we would have little biography, family background and by our history of sense of group differences and similarities if we did not personal relationships and life experiences. participate in social life. For sociologists, our identity is not Social identity Social identities are based on our something we are born with, but something that is formed membership of, or identification with, particular social by interaction with others in social settings. Culture and identity 19

Symbolic interactionism and identity others to form an opinion of us. Goffman (1969) calls this One of the best ways to understand the social character of the presentation of self, a process where we deliberately identity is to look at the ideas of symbolic interactionism. arrange our appearance (clothes, hairstyle etc) and adopt This approach to identity was pioneered by George Herbert certain mannerisms in order to make a public statement Mead (1863-1931). about ourselves. The self Mead argued that a basic feature of human beings The changing self Interactionists challenge the idea that is our possession of a sense of self or identity. At an early each of us has a fixed, stable self. Identity can change with age we slowly become aware that there are people who the passage of time. The ‘me’ I am now is different in are ‘not me’, in other words that each of us has a separate certain ways from the ‘me’ I was ten years ago. An identity existence. As we grow up we also begin to form an may change slowly, or it may be transformed by a dramatic impression of our own personal qualities and life event such as bereavement, mutilation, redundancy or characteristics. Language enables us to reflect on ourselves being labelled a criminal, which forces a re-examination of (‘what sort of a person am I?’) and to hold little internal one’s self. ‘conversations’ (eg, we get angry with ourselves). Social interaction Interactionists argue that our identity has Social identities – conclusion social origins – it emerges in the course of social Some might argue that we are ‘blank sheets’ and society interaction. We depend on other people for vital clues simply writes its message on us. For example, if other about who we are. Charles Cooley coined the term looking people look down on us, we develop low self-esteem. If glass self to convey the idea that we ‘see’ ourselves they like us, we think of ourselves as popular. A more reflected in the attitudes and behaviour of other people realistic approach is that we do not always accept the towards us. For example, we may be uncertain about our opinions of others – we interpret them and judge their new haircut until we see the responses of people around value according to that interpretation. us. Of course, we do not always accept what others think The interactionist model certainly alerts us to the social of us, but their opinions are hard to ignore! character of identity – it is not something fixed at birth. Our Sometimes we take the initiative rather than waiting for identity can develop and change as we interact with others. activity11 changes Item A No longer me Item B Bar mitzvah The following passage was written by a journalist who had horrific operations on his tongue which altered his facial appearance and left him with severe difficulties in speech and eating. ‘I found myself having depressing thoughts about who this made me. Would the people I love have loved me if this is how I was when they first met me? Would my friends have become my friends if when we first met I’d been a wounded, honking mute, unable to respond to the simplest questions without dribbling? I also knew the answer was almost certainly no. It had to be. I was not now the person my friends befriended, my wife married. The fact remained: I was not me any more. My friends seemed willing to do almost anything for me but they were responding to who I was before the operation rather than who I had become after it.’ Source: Diamond, 1998

A bar mitzvah is a Jewish ceremony marking the transition of 13 year-old boys to adulthood. The picture shows three boys in a bar mitzvah ceremony. questions 1 How would symbolic interactionists explain the experience of the journalist in Item A? 2 In what ways are the identities of the boys in Item B likely to change? 20 Chapter 1

3.3 Identity in postmodern society and Evaluation Critics have argued that postmodernists have late modern society overstated their case. For example, are people as free as the postmodernists claim to choose their identities? A number of sociologists argue that societies like the UK Critics argue that there are many factors which limit have moved from the modern era to the postmodern era people’s choices and prevent them from choosing and during the last quarter of the 20th century. Other acting out certain identities. For example, being born sociologists see this change as less dramatic, arguing that black or white, rich or poor, male or female still have we have entered late modernity, an extension of the important influences on people’s identities and lifestyles. modern era. However, both groups agree that the Being poor, for instance, can prevent people from changes they identify have important effects on identity. adopting expensive lifestyles and buying the products which express those lifestyles. Postmodern culture and identity Late modernity and identity Postmodern culture is seen to have the following features. Sociologists who argue that society has entered the phase of late modernity accept some of the claims made by Images and styles The mass media increasingly bombard postmodernists. This can be seen from the following us with images, logos and brands. Websites, TV and features of late modernity which they identify. magazines pump out ads for constantly changing fashions – D&G, Giorgio Armani, Gucci, Yves Saint Choice and individualisation According to the German Laurent, Paco Rabanne, Kenzo, DKNY and Longchamp sociologist Ulrick Beck, a process of individualisation is are just a few of the brands in ads in the January 2008 occurring. This process reduces the control of traditional issues of Grazia magazine. They provide a range of roles and social structures over people’s behaviour (Beck images and styles which we can choose from to reflect and Beck-Gernsheim, 2001). As a result, people have our chosen identities. greater freedom to select and construct their own identities and design their own lifestyles. For example, Diversity of lifestyles The dominant mainstream culture they have greater freedom to choose and design their is being steadily replaced by a wide variety of ‘taste relationships – to marry, to cohabit, to divorce, to live in groups’ and an increasing diversity of lifestyles. People a heterosexual or a gay or lesbian relationship and so on. choose from the lifestyles on offer, selecting those which People are less likely to be forced to conform to allow them to express and act out their identities. traditional marital, family and gender roles. Choice Identities in postmodern society are increasingly Social reflexivity This term is used by the British chosen rather than being imposed by birth or tradition. sociologist Anthony Giddens (1991, 2001). In earlier As Hobsbawn (1996) notes, most identities are now like phases of modernity, people were more likely to follow ‘shirts’ that we choose to wear rather than the ‘skin’ we traditional norms and to take those norms for granted. are born with. Now they are more likely to be reflexive – to reflect on Postmodern culture has manipulated the number of what they are doing, to assess and question their identities available. People can choose to combine a behaviour, to examine what was previously taken for variety of identities. For example, one person can granted. As a result, people are more likely to reflect on combine the identities of a forceful business executive their identity, on who they are. This leads many people and a caring mother and a Sikh and a British patriot and to turn their identity into a project to be worked on. an enthusiastic hang-glider. Identity politics Identity politics is the term used to Rapid social change Society in the postmodern era describe conflicts and struggles over identity. In society changes rapidly. For example, new forms of electronic today it seems that more and more groups are defining communication are constantly appearing, from iPhones themselves in terms of their identity or ‘difference’. to new types of interaction on social networking Bauman (2001) suggests that the collapse of traditional websites. Identities are more fluid and shifting, reflecting communities has led people to search desperately for the rapid changes in society. The self is no longer fixed other sources of meaning and security. Many hope to as people increasingly try out a wide range of loosely- find this meaning in some form of collective identity. held identities. The self is there to be invented and re- These identity groups often feel they are treated as invented. second class citizens and deprived of their human rights. Postmodernist sociologists also suggest that identities Examples include ethnic minorities, people with are becoming more unstable and fragile. Older identities disabilities (eg, wheelchair-users) and groups based on have been seriously undermined by rapid social change. sexual preferences (eg, gays, lesbians, bisexuals, But the new identities which are replacing them are transsexuals). Powerful groups sometimes discriminate fragile and precarious – they do not always provide a against them and treat them as inferior. For example, firm sense of ‘roots’. society may be seen as sexist (men oppressing women) Culture and identity 21 activity12 Changing identities Item A Identity Kits

Item B Images and styles

Item C Identity cards Will it ever come to this? The Government is planning to sell Identity Scratch Cards. Scratch off the special square and you may win a year’s worth of free identity. The winner gets to chose a dream identity, for example, a pop star or a major sports personality. Source: Iannucci, 1995

question What do Items A, B and C suggest about identity in postmodern and late society? 22 Chapter 1 activity13 identity politics Item A Bikers for Jesus Item B Goths

Attending a gothic festival in Leipzig, Germany.

Item C Europride

Attending a Bikers for Jesus rally.

questions 1 What identities are being projected in these photos? Europride lesbian and gay pride march, London. 2 Explain why these photos represent identity politics.

or racist (Whites discriminating against ethnic minorities). key terms Identity politics is new in the sense that it is not just Postmodern era A new era seen to follow the modern era. about winning a fair share of wealth and resources for Late modernity A new phase seen to be an extension of the the group concerned. It is also about claiming the ‘right modern era. to be different’. Identity groups want ‘recognition’ from Individualisation A reduction in the control of traditional roles the rest of society that they have equal worth, in spite of and social structures over people’s behaviour. Social reflexivity People reflecting on what they are doing, and their cultural differences from others. The struggle is assessing and questioning their behaviour. about winning respect, promoting tolerance and Identity politics The conflicts and struggles over group challenging negative stereotypes identities in society. Culture and identity 23

summary 1. Identity can refer to the inner self, personal identity or social identity. 6. Postmodern culture is said to have the following features. • • An emphasis on image and style 2. All identities are social in the sense that they depend on language • • Diversity of lifestyles and social experience. It is impossible to imagine a society where • • Identities increasingly chosen people have no sense of who they are or what makes them different • • An increase in the number and importance of identities from others. • • Rapid social change 3. Social identities express our similarities with others in the same • • Identities more fluid and fragile social group. But they also create a divide between ‘us’ and ‘them’. 7. Critics of postmodernist views argue that there are factors 4. Interactionists claim that the self has social origins – it emerges in which prevent many people from choosing and acting out the course of social interaction. Our identities may change as we certain identities. move from group to group, or as a result of important changes in 8. Features of late modernity include individualisation, social our lives. reflexivity and a focus on the construction of identity. 5. Sometimes we have social identities imposed on us, at other times 9. Identity politics is not just about winning a fair share of we have freedom to choose the groups with whom we identify. The resources, it is also about claiming the ‘right to be different’, ‘presentation of self’ is a device we use to create our own identity. winning respect and promoting a favourable image of the group.

Unit 4 Age and identity

keyissues roles and styles in an attempt to find their ‘true’ selves. The functionalist perspective in sociology suggests that 1 How do cultural identities vary according to age? youth culture helps to ease the passage towards stable 2 What is happening to youth cultures in postmodern society? identities and personalities. Youth culture – the shared 3 Is ageism a problem for older people? tastes, activities and styles of young people – offers young people the collective support of a peer group while they try to ‘find themselves’. In the course of trying out different Age and identity experiences and lifestyles, they gradually mature and ‘grow up’. Our lives sometimes seem to be mapped out in terms of On the other hand, some sociologists argue that young different ages which are linked to certain identities and people are no more confused than adults about their lifestyles. For example, we expect people to be restless and identities. And youth culture may be enjoyed purely for the moody in their teens, mature and confident in their forties, pleasures it offers, rather than because it offers a solution to but 'slow' and set in their ways in their sixties. any identity crisis. These differences are often explained in terms of the Rebellious youth Another popular image of young people ‘biological clock’ ageing is seen as a biological process is that of unruly rebels. Pearson (1983) suggests there is a which brings about inevitable changes in outlook and long history of seeing young people as ‘trouble’. Social behaviour. But age is also socially constructed – it is commentators down the years have expressed similar fears shaped by culture and society. For example, people in pre- and concerns about youthful troublemakers, viewing them industrial societies were often divided into separate age in terms of social breakdown and moral decline. groups with distinct rights and characteristics. However, in This image of youth was reinforced over the past fifty society today there is a more flexible attitude to age – years by the emergence of exotic youth subcultures – such people often try to resist age-related expectations. as teddy boys, mods and rockers, skinheads, punks and goths. Some sociologists (eg, Jefferson, 1975) offered a ‘conflict’ explanation of these subcultures. The subcultures 4.1 Youth in search of identity were seen as a protest against exploitation and injustice in a class-divided society. One of the striking things about this Confused youth Young people in modern industrial resistance was that it was largely symbolic. It was mainly societies are frequently described as confused about their through their subcultural styles that these youths expressed identities. There is a lack of public rites of passage (rituals, their protest – it was ‘resistance through rituals’. By ceremonies) to announce that they have successfully creating new subcultures with their own meanings, rituals reached adulthood. Neither fully children nor fully adults, and identities, working-class youth refused to accept other they often seem to be experimenting with many different people’s low opinion of them. 24 Chapter 1

This theory perhaps exaggerates the rebellious streak in (Polhemus, 1997), where young people are faced with an young people. A simpler explanation for these subcultures abundance of choices. is that they were fun. Also, the exotic subcultures which Postmodernists admit there are still certain neo-tribes alarmed observers were hardly representative of the mass with recognisable subcultural styles (eg, goths). Young of ordinary, largely ‘conformist’ youth. people often seek out those who share their tastes and Postmodern youth Postmodern sociologists draw attention enthusiasms. But these groupings tend to be short-lived and to the increasing diversity of youth identities. They claim superficial. Few young people are totally committed – they that the old-style youth subcultures – stable groups with are more likely to adopt a casual pick’n’mix approach to clear boundaries between them – are fading away. Instead, style. They play with different looks and styles, sampling young people now follow lifestyles based on their and mixing them in all sorts of unexpected and imaginative individual tastes. We now have a ‘supermarket of style’ ways (eg, gay skinheads, bikers for Jesus). activity14 youth today Item A Feral gangs Item B Typical young people A top policeman painted a horrifying picture yesterday of A nationally representative survey reveals what 13-18 year- gangs of ‘feral youths’. He said drunken and abusive yobs olds are really like today. intimidated entire neighbourhoods, forcing law-abiding • •They want to enjoy life. families to live in fear. ‘It is part of life for these people. These • They have a strong set of values (very family-oriented). people are feral (wild) by nature, having little control over • •Their role models are parents and teachers rather than their behaviour and having little responsibility for their ‘celebrities’. actions and having little parental control over the way they • They have a strong social conscience. live their lives. I have spoken to parents who are unconcerned that their 14-year-old child has been arrested • They are ambitious and hard-working. for a serious assault or robbery.’ • They are much more confident, respectful and caring than adults imagine. Source: Daily Mail, 18.5.2005 Source: Scout Association, 2007 Item C Pictures of youth

Attacking a police landrover in Northern Ireland.

Item D Cosmetic surgery A survey has found that three quarters of girls aged between 12 and 14 say they would like cosmetic surgery Calling for measures to help young people break the (plastic surgery, breast implants, operations to remove cycle of violence. excess fat etc.). It would make them feel happier about the way they look and stop teasing by friends. question Source: Daily Mail, 11.11.2000 What ‘identity’ of youths is suggested by each of these items? Culture and identity 25

4.2 Older identities may be reluctant to hire them, on the assumption that they are somehow ‘past it’. Young people may call them The population of Britain is ageing – there are more old offensive names such as ‘senile’, ‘crumbly’, ‘wrinklie’ and people now and they form a larger proportion of the ‘geriatric’. Ageism stigmatises older people – it attaches population. Between 1971 and 2005 the numbers of people negative labels to them. aged 65 and over rose from 7.4 million (13% of the total In Western societies some older people are now starting population) to 9.6 million (16%). (Social Trends, 2007) to fight against ageism. Grey Power groups are This is a welcome sign that people are living longer. At campaigning for better pensions and a better public image. the same time, many people seem to fear old age. They Older people are using their spending and voting power to view it as a time when they will decline physically (less persuade politicians, retailers and organisations to treat energy, poorer health), psychologically (fading powers of them with dignity and respect. concentration) and socially (social participation may drop off). The cult of youth Society teaches us to celebrate youth. It is difficult to deny that biological ageing takes its toll – We admire youthful strength and beauty. There is a huge for example, a large majority of disabled adults in Britain market of products and treatments to help us stay young – are aged 60 and over. Nevertheless, sociologists challenge such as cosmetic surgery (eg, face lifts, Botox), vitamins the notion that ageing has fixed social effects. They argue and lotions (eg, anti-ageing creams) and fitness regimes (eg, that old age is something which is socially constructed and yoga, Pilates). varies between groups and over time. The experience of Old age, by contrast, is often pictured as something to be old age is not the same for everyone. pitied or feared rather than envied. The mass media Ageism The problem for many older people is not so much circulate images of elderly people as physically biological age as the discriminatory attitudes of others. unattractive, sexually inactive and chronically ill. No They can become victims of ageism – insensitive attitudes wonder middle-aged people often search anxiously for the and assumptions which treat them as if they were less dreaded signs of ageing – tell-tale wrinkles, thinning hair, important or less capable than everyone else. Employers sagging muscles. activity15 being old and young

Members of The Zimmers rock band whose record ‘My Generation’ reached the Top 40. The lead singer Alf Carretta (wearing glasses) is 90 years old.

question What do these items suggest about how the people in the pictures Fauja Singh, aged 93, running in the London marathon. see old age? 26 Chapter 1

On the other hand, Berger (1971) questions the assumption that ‘being young’ is a matter of biological age. key terms For Berger, youthfulness is a set of personal qualities – Rites of passage Rituals which mark the movement from one being impulsive, spontaneous, energetic, playful and social status or position to another. passionate. These qualities can be found in people of all Youth culture The subcultures – tastes, activities and lifestyles ages. Not all young people are youthful by any means, and – of particular groups of young people. not all youthful people are young! Neo-tribes Loose groupings around shared styles and tastes, The mask of old age Featherstone and Hepworth (1989) with flexible and often fleeting membership. note that many older people are forced to wear the ‘mask Stigmatise Attaching negative labels to a group. of old age’ – they are expected to act in terms of ageist Ageism Viewing and/or treating people in a negative way stereotypes. For example, even middle-aged grandparents simply because of their age. Cult of youth ‘Worshipping’ youthfulness. may be under pressure to act the role of an ‘elderly’ Granny or Granpa. Yet older people sometimes feel just the same way they always did – they still feel young at heart. Featherstone and Hepworth suggest that increasing numbers of older people are refusing to conform to the summary stereotypes. They express their identities in lively and 1. According to functionalists, youth culture helps young imaginative ways – such as exotic foreign holidays, wind- people to establish stable identities and make the surfing, and salsa dancing. Many of these adventurous transition to adulthood. attitudes have been pioneered by the ‘baby boomer’ 2. Some sociologists see working-class youth subcultures generation (those raised in the 1960s). This generation is as a form of resistance against the inequalities of extending the length of what used to be regarded as society. This protest takes the form of style rather than ‘middle age’. And they are carrying their vigorous and direct action. active pursuits into the later years of life. 3. Postmodernists argue that distinct youth subcultures Two nations Older people are individuals, and so their have splintered and weakened. Young people now lifestyles and identities vary according to the particular move freely between individually-chosen styles. choices they make. But these choices are also shaped by 4. The ageing process involves certain changes in people’s social characteristics such as social class. Britain’s lives. But many of the negative effects are a result of pensioners are split into ‘two nations’. The retired middle social attitudes rather than biological processes. class generally have substantial pensions and savings 5. Ageism and the cult of youth mean that older people which enable them to enjoy a comfortable standard of tend to be stigmatised. However, there are signs that living. But not everyone is lucky enough to grow old they are adopting more positive and flexible identities and rejecting negative stereotypes. gracefully. For many working-class people, old age spells poverty – as many as half of all pensioners live in poverty 6. Social class affects the experience of ageing. For many or on its margins. working-class people, old age means poverty.

Unit 5 Disability and identity

range from six million to twelve million. It all depends on keyissues how strictly we define disability. Many conditions are a 1 What is disability? matter of degree, varying from mild to severe. For example, the Royal Institute for the Deaf estimates that around nine 2 What are the aims of the disability rights movement? million people in Britain have some degree of hearing loss, 3 How do people with disabilities combat stigma? from slightly hard of hearing to profoundly deaf (Atkinson, 2006). Similarly, the term ‘blindness’ covers a wide range of visual impairment. Our bodies have a physical existence which cannot be The 2007 British Social Attitudes Survey revealed that the ignored. This is especially true for people with disabilities. general public defines disability narrowly. Most of the Disabilities arise from various sources – some are the result sample agreed that it includes wheelchair users, but they of genetic disorders, some are caused by illness or serious were less likely to describe arthritis or heart disease as a accident, and others emerge from the degenerative disability. More worryingly, the survey revealed a great processes of ageing. deal of prejudice towards groups such as mentally ill Estimates of the numbers of disabled people in Britain people or those with HIV (O’Hara, 2007). Culture and identity 27

5.1 Disability rights Discrimination Act (1995) now aims to protect people with disabilities from discrimination. Disability is often regarded as a personal misfortune that happens to unlucky people. It is seen mainly as a medical Identity politics problem. This view has been challenged by the disability The disability rights movement is also trying to build a rights movement which puts the emphasis on civil rights. more positive identity for disabled people. Disabled people The movement makes a fundamental distinction between sometimes internalise the negative stereotypes directed at impairment and disability. them, resulting in low self-esteem and spoiled identities. Impairment This refers to the limitations the physical or But some groups have been set up to promote a prouder mental condition places upon a person’s ability to function image. For example, there are more than 300 deaf social effectively. For example, people with severe arthritis may clubs across Britain. One deaf DJ organises raves that fill find it difficult to wash or dress themselves. large venues with thousands of deaf partygoers from all Disability This refers to the restrictions society places on over the world (Atkinson, 2006). impaired people. Society is seen as dis-abling them through its prejudices – for example, employers may reject job-seekers with a history of mental illness. It also restricts 5.2 Spoiled identities their full social participation by putting barriers in their Goffman (1968) describes how people deal with way – for example, wheelchair users may find it difficult to imperfections of the body such as amputated limbs, get access to shops or offices. unsightly scars, ugly facial blemishes and physical So there has been a move towards understanding disabilities. These imperfections create a gap between the disability in terms of ‘structural oppression’. It is not just a virtual social identity (what the person’s bodily matter of impairment (although that is still a painful reality characteristics should be) and the actual social identity for many people) but also a battle for social and political (what they really are). This gap can be deeply discrediting rights. Some progress has been made, and the Disability – the person’s identity becomes spoiled. activity16 Images of disability Item A ‘I hoped our baby would be deaf’ Item B When Polly Garfield and her partner – both deaf – found that their baby was profoundly deaf it was a cause for joy rather than sadness. ‘Being deaf is about being part of a cultural minority. We’re proud of the language we use and the community we live in. We’re delighted that this is something our daughter can share as she grows up.’ For the couple, deafness is not something that needs to be fixed, but an expression of a cultural identity. ‘If only people knew about the deaf community, our rich culture and history, our parties and the closeness and pride that we feel in our shared identity. Our language is so colourful, so alive. That’s our sound, that’s our music.’ Source: Atkinson, 2006.

Item C Kissing gates The law requires public services to make reasonable adjustments to allow disabled access. Some local authorities feel this means that kissing gates and stiles should be Arriving at the House of Commons by hearse to protest against the removed from the countryside, as they are almost impossible lack of access for many disabled people to trains and stations. to use if you are in a wheelchair. This has dismayed farmers, who argue that they provide a cheap and practical solution for access through fields. But questions the UK Disabled People’s Council says it fully supports the move – disabled people have as much right to go into the 1 How can Items A and B be seen as an example of countryside as non-disabled people. identity politics? Source: Levy, 2007 2 In what way is Item C an example of disability rights? 28 Chapter 1

Goffman insists that it is not the bodily characteristic in However, Goffman points out that those who attempt to itself that is the problem. Rather, it is the stigma which is conceal their condition risk exposure from people who created when people attach discrediting labels to others. ‘know’ about them. There is a constant danger that their This presents a problem of stigma management for those secret will be revealed. So some may simply decide that who are given these labels. Goffman identifies two main voluntary disclosure of their condition is the best solution. situations which arise. Discredited In this situation people are discredited in the sense that their imperfection is already visible or widely key terms known. This may create interaction uneasiness when others react in an embarrassed or clumsy fashion (eg, people Impairment A physical or mental condition which limits a sometimes speak too loudly to a blind person). person’s capacity to function effectively. Disability Disadvantage which results from society’s failure to The main strategy for discredited individuals is one of allow people with impairments to participate fully in social life. tension management. They develop social skills to put Spoiled identity A discredited identity resulting from negative people at their ease (eg, joking about their stigma to show labels attached by others. that it is okay to talk about it). They may try to correct the imperfection (eg, by means of surgery) or resort to compensation (eg, the amputee may take up dangerous sports). Others may simply avoid strangers and associate mainly with people who are more understanding. summary Discreditable In this situation the person’s imperfection is 1. Physical and mental impairments make it harder for not immediately obvious to others. Examples include HIV, people to function effectively. Prejudice and colostomy bags and epilepsy. Here the main strategy is one discrimination against people with impairments add to of information control where the individual tries to manage their difficulties. the flow of information so that stigma is avoided. They may 2. The disability rights movement is creating a more try to ‘pass’ the imperfection as something else (eg, passing positive view of disabled people and fighting against off early stages of Alzheimer’s as simple absent- discrimination mindedness). Or conceal it (eg, wearing a special bra to 3. Disabled people who are discredited often use tension conceal a mastectomy). Or ‘cover’ it by passing it off as management techniques. Those who are discreditable something less damaging (eg, infertile people may pretend often use information management techniques. they just don’t want children).

Unit 6 Ethnic identities

keyissues Table 2 The UK population by ethnic group % of total % of minority 1 What is an ethnic group? population ethnic population 2 What are the main ethnic identities in Britain? White 92.1 n/a 3 In what ways are ethnic identities changing? Mixed 1.2 14.6 Asian or Asian British Indian 1.8 22.7 6.1 Ethnic groups and identities Pakistani 1.3 16.1 Bangladeshi 0.5 6.1 In the 1950s and 1960s many thousands of people Other Asian 0.4 5.3 migrated from New Commonwealth countries such as Black or Black British Jamaica, India, Pakistan and Kenya to Britain. They brought Black Caribbean 1.0 12.2 with them the traditional customs, values, religions, diets Black African 0.8 10.5 and languages of their homelands. These cultural features Black Other 0.2 2.1 set them apart from one another and from the mainstream cultures of Britain. In other words, they formed distinctive Chinese 0.4 5.3 ethnic groups – groups with their own cultures based on a Other 0.4 5.0 sense of shared origin. All minority ethnic population 7.9 100 Table 2 shows the range of ethnic groups in Britain in Source: National Statistics Online (based on April 2001 Census data) 2001. Culture and identity 29

Ethnic identities African-Caribbean culture and customs have some The members of an ethnic group may have varying degrees impact on identities. For example, the use of African- of commitment to the group’s values and identities. Caribbean ways of speaking or dialects (patois) reinforces Nevertheless, a shared cultural tradition does tend to create their sense of having a distinctive cultural identity. common identities. Black expressive cultures The richness of African-Caribbean culture is celebrated every year in the Notting Hill Carnival. African-Caribbean identities Paul Gilroy (1987) also notes the dazzling contributions Black people have made to mainstream popular culture in The identities of African-Caribbean people in Britain are Britain – in dance, music and dress (Black youth are often shaped by many things including their age and social class. seen as the cutting edge of street fashion). Gilroy believes They may follow lifestyles which are not much different there is no single Black culture or Black identity but he from those of White people. However, a black skin colour argues that there are certain common themes that run is significant in a country like Britain where racism has not through all Black cultures. One of these is awareness of the yet been eradicated. Black people may see themselves as historical experience of slavery, a bitter experience that still the victims or survivors of racism. has an effect on the outlook of Black people. activity17 Black culture Item A Slavery in Trinidad Item B Say it loud

Item C Notting Hill Carnival James Brown lying in state at the Apollo Theatre, Harlem, New York. The funeral of James Brown, the ‘Godfather of Soul’, has been held in Harlem, New York. Thousands turned out to pay tribute to the singer and showman whose music inspired hip hop, funk, disco and rap. But Brown was also a Black icon who coined the phrase ‘Say it Loud – I’m Black and I’m Proud’. This was regarded as a powerful ‘wake-up call’ for Black pride and black consciousness. Source: The Guardian, 29.12.2006

questions 1 How might awareness of the history of slavery influence the identity and ethnic awareness of Black Britons? 2 How can Items B and C be seen as examples of Black identity and culture? 30 Chapter 1 activity18 Muslim women in Britain Item A Burkinis Item B Meet the Islamic Barbie Schools have been told they There is a new must-have should allow Muslim girls toy on the Muslim child’s taking swimming lessons to wish list – the Razanne doll. cover themselves from head The doll, whose name to toe in special outfits called translates as ‘shyness and burkinis. An increasing modesty’ is demurely number of pupils are insisting dressed and has an air of that conventional swimming humility. Her creators see costumes are ‘immodest’. her as more acceptable than the skimpily dressed Barbie Source: The Mail on Sunday, doll. She comes in a range 24.6.2007 of guises, including ‘Dr Razanne’ and ‘Teacher Razanne’ – to show that Muslim women, too, can have careers. As the mother of one girl puts it, ‘What is good about the doll is that it’s Razanne’s Burkini designer (in black) and character that counts, not whether she’s a perfect 10 in Muslim lifeguard wearing her day-glo summer bikini’. burkinis in Sydney, Australia. There are no plans to have a male version – it wouldn’t fit with Razanne to have a boyfriend. Source: The Guardian, 30.9.2004 question How do these items illustrate that Muslim identities in Britain include aspects of the old and the new?

The art of being Black Clare Alexander (1996) made a and Shiah traditions and it is further broken down into close study of a group of Black youths in London. She various sects and territorial and language groups. However, concluded that there are many different ways of being their shared faith and identity as one nation (ummah) Black. Constructing a Black identity is an ‘art’ that needs a creates some bonds between these Muslim communities. great deal of work and effort. The youths she studied felt Asian lifestyles Each religion has its own place of worship there were ‘symbolic markers’ of being Black. They felt (the Hindu temple, the Muslim mosque, the Sikh there is something about certain styles of dress, music, gurdwara). Also, each religious group tends to follow its even walking and talking, that make them instantly own calendar of fasts (eg, the Muslim Ramadan) and feasts recognisable as ‘Black’. (eg, the Hindu Diwali). Religion affects dress codes (the In a later work, Alexander (2002) notes that the ‘cool’ Muslim veil, the Sikh turban), diet (Hindus avoid beef, styles of Black youth have enjoyed enormous popularity in Muslims avoid pork) and moral attitudes (divorce is more Britain. Black youth are widely seen as the cutting edge of acceptable to Muslims than other Asian religious groups). street-oriented youth culture. They often lead the way in But there are similarities in the cultural practices of fashion and music (eg, hip hop, rap). Britain’s Asian populations. One example is the custom of arranged marriages where parents play a large part in Asian identities choosing partners for their children. Another is the stress The term Asian masks some important differences. Most laid on the extended family (the wider kin group beyond of Britain’s Asians have origins in Pakistan, Bangladesh the mother, father and children). Family honour is extremely and India. The first two are predominantly Muslim but important and the kin group is always anxious to protect its India contains Sikh and Muslim minorities as well as the reputation. This is one of the reasons why the behaviour of Hindu majority. Within these main groups there are young women is closely monitored by relatives. further sub-divisions. Until quite recently, many people were unaware of an Britain’s Muslim population is split between the Sunni Asian youth culture in Britain. But that is changing. Bennett Culture and identity 31

(2001) describes the rising popularity of bhangra (a blend George were regarded with suspicion because of their of Indian folk music with Western pop) among Asians in association with far-right racist groups. Hewitt argues that Britain. Another popular form is ragga (a blend of bhangra ways must be found of allowing White people to be proud with rap and reggae). According to Bennett, these ‘cross- of their own cultural traditions. But this should not be done over’ developments have played a major part in the in a racist manner that excludes people from ethnic formation of new Asian youth identities. minorities from claiming an English identity too.

White identities Ethnic groups and identities – conclusion It is a mistake to think that ethnicity is something found Britain is a multicultural society. It contains a number of only among minority groups. Every group has a culture and distinctive ethnic groups, each with their own identity, so even the White majority can be called an ethnic group. values and customs. People in Asian or African-Caribbean Of course, there are many different ways of being White, minority groups often have a keen awareness of their so it does not mean the same thing to everyone. cultural traditions. Of course, some people born into these Invisible culture? Young Whites sometimes feel they inhabit groups will drift away from them, while others will remain an invisible culture. This was certainly true of the group deeply committed to their particular ethnic lifestyles. Some studied by Roger Hewitt (1996) in a deprived working-class will regard themselves as British but British with a area of London. They felt a deep sense of unfairness difference – Black British or British Asian. because every culture seemed to be celebrated except their Identity is not based solely on ethnicity, however. For own. They were constantly frustrated whenever they tried to example, a Black person is not just Black but also a adopt symbols and emblems of White or English cultural particular gender, age, social class – all of these will have identity. For example, the Union flag and the flag of St an effect on that person’s identity. activity19 White England Item A Celebration Item B Images of White England England has much to celebrate: Shakespeare, Dickens, parliamentary democracy, architecture, political philosophers, a philanthropic tradition, the welfare state, scientific developments, the sixties cultural revolution, football, brilliant humourists and much more. Why is it wrong for White English children to take pride in these achievements? Source: Y.Alibhai-Brown, 1997

Royal Ascot

Henley Regatta

question Using these items, suggest why some people might be reluctant to adopt a White English identity. Hunting 32 Chapter 1

6.2 Changing ethnic identities blend into mainstream lifestyles. Of course, being teenagers, sometimes there is friction with their parents. Some experts confidently predicted that ethnic minorities But for the most part young Asians handle the two cultures would slowly become assimilated – they would gradually with few problems. abandon their ethnic cultures and adopt the culture of Living apart together Mirza et al. (2007) conducted a large mainstream Britain. It was expected that this trend would survey among Muslims living in Britain. They found that affect mainly the second and third generations (those born the majority of Muslims are well integrated into British in Britain). This has happened to some extent – the life of a society – they live ‘together’ with non-Muslims. Most of Sikh is not the same in Britain as it is in the Punjab. Many them want to live under British law rather than Islamic male Sikhs no longer wear a turban. Yet it is equally clear (Sharia) law. Generally they prefer mixed state schools that minority cultures have not vanished. This suggests that rather than faith schools. Many of them feel British and Britain might become a truly multicultural society in which have strong relationships with non-Muslims. Also, many different ethnic traditions co-exist peacefully and share declare that religion plays little part in their lives – many certain customs. indulge in secular habits such as drinking and pre-marital sexual relationships. Black generations On the other hand, they also live ‘apart’ to some extent, Modood et al. (1994) interviewed a sample of African- and this applies especially to young Muslims. Those aged Caribbean people living in Birmingham in order to chart 16-24 were more likely than their parents to say religion changes in their culture over time. The researchers did not was the most important thing in their lives, and more likely discover one single Black identity, but they detected the to support Sharia law and Islamic schools. Among young general and continuing influence of Caribbean cultural Muslims, 74% supported the wearing of veils, compared traditions. At the same time, there were some differences with only 28% of their parents’ generation. Mirza et al. between the generations. Religious faith (mainly Christian, point out the irony – although young Muslims are and especially Pentecostal) still played an important role integrated into British society and have grown up in its for the first generation but it had declined among their culture, they are more conscious than their parents of their children. Patois was not used so much by the first difference and separateness. generation but it had enjoyed a resurgence among some of the second generation who saw it as a powerful way of Hybrid identities asserting their cultural identity. The main identity among It is difficult to map where one culture ends and another the Caribbeans in the survey was Black – although the first begins. Ethnic cultures change over time and they borrow generation sometimes described themselves as West Indian, from one another. So their boundaries are always shifting. and their children sometimes called themselves Afro- One possibility is that people combine different ethnic Caribbean. Young Blacks sometimes put on a defiant styles in novel ways. When they do this they create hybrid display of their ethnic identities as a way of expressing (mixed) lifestyles and identities. their resistance to racism. Youth Les Back (1996) found that new hybrid identities were emerging among young people (Whites, Asians, Asians between two cultures Blacks) in two council estates in South London. These Second or third generation Asians, born or raised in this young people are in a transitional stage where they have a country, are sometimes portrayed as torn between two great deal of freedom and opportunity to construct new cultures – the ethnic traditions of their parents, and British identities. Their cultures are not fixed traditions which mainstream culture. Sometimes compromises are struck. For they slavishly follow. Rather, they try out new cultural example, parents may consult their children over arranged ‘masks’, experiment with new roles, and play with marriages and this helps to prevent conflicts. Others may different styles, meanings and symbols in all sorts of find that their attempts to balance the two cultures are unexpected ways. Back found a great deal of inter-racial frustrated by racism in the wider society. They may feel they friendship and interaction and a great deal of cultural borrowing from other groups (eg, ‘cool’ language and are never going to be accepted by White society and so interest in reggae, soul, hip hop, rap and house). The new they may turn back to their ethnic minority traditions. identities which were being forged brought Black and Cultural navigation Roger Ballard (1994) believes the White people closer together and helped to blur the supposed conflict between Asian teenagers and their divisive lines of race. parents has been exaggerated. Ballard recognises that there are some major differences between Asian and mainstream cultures but he found that young Asians Changing ethnic identities – conclusion manage to navigate between them with relative ease. They When members of ethnic minorities start changing their simply switch codes – in their parents’ home they fit in to habits and values, it is not always easy to decide what this Asian cultural expectations, but outside the home they means. It may be a step towards assimilation – becoming Culture and identity 33 activity20 hybrid identities Item A Joined up cultures Item B I am me Salima Dhalla: I don’t know how to start to describe myself. I feel identity-less but very unique. On paper I’m ‘Asian’ but in my head I’m a cocky little person with lots of hopes and ambitions. My parents are East African, their parents are Indian, I was born in Wales. I went to a White middle-class girls’ private school and I have brown skin, short Western hair, Western clothes, Eastern name, Western friends. So I guess I’m in an identity wasteland. Now I will only agree to being me. Source: Kassam, 1997

Item C Blinglish Surveys have revealed that an increasing number of White youths now talk with a Jamaican patois or hybrid language – ‘Blinglish’ (a term which suggests the marriage of English to Black street Panjabi MC. His music is a fusion of bhangra and hip hop. culture’s love of displays of wealth, known as ‘bling’). The days when popular culture was controlled by White artists have faded. Black youth have a huge influence on mainstream culture. One of the main reasons White youth follow Black culture is an question absence of any credible alternative subculture. In what way do these items represent ‘hybrid’ identities? Source: Doward, 2004 part of mainstream culture and society. On the other hand, it may just be a normal development of that ethnic culture key terms (cultures are always changing, however slowly). Assimilation The process by which ethnic minorities adopt the The only thing that is clear at the moment is that there is mainstream culture and become part of mainstream society. a mixture of continuity and change. There is continuity in Black A term sometimes applied to people of African-Caribbean the sense that ethnic traditions still mean something to descent, and more generally to people seen to be of ‘Black’ second and third generation members of minority groups. African origin. Ethnic group A group with a shared culture based on a sense of But there are also signs of change. One example is common origin. arranged marriages – now subject to much greater Hybrid identities Identities which draw on two or more ethnic consultation with young people. traditions. It is young people who are at the forefront of these Multicultural society The co-existence of two or more changes. And it is among this group that new hybrid forms distinctive ethnic groups within one society. Racism Negative attitudes and discriminatory behaviour are most likely to emerge. towards people of other racial or ethnic groups.

summary 1. Minority ethnic groups in Britain were initially formed 4. Ethnic minority cultures and identities are slowly changing. through migration from the New Commonwealth. But This may represent a normal development of the culture growing numbers (second and third generation) have been rather than a step towards assimilation. Nevertheless, the born in Britain. divisions between cultures seem to be getting more blurred. 2. Minority ethnic groups share many values and lifestyles with 5. Some young people seem to be skilled at navigation between the White majority. There is a great deal of overlap. But they two cultures. But others find it a strain and prefer to give also have their own distinctive traditions. priority to one culture. Yet another possibility is the 3. Not everyone within an ethnic group expresses that ethnicity development of hybrid forms that mix cultural traditions in in exactly the same way. Besides, their identity is based not novel ways. only on their ethnicity but also on other factors such as gender, age and social class. 34 Chapter 1

Unit 7 National and global identities

(‘foreigners’). Public rituals like Remembrance Day and keyissues royal ceremonies are occasions when people are invited to 1 What are nation states? reflect on their shared history and collective identity. 2 How are national identities formed? Nevertheless, it is difficult to describe a particular national identity with any confidence. People may disagree 3 What forms does nationalism take? on what qualifies someone for membership of the nation 4 How is globalisation affecting national identity? (see Table 3). They also disagree on the nation’s chief features. Besides, a national identity will alter as the nation itself changes over time. 7.1 Creating nations Table 3 What is the basis of national identity? Nation states The world is divided into a number of countries such as Born in country 79 Britain, France, Nigeria and Mexico. Most of these Have citizenship 86 countries can also be referred to as nation states. A state is Lived most of life there 76 an independent self-governing geographical area. The term Able to speak language 88 nation state suggests that the people living within the state Religion 34 are a single ‘nation’, united by a common identity and a Respect political institutions and laws 87 common culture. Feels British 78 However, this is not always the case. A single state might (% of sample saying ‘very’ or ‘fairly’ important) contain a number of nations (eg, the British state governs the nations of Wales, Scotland and England). On the other Source: McCrone & Surridge, 1998 hand, a single nation might be scattered across different states (eg, Kurds in Iran, Iraq and Turkey). Nevertheless, states usually attempt to create an overall sense of Britishness national identity in order to secure the loyalty of their populations. Identity and belonging became major issues in Britain in the early part of this century. One reason for this was the Many people assume that nation states have existed terrorist threat and the July 2005 bombings in London. throughout history. However, Michael Mann (1986) shows There were added fears that the security threat within that it was only in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Britain may have led to a rise in Islamophobia - hostility that maps started to represent the world in terms of towards Muslims. The British government responded to separate territories with clearly marked borders. Before these tensions by reviewing its multicultural policies then, maps of medieval Europe had only fuzzy and shifting frontiers and it was not always easy to identify a single Sleepwalking into segregation? In a speech in 2005, Trevor power in control of a clear-cut territory. Phillips, head of the Commission for Racial Equality, warned that Britain was in danger of ‘sleepwalking into segregation’. He feared that Britain’s various ethnic groups National identity were drifting further apart – for example, young people People become aware of their national identity in lots of from ethnic minorities were less integrated than their ways. Stuart Hall (1992) points out that every nation has a parents. A similar view was expressed by Ted Cantle (2005) collection of stories about its shared experiences, sorrows, who described Asians and Whites as leading ‘parallel lives’ triumphs and disasters. These stories are told in the nation’s – separate existences. Cantle saw this as a major cause of proud boasts (its democratic traditions, traditions of the violence which broke out in some towns in the north of independence and freedom), its collective memories (the England in 2001. World Wars, 1966 World Cup victory) and its favourite Community cohesion Policies are being developed in an images (England's ‘green and pleasant land’, cream teas). attempt to create a more cohesive British identity. This does People draw on these stories in order to construct their not mean that ethnic minority groups are expected to sense of national identity. abandon all their cultural traditions. But the state is trying to People are constantly reminded of their national identity create some over-arching loyalties and shared identities – a by symbols and rituals. Symbols include flags, coins, social ‘glue’ to bind Britain’s diverse groups together (a anthems, uniforms, monuments and ceremonies. The ‘community of communities’). For example, it has introduced national flag is a powerful symbol of the identity of a nation ‘citizenship education’ in schools, and ‘citizenship tests’ for – it separates those who belong (the ‘nation’) from outsiders those applying to become British citizens. Culture and identity 35 activity21 flying the flag Item B Ing-land Item B Celebrating Nash Patel flies the St George’s Cross flag in his shop and refers proudly to the England football team as ‘we’. Yet he is not the stereotypical English football fan. His background is Asian, and England is his adopted country, not his homeland. He refers to the team as ‘Ing- land’, not the more belligerent terrace chant of ‘Ing-er- land’. For Patel, the St George’s Cross is now his flag and an expression of pride. He explains ‘It’s my way of saying thank you to England for making me and my family welcome, giving us an education and letting us make a new life here. I’m a British-Asian now’. Yet elsewhere a battle is going on for ‘ownership’ of the flag. Is it a positive statement of identity? Or a reflection of an English nationalism stuck somewhere in the bad old days of racism and violence?

Source: The Observer, 28.05.2006

question

What do these items suggest about Christine Ohuruogu celebrates with the English flag after winning the community cohesion? women’s 400 metres title at the Commonwealth Games in 2006.

This attempt to build a sense of pride in Britishness is highly controversial. How do we define Britishness? By its activity22 Englishness customs (eating fish and chips, watching football)? By its Unspoken rules social institutions (Parliament, monarchy, the rule of law)? Englishness consists of a set of values, outlooks and unspoken By a set of values (tolerance, democracy, freedom of rules (when these are broken, it provokes comment). speech)? Or is it a matter of full citizenship (eg human rights, equality of men and women)? However we define it, • Incompetence and lack of ease in social encounters. some critics argue that it is not something which can be • The high value we attach to humour (we joke about imposed on people – the sense of belonging needs to grow everything). naturally over time. • Desire for order (queuing etc). National cultures • Over-politeness and courtesy (we’re always saying sorry!) Each nation tends to be associated with a distinctive • A down-to-earth and matter-of-fact attitude. culture. The Japanese, for example, have a reputation for • We enjoy moaning and grumbling (this creates politeness and group conformity. But descriptions of social bonding). national cultures are often based on crude stereotypes which seize on a few characteristics and then exaggerate • Our class-consciousness. them. They not only ignore the cultural similarities • A sense of fair play. between countries, they also conceal the cultural variations • A sense of modesty and self-mockery (we dislike boasting). which nearly always exist within every country. For example, Bowie (1993) notes that outsiders generally Source: Fox, 2005 view Wales in terms of broad stereotypes – the Eisteddfod, Welsh hats and shawls, rugby, male voice choirs. To the question outsider, Wales may appear to have a firm sense of identity and a uniform culture. But in actual fact there are major To what extent do you think this list successfully defines cultural divisions between Welsh and non-Welsh speakers, Englishness? between north and south, and between industrial and rural 36 Chapter 1 areas. Most so-called nations are actually cultural ‘hybrids’ increasing popularity in Scotland and Wales. This that contain a mixture of ethnic and cultural groups. resurgence of nationalist feelings has led to some Traditional images National cultures change over time. For devolution of powers (a Parliament in Scotland, an example, the traditional image of Scotland is one of Rabbie Assembly in Wales). Some commentators fear this is a step Burns, whisky, the kilt and bagpipes. But a more up-to-date towards the eventual break-up of Britain. However, others version might include oil rigs, the new Scottish Parliament, have welcomed the opportunity this presents for a fuller ‘silicon glens’ (hi-tech computer industries), and Billy expression of purely English nationalism. For example, the Connolly. So the past is not always a reliable guide to the flag of St George is now rivalling the Union flag in present. Nevertheless, the traditional images and symbols popularity at international football matches. often remain real and meaningful to many people. Another possible threat to British national identity comes from membership of the European Union. Some politicians Creating nations – conclusion are glad that Britain is shaking off its island mentality and reaching out to other parts of Europe. But others are fearful Most nation states actually contain a mix of cultural groups. that Britain will lose its sense of national identity as well as This is true of Britain, with the Celtic nations (Scotland, its powers to make its own political and economic decisions. Wales) claiming a different identity from the English one. Describing a national culture or national identity is a Nationalist attitudes difficult task – there are so many things to choose from, A survey by Dowds and Young (1996) revealed interesting and people will have differing views on the best variations in nationalist sentiments. The majority of their ‘markers’. Besides, national cultures change over time sample (English, Scots, Welsh) had a fairly well-developed and so the declared identity will be a blend of the past attachment to a British identity. These people declared their and the present. patriotic pride in Britain’s cultural heritage and national Politicians agree that Britain is a multicultural society but institutions and they expressed confidence in the future of they also wish to integrate Britain’s ethnic minorities within the nation. But a smaller number of people seemed an over-arching ‘British’ identity. However, there is little relatively unmoved by the symbols of nation and these agreement on what defines ‘Britishness’. were classified as having ‘low’ nationalist sentiments. The survey also identified a further division between two kinds of orientation – inclusive nationalism and exclusive 7.2 Nationalism nationalism. Nationalism is a political doctrine that claims the right of Inclusive nationalism People in this category had no wish every nation to have its own historical homeland and an to draw tight boundaries around membership of the British independent state to run its own affairs. In today’s world, nation. They show a generous willingness to include certain nationalism has gained a rather nasty reputation. It can be ‘marginal’ groups (eg, immigrants, ethnic minorities) as part a divisive force which pitches nations against each other, of the national community and grant them full civic rights. leading to conflict and violence. One example is the long Exclusive nationalism In contrast, people in this group and violent struggle over land between Israeli Jews and place stronger emphasis on maintaining tight national Palestinians. But nationalism can also take less dramatic boundaries by excluding immigrants and ethnic minorities. ‘everyday’ forms. They displayed a rather mean-minded hatred of ‘foreigners’ and an intense dislike for European ‘interference’ in British Everyday nationalism Nationalism penetrates into the political and economic affairs. Dowds and Young’s findings everyday life and outlook of people in societies such as suggest this is a minority view. Britain. Billig (1995) calls this banal nationalism. It is a set of taken-for-granted assumptions (eg, that nations Nationalism – conclusion should be independent, that loyalty to the nation is a It is difficult to escape pressures to adopt nationalist good thing). People are constantly reminded of their sentiments. As Billig points out, they constantly intrude into national identity in lots of subtle ways. Billig lists as our everyday lives. In many ways this is legitimate and examples such things as weather reports (focusing on the innocent. After all, every state is entitled to expect the nation’s weather) and sports coverage (the nation loyalty of its citizens. Also, it is easy to understand why competing against other nations). We are gently many of us develop a sense of patriotism and an affection reminded of our national identity even by minor details for our country and fellow citizens. such as the Union flag fluttering in the forecourt of a More intense forms of nationalism – the ‘exclusive’ kind petrol station. Politicians constantly talk about ‘us’, ‘the – are another matter. They can involve an irrational nation’ in their speeches. hatred of external ‘foreigners’ and an intense resentment of ethnic minorities living in Britain. But the research by Nationalism and Britain Dowds and Young suggests only a small proportion of Over the last decade or so, nationalist parties have enjoyed people take this view. Culture and identity 37 activity23 views of nationalism Item A Fanfare for Britain We are blessed that we are an island. In the past the sea has protected us from rabid dogs, foreign dictatorship and our Continental neighbours, who are very different from us. We have a long and mature tradition of freedom and democracy. Sadly, the Channel no longer protects us from Brussels’ bureaucrats. The European Union is trying to merge us into a Continental culture. Even our heritage of country sports is being threatened. Also, our gentle nationalism has been threatened by large waves of immigrants who resist absorption and try to superimpose their cultures and laws upon us. But nationality is deeply rooted in ties of blood, family, language and religion. It is time we learned to be an island again. Source: N.Tebbit, 1990 Christchurch Infants School questions 1 State why the view expressed in Item A is an example of exclusive nationalism. 2 Explain why Item B seems to display a spirit of inclusive nationalism.

In recent years, nationalist sentiments have been In some cases there may be a trend to cultural uniformity. re-awakened by two major developments – devolution Much of this is due to the United States which has within Britain itself (the so-called ‘break-up’ of Britain) and popularised such things as Coca Cola, baseball hats, moves towards a more integrated European Union. Some trainers and jeans. Global influences also spread from the commentators claim that one result of this is the East – examples include Indian food, Chinese martial arts strengthening of English identity. Nevertheless, in surveys and Buddhist spiritualism. many people still claim a British identity. In other cases, hybrid forms may emerge from the mixing of cultures. This is called glocalisation – the process by 7.3 Globalisation which ‘local’ and ‘global’ cultures interact to produce new forms. For example, Giulianotti and Robertson (2006) National identity may be under threat from globalisation. describe the ways in which Scots who emigrate to North Globalisation is the term used to describe the process America hold on to many ‘local’ Scottish traditions and whereby nations are coming closer together culturally and identities. At the same time, their new ‘global’ situation economically. Interaction between nations becomes more means they have to adapt these local customs to suit their frequent and intense as goods, capital, people, knowledge, new context. For instance, Celtic and Rangers supporters culture, fashions and beliefs flow across territorial become much more friendly towards each other! boundaries. Sometimes there is a resistance to global influences – a The process of globalisation has speeded up in recent French farmer won fame by bulldozing a branch of decades with the spread of markets and the growth of McDonald’s in protest at the introduction of ‘fast food’ global communications networks. The nation states of the chains into French society. But resistance is not always world seem to be losing their independence as they successful – Paris EuroDisney was built in spite of fierce become locked into global networks (eg, the world protests about the ‘Hollywoodisation’ of French life. trading system) and over-arching political units (eg, the European Union). Globalisation – conclusion National cultures Globalisation is a complex process If some globalisation theorists are correct, a spreading and its impact can vary. Most nations have a long history global culture (with a heavy United States influence) may of cultural exchange, and this has not yet wiped out replace national cultures. Instead of national identities, national differences. people may become ‘citizens of the world’. 38 Chapter 1 activity24 a small world Item A McDonald’s

Jakarta, Indonesia

Item B The American dream My children dress like Americans, talk like Americans, behave like Americans. In their imaginations, their dreams and their souls, America is where they think they are. This is strange, because all The world’s largest McDonald’s - Beijing, China three of my children were born in England and have lived here all their lives. Yet they dress like Harlem Blacks, with baseball caps worn backward, baggy jeans and hooded tops. They ghetto-blast rap music, breakdance, moonwalk. They watch American TV shows end-to-end and are fluent in American slang. When we go to the local cinema, everybody in the audience question seems to wear US gear and queue for popcorn, Coke, hamburgers and 26 flavours of ice cream. Afterwards we have a Big Mac with In what ways do Items A and B reflect the influence french fries. of globalisation? Source: Hill, 1995

However, globalisation theorists have been accused of exaggeration. Nation states are still important, even if they key terms are increasingly locked into larger units such as the Nation A population assumed to have a shared identity and European Union. Most people still have a sense of national culture based on their common descent and historical homeland. identity, even if there is greater movement between Nation state A territory run by a sovereign government and countries. Eating Chinese food is not the same thing as based mainly (but not solely) on a single nation. being Chinese. Nationalism A movement or doctrine which stresses the rights to freedom and territory of a nation. Most experts recognise that globalisation is a complex State Public institutions with legal powers over a given territory process and it does not lead inevitably to a single world and a monopoly of the legitimate use of force. culture or identity. Differences in national cultures and Globalisation The process by which the various countries and identities are still clearly visible in the present-day world. cultures of the world become more closely intertwined. But globalisation theorists are right to point out that many Glocalisation The process by which local and global cultures of these differences have been shrinking. interact to produce new forms. Culture and identity 39

summary 1. Nation states have become an established part of the world 5. Nationalism as a political doctrine attempts to achieve order. Some of these so-called nation states are actually sovereignty for the nation. In Britain, this has led to some ‘hybrids’ and contain a mix of cultural groups within the devolution for Wales and Scotland. frontiers of the state. 6. In an everyday sense, nationalism expresses itself in 2. National cultures have some broad distinguishing attachment to the nation and its citizens. For many people characteristics. But they usually have a number of internal this takes the form of inclusive nationalism but for a smaller divisions (they contain different subcultures). They also have number it leads to exclusive nationalism. many similarities with other national cultures (eg, nations 7. Globalisation theorists claim we are moving towards a more frequently exchange customs, food and dress fashions with interconnected world. National cultures are not sealed off to one another). Moreover, they change over time (there are the same extent, and ideas, values and lifestyles freely flow differences between the ‘traditional’ culture and the present- across frontiers. day culture). 8. Globalisation has implications for national identities. The 3. National identities are created through ‘official’ channels (eg, distinctiveness of these identities is becoming eroded under flags, ceremonies) and unofficial channels (eg, stories people the impact of global exchanges. tell about their nation). 4. ‘Britishness’ can be defined in many different ways. However, it is clear that politicians are keen to integrate Britain’s diverse communities within an overall British identity.

Unit 8 Gender identities

on our expectations and perceptions. keyissues Sexuality Sexual behaviour offers clear examples of 1 What is the difference between sex and gender? different cultural expectations of males and females. It is 2 How are gender identities formed? commonly assumed that males and females have different sexual personalities (women more interested in love, men 3 Are gender identities changing? more interested in sex). Also, men and women are given different sexual ‘scripts’ to act out – the man does the chasing, the woman is the passive sex-object. There is also a sexual double-standard – sexual promiscuity can 8.1 Sex and gender enhance a man’s reputation but it may earn a woman an As soon as a baby is born the first question we ask is undesirable reputation as a ‘slag’ (Lees, 1986). whether it is a boy or a girl. We do this because we see males and females as having different ‘natures’ and so we assume they will have different identities and destinies. Table 4 Gender stereotypes However, sociologists challenge these commonsense Feminine Masculine assumptions. They claim that many of the differences affectionate undemonstrative between men and women are not natural but created by tender aggressive society. We can see this more clearly if we make a childlike ambitious distinction between sex and gender. soft spoken assertive Sex This refers to the physical and biological differences shy confident between males and females. They have different genes, cooperative competitive hormones, genitals and secondary sexual characteristics gentle dominant (breasts, hairiness of body and so on). Because sex is a matter of biology, it is usually regarded as something that is Source: Archer & Lloyd, 1985 more or less fixed. Gender This refers to the cultural expectations attached to a person’s sex. In modern Britain, for example, women are Biology or society? seen as sensitive and caring and therefore more suited to Where do gender differences come from? Are they the the supposedly feminine tasks of childcare. Many of these result of biological differences – the biological determinist gender assumptions are highly exaggerated and view? Or are they created by society – the social stereotypical – see Table 4. But they do have an influence constructionist view? 40 Chapter 1

Biological determinism This approach believes gender is Sex and gender – conclusion based on nature. The genetic differences between males Reasons for the differences between men and women are a and females create natural differences in their attitudes and matter of dispute. It is not easy to specify the relative abilities and this explains why they end up in different importance of biology and society in accounting for social roles. For example, Steven Goldberg (1977) argues differences in the behaviour of men and women. that males have an inbuilt ‘dominance tendency’ and this is Nevertheless, the distinction between sex and gender why they tend to occupy the top roles in society. helps us to see that biological differences do not have a Social constructionism This approach argues that gender is direct effect on social roles. Societies have a wide degree of based on ‘nurture’ – socialisation and social environment. freedom to choose gender characteristics and gender roles. Each society creates its own set of gender expectations and Variations from society to society show that these differences steers men and women in the chosen directions. Gender are, at least to some degree, a matter of socialisation. differences cannot be genetically programmed since there are wide variations in masculine and feminine behaviour between societies and over time. 8.2 Gender socialisation Margaret Mead (1935) showed the cultural flexibility of gender in her famous study of three New Guinea tribes Agents of socialisation (New Guinea is a set of islands in the Pacific Ocean). Males and females learn their gender identities and roles Among the Arapesh both sexes were gentle and submissive from a variety of agents of socialisation. (‘feminine’). Among the Mundugamor both sexes were Parents Children are steered towards gender roles and aggressive, rough and competitive (‘masculine’). And identities by their parents. Parents use different terms of among the Tchambuli the gender roles seemed the reverse endearment for boys and girls (‘my brave soldier’, ‘my little of Western stereotypes (women made the sexual advances, princess’). They dress boys and girls differently (blue for and men enjoyed a good gossip!). boys, pink for girls). They channel their children’s energies Mead perhaps over-stated her case – no other study has in particular directions by giving them different toys – guns produced such startling results – but she certainly showed for boys, dolls for girls. They manipulate their children by that gender differences are at least to some extent a matter encouraging different types of activity – boys can be of cultural choice. boisterous but girls should be sweet (Oakley, 1972). Young activity25 gender, biology and culture Item A The Tchambuli Item B Looking good The women go around with shaven heads, unadorned, determinedly busy about their affairs. Adult males in Tchambuli society are skittish (highly strung and fickle), wary of each other, interested in art, in the theatre, in a thousand petty bits of insult and gossip. The men wear lovely ornaments, they do the shopping, they carve and paint and dance. Men whose hair is long enough wear curls, and the others make false curls out of rattan rings. Source: Mead, 1962

question What do these items tell us about the Men from New Guinea in traditional dress nature/nurture debate? Culture and identity 41 children also observe gender differences inside the home Masculinity and femininity (mother tends to do most of the housework and cooking). Hegemonic masculinity Boys tend to be socialised into a School Studies suggest that by the time children start style of masculinity which stresses toughness, competition, school they have already picked up gender stereotypes hierarchy and aggression. This style is called hegemonic from home, peer groups and mass media. Even at this early (dominant) because it crowds out other masculine styles age, they may be keenly aware of gender differences such as artistic and gay masculine identities (Connell, between boys and girls. Sometimes they protest when they 1995). Young men are put under great pressure to present see other children behaving out of ‘character’ – they will themselves as hard, strong and independent. So they soon laugh at a boy who plays with dolls, or get angry when learn to conceal any ‘girly’ signs of gentleness, kindness girls play with ‘boys’ toys’. and vulnerability. Some of these attitudes may be reinforced by their Swots Emma Renold (2001) demonstrated the power of experiences in school. Certainly this is the view of Christine hegemonic masculinity in her study of boys in their final Skelton (2002), based on her study of Benwood Primary year of primary school. She argues that some boys School. She describes the various ways in which gender construct alternative masculinities – gentle, academic, stereotypes were created and maintained in Benwood. artistic and non-sporting. But boys who are studious or At school assembly it was the men teachers who would academic find out very quickly that this conflicts with the be called upon by the headteacher to move equipment hegemonic form of masculinity. They risk being teased and or lead the singing. Teachers who could not recall a ridiculed for being swots, geeks, nerds and squares rather boy’s name would refer to ‘you’ or ‘that boy’, or if it was than ‘real’ boys. So, although they continue to study hard, a girl, ‘darling’ or ‘sweetheart’. Posters and artwork on they learn to adopt strategies to avoid being seen as the walls of the school showed boys being active and feminine. For example, they play down their academic naughty but girls being passive and good. Also, teachers success, they join in the teasing and bullying of other read stories that encouraged boys to be ‘masculine’ studious boys, and they sometimes behave badly in order heroes. In the school football team, boys were taught to disguise their positive attitude towards study. They also how to be ‘manly’ and how to use an ‘acceptable’ level ridicule girls who are seen as too academic, and boys with of physical violence. poor sporting skills. activity26 girls and boys Item A Dating advice Item B The football match The following advice was provided in the Tatler magazine:

It is important to remember that girls and boys are not remotely alike. So here are some dating do’s and don’ts to guide you:

For girls: Never pretend to know For boys: anything about football, even Learn to listen to girls. if you do. Balls are strictly They’re invariably much boys’ territory. brighter than boys. Boys are shy little creatures. The words ‘I love you’ are Laughing at their jokes is sure taken very seriously by girls. to bring them out of their Avoid bandying them about. shells. Laughing at their Very few girls are funny. dancing will not. They probably know this, so Remember that girls cannot huge guffaws every time she drink as much as boys. So opens her mouth will only don’t try to keep up with them annoy her. (it’s part of their game plan). question How do the items illustrate the process of gender socialisation? 42 Chapter 1

Looking right One of the ways a girl expresses her socialisation usually encourages traditional gender roles feminine identity is through her appearance. The which reinforce and justify male dominance. importance of appearance is described by Sue Lees (1993) But if gender differences are socially constructed then in her study of female teenagers in London schools. These they can be changed. Feminists have shown that many of girls put great stress on looking right. Lees argues that this the so-called natural differences between men and women is not a natural feminine thing, neither is it a sign of vanity. are simply not true. Women are perfectly capable of Rather, it is something girls are forced into in order to show building a successful career, and men are perfectly capable they are ‘good’ girls rather than ‘slags’. The girls she spoke of housework – if they try. Therefore feminists have helped to feared that if they dressed in too ‘loose’ or ‘sexy’ a transform many of our assumptions about gender. For fashion their reputations would be destroyed. So they learn example, young women nowadays are no longer socialised to dress and move in an ‘appropriate’ way. into thinking that their future consists solely of marriage According to Lees, a girl is taught that her appearance is and children. crucial to her identity. She learns that her body must be controlled and disciplined. Girls must act modestly, sit with Gender socialisation – conclusion their legs firmly together rather than spread out, and avoid Some experts say that gender differences are so natural that eye contact with any man they meet in the street. They are they are bound to emerge in any society. That may or may taught that they should not take up too much space or talk not be the case. But we can see clearly that most societies too much. help them on their way – they encourage gender differences. Feminism The basic assumption shared by feminists is They do this through the process of socialisation. that the gender divisions in society operate to the Boys and girls are participants in this learning process disadvantage of women. The process of gender and they take an active part in constructing their particular activity27 real women Item A Snow White

Item B Changing attitudes Percentages disagreeing with the statement: ‘A husband’s job is to earn the money; a wife’s job is to look after the home and the children’.

1984 1994

Men 34 57 Women 41 61 Employed women 59 77 question What do the items tell us about changes in attitudes Adapted from British Social Attitudes surveys to gender? Culture and identity 43 identities. But they have to do this against a background Fashion victims where certain forms of masculinity and femininity are Another area where gender differences seem to be dominant and others are subordinate. Hegemonic converging is fashion. Traditionally, concern with fashion masculinity makes it difficult for boys to forge alternative and personal appearance was seen as the province of masculine identities. women. ‘Real’ men, by contrast, were careless about how Feminists believe that men have greater power and they looked or simply followed convention. However, this arrange society in a way that suits them. But feminists have is changing. challenged this male power in recent decades. New masculinities David Abbott (2000) provides a useful overview of men’s growing interest in fashion and grooming. Drawing on the work of writers like Frank Mort 8.3 Changing identities and Sean Nixon, he describes big shifts in the fashion styles of young men over recent decades. It seems they are Gender roles and identities change over time. For example, taking a keener interest in their clothes, hair and personal in the past a woman’s place was thought to be firmly in the appearance. They are growing more confident about home. But nowadays more and more women are building expressing themselves through the way they dress and careers. This inevitably has an effect on how they see groom (eg, use of aftershave, male perfumes, hair gel, even themselves and how they are seen by others. It also make-up). Nowadays, they are learning to get pleasure reminds us that gender identities can overlap, with men from what was traditionally seen as a feminine and women adopting similar attitudes and lifestyles. preoccupation with personal image. Their identities Nowadays, for example, young women are sometimes increasingly revolve around their dress sense, their body accused of behaving just as ‘badly’ as young men. image and the right look.

Behaving badly Crisis of masculinity One sign that the gender divide may be slowly Not all men are motivated by fashion and style. Heavy disappearing is the similarity in the behaviour of ‘lads’ and manual work such as mining or shipbuilding provided some ‘ladettes’. working-class men with a strong sense of male pride. Now these sorts of jobs are disappearing. New jobs tend to be Lads Masculinity is something which varies over time. In based around computers and telecommunications and are the 1980s, for example, some claimed that ‘New Men’ often taken by women. In education, they see girls’ were appearing in Britain. The New Man was a non-sexist, achievement outpacing boys at every age. Mac an Ghaill non-aggressive male who was sensitive and considerate, (1994) describes the insecurity faced by these men as a ‘crisis sharing and caring. But in the 1990s this sensitive type was of masculinity’. Their traditional masculine identity is no upstaged by the rising popularity of yobbish ‘lads’. It longer relevant yet they are not comfortable with alternative became fashionable once again for young men to have a male identities. Men may respond to this ‘crisis’ in a number good time through sex, lager, football and loutish of ways including becoming depressed, fatalistic (giving up), behaviour. Some journalists dubbed this new style ‘lad turning to crime, or by adopting new identities. culture’. It was celebrated in television programmes such as Men Behaving Badly and in men’s magazines such as Loaded. Its heroes (role models) were football stars or rock stars who behaved in outrageous ways. Ladettes Today, there is a female counterpart to the lad – the ‘ladette’. Following in the wake of the lads, the ladette seems equally willing to booze, swear and indulge her sexual appetites. As ladette culture has spread, new female role models have appeared in the media and they attract a huge following. They are admired for their sassy, don’t- give-a-damn attitude and their readiness to compete on equal terms with the lads. Their cultural values are celebrated in magazines like Cosmopolitan. Judging by the similar values of lads and ladettes, the gender gap seems to be closing. However, the extent to which lads and ladettes represent an accurate picture of young people today is ‘The Full Monty’: redundant steelworkers practising for their new open to question. Many see these terms as being used by career as strippers – an unusual way of responding to the crisis of the media to attract interest rather than accurate masculinity! descriptions of social change. 44 Chapter 1

Freedom’s children Changing gender identities – conclusion Helen Wilkinson (1997) refers to research she conducted on Gender differences are becoming blurred as gender a national sample of 18-34 year-olds. This research suggests identities and lifestyles slowly converge. Many of the that the values of this young generation (‘freedom’s differences have been eroded by the impact of feminism, children’) are markedly different from those of their parents. social change and equal opportunities legislation. There has been a huge shift in values between the There are signs that some gender stereotypes are generations. Young people nowadays tend to be much more declining in today’s British society. For example, teachers confident and assertive. Although they have to make many are encouraging young women to plan for a career, not just difficult decisions, they take it for granted that they can for marriage and having children. control their own lives and choose their own lifestyles. There is greater flexibility in gender behaviour and both Wilkinson was particularly struck by the rising power and men and women are experimenting with a wider range of confidence of women. They are more willing to take risks, gender roles. live life ‘on the edge’, and seek pleasure and fun. Many of However, there is still a long way to go as many gender them reject the notion of separate spheres for men and stereotypes are proving very resistant to change. women. They have discarded the stereotypes of ‘male breadwinners’ and ‘female homemakers’. Most of them have grown up assuming that sexual equality is their birthright. key terms Wilkinson believes there has been a growing Hegemonic masculinity The dominant style of masculinity which convergence – coming together – of the values of young stresses toughness, competition, hierarchy and aggression. men and women. Men’s values are becoming more Gender A set of cultural expectations about how males and ‘feminine’ and women’s are becoming more ‘masculine’. females should behave. According to her findings, young people are moving away Sex A classification of males and females according to their from the old gender stereotypes and roles. Instead, they biological characteristics. want to flirt with both their masculine and feminine sides. Sexuality The emotions, desires, attitudes and direction of our They value their freedom to choose and their right to sex drive. express their own individuality. activity28 gender games Item A Line dancing Norman Horton enjoyed his new hobby of line dancing so much that he decided to go twice a week – once as a man and once as a woman. Mr Horton, aged 58, would set off on Tuesday nights in open-neck shirt, trousers and stetson. But on Wednesdays he transformed himself into Norma, with a frilly blouse, short skirt, gold tights and high heels. A former paratrooper and military policeman, he has been cross-dressing since the age of 12. ‘My wife doesn’t mind me cross-dressing as long as I don’t do it too often and keep it under control.’ Source: The Guardian,17.4.1998

Item B Bodybuilders

Norman on Tuesdays Norma on Wednesdays

question What do the items tell us about changing gender identities? The top three in the women’s bodybuilding world championship, 2002 Culture and identity 45

summary 1. In every society, men and women are expected to behave 3. Gender socialisation operates at many levels in society. differently from each other. Biological determinists say this is Parents and schools socialise young children into gender inevitable because of the biological differences between the roles, and mass media often reinforce these distinctions. sexes. They say men and women have different aptitudes 4. Feminists believe that men benefit from the widespread view and abilities and so they are suited for different social roles. that certain tasks (like child-rearing or housework) are 2. Social constructionists point out that gender expectations naturally the responsibility of women. differ from society to society. It is hardly likely, then, that 5. There are signs that old gender identities are breaking these expectations are rooted in biological differences. down. They have not vanished altogether but there is some Rather, they are the result of socialisation. Societies have evidence of convergence in male and female identities. At considerable choice in deciding which cultural roles they will the same time, there is a new flexibility and freedom in the allocate to men and women. way people express their gender identities.

Unit 9 Class identities

which share a similar economic position. Over the years keyissues sociologists have used a variety of occupational 1 What is social class? classifications to identify social classes. The latest version is the Office of National Statistics (ONS) Social Class 2 How do classes differ in their identities and culture? Scheme – see Table 7. 3 How is class identity changing?

Table 6 Marketable wealth, United Kingdom, 2003 (stocks and shares, land, homes, savings, possessions etc) 9.1 Living in a class society Social class Top 1% of population own 21% of total wealth Top 5% of population own 72% of total wealth Income and wealth are unequally distributed across the population of Britain – see Tables 5 and 6. Some groups Top 50% of population own 93% of total wealth enjoy high incomes and considerable wealth while others Source: Social Trends, 2007, Office for National Statistics are condemned to poverty. Moreover, this is not a totally random lottery. Your chances of ‘winning’ or ‘losing’ depend to a large extent on your social class – your position in the social and economic structure. Table 7 Office of National Statistics (ONS) Social Occupation Most sociologists find it convenient to use Class Scheme occupation as a measure of a person’s social class. So a Class 1 Higher managerial and professional (eg, company social class can be viewed as a cluster of occupations directors, lawyers, doctors) Class 2 Lower managerial/professional (eg, junior managers, Table 5 Average weekly pay, Great Britain, 2002 social workers, nurses, police sergeants) Highest paid Class 3 Intermediate (eg, clerical workers, secretaries, computer operators) Treasurers and financial managers £ 1,234 Class 4 Small employers and self-employed (eg, taxi drivers, Medical practitioners £ 1,159 window cleaners, shopkeepers) Solicitors £ 899 Class 5 Supervisors, craft and related (eg, printers, plumbers, Lowest paid train drivers) Waiters, waitresses £ 211 Class 6 Semi-routine (eg, shop assistants, hairdressers, Petrol pump attendants £ 211 cooks) Check-out operators £ 205 Class 7 Routine (eg, waiters, cleaners, labourers)

Source: Adapted from the New Earnings Survey, 2002, Office Class 8 Never worked/long-term unemployed f or National Statistics Source: Office for National Statistics, 2007 46 Chapter 1 activity29 classes apart Item A Class acts

Opera singer Greyhound racing at Wimbledon Stadium

Item B Class divisions A bitter struggle has broken out in Gloucestershire where home owners on a private estate are objecting to an unemployed family of ten moving into a housing association property. Some residents argue they would lower the tone of the neighbourhood. They have signed a petition demanding that the local authority erect a wall to divide the private properties from the rest. Mrs Monks flicked cigarette ash on the carpet as she said, ‘It’s bloody snobbery. Those people signing petitions think they’re better than us because we ain’t working and can’t afford to buy a house.’ Mrs Smith, a home-owner, says her objection to the Monks is not personal, just business (it will affect the value of her house). ‘Yes, it sounds snooty’, she says, ‘but I challenge anyone in our position to say they would feel differently.’ She The Monk family added, ‘The Monks and us are different types of people. I Tina Smith know some people will think I’m a stuck-up cow, but I’ve paid for the right to live the way I want to live.’ Item C Chav hunt Source: The Guardian, 22.9.1995 A YouTube video shows students at Glenalmond College (an expensive public school) on horseback chasing youths clad in tracksuits and trainers and Burberry caps. Victims are picked off by a shotgun as they run across a field, one of the ‘dead’ chavs is prodded by a smug-looking aristocrat. In another scene, a cap-wearing chav is hauled from a river like he is a salmon while his hunter pretends to thrash him with a rod. Although the video was probably intended as humour and irony, critics said it came across as brash, crass and arrogant. question Source: Independent Television News, 14.8.2007 What do Items A, B and C suggest about class identities and differences? Culture and identity 47

Class cultures and identities Upper-class culture and identity The narrow view of class is that it is solely a matter of The upper classes share a strong sense of identity. This is occupation, income and wealth. But class is much wider because the upper class is ‘closed’ – its members tend to than money and possessions. When we think of social be the children of upper-class parents. Social closure in the class we also think of social and cultural features. We see upper class is the result of a shared culture that creates a each social class as having its own special identity, its own web of links and contacts. These connections make it set of values, its own lifestyles and habits. difficult for non-members to penetrate the upper class. Class cultures The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu The key elements of upper-class culture involve (1984) suggests that social classes have their own cultural education, family ties and social and leisure activities. values, tastes and preferences. This expresses itself in According to John Scott (1982), the upper class ‘is things like their choice of food, music, newspapers and characterised by a high degree of social cohesion, the main leisure pursuits. Social classes even develop their own supports of this cohesion being its system of kinship and ways of walking, talking and eating. They have different educational experience’. attitudes towards the body. For example, working-class Education The children of upper-class families are usually people tend to be more tolerant of ‘middle-age spread’ educated in top public schools such as Eton and Harrow (putting on weight as they get older) but middle-class and many go on to the most prestigious universities – professionals are more likely to join fitness programmes in Oxford and Cambridge. Throughout their education, order to keep their bodies trim. valuable social contacts are made with each other and with Class identities From an early age we are socialised into other young people likely to end up in positions of power the lifestyles and values of the class of our parents. The and influence. These contacts can prove to be extremely upbringing of a child in a wealthy detached house in a helpful later in life – the ‘old boy network’. Public schools desirable suburb of London will be very different from that also socialise their pupils into high levels of self-confidence of the child of an unemployed single parent in the council and an acute sense of their social superiority. flat half a mile away. Family, marriage and kinship The exclusive lifestyle and We learn to identify with members of our own social experiences of the upper class mean that its young class (‘us’) and become aware of the differences that members tend to socialise with other members of the same separate us from other social classes (‘them’). In other class. The result is a tendency for the upper class to words, we become class conscious. intermarry. As time goes on, more and more kinship connections develop between upper-class families. Social and leisure activities During their socialisation, 9.2 The upper class young members of the upper class are introduced to the exclusive social events that provide a distinctive upper- The upper class is not listed separately in the ONS scheme. class lifestyle. Often these are based on old aristocratic This is partly because it is relatively small – less than 1% of traditions and provide a sense of ‘real class’. They also the population according to Kenneth Roberts (2001). But it provide a circuit where further connections and contacts is also because it is defined by its enormous wealth rather can be made. than by the occupations of its members. Britain’s upper These events include hunting, shooting, Wimbledon class enjoys tremendous privileges of wealth and prestige. (tennis), the Henley Regatta (rowing), Cowes week (sailing), The upper class consists of a number of interlocking Royal Ascot (horse racing), Glyndebourne (opera) and the groups. Chelsea Flower Show. Together, they provide a clear picture of a distinctive upper-class lifestyle (Roberts, 2001). ● Landowning aristocrats These are the ‘old’ titled families and large landowners. The Duke of However, by no means all of the upper class live a life of Northumberland, for example, owns about 120,000 glamorous leisure. Chris Rojek (2000) used statistics and acres of land as well as a Thames-side mansion and a biographical data to study the lives of three of the richest medieval castle. men in the world, Bill Gates (owner of Microsoft), Warren ● Entrepreneurs Nowadays the ‘idle rich’ are a rare Buffett (investor in stocks and shares) and Richard Branson breed. Many of the upper class have gained their wealth (owner of Virgin). He found that their lives were centred around their work. They worked long hours and, if they did from owning or running businesses. Some, such as attend exclusive social occasions, used them mainly to Richard Branson, are ‘self-made’ rather than having make and develop business connections. inherited their wealth. ● Jet set The upper class includes a number of people who have made their money in the fields of sport and Upper-class values entertainment. It includes pop stars such as Mick Jagger The values of the entrepreneurial upper class centre on and Elton John who have knighthoods and mix with their work. Rojek argues that, at least for the seriously aristocracy and royalty. wealthy individuals he studied, work is valued as a source 48 Chapter 1 of pleasure, fun and excitement. Authority A belief in social hierarchy. They think society However, the values of the old aristocratic upper class works best when it is organised into different levels or are based more on the importance of tradition, authority ranks. People should show proper respect to those in and breeding. positions of authority. Tradition The old upper class are conservative in their Breeding and background A ‘good’ background is seen as a values and politics. They wish to preserve the historical guarantee that someone will have the appropriate attitudes, traditions and customs of British society. manners and values. activity30 upper-class lifestyles Item A The social circuit

Strawberries and champagne at Royal Ascot A grouse shoot in Scotland

Item B Richard Branson

Richard Branson is said to need eight hours sleep but works for the rest of the time. He is well-known for dressing casually and has no expensive tastes in food or drink. He enjoys the excitement of potentially rewarding but risky ventures, as in air and rail transport. He owns a Caribbean island and homes in Oxfordshire and London. Branson is best known for his world record attempts at water-borne trans-Atlantic crossing and long-distance hot-air ballooning. These are extremely expensive and therefore exclusive leisure activities. For Branson, they are brief interruptions in his normal way of life. Source: Roberts, 2001

Richard Branson in a hot-air balloon over Marrakech questions 1 How is attendance at the sort of events shown in Item A 2 Compare the lifestyle and values of Richard Branson connected to social closure? (Item B) with those of more traditional members of the upper class. Culture and identity 49

9.3 The middle classes Mike Savage et al. (1992) noted that the middle class is traditionally regarded as respectable and deeply The term middle classes refers mainly to ONS classes 1 conformist. Yet nowadays, they are often the pioneers of and 2. Sometimes the term is used in a broader way to new cultural styles. Savage et al. used survey data to include all non-manual workers including routine (semi- identify three distinctive (but overlapping) middle-class skilled) white collar workers such as secretaries and office lifestyles. workers. This wider definition would include ONS classes 3 and 4 although the ONS scheme now describes these Postmodern This lifestyle is adopted mainly by artists, classes as an ‘intermediate’ group (presumably somewhere advertising executives and ‘yuppies’. It combines rather between middle class and working class). contradictory and diverse interests. They like opera and skiing as well as stock car racing and ‘street culture’. They It is very difficult to make general statements about the have extravagant, self-indulgent tastes (champagne, culture and identity of the middle classes. There are two expensive restaurants, drug use), but they also follow reasons for this. health and fitness cults (dieting, rigorous exercise). The middle class come from diverse backgrounds There has been a spectacular growth in the middle classes – from Ascetic This lifestyle is found mainly among those 30% of the population in 1951 to an estimated 60% by the employed in education, health and welfare. Typically they year 2000. The ‘old’ middle classes (the established have high cultural capital – they are confident, well-read professions and self-employed business people) have been and articulate – but modest economic capital – money, joined by the expanding ranks of public sector wealth, property. They are ascetic in their tastes (their professionals (social workers, teachers, civil servants). consumption of alcohol is low). Their leisure pursuits tend There has also been a growth in the number of people in to be intellectual (classical music) and individualistic (hill office work, sales and personal services. walking). Many members of today’s middle classes have come from Managerial Managers and government officials tend to be working-class backgrounds and many are women. The the least distinctive group as far as cultural tastes are middle classes – unlike the upper class – are thus very open concerned. They follow more conventional middle-class to ‘outsiders’ who merely have to achieve reasonably well activities such as golf or fishing. They are also keen on the at school to join their swelling ranks. This means that the countryside and on heritage (they visit National Trust social backgrounds of the middle classes are very mixed. houses and museums). They may have little in common with each other, so a shared culture and identity may not be immediately visible. Middle-class values The middle class includes a wide range of jobs There are Again, these vary according to particular groupings in the large differences in the pay and status of the middle middle classes. classes. A part-time office worker in a small engineering business has little in common with a top solicitor. A Professionals The higher level of this group is made up of solicitor may earn up to five or six times as much. Yet, if a doctors, lawyers, architects, accountants and business broad definition of social class is used, both can be placed executives. Nearly all have been to university and place a in the middle classes as both are non-manual occupations. high value on education, training and independence. Most The diversity of the middle classes means that people in of the sons of higher professionals end up in similar jobs, these groups may have little in common, thus making it suggesting that parents have been successful in passing on less likely they will develop a shared culture or identity. the values of hard work and educational achievement (McDonough, 1997). Middle-class culture and lifestyles Teachers, social workers and local government officers are among those who fit into the lower levels of the Most sociologists have avoided general statements about professions. Those that work in the public sector middle-class culture for the reasons given above. Roberts (employed by local or central government) have shown (2001) is an example, ‘The present-day middle classes are themselves willing to join with others in collective action distinguished by the fact that there are so many lifestyle (joining trade unions and taking strike action) to defend variations among them, some related to age, gender, ethnicity and education’. the welfare state or pursue a pay claim – actions typically associated with the working class. However, he does argue that the middle classes are characterised by a more active and diverse range of leisure Roberts (2001) identifies three main values (what he activities than the working class. ‘They take more holidays, calls ‘preoccupations’) associated with the professional play more sports, make more visits to theatres and the middle classes. countryside, and eat out more frequently’ (Roberts, 2001). 1 Service The middle classes expect a ‘service’ Fragmentation of middle-class lifestyles Most sociologists relationship with their employer. They value trust and suggest that the middle class is broken up or ‘fragmented’ responsibility in their work and want to be able to into different lifestyle groups. exercise discretion when and where they see fit. 50 Chapter 1

2 Career They value the opportunity to gain promotion or masculinity’ where physical strength and courage were to advance a career by changing job. There is a linked highly valued. Bonds between men were strong and they concern for the education of their children. The middle frequently socialised outside work. classes expect their children to succeed at school and Home The home was often crowded and noisy but it held are willing to take any steps necessary to make this a special place in people’s affections. The burden of happen (private tutors, changing schools, private housework, cooking and childcare usually fell to women. education). Many women were full-time housewives, unless poverty 3 Meritocracy This is a belief that positions should be forced them to take on part-time jobs. achieved by ability and effort. They are against any Family The traditional working class felt marriage was for form of discrimination and believe that qualifications life and so they disapproved of divorce. The members of are very important. the extended family often lived close to one another and Routine white-collar workers This group are involved in there was a lot of visiting, especially among the women. office work but have little freedom and responsibility. The Community The traditional working class formed close-knit work may involve sitting in front of a computer screen or communities where they had large circles of friends and using a phone all day. Many women work in these jobs acquaintances. They valued these community bonds. They and much of the work is part time. Nearly all of it is poorly met one another frequently on the street, in shops and in paid. Some sociologists have gone so far as to suggest the local pub, and they took a keen interest in local gossip these workers should be in the working class and the ONS and affairs. scale describes them as ‘intermediate’ (between the middle Class consciousness The traditional working class had a and working classes). strong class identity. Their identity was sharpened by the However, there is little sign that this group hold typical experience of working together to improve wages and working-class values. Many are not in unions and they do working conditions. They made a distinction between ‘us’ not hold an ‘us and them’ view of their relationship with (the working class) and ‘them’ (bosses, the middle class, their bosses. They see work as a way of improving their anyone in authority). They sided with trade unions and the quality of life, allowing them to take foreign holidays and Labour Party. buy more consumer goods (McDonough, 1997). Self-employed and small business owners The middle The ‘new’ working class classes also include entrepreneurs – employers with small and medium sized businesses, and the self-employed. A shift away from ‘smokestacks’ (large factories employing Roberts argues that this group has a distinctive set of lots of manual workers) towards ‘high-tech’ units values. They are individualistic and proud of it. They (employing skilled technicians rather than assembly line believe that people should be independent and stand on workers) has meant that the traditional working class has their own feet rather than rely on the welfare state. They declined. Sociologists have mapped the resulting changes also place great faith in hard work and discipline – they in working-class culture over the years. firmly believe that success in life is a result of effort and Privatism The working class now live a more private, application rather than luck. home-centred life. The old ties of community have been weakened. People increasingly base their life around the 9.4 The working class home and family activities. Changing gender roles Britain is hardly a ‘unisex’ society The working class is composed of manual workers (ONS but the differences in gender roles are now less classes 5, 6 and 7). In 1951 this accounted for about 70% pronounced among the working class. The old of the working population but over the years it has shrunk breadwinner/home-minder distinction has largely broken to under half. Like the middle class, the working class down. Women are much more likely to have jobs and men contains a range of occupations which differ in pay, status are much more likely to accept at least some responsibility and power. for housework and childcare tasks. Materialism Britain’s working class has benefited from the Traditional working class general rise in living standards over the past fifty or so This was the dominant working class type from around the years. They are more likely to own homes and cars, spend end of the nineteenth century until the 1950s or 1960s. Its a lot on consumer goods and enjoy foreign holidays. For culture and values have been lovingly described by writers many it is no longer a matter of just ‘getting by’ – they such as Hoggart (1957) and Young and Willmott (1957). save, plan and invest, just like the middle class. These are some of its key features. Social mobility The changing occupational structure of Male breadwinners Men were regarded as the main Britain has created greater opportunities for upward mobility breadwinners in the family. Many of them worked in heavy into the middle class. So today’s working class are less likely and dangerous industries such as mining, steel, to resign themselves or their children to their humble station shipbuilding and the docks. This bred a form of ‘rugged in life – there is more emphasis on ‘getting on’ and ‘getting Culture and identity 51 activity31 spot the difference

question Use the cartoons to spot the differences between the ‘traditional’ and ‘new’ working class.

ahead’. Social horizons have widened and they are more Blaming the victim Many sociologists accuse Murray of ambitious. One effect of this ‘ladder of opportunity’ may be unfairly ‘blaming the victim’. They say the underclass are to weaken class consciousness and class solidarity. not to blame for their social disadvantage. Rather, they Leisure In the past working-class identity was based around have been ‘socially excluded’ by more powerful groups in work – the men in the factories or mines, the women in the society. These powerful groups have adopted policies that home. Nowadays, they are more likely to define create poverty and unemployment. As a result, the themselves by their hobbies and recreational activities. underclass has been cut off from the prosperity and Leisure has become a central life interest. opportunities enjoyed by the general population. The critics of Murray also challenge the idea that the values of the underclass are really so different from the rest 9.5 The underclass of society. They say that most members of the underclass share the same mainstream social values as everyone else The underclass (ONS class 8) is located at the very bottom (Dean and Taylor-Gooby 1992). of the class pyramid. Its members are so poor and Cause or effect? Even if the underclass has different values, disadvantaged that they are ‘under’ the normal class it is not clear what this means. It is possible that their structure. They suffer poverty, unemployment, bad housing, values are the cause of their problems (eg, laziness may ill health and poor educational opportunities. Some lead to unemployment). But it is equally possible that their sociologists see them as more or less permanently trapped values are the effect of their disadvantage – if they are at the bottom. They say children are socialised into this constantly denied employment opportunities then they may way of life and so the values and lifestyles of the become apathetic and demoralised. Peter Saunders (1990) underclass are passed on from one generation to the next indicates how this might happen: ‘Inactivity breeds apathy. (Murray, 1994). Empty hours are filled with sleep, and days go by in a dull Underclass values Some social scientists claim the haze of television programmes and signing on. Sooner or underclass are poor or unemployed because of their values later the unemployed become unemployable.’ and morals – they are often seen as lazy, workshy Living in a class society – conclusion scroungers. Charles Murray, an American writer, calls them the ‘new rabble’. He claims they prefer to live off crime or Class is a complex matter. There is no simple link between welfare benefits rather than work. He also accuses them of class and values. For example, we have seen how certain irresponsible attitudes to parenthood – young women values (eg, hard work, education) are shared by most social carelessly get pregnant and young men become ‘absent classes. We have also seen how there are different values fathers’ and poor role models for their children. Children and lifestyles within each class. who grow up in a household where no-one works are Class is also a contested matter – sociologists disagree likely to settle into the same lifestyle. about it. For example, some sociologists think that routine 52 Chapter 1 activity32 the underclass? Item A The ‘new rabble’ Item B Murray’s view of the underclass ● Low skilled and poorly educated ● Single parent families are the norm ● Depend on welfare benefits and ‘moonlighting’ ● High levels of crime, child abuse and drug abuse ● Unwilling to get a job ● Children have truancy and discipline problems Source: Murray, 1994

Item C A single parent questions Judith Gardam, age 28, single mother who lives on state questions benefits. 1 Argue the case that the behaviour in Item B is: I’m sure if the Government sat down and spoke to me and had a) caused by the culture and values described in a cup of tea with me they’d get to like me. I have learnt about Item A, life. I know how to love, I have got compassion, I have feelings for people. But do they have feelings for anybody but b) creates the culture and values described in themselves? I want something better for the kids and I am Item A. attending college part time. But at the moment I feel I am lower 2 Use Item C to argue that the poorest do not have than lower class.… separate values from the rest of society. Source: Cockburn, 1993

white-collar workers belong to the middle class while golf while the working class were more likely to spend others think they are part of the working class. Some their evening greyhound racing. Nowadays, lifestyles and believe a distinct underclass exists while others argue that identities are much more diverse and flexible. They are this group is simply the lowest level of the working class. based on individual choice rather than class background. Also, class culture and values change over time. For For example, we might find it difficult to guess the class example, the values of the ‘traditional’ working class are background of hang-gliders, ballroom dancers or football not the same as those of the ‘new’ working class. supporters. Consumption Another threat to class identities comes from the rise of consumer culture. People may once have built 9.6 A classless society? their identities around work and production but nowadays their lives are more likely to be centred on their leisure and A number of sociologists now reject the idea that class is the things they spend their money on – their consumption. still the dominant force in shaping people’s identities. They So identities may no longer be based on how people earn claim that what matters in contemporary society is no their money – a matter of occupation and class – but on longer class and occupation. Identities are increasingly how they spend it – a matter of consumer lifestyles (Clarke based on lifestyle and consumption (Saunders, 1990). & Saunders, 1991). Lifestyles According to Pakulski and Waters (1996), Consumer goods are important not so much for lifestyles are becoming a central organising feature of themselves as for what they say about the tastes and style people's lives and a major source of social and personal of the consumers. People are usually aware that they are identity. These lifestyles are less and less likely to be based making a statement about themselves through their on social class. consumption habits. They signal their lifestyles by what At one time people tended to follow traditional class- they choose to wear, eat, drink, listen to or collect. These based leisure pursuits. The middle class may have enjoyed consumption choices express and establish their identity. Culture and identity 53

Answering back found that very few of their sample believed Britain was a Is it really true that class has become so insignificant? A classless society. Most of them were quite comfortable number of sociologists insist that class is still an important talking about class ‘out there’ in society – they were factor in contemporary society. For example, there are still familiar with class terminology and they recognised the striking inequalities between classes in many areas of life – social and political importance of class. Also, they talked see Table 8. And these inequalities do not appear to be freely about their own life histories in class terms (eg, some declining. of them described how they had moved from a working- class background into the middle class). Personal identity However, Savage et al. found that most of Table 8 Class inequalities the people they interviewed were rather hesitant about identifying themselves as members of any class. Most saw Life expectancy People in the top two classes live five years themselves as ‘outside’ classes. They preferred to describe (men) or three years (women) longer than those in the bottom themselves as ‘ordinary’ or as ‘individuals’ rather than see two classes. themselves as products of some class background. They felt Health Among professionals, 17% (men) and 25% (women) their own individuality was under threat if they were report a long-standing illness. Among unskilled workers, the ‘labelled’ in class terms. figures are 48% (men) and 45% (women). Savage et al. conclude that class identities are generally Unemployment Unemployment rates are about four times weak. Most people recognise the relevance of class in the wider society but are not keen to express their own personal higher among unskilled workers than among professional identities in class terms. So the typical attitude towards class groups. identity is one of ambivalence – mixed feelings. Victims of crime In 1995, 4% of affluent (well-off) suburban families were burgled, compared with 10% of families living A classless society? – conclusion in council and low-income estates. The recent emphasis on consumption and lifestyles is a Suicide In 1993 in England and Wales, suicide for men was response to changes in society. The old class divisions four times greater in the bottom class than in the top class. seem to be breaking down and it is not so easy to predict Source: Acheson, 1998 someone’s lifestyle purely on the basis of their social class. Lifestyles appear to involve more choice than in the past. Some sociologists say we should not be deceived by the Class identity Is it really true that class identities have appearance of diversity and choice in modern society. declined? A survey by Gordon Marshall et al. (1989) found Many of the differences in lifestyles are rather superficial. that about 60% of the sample thought of themselves as When it comes to the important things – life chances, belonging to a particular social class, and over 90% could opportunities, power – class is still the most important place themselves in a class if prompted. These figures factor governing our lives. The lone parent on the bleak suggest that class identities manage to survive in spite of housing estate has limited freedom to experiment with competition from lifestyle and consumer identities. Indeed, different lifestyles. Marshall et al. argue that class is the most common and Nevertheless, a distinction has to be drawn between powerful source of social identity. Other identities may class influences and class identities. Our position in the have grown in importance but they have not displaced class structure certainly has an impact on our opportunities class identities from their central position. and living conditions. But this does not necessarily mean This view is supported by Fiona Devine (1997). After that we are always conscious of class, or that it is our reviewing a wide range of research, she concludes that central identity. Savage et al. show that people often have class is still the most common and significant social mixed feelings and are hesitant about defining themselves identity in Britain. Class identities remain much stronger in class terms. than identities based on things like shopping tastes or leisure pursuits. key terms

Researching class identity Social class A group which occupies a particular social and economic position in society. A survey by Mike Savage et al. (2001) presents a rather more complicated picture. They suggest that class is still Class consciousness Awareness of being in a particular an important influence on people’s lives and living social class. standards. At the same time, class identities seem to have Lifestyle A distinctive set of tastes, attitudes and behaviour. weakened. Underclass The poorest and most under-privileged section Class out there Savage et al. investigated the class of society. identities of 178 people in the Manchester area. They 54 Chapter 1

summary 1. Sociologists allocate people to social classes according to their 6. The working class consists of those in manual jobs. Traditional economic position in society. Occupation is usually selected as working-class culture emphasised class consciousness, the most convenient indicator of class. community and the extended family. ‘New’ working-class 2. Class seems to affect many other aspects of our lives. Not just culture focuses on leisure and the home. the job we do and the money we earn, but also our attitudes, 7. Some sociologists believe that an underclass exists consisting lifestyles and values. You can predict quite a lot about a of the unemployed and those dependent on welfare benefits. person’s values, behaviour and identity from their social class. This group has developed its own norms and values. Others 3. Society can be broken down into four major classes: upper, dispute this view and see the underclass as sharing similar middle, working and underclass. There are some overlaps values to the rest of society. between these classes in their values, lifestyles and identities. 8. Some sociologists argue that lifestyles and consumption are But there are also some broad class differences. now more important than class as sources of identity. 4. The upper class is made up of those who possess great wealth. 9. It would be foolish to think that class has faded into Members of the upper class share a strong sense of identity insignificance. People’s lives are still greatly affected by their based on public school education and family connections. class position. But class identities do seem to be weaker now 5. The middle class is made up of people in non-manual jobs. It is than in the past. difficult to generalise about middle-class culture and identity as the people and jobs making up the expanding middle class are so diverse. Professionals value education highly and take part in a wide range of leisure activities. The self-employed value independence and hard work.

Unit 10 Leisure, consumption and identity

nineteenth century demanded long hours of toil, under keyissues strict supervision, in factories, mines and workshops. As a 1 What are the main patterns of leisure? result, work and leisure became sharply separated. 2 Does leisure play a significant role in identity formation? Walvin (1978) describes how the Victorians cracked down on the ‘sinful recreations’ of earlier times – such as 3 How meaningful are virtual identities? cock-fighting, violent sports, and heavy gambling and 4 What role does consumption play in identity formation? drinking. Employers and the state encouraged ‘wholesome 5 What are the main explanations of consumer lifestyles? recreation’ such as mass sports (eg, football, rugby and athletics) which were organised in leagues and closely regulated. The expansion of parks, museums and libraries offered further opportunities for healthy exercise and 10.1 Leisure cultural improvement. Leisure can be defined in terms of time – as the time left Mass leisure The twentieth century ushered in an age of over after work, or as the time left over after work and free mass leisure and a wider range of cultural and leisure from all non-work obligations (eg, sleeping, shopping, activities. This was partly due to a long-term reduction in cooking). Alternatively, it may be seen in terms of working hours and the appearance of a more leisurely particular activities and attitudes – the enjoyable things ‘weekend’. Another factor was increased spending power people choose to do with their free hours. which put leisure activities within the reach of ordinary people. Improved transport (eg, railways) created better Historical changes opportunities for outings such as trips to the seaside. Pre-industrial Britain In pre-industrial Britain there were The newly-emerging leisure industries spotted the chance special occasions for feasts, fairs and fun. However, in to make a profit from these developments. Sports such as daily life there was seldom a clear dividing line between football became more commercialised (eg, by charging for work and leisure. Work was part of everyday life, and most admission). Also, the ‘communications revolution’ – the people just stopped for rest or recreation according to the spread of magazines and newspapers, followed by radio, rhythms of the working day and changing seasons. cinema, television and the internet – resulted in massive The industrial revolution Leisure patterns were transformed shifts in cultural pastimes, entertainments and lifestyles by urbanisation and industrialisation. For most people, the (Walvin, 1978). Culture and identity 55

Patterns of leisure by their work (eg, middle-class professionals) may adopt a People in Britain follow a wide range of leisure pursuits. This lively and energetic attitude to leisure. On the other hand, includes tourism and holidays - there were 43 million those who find work uninspiring may adopt lazy or holiday trips abroad in 2004. But a great deal of leisure time apathetic leisure habits. is spent in the home. For example, it is estimated that the In the opposition pattern, people deliberately create a average household views television for about 26 hours per contrast between their work and leisure. Those who find week. Nine out of ten adults watch it every day, and one in work frustrating or exhausting may escape from it by ten watches it for over 7 hours a day (Social Trends, 2006). seeking ‘explosive compensation’ in their leisure (eg, deep- Every year about three quarters of adults take part in a sea fishermen indulging in heavy drinking sessions when sport, game or physical activity of some sort. The most ashore). popular exercise is walking (46%), followed by swimming In the neutrality pattern there is no strong link between (35%), keep fit/yoga/dance (22%) and cycling (19%). work and leisure. People divide their lives into separate As for cultural pursuits, millions of people in Britain visit compartments and they cultivate leisure pursuits as they libraries, the theatre, museums and craft exhibitions every see fit. year. Over twelve million people attended plays in London’s West End in 2005, and four and a half million Leisure as a central life interest visited the British Museum (Social Trends, 2007). The ancient Greeks thought humans express themselves Group differences Leisure is not equally distributed across most fully in leisure – it allows them to develop their mind, the British population. For some professional groups, body and spirit to the highest level. People today may not hours at work may actually have increased – so they are have such lofty ambitions, but there is growing evidence work-rich but time-poor. In contrast, some groups may be that leisure is a major source of identity and meaning. time-rich but lack the money or good health to fully enjoy Some sociologists believe leisure is replacing work as a their leisure. ‘central life interest’ – the sphere of life where we seek fulfilment and a sense of purpose. Alan Warde (2006) uses survey evidence to identify some group differences in sport. Predictably, participation in Is leisure really capable of providing people with sport is higher among younger people. Better educated satisfying identities? Kenneth Roberts (1978) presents three people also have higher participation rates, partly because sociological models – class, mass and pluralist – which they feel they have a duty to look after their body. But the take different views on this issue. particular choice of sport is not strongly class-based (with a Class domination This is the Marxist model (see page 9). It few exceptions, such as middle-class preference for golf argues that self-fulfilment is not really possible in a and squash). capitalist society. The ruling class exploit workers not only in the workplace but also in their leisure. They derive Gender patterns Gender makes a difference to leisure economic profits from leisure – they brainwash people into styles. Women tend to carry major responsibilities for buying the latest products or crazes (eg, ‘home cinema’, housework and childcare, and so they have less time and Pilates classes). The ruling class also benefit politically – energy for leisure. Also, their leisure activities may be entertainment and leisure are mindless time-fillers which restricted because of fears for their safety outside the home, distract people’s attention from the way they are being especially at night. Sometimes they are faced with a limited exploited and manipulated. range of leisure provisions, or they may find that leisure centres are dominated by males. Mass society This model argues that people today lead rather empty and superficial lives. Unlike the class There is a problem of ‘image’ when it comes to sport. A domination model, it does not see this as a ruling class report in 2007 by the Women’s Sport and Fitness conspiracy. Rather, it is a result of the poor quality of Foundation found that young women were discouraged popular culture. The leisure and entertainment industries from taking exercise because of cultural pressures. Sport is try to appeal to the largest (mass) audience and so their often seen as ‘unfeminine’, and many young women stop standards are low and unchallenging. The mass audiences after they leave school. Among 16-24 year-olds, women are seduced into the role of passive consumers in front of are half as active in sports as men, and this is especially an endless stream of trivia (see page 9). true for low income and minority ethnic women. Women who remain active tend to choose certain activities – they Pluralist model This approach disagrees with the previous are over-represented in swimming, keep-fit, walking, horse two models – it argues that leisure offers rich opportunities riding and gymnastics. for creating lifestyles and identities. For example, popular culture is popular precisely because of its attractive Work and leisure It is not always easy to identify clear features. Society today is diverse (pluralistic) and people links between work and leisure. But Stanley Parker (1976) have greater choice and freedom. Some enthusiasts suggests three main types of relationship. dedicate themselves to their chosen hobbies and In the extension or spillover pattern, the experience of recreations – this is ‘connoisseur leisure’ (Roberts, 1995). work carries over into leisure. People who are stimulated Others may be quite content to dabble in a series of 56 Chapter 1

‘casual’ leisure pursuits. Leisure – conclusion Postmodern model The pluralist model is similar to some Leisure patterns vary across social groups. Nevertheless, postmodernist accounts of leisure. For example, Taylor and leisure fills an important part in people’s lives, and for Cohen (1992) suggest that people in postmodern society some it is a major source of meaning and identity. increasingly seek choice, novelty and diversity. In society Sociologists take different views on the significance of today there are ‘identity sites’ which give them the freedom leisure. Some see it as yet another example of capitalist to create new meanings and identities in a playful way. exploitation. Some condemn it on the grounds of its These identity sites include ‘activity enclaves’ (hobbies, passive or trivial features. But others defend it as an arena sex), ‘new landscapes’ (holidays, adventure) and where people can stretch themselves, find genuine ‘mindscapes’ (internal voyages via drugs or therapy). pleasure, and establish new and meaningful identities. activity33 a bit of fun? Item A A Global sport Oil-rich sheikhs from the Gulf States are pumping billions of dollars into racing, football, cricket, tennis, rugby, motor sport, athletics and even ocean racing. They host lavish tournaments (eg, Dubai Desert Classic golf tournament, the Bahrein Motorsport grand prix). For Dubai’s ruler, sport forms part of a multi-million dollar charm offensive. Through sport, he reasons, he can improve the region’s image, drive tourism and reduce its economic dependency on oil and natural gas. But it comes at a price. A huge army of workers from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have toiled for long shifts and low wages in Dubai, most living in squalid conditions. Jockey Frankie Dettori presented with a trophy for winning the Dubai World Cup, the world’s richest horse race. Source: The Observer, 11.11.2007

Item B Reality TV Item C Exotic holidays

Brian celebrates winning Big Brother with Davina McCall. Western tourists mob a tribal elder in Papua New Guinea.

questions 1 How would the class domination Marxist model explain Item A? 2 How would a) mass society and b) pluralist models explain Item B? 3 How would the postmodern model explain Item C? Culture and identity 57

10.2 Virtual worlds and Norris (2007) suggests it is unlikely that the internet changes social lives dramatically. Rather, people integrate One of the fastest growing leisure areas is the use of ‘new internet use according to their pre-existing attitudes and media’ – advanced digital media such as mobile phones, social skills. For example, some of the keenest users of electronic games and the internet. These media are internet sites are sociable people who already have lots of increasingly portable and inter-connected (eg, phone, friends they meet face to face. camera, email and internet can be combined in one gadget). Boyle (2007) suggests that what makes the new Virtual identities People have new opportunities to express media different is their greater accessibility and the their personal and collective identities online. There are expanded choice they offer their users. websites and chat rooms devoted to all sorts of tastes and lifestyles – fan clubs, support groups, special interests and The internet is often seen as dominated by young males. so on. An Ofcom report in 2007 confirmed that 16-24 year-olds generally spend more time online and send more text The anonymity of the web allows people to invent new messages. But it also describes the emergence of ‘silver identities – they can give themselves a different name, surfers’ – pensioners who sometimes spend far more time gender or biography. They can create avatars – virtual online than younger people. The report also notes the replicas of themselves – in fantasy worlds. For example, feminisation of the internet – among 25-34 year-olds, Second Life is a popular online world with 3.5 million women spend more leisure time online than men. inhabitants where you can design your own avatar. You Virtual communities These are social relationships which can choose the appearance, characteristics and behaviour are created in cyberspace. The new media have established of this avatar as it moves around an imaginary world. In social networking sites such as MySpace, Facebook and this world you can even buy a house, shop, travel, marry Bebo. These popular websites are used for entertainment and so on. and for friendships. Some users of Facebook even send Virtual worlds – conclusion Technology has created fresh ‘virtual flowers’ to their friends. opportunities for establishing online communities and Are these virtual communities really capable of creating identities. The boundary between virtual and real worlds is deep and lasting social relationships? A survey by Curtice becoming more blurred. activity34 life on the net Item A Cybersex Item C Second Life A man in New York has become the first to sue for divorce on the grounds that his wife committed adultery in cyberspace. He discovered her trail of email messages on his computer screen. His wife never met the PC lover with whom she flirted electronically for months.

Source: The Guardian, 3.2.1996

Item B The portfolio personality The internet will transform our sense of self. You can be anyone on the internet. You can develop an infinite number of personalities in discussion groups and chat rooms. You can change sex, age, tastes, opinions, values, even beliefs – endlessly. This process – the A beach scene from Second Life. You can buy a great body for a few development, discovery and expression of your dollars or pick up an average one for nothing. A couple who married in identity – has become the purpose and meaning of life, Second Life went on to marry in real life. your life project. We are only beginning to understand how flexible and diverse our selves can be – the portfolio personality. question Source: The Guardian, 15.1.1999 Show how these items suggest that the distinction between ‘real’ and ‘virtual’ worlds is becoming blurred? 58 Chapter 1

10.3 Consumption Consumer culture Consumer goods are important not just Some sociologists believe consumer lifestyles are an for their practical use. Consumption is also a cultural act – important source of identity in a leisure-based society. They it has symbolic meaning. It tells us things about the tastes argue that people no longer build their identities around and style of the consumers. People are usually aware that work and production – how they earn their money. Rather, they are making a statement about themselves through their they are more likely to base their identities on their consumption habits – what they choose to wear, eat, drink, lifestyles and consumption patterns – the things they spend listen to or collect. These consumption choices express and their money on. establish their identities. Consumer society Consumption is an essential feature of Lifestyles Graham Day (2006) points out that there is more every society. People need to consume food and drink in to lifestyle than the mere act of consuming. The term also order to survive. In pre-industrial societies, people grew suggests a ‘design for living’, a characteristic way of acting their own food, made their own clothes, or bartered goods in the world. To follow a particular lifestyle is to take up a with others. In capitalist society, however, consumption pattern of activity and consumption which indicates the revolves around commodities – goods or services which sort of person you are – your identity. are sold in the marketplace. Living standards have risen dramatically, and Theories of consumer culture consumption is no longer solely about physical survival. Mike Featherstone (1991) identifies three broad accounts of People can afford to buy consumer goods which are not consumer culture. These can be called the radical, strictly necessary – for example, dishwashers, new sociological and postmodern models. furniture, the latest fashions. The emergence of the department store in the mid-nineteenth century marked a Radical model This is similar to the Marxist class shift in consumer attitudes. Shopping was no longer just domination model. It sees the expansion of consumer about buying the bare essentials of life. The stores culture as driven by capitalism’s search for profits. Clever encouraged shoppers to browse at their leisure among the marketing and advertising create consumer desires – wide range of goods on display. It also helped to create the people believe their lives will be happier if they buy the image of shopping as something done mainly by women. latest goods and services. But this happiness is likely to be activity35 consumer rites

Item A Distinctions The newly appointed chairman of the Royal Opera was asked by press reporters what sort of person he wished to attract to opera. He replied, ‘I don’t want to sit next to somebody in a tee shirt, a pair of shorts and a smelly pair of trainers. I’m a relaxed individual but I am passionate about standards of behaviour’.

Source: The Guardian, 16.1.1998

Item B The spirit of shopping Shopping has become the new religion. • We have ‘cathedrals of shopping’ (shopping malls). • Shoppers follow rituals – scrutinising the goods, selecting items, queuing and paying. • Shoppers are offered paradise on earth in the form of desirable goods. • Shopping is the opium of the masses – its addictive quality reconciles people to capitalism. But there are differences between shopping and true religion – no Ten Commandments and no nourishment for the soul.

Source: Bartholomew, 1998 The Trafford Centre, Manchester, the UK’s biggest shopping shopping mall. Culture and identity 59

Item C What to wear

From ‘Trinny and Susannah Undress’. They have given fashion advice to the men in the John Lewis Department Store window.

Item D Expressing the individual questions People imagine they are expressing their creativity and individuality in their choice of home furnishing. But their 1 Explain why Item A is an example of a status distinction. ideas probably came from magazines and television, and 2 Why is Item B so critical of shopping? many people have made the same choices. 3 What do Items C and D tell us about creativity and Source: Inglis, 2005 individuality in consumer culture?

fleeting and shallow, since capitalism is based on ability to speak a classical language (Latin or Greek), or exploitation which damages social relationships. having a good ‘nose’ for fine wines, sends the message In spite of its failure to deliver real happiness, capitalism that they are superior people. seduces and manipulates people with material goods. This Status symbols are used to signal a group’s status and has an ideological effect – people are more likely to accept social position. For example, wealthy footballers are and support the capitalist system. So consumption masks associated with flash cars, Rolex watches and ‘trophy’ the ruthless and exploitative nature of capitalism. People wives and girlfriends (‘WAGS’). These symbols play a part who buy fashionable jeans in the West are often unaware in the ‘presentation of self’, where people project an that these have been manufactured in Third World countries identity which they hope others will admire. where sweatshop workers are paid pitifully low wages. Postmodern model Postmodern sociologists argue that Sociological model This model views consumption as a lifestyles are no longer determined by social class or way of creating social distinctions. For example, Bourdieu occupation. Rather, they are shaped by individual (1984) argues that social classes develop distinctive consumer choices – what we choose to wear, eat and lifestyles as a way of establishing their cultural identity drink, where we shop, the goods we buy, our leisure and superiority. One way of doing this is by conspicuous pursuits and interests. Individuals self-consciously arrange consumption. Thorstein Veblen (1899) described how these things into a recognisable lifestyle. Unlike the 1950s wealthy leisure elites make a public show of their era of conformity (mass consumption), the postmodern era supposedly refined tastes and interests. For example, the places value on diversity. 60 Chapter 1

The postmodern model is more likely than the other and lifestyles. models to celebrate the pleasures, desires and anticipation Nor is it clear to what extent the construction of identity which are generated by consumption. It views these as is an individual and a creative process. Lifestyle magazines genuine pleasures rather than ‘false’ desires invented by and TV programmes are constantly telling us what to be capitalists. The construction of identity is seen as an active and how to live. and creative process.

Consumption – conclusion key terms A great deal of consumer behaviour is still largely a matter of routine shopping for basic needs. Nevertheless, Leisure The time left over from work, or time left over from consumption is increasingly a form of cultural expression. work and from all non-work obligations, or the enjoyable things that people decide to do in their free time. Perhaps only a killjoy would deny that consumption Consumption The purchase, use and/or enjoyment of goods brings genuine pleasures But consumerism can create and services. anxiety and discontent – materialism can breed envy and Consumer culture A set of attitudes which encourages and frustration. Powerful groups sometimes manipulate finds meaning and pleasure in consumption. consumer tastes and engage in exploitative practices. Conspicuous consumption The public consumption of goods It is not really clear whether consumer identities are and services in order to gain prestige. more important than identities based on work. And work Status symbols Things which are used to signal a group’s social still has an influence on consumption – spending power standing and to gain prestige. varies across the social classes and this can shape identities

summary 1. Leisure patterns have changed over the centuries. People 6. New electronic media allow people to extend or invent today have more leisure time and a wider range of leisure identities in virtual worlds. However, they do not always activities. It is possible that leisure has become a central life transform people’s lives or establish deep and lasting identities. interest for many people – they find meaning and identity in Rather, they are superimposed on people’s existing lifestyles leisure rather than work. and relationships. 2. Many leisure activities are shared by most of the population – 7. Consumption has symbolic meaning, and consumer lifestyles television viewing is the best example. But social groups have are used to express identities. Some sociologists argue that different rates of participation in particular leisure pursuits. consumer lifestyles are now more important than class as Women tend to engage in a narrower range of physical sources of identity. exercise activities. 8. Lifestyles are much more diverse nowadays as people pursue 3. Class domination theorists believe that powerful groups control their individual interests. Postmodern theorists argue that leisure for material gain (it creates profits) and political gain (it lifestyles are freely chosen rather than dictated by class distracts attention from the basic injustices of the capitalist positions. system). They believe that true fulfilment is impossible in a 9. Radical theorists question whether a consumer culture is society based on exploitation. capable of making people happy. Effective advertising depends 4. Mass society theorists condemn the poor quality of mass culture on making people discontented and envious.. and mass leisure. Rather than stimulating or enriching people, 10. Consumption styles and status symbols can be used to create leisure activities lull them into a state of apathy and passivity. social distinctions between groups. 5. The pluralist model argues that leisure offers choice and provides opportunities for creating different lifestyles. 2 Families and households Introduction Picture the family.Does the image on the right come to mind – mum, dad and the kids? This is the usual picture presented by advertisers. But, for more and more of us, it no longer reflects the reality of family life. Families are changing. Married women who devote their lives to childcare and housework are a dwindling minority. Marriage itself is declining in popularity. More and more couples are living together without getting married. And more and more marriages are ending in separation and divorce. Families have become increasingly diverse. What do sociologists make of all this? Some believe that the family is in crisis, and that this threatens the well-being of society as a whole. Others welcome change.They see the diversity of family life as an opportunity for choice. No longer does the old-fashioned idea of the family restrict women to the home, keep unhappy marriages going, and maintain destructive family relationships. This chapter looks at these different views. It investigates changes in family life and examines the causes and effects of these changes.

chaptersummary

Unit 1 looks at the problem of defining the family and Unit 5 looks at family diversity, focusing on lone-parent shows how families vary from society to society. families, reconstituted families and gay and lesbian families. Unit 2 outlines the main sociological theories of the Unit 6 examines changes in the division of domestic family and considers government policy towards the labour and the distribution of power in the family and family. asks to what extent they are linked to gender. Unit 3 examines the relationship between family life and Unit 7 focuses on children and asks how ideas of industrialisation. childhood have changed.

▼▼Unit ▼▼ 4 outlines and explains changing patterns of ▼▼Unit ▼▼ 8 looks at changes in birth rates, death rates and marriage, cohabitation, childbearing, divorce and separation. family size in the UK since 1900.

Unit 1 Defining the family

sexual relationship, and one or more children, own keyissues or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.’ 1 How has the family been defined? Spelling out this definition: 2 What are the problems with definitions of the family? ● Families live together – they share the same household. ● They work together and pool their resources – to some 1.1 What is the family? extent they share domestic tasks and income. ● They reproduce – they have children. In 1949, the American anthropologist George Peter ● They include an adult male and female who have a Murdock provided the following definition of the family. sexual relationship which is approved by the wider ‘The family is a social group characterised by society – for example, they have a marital common residence, economic cooperation and relationship. reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at ● This heterosexual couple have at least one child – either least two of whom maintain a socially approved their biological offspring or an adopted child. 62 Chapter 2

The nuclear family each contained a basic nucleus consisting of a husband George Peter Murdock based his definition of the family on and wife and one or more children, own or adopted. This a sample of 250 societies ranging from hunting and is the nuclear family. Murdock believed that the nuclear gathering bands, to small-scale farming societies to large- family is ‘a universal social grouping’ – in other words, it is scale industrial societies. Although he found a variety of found in all societies. family forms within this sample, Murdock claimed that activity1 defining the family Item A Lone-parent family Item B Extended family

A single mother and her children An extended family

Item C Nuclear family Item D Gay family

A heterosexual married couple and their children A gay couple and their adopted childen

questions 1 Which of these ‘families’ fit/s Murdock’s definition? Explain your answer. 2 Do you think those that do not fit should be regarded as families? Give reasons for your answer. Families and households 63

Extended families one wife and one husband. In many societies, marriage is Murdock saw the other family forms in his sample as polygamous – a person is permitted additional wives or extensions of the nuclear family. These extended families husbands. Men may have more than one wife – a system contain kin – relatives based on ‘blood’ or marriage – in known as polygyny. Or, in a small number of societies, addition to the nuclear family. The nuclear family can be women may have more than one husband – a form of extended in various ways. marriage known as polyandry. Polygamy Marriage in the West is monogamous – it involves Other forms of extension Apart from additional marital

activity2 polygamy Item A Polygyny Adama is a wealthy man. He lives in a village called Sobtenga in Burkina Faso, a country in northwest Africa. Ten years ago he had two wives. Zenabou, his first wife, thought polygyny was a good idea. It provided her with a ‘sister’ to share the burdens of domestic work and childcare. Now she is not so sure. Adama has taken two more wives, the youngest of whom, Bintu, is only 16. He is besotted with Bintu and she clearly enjoys the attention. Despite grumbling, his other wives accept the situation, for marriage is seen primarily as an economic affair. Adama’s 12 oxen are proof that he can provide security for his wives and children. Polygyny is much more common than polyandry. It is found in many small-scale traditional societies, particularly in Africa. As the example of Adama suggests, polygyny is a privilege of the wealthy. Adama’s wives – Zenabou, Bintu, Meryan and Barkissou Not every man can afford two or more wives and in any case there aren’t enough women for this. Census figures from 1911 for the Pondo of South Africa show that only 10% of men had two wives and only 2% had more than two. Source: Mair, 1971 and Brazier, 1995 Item B Polyandry The Nyinba people of Nepal practice fraternal polyandry – two or more brothers are married to one wife. They inherited this custom from their Tibetan ancestors who migrated to Nepal centuries ago. They also inherited a love for trading and herding which, together with cultivating the meagre soil, make up the traditional Nyinba economy. Polyandry suits this economy. ‘With one or two husbands always on herding or trading trips, one husband will always be at home to care for the wife,’ explained Maila Dai, a trader from the village of Bargaau. ‘We think polyandry is just like insurance for the wife. If one husband is no good or leaves his wife, there’s always another brother.’ Polyandry among the Nyinba of Nepal. The 12 year Polyandry has been explained as a way of preventing land from being old girl on the right is engaged to five brothers, three divided up into less profitable units when a family of sons inherits from the of whom are pictured here. previous generation. It also concentrates the wealth of each household by maintaining a large population of working adult males under one roof. To the Nyinbas, its advantages are obvious. ‘All our brothers work together,’ explained Dawa Takpa, ‘so we can be wealthy people. If we all go our own way, how can we survive? We have to study, do agricultural work, take care of animals and trade, so we have to work together.’ ‘For me,’ said Tsering Zangmo, who at 21 is the wife of three brothers (the youngest of whom is seven), ‘polyandry is fine. If I had only one husband, I would be very poor.’ When asked about jealousy between her husbands, Tsering Zangmo replied, ‘But they are brothers. They are never jealous.’ However when pressed she giggled and blushed, admitting, ‘Well, they only have a very little jealousy. If you like one husband very much, you have to be secret so the others don’t know. We make love in the middle of the night, lying naked in sheepskins. We’d never do it just before going to sleep or just before waking up as the others might hear us.’ Source: Dunham, 1992 64 Chapter 2

questions 1 How can polygamous families be seen as extensions of the nuclear family? 2 Judging from Items A and B, what are the advantages and disadvantages of polygyny and polyandry? partners, families can be extended in a variety of ways. For example, a three-generation extended family may include grandparents within the family unit. Similarly, uncles and aunts (brothers and sisters of the married couple) may form part of the family unit.

1.2 Diversity in family systems

Many sociologists and anthropologists have seen the nuclear family, either in its basic or extended form, as universal, normal and natural. Others have rejected this view. For example, Felicity Edholm (1982), in an article entitled ‘The unnatural family’, argues that there is nothing normal and natural about the nuclear family. She claims that family and kinship relationships are socially constructed. They are based on culture rather than biology. The links between husband and wife, parent and child, are constructed very differently in different societies. In A Tahitian family Edholm’s words, ‘Relatives are not born but made’. Here are some examples Edholm gives to support her argument. mother’s group, not their father’s. Nayar girls ‘marry’ a man They are taken from traditional cultures and may not apply before puberty and later take as many lovers as they like. today. Her ‘husband’ may or may not be one of these lovers. Parent-child relations – genes Ideas about the biological Children are raised in their mother’s social group. relationship between parents and children vary from ‘Husbands’ and fathers do not share the same residence as society to society. For example, the Lakker of Burma see no their ‘wives’ and have little to do with their children. blood relationship between mother and child – the mother According to Edholm, examples such as these show that is simply a container in which the child grows. As a result, the family is socially constructed. Rather than seeing the sexual relationships between children of the same mother family as a natural unit created by biological necessities, it are permitted – because they are seen as non-kin, such makes more sense to see it as a social unit shaped by relationships are not seen as incest. cultural norms. And as culture varies from society to Parent-child relations – adoption Most sociologists society, so do families. In view of this diversity, Edholm consider the tie between mother and child as basic and rejects the claim that the nuclear family is universal. inevitable. However, in some societies, many children do not live with their biological parents. For example, in Tahiti, in the Pacific Ocean, young women often have one Family diversity today or two children before they are considered ready to settle Edholm’s research focused on family diversity in non- down into a stable relationship with a man. They usually Western societies. There is evidence that family diversity is give these children for adoption to their parents or other steadily increasing in modern Western societies. In Britain, close relatives. Children see their adoptive mother and 26% of families with dependent children were headed by father as ‘real’ parents and their relationship with them as lone parents in 2000 (Social Trends, 2002). This was partly far closer than with their natural parents. due to divorce, partly to never-married mothers, and, to a Marriage and residence Some sociologists argue that much smaller extent, to the death of one partner. ‘marriage’ varies so much from society to society that it Reconstituted families – families in which one or both of makes little sense to use the same word for these very the adult couple bring children from a previous different relationships. For example, the basic social group relationship – are steadily increasing. There has also been a amongst the Nayar of Northern India is made up of men rapid growth in cohabitation – unmarried couples living and women descended through the female line from a together, often in a long-term relationship. And, in recent common ancestor. Brothers and sisters, women and years, a small but growing number of lesbian and gay children live together – children are members of their families have appeared. Families and households 65

This diversity in today’s Western societies will be family. So, extended families are extensions, lone-parent examined in later units. families are reductions. Not everybody agrees that the variety of family forms can be seen as extensions or 1.3 Defining the family revisited reductions of the nuclear family. For example, if a woman decides to produce a child by in vitro fertilisation and rear Where does this diversity of so-called families leave us? Is the child herself, can this be seen as a ‘reduction’ of the it possible to come up with a definition which covers this nuclear family? diversity? David Cheal (1999) summarises some of the Abandon the idea One solution is to stop using the term responses to this problem. family and replace it with a concept such as primary We don’t know Faced with the diversity of family forms, relationships (Scanzoni et al., 1989). Primary relationships some sociologists frankly admit that no one really knows are close, long-lasting and special ties between people. what a family is. This is not a useful state of affairs. For There is no problem placing the wide diversity of ‘families’ example, how can different family forms be compared if a under this heading. But, it does away with the whole idea ‘family’ cannot be identified? of family – an idea which is vitally important to Extensions and reductions Following Murdock, some individuals, to the ‘family group’, and to the wider society. sociologists have seen all families as extensions or Ask people From this point of view, families are what reductions of one basic and elementary form – the nuclear people say they are. If families are socially constructed,

activity3 family diversity Item A The Ashanti The Ashanti of West Africa are a matrilineal society (descent is traced through the mother’s line). While a child’s father is important, he has no legal authority over his children. This rests with the wife’s family, particularly her brother. It is from the mother’s brother that children inherit, though the father is responsible for feeding, clothing and educating them. Many Ashanti men cannot afford to set up a household of their own when they first marry. Since men never live with their wife’s brothers, and children are the property of the wife’s family, couples often live apart. Only about a third of married women actually live with their husbands. Source: Fortes, 1950

An Ashanti puberty ritual at which a girl becomes a woman. She belongs to her mother’s family.

Item B The Trobriand Islanders Some matrilineal cultures, such as the Trobriand Islanders, think that the father’s role in the conception of a child is minimal. He simply ‘opens the door’ or, at most, shapes the growing embryo through intercourse. Source: Beattie, 1964 question Women and children in the Trobriand The family is a social construction shaped by cultural norms Islands and beliefs. Discuss with reference to Items A and B. 66 Chapter 2

then sociologists should discover how people in society construct, define and give meaning to families. This summary approach may lead to a bewildering diversity of families. 1. According to Murdock, the nuclear family is the basic But, if this is the social reality within which people live, form of family. He sees all other family forms as then this may well be the reality which sociologists should extensions of the nuclear family. investigate. 2. Murdock claims that the nuclear family is a universal social grouping – that it is found in all societies. key terms 3. Edholm argues that the family is a social construction based on culture rather than biology. She rejects the Household A group of people who share a common view that the nuclear family is universal. residence. 4. Cross-cultural evidence indicates that family forms vary Nuclear family A family consisting of an adult male and considerably. Recent evidence from Western societies female with one or more children, own or adopted. indicates increasing family diversity. Extended family A family containing relatives in addition to 5. Sociologists have responded to the problem of defining the nuclear family. An extension of the nuclear family. the family in the following ways. Kin Relatives based on marriage or genes. ● Monogamy A system of marriage involving two adults, one of • By admitting that they don’t really know what the each sex. family is Polygamy A system of marriage involving two or more wives, ● By seeing all family forms as extensions or or two or more husbands. reductions of the nuclear family Polygyny A system of marriage involving two or more wives. ● By rejecting the concept of family and replacing it Polyandry A system of marriage involving two or more with the concept of primary relationships husbands. ● By accepting the definitions of the family used by Reconstituted family A family in which one or both partners members of society – the family is what people say bring children from a previous relationship. it is. Cohabitation Living together as a partnership without marriage. Primary relationships Close, long-lasting and special ties between people.

Unit 2 The family and social structure

institution with universal functions. In other words, it is keyissues found in all societies and it performs the same functions 1 What are the main sociological theories of the family? everywhere. These functions are vital for the well-being of 2 How have government policies affected the family? society. They are: Sexual In most societies, there are rules limiting or forbidding sexual relationships outside marriage. This helps 2.1 Functionalist theories of the family to stabilise the social system. Without such rules, conflict may result. Functionalist theories see society as made up of various parts, each of which contributes to the maintenance and Economic In many societies, the family is a unit of well-being of the system as a whole. production – for example, a ‘farming family’ producing Some functionalist theories are based on the idea that food. In the West today, the family acts as a unit of societies need consensus – agreement about norms and consumption – buying goods and services for the family values – in order to survive. As a result, they are also group. These economic functions make an important known as consensus theories. contribution to the wider society. Functionalists often assume that if a social institution Reproduction The family is the main unit for the such as the family exists, then it must have a function or reproduction of children. Without reproduction, society purpose – it must do something useful. As a result, the would cease to exist. family is usually seen to perform functions which benefit both its members and society as a whole. Educational The family is largely responsible for primary socialisation, the first and most important part of the socialisation process. Without socialisation, there would be George Peter Murdock no culture. And without a shared culture, there would be According to Murdock (1949), the family is a universal no consensus about society’s norms and values. Families and households 67

Murdock believes that the nuclear family, either alone, or ‘basic and irreducible’ functions. These are: in its extended form, performs these ‘vital functions’. He 1 the primary socialisation of children cannot imagine a substitute. In his words, ‘No society has 2 the stabilisation of adult personalities. succeeded in finding an adequate substitute for the nuclear family, to which it might transfer these functions. It is Primary socialisation This is the first and most important highly doubtful whether any society will ever succeed in part of the socialisation process. Parsons argues that every such an attempt.’ individual must learn the shared norms and values of society. Without this there would be no consensus, and Talcott Parsons without consensus, social life would not be possible. The American sociologist Talcott Parsons focuses on the For the socialisation process to be really effective, shared nuclear family in modern industrial society. He argues that norms and values must be ‘internalised as part of the the family has become increasingly specialised. Functions personality structure’. Children’s personalities are moulded for which families were responsible in pre-industrial in terms of society’s culture to the point where it becomes societies, for example, looking after the elderly or a part of them. educating children, have been taken over in industrial The stabilisation of adult personalities This is the second societies by specialised institutions such as social services essential function of the family. Unstable personalities can and schools (Parsons & Bales, 1955). threaten the stability and smooth-running of society. However, Parsons claims that the family retains two According to Parsons, families help to stabilise adult activity4 functionalism and the family Item A Family shopping Item B The ‘warm bath theory’

Item C ‘The bottle’

questions 1 Functionalists often argue that the family’s economic function as a unit of production has been replaced by its function as a unit of consumption. Explain with some reference to Item A. 2 Look at Items B and C. a) Parsons’ theory is sometimes known as the ‘warm bath theory’. Why? b) Critically evaluate this theory. Refer to Item C in your answer. The drunken husband – a 19th century view of domestic violence 68 Chapter 2 personalities in two ways. First, marital partners provide 2.2 New Right perspectives each other with emotional support. Second, as parents, they are able to indulge the ‘childish’ side of their Like functionalists, New Right thinkers see the family as a personalities – for example, by playing with their children. cornerstone of society. They also see a ‘normal’ family as Family life provides adults with release from the strains the nuclear family unit. For example, John Redwood, a and stresses of everyday life. It provides them with Conservative MP, stated in 1993 that ‘the natural state emotional security and support. This helps to stabilise their should be the two-adult family caring for their children’. personality and, in turn, the wider society. And for him, the two adults are a male and a female. Conclusion Although the functions of the family have In recent years there has been growing concern about the become fewer and more specialised, Parsons believes they state of the family. It is ‘in decline’, ‘under threat’, are no less important. He cannot imagine an institution ‘fragmenting’, ‘breaking down’. This view of the family was other than the family performing these ‘basic and put forward by New Right thinkers from the 1980s irreducible’ functions. onwards. Evidence They point to the following evidence to support Criticisms of funtionalism their claims. There has been an increase in: The following criticisms have been made of functionalist ● Lone-parent families views of the family. ● Fatherless families ● Functionalists assume that on balance families perform ● Divorce rates useful and often essential functions both for their ● Cohabitation members and for society as a whole. Married couples ● Gay and lesbian couples. are pictured as living in harmony, as good in bed, and As a result of these changes, the two-parent nuclear as effective socialisers of the next generation. Critics family headed by a married couple consisting of an adult argue that this does not reflect the realities of family male and female is steadily decreasing as a proportion of life. all families. ● As a result of this picture of happy families, Causes The following have been seen as causing these functionalists tend to ignore the ‘dark side’ of family life changes. – conflict between husband and wife, male ● A breakdown of ‘traditional family values’. dominance, child abuse, and so on. They give ● Over-generous welfare benefits to single mothers which insufficient attention to the dysfunctions of the family – allow fathers to opt out of their responsibilities for the harmful effects it may have on the wider society. raising and providing for their children. ● Functionalists tend to ignore the diversity of family life ● The influence of feminism which has devalued in industrial society. For example, there is little marriage, domesticity and childrearing, and encouraged reference to lone-parent families, cohabiting families women to seek fulfilment outside the home. and reconstituted families. Nor do they pay much ● Increased sexual permissiveness. attention to variations in family life based on class, ● Greater tolerance of gay and lesbian relationships as ethnicity, religion and locality. alternatives to heterosexual marriage. ● Parsons’ view of the family has been criticised as sexist since he sees the wife/mother as having the main Consequences According to the New Right, these changes responsibility for providing warmth and emotional have serious consequences. The ‘fragmented family’ is no support, and for de-stressing her hardworking husband. longer performing its functions effectively. In particular, it is failing to provide adequate socialisation. This can result in children and young people underachieving at school and behaving in anti-social ways ranging from rudeness to crime. key terms Over-generous welfare benefits can lead to welfare dependency. Lone mothers become dependent on state Functionalism A theory which sees society as made up of benefits and, in effect, are ‘married to the state’. various parts, each of which tends to contribute to the maintenance and well-being of society as a whole. Solutions For the New Right, there are two main solutions Consensus theories Functionalist theories based on the idea to these problems. First, a return to traditional family that societies need consensus or agreement about norms and values – life-long marriage and a recognition of the duties values. and responsibilities of parenthood. Second, a change in Function The contribution a part of society makes to the government policy – redirecting welfare benefits and well-being of society as a whole. social service provision to support and maintain two- Dysfunction The harmful effects that a part of society has on parent families and penalising those who fail to live up to society as a whole. this ideal. Primary socialisation The first and most important part of the socialisation process whereby young people learn the norms Sociology and the New Right New Right thinkers have and values of society. tended to be journalists and politicians rather than sociologists. However, a few sociologists have developed Families and households 69 similar arguments. For example, Norman Dennis and Dennis and Erdos’s main concern is the effect on boys. George Erdos make the following points in Families They grow up without the expectation that adulthood Without Fathers (2000). involves responsibilities for a wife and children. This can Increasing numbers of children are born outside marriage result in irresponsible, immature, anti-social young men. and raised by single mothers. This places the children at a According to Dennis and Erdos, families without fathers disadvantage. On average, they have poorer health and are not an adequate alternative to the standard nuclear lower educational attainment than children from two- family. Families are not just changing, they are parent families. ‘deteriorating’. activity5 New Right perspectives Item A Fatherless families Item C A typical Victorian image According to the American sociologist Charles Murray, increasing numbers of ‘young, healthy, low-income males choose not to take jobs’. Many turn to crime (particularly violent street crime) and regular drug abuse. Many of these boys have grown up in a family without a father and male wage earner. As a result, they lack the male role models of mainstream society. Within a female-headed family dependent on welfare benefits, the disciplines and responsibilities of mainstream society tend to break down. Murray believes that work must become the ‘centre of life’ for young men. They must learn the disciplines of work and respect for work. And they must learn to become ‘real fathers’, accepting the responsibilities of parenthood. Murray believes that the socialisation and role models required to develop these attitudes are often lacking in female-headed, low-income families. He claims that, ‘Over the last two decades, larger and larger numbers of British children have not been socialised to norms of self-control, consideration for others, and the concept that actions have consequences’. In Murray’s view, when it comes to effective socialisation, ‘No alternative family structure comes close to the merits of two parents, formally married’. Source: Murray, 1990, 2001 Item B Welfare dependency

‘The abandoned mother’

questions 1 Read Item A. Why does Murray see the nuclear family as superior to other family structures? 2 What points is the cartoon in Item B making? 3 How does Item C question the idea that welfare dependency has led to the breakdown of the family? 70 Chapter 2

Criticisms of New Right views In capitalist economies, investors finance the production of Blaming the victims Critics argue that the New Right tends goods and services with the aim of producing profits. These to ‘blame the victims’ for problems that are not of their investors form a ruling class. The subject class – the own making. Many of these problems may result from low workers – produce goods and services and are paid wages wages, inadequate state benefits, lack of jobs and other for their labour. The ruling class are seen to exploit the factors beyond the control of lone parents. subject class – they gain at the workers’ expense since their profits come from the workers’ labour. Value judgements The New Right sees the nuclear family consisting of husband, wife and children as the ideal. Marxists argue that the economy largely shapes the rest Other family arrangements are considered inferior. Critics of society. Thus, a capitalist economic system will produce argue that this reflects the values of the New Right rather a certain type of society. Institutions such as the family, the than a balanced judgement of the worth of family diversity education system and the political system are shaped by in today’s society. Who is to say that families without the requirements of capitalism and serve to support and fathers are necessarily inferior? Why should everybody be maintain it. forced into the nuclear family mould? Inheritance and private property In The Origin of the An idealised view of the past New Right thinkers may be Family, Private Property and the State, first published in harking back to a golden age of the family which never 1884, Friedrich Engels argued that the modern nuclear existed. Even in Victorian times – supposedly the era of family developed in capitalist society. Private property is at traditional family values – lone parenthood, cohabitation the heart of capitalism and it was largely owned by men. and sexual relationships outside marriage were by no Before 1882 in Britain, married women could not own means uncommon. property – it passed to their husband on marriage. A key concern of the capitalist was to ensure that his 2.3 Marxist theories property passed directly to his legitimate heirs – those he had fathered. According to Engels, the monogamous Marxists reject the view that society is based on value nuclear family provided the answer. It gave men greater consensus and operates for the benefit of all. Instead, they control over women – until the late 19th century wives see a basic conflict of interest between a small powerful were seen as chattels, as their husband’s property. With ruling class and the mass of the population, the subject only one husband and one wife, doubts about the paternity class. The family is seen as one of a number of institutions of children are unlikely. And with only one wife, there are which serves to maintain the position of the ruling class. no disputes about which wife’s children should inherit. Modern industrial societies have a capitalist economic Within the nuclear family, a man could be fairly sure that system. Capitalism is based on the private ownership of he had legitimate children with a clear right to inherit his economic institutions, for example, banks and factories. wealth. activity6 the next generation

question Give a Marxist interpretation of the role of the family illustrated in this cartoon. Families and households 71

Maintaining capitalism In some respects, Marxist views of an adult worker – her husband – in good running order by the family are similar to those of functionalists. For feeding and caring for him (Benston, 1972). example, both see the family as a unit which reproduces Emotional labour The inequalities of domestic labour also and socialises children. In other respects, their views are apply to ‘emotional labour’. Radical feminists claim that it’s very different. wives rather than husbands who provide emotional support Marxists see the family as a means for: for their partners. Wives are more likely to listen, to agree, ● Reproducing ‘labour power’ – reproducing future to sympathise, to understand, to excuse and to flatter generations of workers (Delphy & Leonard, 1992). ● Consuming the products of capitalism Marxist feminists take a similar view, seeing the ● Providing emotional support for workers, so helping emotional support provided by wives as soaking up the them to cope with the harsh realities of capitalism frustrations produced by working for capitalism. ● Socialising children to accept the inequalities of capitalist society. Economic dependency Married women are often From a Marxist viewpoint, the family helps to maintain economically dependent on their husbands. In most an unjust and exploitative system. couples, it is the wife who gives up work to care for the children. Mothers often return to part-time rather than full- time employment in order to meet their childcare and Criticisms of Marxism domestic responsibilities. Marxist views of the family follow logically from Marxist Male domination Feminists see the family as male theory. If, for example, the family provides emotional dominated. As noted above, wives are usually support for workers, then this helps them to accept the economically dependent. Men often control key areas of injustices of the capitalist system. This makes sense if decision-making such as moving house and important capitalism is seen as essentially unjust. However, many financial decisions. And they sometimes use force to sociologists reject this view of capitalism and, as a result, maintain control. Domestic violence is widespread and the Marxist views of the family. majority of those on the receiving end are women. Around Sociologists generally agree that the economic system 570,000 cases are reported each year in the UK and has some influence on the family. However, most would probably a far larger number go unreported (Hopkins, disagree with the view that the family is shaped by the 2000). needs of that system. Criticisms of feminism key terms Ignores positive aspects of family life Critics argue that feminists are preoccupied with the negative side of family Marxism A theory which sees a basic conflict of interest life. They ignore the possibility that many women enjoy between those who own the economic institutions and those running a home and raising children. who are employed by them. Capitalism A system of production in which the economic Ignores trend to gender equality There is evidence of a institutions, eg banks and factories, are privately owned. trend towards greater equality between partners (see Section 6.2). Critics argue that rather than celebrating this trend, feminists remain focused on the remaining inequalities. 2.4 Feminist theories

Feminists start from the view that most societies are based on patriarchy or male domination. Radical feminists see patriarchy as built into the structure of society. Marxist feminists see it as resulting from class inequalities in capitalist society. Both see the family as one of the main key terms sites in which women are oppressed by men. Feminism A view which challenges the power of men over Domestic labour Within the family most of the unpaid women. work – housework and childcare – is done by women. This Patriarchy A social system based on male domination. applies even when women are working full time outside Radical feminists Feminists who see patriarchy as the main the home. Women make the main contribution to family form of inequality in society. life, men receive the main benefits (Delphy & Leonard, Marxist feminists Feminists who see patriarchy as resulting 1992). from class inequalities. Domestic labour Unpaid work such as housework and Marxist feminists argue that the wife’s unpaid domestic childcare, within the home and family. labour is invaluable to capitalism. She produces and rears future workers at no cost to the capitalist. And she keeps 72 Chapter 2 activity7 housewives

Magazine cover from 1955 Magazine cover from 2003 question How might a feminist analyse these magazine covers?

2.5 Social policy and the family Encouraging nuclear families Governments should ‘explicitly favour married parenthood over all other choices In recent years, governments have been increasingly for raising children’ (Saunders, 2000). Taxes and welfare concerned about families. And government policies have benefits should be directed to this end. The marriage reflected this concern. contract should be strengthened and married couples These policies are influenced by values. Should should have special legal rights and safeguards. government policies be shaped by ‘traditional family Discouraging family diversity According to the New Right, values’ which see the nuclear family as the ideal? Or, over-generous welfare benefits have supported the rapid should they recognise the increasing diversity of family life increase in lone-parent families. These benefits should be and support all family types? reduced so lone-parenthood becomes a less attractive option. Cohabitation should be discouraged by denying unmarried couples the legal rights and privileges given to The New Right married couples. And divorce should be made more The New Right comes down firmly on the side of the difficult to discourage marital break-up (Morgan, 1999; nuclear family (see Section 2.2). It’s the best kind of family Saunders, 2000). and should be encouraged. The rest are second-best and should be discouraged. How does this translate into social Supporting all families policy? Critics of the New Right argue that governments should not Families and households 73 attempt to impose one type of family and force everybody raise children successfully. But, at the end of the day, into the same mould. Instead, they should recognise that ‘marriage is still the surest foundation for raising children’. families are diverse and the trend is towards increasing This is what Labour said. What have they done? diversity. Government policy should therefore support all Labour’s family policy has formed part of its welfare families (Bernardes, 1997). policy. Summed up in Tony Blair’s statement, ‘Work for It is not the job of government to force couples to stay those that can, security for those that can’t’, this policy together by making divorce more difficult. Nor should seeks to move those who can work from welfare into work rights and privileges be denied to those who cohabit and to improve benefits for those who can’t. simply because they aren’t married. Governments should Labour’s New Deal schemes are designed to help people not make judgements about which form of family is best find paid employment. One of these schemes is aimed at and base policy on such judgements. They should accept lone parents, most of whom are lone mothers. Since April the decisions people have made about their form of family 2001, all lone parents are required to attend an annual life and develop policies to support all families. interview about job opportunities. The Working Families Tax Credit tops up the wages of parents moving from Family policy in the UK benefits to low paid jobs. Conservative policy This section looks at family policy Various childcare schemes have been introduced. For from 1990. The Conservative Party under John Major was example, the Sure Start programme provides health and in government from 1990 to 1997. It showed a clear support services for low-income families with young preference for the married, two-parent nuclear family. Lone children. parents were denounced in what one writer described as ‘an orgy of lone-parent bashing’ (Lister, 1996). John Major One of Labour’s stated aims is to take all children out of himself heralded the virtues of ‘traditional family values’ in poverty. Various benefits have been increased with this in his Back to Basics campaign. However, this campaign was mind. For example, Child Benefit has been increased by quietly brushed under the carpet, not least because many 26% in real terms from 1997 to 2001 (Page, 2002). Cabinet members were divorced – hardly a reflection of According to the Children’s Secretary Ed Balls, Labour has traditional family values. ‘lifted 600,000 children out of poverty’. However, the number of children living in poor families rose for the first Talk rather than action characterised the Major years. time in six years in 2005-06 by 200,000 to 3.8 million There were only two significant pieces of legislation (Guardian, 30.10.2007). directed at the family. In 1991, The Child Support Act was passed which led to the formation of the Child Support Labour’s policies focus on money and work – children Agency. The main aim was to force absent fathers to pay need money, parents have a responsibility to work (Lewis, maintenance for their children in the hope of reducing 2001). welfare payments to lone mothers. Although the government claimed this would help lone mothers, any Recent developments Political parties are increasingly money received from the fathers was deducted from the recognising the realities of family life – that family diversity mothers’ benefits. is here to stay. Politicians are realising that the clock can’t The Family Law Act of 1996 introduced a one year be turned back, that they have a responsibility to support all waiting period before a couple could divorce. The families. Alternative family forms are no longer condemned. intention of the act was to support the institution of This can be seen clearly from David Willetts’ speech at marriage. Couples were encouraged to take every possible the Conservative (Tory) Party Conference in October 2002. step to save their marriage. However, the act was never He announced, ‘Let me make it absolutely clear: the Tory implemented as judges saw it as unworkable. war on lone parents is over’. He admitted that families come in all shapes and sizes, and that the state had a duty Labour policy The tone of Labour’s words on family policy to support them all. Talking about lone parents, he said, was milder than those of the Conservatives. There was an ‘We’ll support them and value them and, above all, we’ll attempt to steer a middle course between supporting both back them’. Yet, despite this, Willetts’ claimed that the marriage and the nuclear family and providing help for evidence was ‘overwhelming’ that it was better for children other forms of family. There was no ‘back to basics’ but no to be brought up by two parents in a stable marriage. ‘anything goes’ either. Labour has been careful not to The Conservative leader David Cameron echoes these condemn alternatives to the nuclear family (Lewis, 2001). views. His argument runs as follows. This can be seen from Supporting Families (1998) – a ● ‘Families matter because almost every social problem discussion document which suggested ways of providing comes down to family stability.’ ‘better services and support for parents’. The emphasis is ● Children need a stable family background. on all families. The government doesn’t want to ‘interfere’ ● The evidence shows that a ‘married family’ is more in family life, to ‘pressure people’ into a preferred family likely than other forms to provide this stability. For form, or to ‘force’ married couples to stay together. It example, married couples are less likely to break up accepts that many lone parents and unmarried couples than cohabiting couples. 74 Chapter 2

● It therefore makes sense for the state to support the ‘married family’. summary ● One option is to support marriage by using the tax and benefit system to give favourable treatment to married 1. Functionalists argue that the family is a universal couples. institution. It performs functions which are essential for the maintenance and well-being of society. Although he recognises that governments should support 2. Parsons argues that the family performs two ‘basic and all types of family, David Cameron clearly favours the irreducible’ functions in modern industrial society – ‘married family’ (www.conservatives.com). It is noticeable primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult that the proposed tax allowances for married couples with personalities. children do not extend to cohabiting couples with 3. The New Right sees the nuclear family as the ideal children. family form. They believe the nuclear family is under The Conservatives have tended to focus on marriage threat. Alternative family forms, particularly lone mother seeing it as the best social context for raising children. families, fail to provide adequate socialisation. Labour have tended to focus on children, whatever the 4. Marxists argue that the modern family has been shaped social context in which they are raised. They have been to fit the needs of capitalism. It helps to maintain an reluctant to single out marriage for support, arguing that it economic system based on exploitation. would discriminate against lone parents and cohabiting 5. Feminists see the family as patriarchal – it is dominated couples. Gordon Brown made the following statement at by men and serves the needs of men. the 2007 Labour Party Conference. 6. According to the New Right, government policy should ‘I say to the children of two parent families, one parent favour marriage and the nuclear family. families, foster parent families; to the widow bringing up 7. Others argue that governments should recognise family children: I stand for a Britain that supports as first class diversity and support all family forms. citizens not just some children and some families but 8. The main political parties now agree that family diversity supports all children and all families.’ is a reality and that governments have a duty to support all types of family. However, Conservatives tend to see the ‘married family’ as the best social arrangement for raising children. Labour tend to focus on supporting children, whatever types of family they are raised in.

Unit 3 The family and social change

keyissues Cottage industry Before the industrial revolution, many goods were 1 What is the relationship of the family to produced by craftsmen and women in their homes and in industrialisation and urbanisation? small workshops. This type of production is sometimes 2 Has there been a trend towards nuclear families? known as cottage industry as goods were often produced in cottages. As with farming, the family was the main unit of production in cottage industry. Activity 9 provides a description of families producing cloth in Halifax in West 3.1 The family in pre-industrial society Yorkshire. Farming families Kinship-based societies Before the industrial revolution, most people lived on the Many small-scale, non-Western societies are organised on land. Family members worked together to produce goods the basis of kinship. People’s roles and the institutions of and services – the family unit was a production unit. society are largely based on kinship relationships – Activity 8 Item A shows people working together in relationships of ‘blood’ and marriage. Families are Medieval England. The people working together are embedded in a wider network of kin, they are closely probably from the same family. linked to people they are related to. Societies like this are In many developing countries today, the farming family sometimes known as kinship-based societies. continues as a production unit. This can be seen from For example, many African societies were traditionally Activity 8 Item B which describes a farming family in organised on the basis of lineages – groups descended from Manupur, a village in India. a common ancestor. Lineages often owned land and formed Families and households 75 activity8 farming families (1) Item A Farming in Medieval England Item B Farming families in India

Harvesting

Husband and wife picking crocuses to make saffron in Kashmir, India

The day begins early for a farmer in Manupur, around four in the morning. He must first feed the animals (oxen, cows, buffalo) and give them water. The oxen are tied to the cart at around five o’clock in the morning and the men are ready to go to the fields and work. Meals are brought to the field by the son, or, if necessary, by the daughter. The distance between the house and the farm is sometimes over a mile, and it would be a waste of precious time to go home. Milking sheep to make cheese and butter During sowing and harvest times, work may go on as late as 10:00pm. Once home, the animals must be tended. If the farmer has a young son, grass has already been cut; if not, he must employ someone to do it. It remains for him to prepare the fodder, and to feed, wash, and clean the animals. The farmer’s wife has an even greater burden of work. She must prepare the meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) and tea (early morning, mid-afternoon, and late night). Meals are made for the husband and the questions children and, if there are few children, for the labourers who have to be 1 How might the people in each of the pictures hired. The buffalo must be milked twice a day, morning and evening. The in Item A be related? milk is used to make lassi, a yoghurt drink for warm mornings, and to make butter late in the evening. Dishes must be washed after every meal. 2 Why is a family essential for the farmer in Item B? Source: Monthly Review Press, 1972

political units – important decisions which affected all permits the man to benefit from the fruits of woman’s work, members of the lineage were made by a council of elders. including delousing, body painting, and hair-plucking as The importance of marriage in kinship-based societies well as vegetable food and cooked food (since the Bororo can be seen from the following quotation and the example woman tills the soil and makes pots), a bachelor is really in Activity 10. The French anthropologist, Claude Lévi- only half a human being.’ Strauss (1956), recalls meeting a pathetic looking man during his research among the Bororo of central Brazil. The man was ‘about thirty years old: unclean, ill-fed, sad, and Pre-industrial families lonesome. When asked if the man was seriously ill, the The evidence suggests that families in pre-industrial answer came as a shock: What was wrong with him? – societies were often extended beyond the basic nuclear nothing at all, he was just a bachelor, and true enough, in family. The example of producing textiles in Activity 9 a society where labour is systematically shared between suggests that the family was extended to include three man and woman and where only the married status generations – note the old woman in the picture. 76 Chapter 2 activity9 cottage industry Around 1720, Daniel Defoe (author of Robinson Crusoe) journeyed to Halifax in West Yorkshire. This is what he saw.

‘People made cloth in practically every house in Halifax. They keep a cow or two and sow corn to feed their chickens. The houses were full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-vat; some at the loom, others dressing the cloths; the women and children carding, or spinning; all employed from the youngest to the oldest. The finished cloth was taken to the market to be sold.’ Source: “A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain” (1724–1727) by Daniel Defoe

Spinning in a cottage in the early 1700s question What evidence does this activity provide which suggests that the family is a unit of production?

There is evidence that the family was multifunctional – 3.2 Industrialisation, urbanisation and that it performed a number of functions. For example, as a families production unit it had an economic function, as part of a wider kinship group it sometimes performed political The industrial revolution began in Britain around 1750. It functions, and by socialising children and providing them brought a number of important changes in society. with job training, it had an important educational function. ● A large part of the workforce moved from agriculture A person’s status or position in society was often ascribed and small cottage industries to industrial work, – fixed at birth – by their family membership. Daughters producing manufactured goods in factories. tended to take on the status of their mothers, sons the ● Manufacturing industry was mechanised – machinery status of their fathers. was used to mass produce goods. Small home-based activity10 the economics of marriage In many pre-industrial societies, marriage is essential for economic reasons. In traditional Inuit (Eskimo) society, men build igloos and hunt. Women gather edible plants and catch fish. Their skill in sewing animal skins into clothes is indispensable in the Arctic climate. Sewing is a skill that men are never taught, and many of the skills of hunting are kept secret from women. Source: from Douglas, 1964

question Why is marriage in traditional Inuit society essential for both husband and wife? Inuit women beating fish skin to make into ‘fish leather’ Families and households 77 activity11 loss of functions Item A Factory production Item B National Health Service

Item C Home for the elderly

question How can these pictures be used to argue that many of the functions of the family have been reduced or lost in modern industrial society?

family businesses could not compete with this. outside the nuclear family, these are now a matter of ● Towns and cities grew in size and the majority of the choice rather than necessity or obligation and duty. population was concentrated in large urban areas rather Loss of functions According to Parsons, the main reason for than small villages. This process is known as this isolation is a loss of functions performed by the family. urbanisation. For example, the typical modern family is no longer a This section examines the impact of these changes on the production unit – its adult members are now individual family. wage earners. In addition, local and national government has taken over, or reduced the importance of, many of the Talcott Parsons – the isolated nuclear family functions of the family. Schools, hospitals, welfare benefits and the police force have reduced the need for a wide The American functionalist sociologist, Talcott Parsons network of kin (see Activity 11). (1951) argued that industrialisation has led to the isolated nuclear family. He sees this as the typical family form in Achieved status In modern industrial society, status is modern industrial society. Compared to pre-industrial achieved rather than ascribed. In other words, a person’s times, the nuclear family – the married couple and their position in society is achieved on the basis of merit – ability children – are isolated from the wider kinship network. and effort – rather than ascribed on the basis of family Although there are usually relationships with relatives membership. Children are unlikely to follow their parents’ 78 Chapter 2 occupations. Job training is performed by the educational system and the employer rather than the family. key terms Geographical mobility In modern industrial society, Production unit A group of people involved in the production extended family networks may be dysfunctional – they may of goods and services. be harmful to society. A modern industrial economy Cottage industry The production of goods in the home. requires a geographically mobile workforce – workers who Kinship-based society A society in which social institutions are able to move to places where their skills are in and people’s roles are largely organised on the basis of demand. Large extended families tend to be tied down by kinship relationships. obligations and duties to their relatives. They are bulky and Lineage A social group made up of people descended from a unwieldy units compared to the small, streamlined isolated common ancestor. nuclear family. Multifunctional Performing a number of functions. Industrialisation The move to the production of manufactured Summary Parsons argues that the isolated nuclear family is goods in factories. ideally suited to modern industrial society. Although it is Urbanisation The concentration of an increasing proportion slimmed down, it can still perform its essential functions – of the population in urban areas – towns and cities. the socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult Isolated nuclear family A married couple and their children personalities (see pages 67-68). who are largely independent from the wider kinship network. activity12 farming families (2) Item A Families in rural Ireland Item B Haymaking The following description is taken from a study of farming families in Ireland in the 1930s. An elaborate system of cooperation had grown up between farmers and their relatives. Men often lent one another tools and machinery. Women clubbed together to make up a tub or firkin of butter or lend a girl when a family was shorthanded for the work of dairying. Help from extended family members is especially important at harvest time when grass is mowed and collected. One farmer was helped by the sons of three others, his second cousins, and in due course he mowed their meadows. Another was helped by the son of his cousin and his nephew. He took his mowing machine to do the fields of their fathers. There were, however, five cases of farmers who although obviously shorthanded had no help. Two of these were bachelors who could not return the help, and two ‘strangers’ who would not be expected to. Haymaking in Berkshire in 1906 Source: Frankenberg, 1966

questions 1 a) What evidence of extended families is provided by Item A? b) How can this evidence be used to question Laslett’s conclusions? 2 Judging from Item B, why are farmers today less likely to rely on extended family members?

Baling hay on a modern farm Families and households 79

Peter Laslett – the family in pre-industrial England Michael Anderson – the working-class extended Historical research has questioned the view that most family people in pre-industrial societies lived in extended Historical research by Michael Anderson (1971) suggests families. The historian Peter Laslett (1965, 1977) that the early stages of industrialisation may have examined parish records which record the names of encouraged the development of extended families. people living together in households – ‘under the same Anderson took a 10% sample of households from Preston roof’. He found that only about 10% of households in in Lancashire, using data from the 1851 census. He found England from 1564 to 1821 included kin beyond the that 23% of households contained kin beyond the nuclear nuclear family. The figure for Great Britain in 1981 was family. Most of these households were working class. This similar – around 9% – but by 2001 it had dropped to was a time of widespread poverty, high birth rates and high under 5% (Social Trends, 2002). death rates. Without a welfare state, people tended to rely Laslett claims that his research shows that nuclear on a wide network of kin for care and support. Anderson’s families were the norm in pre-industrial England. He study suggests that the working-class extended family found a similar pattern in parts of Western Europe. His operated as a mutual aid organisation, providing support in research was based on households, but people do not times of hardship and crisis. have to live under the same roof to form extended The mid-19th century was a period of rapid families. It is not possible from Laslett’s data to discover urbanisation as people moved from rural areas to work in how much cooperation occurred between kin who lived factories – for example, in the cotton mills of Preston. in different households. Extended families may have been Overcrowding was common due to a shortage of housing important even though relatives lived in neighbouring and a desire to save on rent. As a result, people often households. This can be seen from Activity 12. moved in with their relatives. activity13 mutual support question

Suggest ways in which members of the working- class extended family might help each other during the 19th century.

Gustav Doré’s engraving of Wentworth Street, Whitechapel, London in the 1870s 80 Chapter 2

3.3 Industrialisation, women and Slowly but surely women were being locked into the families mother-housewife role and confined to the home. In 1851, one in four married women were employed, by 1911, this Ann Oakley (1974) argues that industrialisation had the figure was reduced to one in ten. From 1914 to 1950 the following effects on women and family life. employment of married women grew slowly but the mother-housewife role remained their primary During the early years of industrialisation (1750-1841) responsibility. Even by 1970, when about half of all the factory steadily replaced the family as the unit of married women were employed, most saw their production. Women were employed in factories where occupational role as secondary to their duties as a wife and they often continued their traditional work in textiles. mother and their responsibility for the home. However, a series of factory acts, beginning in 1819, gradually restricted child labour. Someone now had to Oakley concludes that industrialisation had the following effects on the role of women. First, the ‘separation of men care for and supervise children, a role which fell to from the daily routines of domestic life’. Second, the women. The restriction of women to the home had begun. ‘economic dependence of women and children on men’. Women were seen by many men as a threat to their Third, the ‘isolation of housework and childcare from other employment. As early as 1841, committees of male work’. The result is that the mother-housewife role became workers called for ‘the gradual withdrawal of all female ‘the primary role for all women’. labour from the factory’. In 1842, the Mines Act banned Recent evidence indicates that the position of married the employment of women as miners. Women were women is changing. By 2000, 75% of married or excluded from trade unions, men made contracts with cohabiting women of working age (16-59) in the UK were their employers to prevent them from hiring women and economically active (ie, either in work or seeking work). laws were passed restricting female employment in a There has been a steady decline in full-time mothers and number of industries. Tied down by dependent children housewives. In 1991, 17% of women of working age gave and increasingly barred from the workplace the restriction their occupation as ‘looking after family/home’. By 2001, of women to the home continued. this had declined to 13% (Social Trends, 2002). activity14 the mother–housewife role

question

How does this magazine cover from 1957 reflect Oakley’s picture of the mother-housewife role in the 1950s? Families and households 81

3.4 Families in the 20th century Green, for example, visiting the pub with workmates, and became more involved in domestic activities. Gardening, There is evidence that the working-class extended family watching television and other home-centred leisure continued well into the 20th century. Research indicates it activities largely replaced the extended family. was alive and well in the 1950s in a Liverpool dock area Young and Willmott’s findings are reflected in later (Kerr, 1958), in a Yorkshire mining town (Dennis, studies such as John Goldthorpe and David Lockwood’s Henriques & Slaughter, 1956) and in the East End of (1969) research into affluent (highly paid) manual workers London (Young & Willmott, 1957). in Luton in the 1960s. Many had moved to Luton in search Bethnal Green In their study of Bethnal Green in the East of better paid jobs. They led privatised, home-centred lives End of London, Michael Young and Peter Willmott define – the home and nuclear family were the focus of their an extended family as ‘a combination of families who to leisure activities. some large degree form one domestic unit’. The extended family does not have to share the same household – ie, live Stages of family life under the same roof – as long as its members are in regular Many sociologists have argued that there is a long-term contact and share services such as caring for children and trend towards the nuclear family. Michael Young and Peter elderly relatives. Activity 16 is based on Young and Willmott take a similar view. In a study entitled The Willmott’s research in Bethnal Green. Symmetrical Family (1973), they bring together their earlier Greenleigh In the second part of their research, Young and research, historical evidence, and data from a survey they Willmott studied families from Bethnal Green who had conducted in London in the early 1970s. They argue that been rehoused in Greenleigh, a new council estate in the family in Britain has developed through three stages. Essex. Young and Willmott describe their family life as Stage 1 The pre-industrial family The family at this stage privatised – it had become home-centred and based on the is a production unit – family members work together in nuclear family. Living 30 miles from Bethnal Green, wives agriculture and cottage industries. lost regular contact with their mothers and became more Stage 2 The early industrial family The industrial dependent on husbands for companionship and support. revolution disrupted the unity of the family as its economic Husbands were cut off from social contacts in Bethnal function was taken over by large-scale industry. Men were activity15 Bethnal Green Item A Mother and daughter Item B Contact with kin The link between mother and daughter in Bethnal Contacts of married men and women with parents Green is often strong. The following example shows how much their lives are sometimes woven Fathers Mothers together. Mrs Wilkins is in and out of her mother’s all day. She shops with her in the morning and goes Number Percentage Number Percentage round there for a cup of tea in the afternoon. ‘Then with who saw with who saw any time during the day, if I want a bit of salt or father father in mother mother in something like that, I go round to Mum to get it and alive previous alive previous have a bit of a chat while I’m there. If the children have anything wrong with them, I usually go round 24 hours 24 hours to my Mum and have a little chat. If she thinks it’s serious enough I’ll take him to the doctor.’ Her Men 116 30% 163 31% mother looked after Marilyn, the oldest child, for Women 100 48% 155 55% nearly three years. ‘She’s always had her when I worked; I worked from when she was just a little Source: Young & Willmott, 1957 baby until I was past six months with Billy. Oh, she’s all for our Mum. She’s got her own mates over there and still plays there all the time. Mum looks questions after my girl pretty good. When she comes in, I say, 1 In view of Young and Willmott’s definition, does Mrs Wilkins in “Have you had your tea?”, and she says as often as Item A belong to an extended family? Give reasons for your answer. not, “I’ve had it at Nan’s”.’ 2 Mr Sykes who lives near his mother-in-law in Bethnal Green said, Source: Young & Willmott, 1957 ‘This is the kind of family where sisters never want to leave their mother’s side’. How does Item B suggest that this kind of family is widespread? 82 Chapter 2 increasingly drawn out of the home into industrial ● It is symmetrical – the roles of husband and wife are employment. The family was ‘torn apart’ – long working increasingly similar. Although wives are still mainly hours meant that men had little time to spend with their responsible for childcare, husbands play a greater part wives and children. Poverty was widespread. Kinship in domestic life. networks were extended, mainly by women, to provide Stratified diffusion Young and Willmott argue that the mutual support. Extended families continued well into the development of the stage 3 family has occurred through a 20th century in low-income, working-class areas such as process of stratified diffusion, whereby new ideas of family Bethnal Green. life were started by the higher social classes and gradually Stage 3 The symmetrical family This type of family first filtered down to the lower classes. As the working class has developed in the middle class. By the 1970s, it had spread come to enjoy shorter working hours, more comfortable to the working class. It has three main characteristics. homes and a higher standard of living, family life has ● It is nuclear. become increasingly privatised and nuclear. There is less ● It is home-centred and privatised – family life is focused need for the traditional mutual aid network of the extended on the home. Husband and wife look to each other for family. There is more opportunity to devote time and companionship. Leisure is home-based – for example, money to home and children. watching TV. The family is self-contained – there is little Stage 4 Young and Willmott suggest a possible fourth stage contact with the wider kinship network. in family life. They argue that if stratified diffusion activity16 three stages of family life Item A Early 20th century Item B 1954

A Lancashire farming family

Item C 1970s

Chatting over the garden fence

question Match each picture to one of Young and Willmott’s three stages of family life. Explain your choices. A shot from an Oxo commercial Families and households 83 continues, then the upper classes will be setting the trends Luton in the 1980s In 1986-1987, Fiona Devine (1992) for family life in the future. Their survey included a sample studied Vauxhall car workers and their families in Luton. of managing directors’ families. It indicates a trend away In part, this was a restudy of Goldthorpe and Lockwood’s from the symmetrical family towards a more asymmetrical 1960s’ research which pictured the working-class family form. Husbands were highly involved in their work and as privatised and self-contained. Devine’s research domestic responsibilities were left mainly to their wives. suggests that the degree of privatisation has been Couples spent less time in joint activities than the typical exaggerated. Most couples had regular contact with kin – privatised family. especially parents and, to a lesser extent, brothers and sisters. Many had been helped by kin to find jobs and Criticisms of Young and Willmott housing when moving to the area. 1 Their theory suggests an historical ‘march of progress’ in Manchester in the 1990s Research in the 1990s largely which family life gets better and better. They have been confirms the findings of earlier studies. A study of Greater criticised for failing to address the negative aspects of Manchester by Janet Finch and Jennifer Mason (1993) changes in the modern family. found that over 90% of their sample had given or received financial help from relatives, and almost 60% had shared a 2 Many sociologists are unhappy about the concept of household with an adult relative (apart from parents) at stratified diffusion, implying as it does that the working some time in their lives. In addition, many reported giving class automatically follow norms established by the and receiving practical assistance, emotional support, and middle class. Goldthorpe and Lockwood’s Luton study, help with children. While emphasising that family while showing privatised lifestyles among affluent relationships are based on a sense of obligation, Finch and manual workers, showed that they still retained a Mason also found that help was negotiated and not distinctive working-class outlook on life. necessarily given automatically. 3 Feminists have attacked Young and Willmott’s concept Declining contact, 1986-1995 The above studies indicate of the symmetrical family. For example, they claim that the continuing importance of kin beyond the nuclear women are still mainly responsible for household tasks family. However, there is evidence of a decline in contact such as cooking and cleaning (McMahon, 1999). with kin. The British Social Attitudes (BSA) Survey is based on a representative sample of adults aged 18 and over. The 4 The extended family may be more important than 1986 and 1995 Surveys looked at frequency of contact Young and Willmott’s picture of the largely independent with kin. They indicate a significant decline. The figures nuclear family suggests. suggest that people are less likely to visit or be visited by anybody at all – relatives or friends. The data showing this The modified extended family is presented in Activity 17. The picture presented so far is a steady march of progress Why has contact declined? The average journey time blossoming into the privatised, self-sufficient, self-centred between relatives has increased only very slightly since nuclear family. Kin beyond the nuclear family appear to 1986.There is no evidence that friends have replaced play a minor role. A number of sociologists argue that this relatives. The most likely explanation appears to be the process has been exaggerated. Important services are often increasing proportion of women working outside the exchanged between nuclear family members and extended home. The most marked fall in contact has been among kin, though the ties that bind them are not as strong as women in full-time employment – for example, a drop of those in the traditional extended family. nearly 20% seeing their mother at least once a week The term modified extended family is sometimes used to (McGlone et al., 1999). describe such family groupings. Members come together for important family events and provide support in times of Social change and the family – conclusion need. Improved communications, such as email, Functions of the family There is no simple, straightforward telephones, cars and air travel, mean that contact over long relationship between industrialisation and the functions of distances is easier than before. the family, the structure of family relationships and the The following studies suggest that sociologists have content of family roles. Sociologists generally agree that tended to underestimate the importance of kinship beyond industrialisation ended the family’s role as a unit of the nuclear family. production. However, some argue that this has been North London in the 1980s Peter Willmott (1986) studied replaced by an equally important economic function – the married couples with young children in a North London family as a unit of consumption. Goods and services are suburb. Two-thirds saw relatives at least once a week, nearly increasingly bought and consumed in the name of the two-thirds were helped by mothers or mothers-in-laws when family – houses, family cars, home improvements, family a child was ill, and nearly three-quarters were helped with holidays and so on. Rising living standards resulting from babysitting – again mainly by mothers or mothers-in-law. industrialisation have enabled the family to become a unit Four-fifths looked to relatives, mainly parents or parents-in- of consumption. law, when they needed to borrow money. Has the family lost many of its functions? Some 84 Chapter 2 activity17 declining contact Item A Contact with kin Item B Full-time work

Frequency seeing relative/ Frequency seeing non-resident friend at least once a week mother at least once a week

1986 (%) 1995 (%) 1985 (%) 1995 (%)

Mother 59 49 Men in full-time work 49 46 Father 51 40 Women in full-time work 64 45 Sibling 33 29 Adult child 66 58 Source: McGlone et al., 1999 Other relative 42 35 ‘Best friend’ 65 59 Item C Keeping in touch

Source: McGlone et al., 1999

questions 1 a) Briefly summarise the data in Item A. b) How does it indicate that friends have not taken over from family? 2 What does Item B suggest is the reason for reduced contact with relatives? 3 Items A and B refer to face-to-face contact with relatives. This may exaggerate the extent of the decline of contact. Why? Refer to Item C in your answer. sociologists argue that the functions of the family have not industrialisation, most had turned to the home by the been reduced or lost. Instead, they have been supplemented beginning of the 20th century, then most had returned to and supported. For example, Ronald Fletcher (1966) claims paid employment by the start of the 21st century. that traditional functions such as the care and education of Family diversity This unit has looked at some of the children have been supported rather than removed by state changes in family life since industrialisation. However, it schools, hospitals and welfare provision. has not examined some of the more recent changes Structure of the family Does industrialisation lead to the mentioned in Unit 2 – the growth in lone-parent families, development of isolated nuclear families? Not necessarily, reconstituted families and cohabitation, the rise in the as Anderson’s study of Preston in 1851 indicates. However, divorce rate, and the increase in gay and lesbian families. many sociologists believe there is a trend in this direction. These changes will now be examined. Although extended family networks continued well into the 20th century, available evidence suggests that they have largely disappeared in their traditional form. key terms However, the picture of the privatised, self-contained Symmetrical family A nuclear family in which the roles of nuclear family has probably been exaggerated. Contact husband and wife are increasingly similar. It is home-centred, between kin beyond the nuclear family is widespread – privatised and self-contained. sufficient to use the term modified extended family to Stratified diffusion The spread of ideas and behaviour describe many families. However, there is evidence that through the class system from top to bottom. Modified extended family A weaker version of the traditional contact declined fairly significantly towards the end of the extended family. Members don’t usually share the same 20th century. household. However, contact is regular and important services Family roles Have family roles changed as a result of are often exchanged. industrialisation? To some extent yes, though not simply in Unit of consumption A group of people who consume goods one direction. For example, women were an important part and services as a unit. of the labour force during the early years of Families and households 85

summary

1 Families in pre-industrial society performed a range of functions. 7 During the early years of industrialisation, married women These included economic, educational and welfare functions. often worked in factories. They were gradually excluded from 2 Pre-industrial families were often extended – they formed part the labour force and restricted to the home. The mother- of a wider kinship network. This wider network was needed housewife role became their primary role. Today, the majority to effectively perform the family’s functions. of women have returned to the labour force. 3 Talcott Parsons saw the isolated nuclear family as the typical 8 Defined by Young and Willmott as ‘a combination of families family structure in industrial society. He argued that family who to some large degree form one domestic unit’, extended members no longer needed to rely on large kinship networks families continued well into the 20th century in many because many of the family’s functions had been taken over working-class areas. by specialised agencies. 9 Young and Willmott claim that the family in Britain has 4 According to Parsons, an industrial economy requires a developed through three stages: 1) the pre-industrial family geographically mobile labour force. The small, streamlined 2) the early industrial family 3) the symmetrical family. nuclear family meets this requirement. 10 Studies from the 1950s to the early 1970s claimed that the 5 Peter Laslett’s research shows that only 10% of pre-industrial typical family structure was nuclear. Families were pictured as households in England contained kin beyond the nuclear privatised, home-centred and self-contained. family. However, family members do not have to live under the 11 Studies from the 1980s and 1990s suggested that this picture same roof to form extended families. of privatisation and self-containment was exaggerated. Kin 6 Michael Anderson’s research on Preston households in 1851 beyond the nuclear family still played an important role. Many suggests that the early years of industrialisation may have families could be described as modified extended families. encouraged the formation of extended families in the working 12 However, evidence from the British Social Attitudes Survey class. Such families may have operated as mutual aid indicates that contact with kin beyond the nuclear family organisations before the days of the welfare state. declined towards the close of the 20th century.

Unit 4 Changing family relationships

rather than widows and widowers. The largest increase keyissues occurred between 1971 and 1972 following the 1 How have patterns of marriage, cohabitation, introduction of the Divorce Reform Act of 1969, and then childbearing, separation and divorce changed? levelled off. 2 What explanations have been given for these changes? Age at marriage Over the past 40 years, people have tended to marry later. In 1971, the average age for first marriages in England and Wales was 25 for men and 23 for 4.1 Marriage women. By 2005, it was 32 for men and 29 for women. The increase in cohabitation – living together as a couple – Apart from a few ups and downs, the number of marriages partly accounts for this. Many couples know see per year in the UK increased steadily from 1838 (when cohabitation as a prelude to marriage. they were first recorded) until the early 1970s. Since then there has been a significant decline, from 480,000 Civil partnerships The Civil Partnership Act came into effect marriages in 1972 to 283,700 in 2005 (unless mentioned, in the UK in December 2005. The Act grants same-sex the figures in this unit are taken from Social Trends and couples identical rights and responsibilities as opposite-sex National Statistics online). married couples. There were 18,059 civil partnerships formed in the UK between December 2005 and the end of These figures refer both to first marriages, in which December 2006. neither partner has been married before, and to remarriages in which one or both partners have been married before. First Marriage The number of first marriages in England and key terms Wales peaked in 1940 at 426,100 (91% of all marriages) First marriage A marriage in which neither partner has been then fell to 146,120 in 2005 (60% of all marriages). married before. Remarriage Remarriages increased from 57,000 in 1961 Remarriage A marriage in which one or both partners have (14% of all marriages) to 98,580 in 2005 (40% of all been married before. marriages). Most remarriages involve divorced persons 86 Chapter 2 activity18 patterns of marriage Item A Marriages and divorces Item B Keep on marrying

Thousands United Kingdom 500

All marriages 400

First marriages 300

200 Divorces

100 Remarriages

0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005

Source: Social Trends, 2007, Office for National Statistics Patsy Kensit with husband number three, Liam Gallagher. The Item C Wary of marriage marriage is now over. Sue Sharpe studied working-class girls in London schools in the early 1970s. She found their main concerns were ‘love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs, and careers, more or less in that order’. A third wanted to be married by 20 and three-quarters by 25. When she returned to the same schools in the early 1990s, she found the girls’ priorities had changed to ‘job, career and being able to support themselves’. In her words, ‘Young people had witnessed adult relationships breaking up and being reconstituted all around them. Girls in particular were far more wary of marriage. Now, only 4 per cent wanted to be married by 20, although there was still a feeling of "A wedding day – that sounds good fun".’ Source: Sharpe, 1976 and 1994 questions Joan Collins with husband number five, Percy Gibson. 1 a) Describe the trends shown in Item A. 3 How might Item C help to explain b) What does Item A suggest about the relationship a) the decline in marriage between divorce and remarriage? b) the later age of marriage? 2 Why does the term ‘serial monogamy’ fit Patsy Kensit’s and Joan Collins’s marital history?

Singlehood indicates. There has also been a steady increase in Some people never marry. They either choose to remain singlehood – living without a partner. single or fail to find a suitable marriage partner. There are Creative singlehood In the past, being single was seen as a increasing numbers of ‘never-married’ people. For example, negative status, particularly for women. They had ‘failed’ to in England and Wales only 7% of women born between find a marriage partner, their situation was ‘unfortunate’, 1946 and 1950 remained unmarried by the age of 32, they were ‘spinsters’ and ‘old maids’ – terms with negative compared with 28% of those born between 1961 and overtones. 1965. There is a similar trend for men. Today, views are changing. The term creative singlehood Many ‘never-married’ people cohabit – they live with a is sometimes used to describe a positive view of partner as a couple. There has been a steady increase in singlehood whereby people choose to remain single as a cohabitation in recent years as the following section lifestyle option. Families and households 87 activity19 singlehood Item A Creative singlehood Never-married people who live alone tend to see their situation in positive terms. They have chosen to remain single. They emphasise the importance of independence and freedom. As one single woman in her 30s put it, ‘It was the freedom of it really, come and go when I like’. Others emphasise the importance of work. One woman said, ‘Until the age of 30 there was always a man in my life, but around the age of 30, it all started to change and work took over. By the age of 35, I had come to the conclusion that I should knock it on the head and concentrate on work’. Source: Hall et al., 1999

Singles’ night in a supermarket Item B Single women Women are choosing to live alone because they have the capacity to do so. New opportunities in education and employment over the past few decades mean there is now a third way for women between living with and looking after their aged parents, or getting married. Single women tend to have much more developed and intense social networks and are involved in a wide range of social and other activities. Single men, by contrast, tend to be lonely and isolated. The signs are that living alone is good for women but bad for men. Source: Scase, 2000

questions Girls’ night out 1 How does the term creative singlehood apply to Item A? 2 Why are more women choosing to remain single? Refer to both items in your answer.

4.2 Cohabitation Figure 1 Cohabitation and marriage

Definition Cohabitation is living together as a couple 100 without being married. It involves a shared residence in 90 which a couple set up home together. Love is the most 80 common reason people give for cohabiting (McRae, 1999). 70 Extent and age From 1976 to 1998, the proportion of non- Second marriages married women under 50 who were cohabiting more than 60 trebled – from 9% to over 27%. Cohabiting couples tend to 50 be young – nearly 40% of non-married women aged 25 to 40 29 were cohabiting in 1998. The picture is similar for men First marriages 30 (Haskey, 2001). 20 In Britain in 2005, 24% of non-married men and women Percentage pre-maritally cohabiting under 60 were cohabiting, around twice the proportion in 10 1986 (Social Trends, 2007). 0 1956 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 2000 Cohabitation and marriage Cohabitation before marriage Year of marriage has now become the norm. Figure 1 shows the proportions of first and second marriages in which the couple lived Source: Population Trends 2001, National Household Survey 88 Chapter 2 together before marriage. For first marriages in the 1950s to lend to those ‘living in sin’ (Allan & Crow, 2001). the figure was less than 2%, by 1996 it was 77%. For Changes in divorce The divorce rate has increased rapidly second marriages, the figure rose from less than 20% in over the past 50 years. Couples in which one or both 1967 to 84% in 1996 (Haskey, 2001). partners are divorced are the most likely to cohabit. Having Reasons for cohabitation The 1998 British Household already achieved independence from their parents, they are Panel Survey asked people why they chose to cohabit. less likely to be affected by parental control. Also, if their These are the reasons they gave. divorce has not gone through, cohabitation is their only ● For most people, cohabitation is part of the process of option if they want to live as a couple. getting married – it is a prelude to marriage, not an The rise in divorce means that the view of marriage as a alternative to marriage. ‘union for life’ has less power. This may lead many people ● Over half saw cohabitation as a trial marriage – it to see cohabitation, without its binding legal ties, as an provided an opportunity to test the relationship before attractive alternative to marriage. Some people actually making it legally binding. give ‘fear of divorce’ as a reason for cohabiting (McRae, ● Around 40% saw cohabitation as an alternative to 1999; Allan & Crow, 2001). marriage – they saw advantages to living together rather than marrying. ● Some mentioned the absence of legal ties – this gave 4.3 Divorce and separation them more freedom to end the relationship (Social Trends, 2002). This section looks at the breakup of partnerships. It is mainly concerned with divorce. Causes Trends in divorce Over the past 50 years, cohabitation has increased rapidly. What accounts for this increase? In the UK, as in other Western societies, there has been a dramatic rise in divorce during the 20th century. This can Changing attitudes Attitudes towards sexual relationships be seen from the actual number of divorces each year and and living arrangements outside marriage have changed. from the increase in the divorce rate – the number of Cohabitation is no longer seen as ‘living in sin’ or divorces per thousand married people. described with negative phrases such as ‘living over the brush’. Table 1 shows both these measures for decrees absolute (final divorces) in England and Wales from 1931 to 2006. Evidence for change can be seen from the 1996 British Both the number and rate of divorce peaked in 1993. Since Household Panel Survey. Asked whether they thought then, there has been a gradual decline. ‘living together outside marriage was always wrong’, a third of those aged 60 and over thought it was wrong compared with less than a tenth of those under 30 (Social Trends, 2002). Table 1 Divorce: decrees absolute (England and Wales) Effective contraception From 1967, reliable contraception was made readily available to unmarried women with the Rate per 1,000 passing of the NHS (Family Planning) Act. For the first time, Year Numbers married full sexual relations could be an expression of love for a population partner rather than a means of reproduction. Effective 1931 3,668 0.4 contraception made it possible for couples to cohabit with little fear of pregnancy (Allan & Crow, 2001). 1951 28,265 2.6 1964 34,868 2.9 Changes in parental control, education and housing There is some evidence that parental control over children has 1969 51,310 4.1 decreased over the past 50 years. The 1960s are often seen 1972 119,025 9.5 as the decade when young people revolted against the 1981 145,713 11.9 authority of their parents and the ‘older generation’. 1991 158,745 13.4 The expansion of higher education means that increasing 1993 165,018 14.2 numbers of young people are leaving home at an earlier age for reasons other than marriage. For example, there 1996 157,107 13.9 were 173,000 female undergraduates in the UK in 1970/71 1998 145,214 12.9 compared with over 1.4 million in 2004/05. As a result, 2000 141,135 12.7 many young people have more freedom from parental 2006 132,562 12.2 authority at an earlier age, and they are able to live in their own housing. This makes it easier for couples to cohabit. With reference to various issues of Population Trends, Office for In addition, building societies are now more likely to lend National Statistics to unmarried couples – at one time they were very unlikely Families and households 89

Interpreting divorce statistics Causes Act set up a new court for divorce. The grounds for Divorce statistics provide an accurate measure of one type divorce included adultery, cruelty and desertion. At least of marital breakdown – the legal termination of marriages. one partner had to be proven guilty of one of these However, marriages can end in other ways. ‘matrimonial offences’. Although the costs of obtaining a divorce were now reduced, they were still beyond the Separation The married couple end their marriage by reach of most people. separating – living in separate residences. However, they remain legally married. Some couples obtain separation Throughout the first half of the 20th century a series of orders granted by magistrates’ courts. Acts simplified divorce proceedings, reduced the costs involved and widened the grounds for divorce. The Empty-shell marriages The couple live together, remain financial burden of divorce was eased for the less well-off legally married, but their marriage exists in name only. by the Legal Aid and Advice Act of 1949 which provided Love, sex and companionship are things of the past. free legal advice and paid solicitors’ fees for those who As the divorce rate increased, there may have been a could not afford them. decrease in separations and empty-shell marriages. From The Divorce Reform Act of 1969 involved a major 1897-1906, around 8,000 separation orders were granted change in the grounds for divorce. Before this Act, a each year compared to 700 divorces. By 1971, only 94 ‘matrimonial offence’ had to be proven, a ‘guilty party’ had separation orders were granted compared to over 74,000 to be found. However, many people who wanted a divorce divorces. There are no figures on informal (‘unofficial’) had not committed adultery, been guilty of cruelty, and so separations. Nor are there any figures on the extent of on. The 1969 Act defined the grounds for divorce as ‘the empty-shell marriages. Such marriages were often irretrievable breakdown of the marriage’. It was no longer maintained in order to ‘keep up appearances’ and avoid necessary to prove guilt but simply to show that the the stigma (shame) of divorce. This stigma considerably marriage was beyond repair. The Act came into force in reduced during the last half of the 20th century. January 1971 and was followed by a rapid rise in the As the next section indicates, divorce has become easier divorce rate. and cheaper throughout the last century. In view of this, The Matrimonial Family Proceedings Act of 1984 came people who previously separated or endured empty-shell into effect in 1985. This Act reduced from three years to marriages are probably more likely to choose divorce. one the time a couple had to be married before they could Cohabitation Marriage is only one form of partnership. As petition for a divorce. noted earlier, cohabitation is an increasingly popular form Changes in the law have made divorce a lot easier. The of partnership. Available evidence suggests that, in any grounds for divorce have been widened, the procedure has given period, a significantly higher number of cohabitations been simplified and the expense reduced. Changes in the are terminated than marriages (Allan & Crow, 2001). law have provided greater opportunities for divorce. Conclusion Are partnerships becoming more unstable, However, this doesn't explain why more and more people more likely to break up? In view of the evidence outlined are taking advantage of these opportunities. above, it is not possible to answer this question. However, Changing expectations of love and marriage Since the one sociologist, Robert Chester (1984), believes that the 1950s, a number of sociologists have argued that changes increase in divorce rates probably reflects an increase in in people’s expectations of love and marriage have resulted marital breakdown – though he admits this cannot be in increasingly unstable relationships. Functionalists such proved. as Ronald Fletcher and Talcott Parsons claim that people expect and demand more from marriage. Because of this, they are less likely to put up with an unhappy marriage key terms and more likely to end it with divorce. Ronald Fletcher Divorce The legal termination of a marriage. (1966) argues that a higher divorce rate reflects a higher Divorce rate The number of divorces per thousand married value placed on marriage. In terms of this argument, the people. fact that a large proportion of divorcees remarry suggests Separation A married couple who end their relationship and that they are not rejecting the institution of marriage but live in separate residences but remain legally married. simply expecting more from the relationship. Empty-shell marriage The couple share the same residence, More recently, the British sociologist Anthony Giddens remain legally married, but their marriage exists in name only. (1992) has seen a trend towards what he calls confluent love. This form of love focuses on intimacy, closeness and emotion. It forms the basis of relationships rather than the Explaining changing divorce rates feelings of duty and obligation reflected in the traditional Changes in the law Before 1857 a private Act of Parliament marriage vows of ‘for better or worse, for richer or poorer, was required to obtain a divorce in Britain. This was an ‘til death do us part’. Intimate relationships based on expensive and complicated procedure beyond the means confluent love tend to last as long as partners find of all but the most wealthy. In 1857 the Matrimonial satisfaction and fulfilment. 90 Chapter 2 activity20 divorce and the law

Divorce rates (England and Wales)

Year Rate

1931 0.4 1951 2.6 1964 2.9 1972 9.5 1981 11.9 1991 13.4 2000 12.7 2006 12.2

With reference to various issues of Population Trends, Office for National question Statistics. How might changes in the law have affected the divorce rate?

The decision to marry is increasingly based on confluent as a means of dealing with a failed marriage (Cockett & love. When marriage ceases to provide the intimacy Tripp, 1994). demanded by confluent love, individuals are likely to end The economic position of women Women have often been it. If Giddens is correct, then marriage is an increasingly ‘trapped’ in unhappy marriages because they cannot unstable and fragile institution, and divorce will become support themselves and their children without their more frequent. husband’s income. Unless they can become economically Overloading marriage Research from the United States independent, their opportunities to divorce are severely indicates that individuals have become increasingly restricted (Kurz, 1995). dependent on their partners for emotional support. From Over the past 50 years, married women’s chances of 1985 to 2004, research participants reported they had economic independence have improved significantly. fewer close relationships with friends, colleagues, Increasing numbers of women have entered the labour neighbours and extended family members. Increasingly market, divorce settlements have taken more account of isolated, they demanded more and more support from their the financial needs of women, and welfare benefits for partners. According to the American historian Stephanie women with dependent children have improved (Allan & Coontz (2006), this can lead to marital breakup by Crow, 2001). Although most women find themselves overloading the relationship. financially worse off after divorce, they are able to live Individualisation According to the German sociologists independently from their former husband. Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim (2001), Women and marriage Feminists have seen rising divorce today’s society is characterised by individualisation. The rates as symptomatic of all that is wrong with traditional norms which define appropriate behaviour are becoming patriarchal marriage – male dominance and the unequal less powerful. As a result, people are increasingly division of domestic labour, with women still largely liberated from the restrictions society places on their responsible for housework and childcare even when they are behaviour and free to develop as individuals. A high employed outside the home (see page 71). It is women rather value is placed on self-expression, individual fulfilment than men who are increasingly dissatisfied with marriage. and independence. Individualisation can place a strain on There is some evidence for this view. Divorced men are marriage, since marriage can restrict freedom and self- more likely to remarry than divorced women. According to expression. High divorce rates can be seen as a result of Diana Gittins (1993), this is because women are more individualisation. disillusioned with marriage. In the 1940s, around two- Changing social values Throughout the 20th century thirds of divorce petitions were brought by husbands. By divorce became more socially acceptable. Couples were 2000, the situation was reversed with 70% of petitions less likely to stay together in order to ‘keep up brought by wives (Population Trends, 109, 2002). This may appearances’ and to avoid the stigma and shame formerly indicate that women are more dissatisfied with marriage associated with divorce. than men. Or, it may reflect a greater need to settle The rising divorce rate has led to the ‘normalisation’ of financial and housing arrangements, particularly for divorce. This, in itself, has made divorce more acceptable women with dependent children (Allan & Crow, 2001). Families and households 91 activity21 case studies Item A Sarah Item B Jan Sarah, 39, runs a public relations consultancy. During her marriage Jan, 43, is a writer. She has four children, three with her she was largely responsible for caring for the children – two girls – and former husband and one with her new partner Mike. ‘I running the home – ‘all the washing, the cleaning and the cooking’ – met Mike four years ago, and happy as we are, I have as well as working full time. She found that, as the children grew older, no desire to marry. I want to be in control of my life – ‘I started to resent what I saw as the inequality in our lives’. Her and the majority of women today feel the same.’ husband Adam ‘could not see what I thought was glaringly obvious’. ‘The reason so many are initiating divorce is because She felt that she couldn’t be herself because ‘he used to put me down we don’t have to be dependent on – or controlled by – and was so controlling’. a man. We want to lead our lives in a way that makes us She decided to divorce Adam. She notes, ‘Economic independence happy, without being answerable to men. When I was played a big part. I knew I could afford to run my own life because I married, I was expected not only to bring money into had a successful business, and it made it possible for me to initiate the the house, but to do all the domestic chores as well. The breakup. I feel so much more myself, being in control of my life. I think big issue between us was always money. He was earning it’s hard for women to stay married today. We have high expectations, £30,000 a year, which was a big salary, but I wasn’t but men and women are still not equal and so many women are allowed to buy as much as a magazine without asking resentful about being expected to do it all.’ him first.’ Source: Appleyard, 2002 Source: Appleyard, 2002 Item C Domestic labour

question To what extent do Items A, B and C support the explanations given for divorce?

divorce – on the variation in divorce rates between key terms different social groups. This variation is particularly apparent for age and social class groups. Confluent love A term used by Giddens to describe a form of intimate relationship which is dependent on both partners Age In general, the earlier the age of marriage, the more finding fulfilment and satisfaction in the relationship. likely it is to end in divorce. For women who were under 20 when they married in the late 1980s, 24% had Individualisation A process which increasingly releases people from society’s norms and allows them to develop greater separated within 5 years compared with 8% who married independence and self-expression. between the ages of 25 and 29. Reasons suggested for the high divorce rate of young marrieds include: ● The bride is more likely to be pregnant which places a Who divorces? strain on the marriage. So far, this section has been concerned with the rise in ● Money problems – young people are more likely to be divorce rates. The focus now is on the social distribution of low paid or unemployed. 92 Chapter 2

● Lack of experience in choosing a suitable partner. divorce with other factors. These include: ● Lack of awareness of the demands of marriage. ● Financial hardship – which may have an effect on ● More likely to ‘grow apart’ as their attitudes and beliefs educational achievement. are still developing. ● Family conflict – which may create behavioural problems for children. Social class In general, the lower the class position of the ● husband, the more likely the couple are to divorce. Parental ability to cope with the changes that divorce Financial problems appear to be the main cause. brings – if parents cannot cope, then children are less Unemployment, reliance on state benefits and low income likely to do so. are all associated with high divorce rates (Kiernan & ● Multiple changes in family structure – if divorce is Mueller, 1999). accompanied by other changes, such as moving in with Other factors A number of other factors are associated a step-family, children are more likely to experience with high divorce rates. They include: problems. ● ● Experience of parents’ divorce – this may cause Quality and degree of contact with the parent who has psychological problems which are carried forward to left – children who have regular contact appear to cope the child’s marriage. Or, it may simply make divorce better. more acceptable. According to Rodgers and Pryor, these findings help to ● Remarriages are more likely to end in divorce than first explain why some children experience problems with marriages. Maybe the problems which caused the first divorce, while the majority, at least in the long term, do not. divorce are carried through into the second marriage. A large-scale research project conducted by Mavis ● Differences in class, ethnicity and religion between the Hetherington (2002) in the USA reached similar couple are associated with higher divorce rates. They conclusions. Her findings are based on a longitudinal study will have less in common, they may have different over 25 years of 2500 people from childhood in 1400 expectations about marriage, and these differences may families. Her evidence includes tens of thousands of hours result in conflict. of videotapes of families at dinner, at play, relaxing and having rows. Hetherington concludes that three out of four The consequences of divorce children experience little long-term damage from divorce. She admits that 25% have serious emotional or social Divorce has a variety of consequences – for the couple problems which compares with 10% from families that stay involved, for their children, their relatives and friends, and together. In her view, the negative effects on children have for the wider society. This section looks at the effects of been exaggerated and we must accept that ‘divorce is a divorce on children and on the wider society. reasonable solution to an unhappy, acrimonious, Divorce and children Opinions about the effects of divorce destructive marital relationship’ (Hetherington, 2002). on children abound. Some see it as uniformly harmful and argue that parents should go to great lengths to stay Divorce and society From a New Right perspective (see together for the sake of the children. Others argue that if pages 68-70) high divorce rates, and the lone-parent divorce frees children from a bitter and hostile family families that often result from divorce, are a serious threat environment then, on balance, it is beneficial. In these to society. Most lone-parent families are headed by circumstances parents should divorce for the sake of the women. They lack a father-figure – a male role model who children. can provide discipline and an example for the future. This can lead to inadequate socialisation, particularly for boys, In a study entitled Divorce and Separation: The which can result in anti-social behaviour. Some New Right Outcomes for Children, Rodgers and Pryor (1998) reviewed thinkers see a direct relationship between rising divorce some 200 studies. They attempted to find out whether rates and rising crime rates. In Patricia Morgan’s (1999) claims about the harmful effects of divorce on children words, ‘large numbers of fatherless youths represent a high were supported by research evidence. risk factor for crime’. A return to ‘traditional family values’ The review confirmed that children of divorced or is needed to strengthen marriage, and ‘tougher’ laws are separated parents have a higher probability of experiencing required because divorce has become ‘too easy’. These a range of problems such as poverty, poor housing, measures will lower the divorce rate and so reduce the behavioural problems (eg, bedwetting and anti-social threat to social stability. behaviour), teenage pregnancy and educational under- In contrast, many feminists strongly object to any barriers achievement. Although children of divorced and separated to divorce. Compared to the past, the present divorce laws parents have around twice the chance of experiencing provide freedom and choice, particularly for women. these sorts of problems, only a minority actually do so. A Restrictions on divorce may force them to endure unhappy key question is why a minority of children appear to suffer marriages, and in some cases, physical and sexual abuse of from divorce while most do not. themselves and their children. Liberal divorce laws offer Rodgers and Pryor suggest that it is not divorce alone greater independence for women and represent a positive which causes these problems, but the association of step towards gender equality. Families and households 93

summary 1 There has been a significant decline in first marriages and in ∑ ● Increased availability of housing for non-married people the overall total of marriages since the early 1970s. Within ∑ ● Increase in divorce rate. this total, there has been an increase in the numbers and 5 Reasons for the rise in divorce include changes in: proportion of remarriages. ∑ ● the law, leading to cheaper and easier divorce 2 There has been an increase in singlehood – living without a ● partner. ∑ rising expectations of love and marriage ● 3 There has been a large increase in cohabitation from the ∑ overloading marriage 1970s onwards. Cohabitation before marriage is now the ∑ ● individualisation norm. While most people see it as a prelude to marriage, ∑ ● attitudes towards divorce some see it as an alternative to marriage. ∑ ● the economic position of women and their view of marriage. 4 The following reasons have been suggested for the increase in 6 Divorce is not spread evenly throughout the population – eg cohabitation. there are age and class variations in divorce rates. ∑ ● Changing attitudes 7 Most children appear to experience no long-term harm from ● ∑ Availability of reliable contraception their parents’ divorce. ● ∑ Reduction of parental control 8 While the New Right sees the rise in divorce as a threat to ∑ ● Expansion of higher education society, feminists tend to see it as an expression of women’s right to choose.

Unit 5 Family diversity

breakdown of the traditional family. keyissues The ideology of the nuclear family What is this wonderful 1 How diverse are families? family compared to which all others fall short? It is the 2 What are the main explanations for family diversity? nuclear family of mum, dad and the kids. For some, it was found in its ideal form in the 1950s with mum as a full- time mother and housewife and dad as the breadwinner. 5.1 Introduction The couple are male and female rather than same-sex, they are married rather than cohabiting, and married for the first Family diversity as a theme This unit is entitled Family rather than the second or third time. diversity. Read any recent introductory textbook on the This image of the nuclear family is fostered by sociology of the family and one statement rings out loud advertisers. Called the cereal packet image of the family and clear – families and households in today’s society are by Edmund Leach (1967), it portrays happy, smiling more complex and diverse than ever before. Here is a nuclear families consuming family products from Corn typical statement by Susan McRae in her introduction to Flakes to Oxo. Changing Britain: Families and Households in the 1990s This picture can be seen as ideological. An ideology is (McRae,1999). ‘Britain today is a much more complex a misleading view, based on value judgements, which society than in past times, with great diversity in the types obscures reality. Diana Gittins (1993) argues that the of household within which people live: one-person; idealised picture of the nuclear family acts as a powerful cohabiting; families with children and families without; ideology, defining what is normal and desirable and stepfamilies; lone parents – whether divorced or never- labelling alternative family forms as abnormal and married; gay and lesbian couples; pensioners.’ undesirable. Family diversity as a cause for concern Alongside this It creates the impression that the nuclear family headed recognition of family and household diversity is concern. by a married, heterosexual couple is the only family unit For some, particularly the New Right, increasing diversity that can effectively raise the next generation. means increasing breakdown. A picture is presented of the family in crisis. Alternatives to the ‘traditional family’ are poor substitutes for the real thing. So, the families formed key term by cohabiting couples, the reconstituted families created by remarriage, and families headed by lone parents or by gay Ideology A misleading view based on value judgements which or lesbian couples are at best, second best. For some, they obscures reality. represent a disintegration of traditional family values, a 94 Chapter 2 activity22 pictures of the family Item A A TV ad Item B Book covers

questions 1 How can ads portraying the nuclear family be seen as ideological? 2 How do the book covers in Item B picture the family today?

5.2 Changing households Table 2 Households: by type of household and This section looks at changes in household composition in family Britain over the past 40 years. A household consists of people who occupy a dwelling unit, for example a house Great Britain Percentages or a flat. Looking at household composition provides one way of assessing the extent of family diversity. And it gives 1961 1971 1981 19912001 2006 an indication about what might be happening to the nuclear family. One Person Table 2 shows the changing proportions of each type of Under state pension age 4 6 8 11 14 14 household from 1961 to 2006. During this period the Over state pension age 7 12 14 16 15 14 proportion of households made up of a couple with Two or more unrelated adults 545333 dependent children has declined from 38% to 22%. During this same period, the proportion of lone-parent with One family households dependent children households has risen from 2% to 7%. Couple These figures have sometimes been used to indicate a No children 26 27 26 28 29 28 decline in nuclear families. They have also been used to 1-2 dependent children 30 26 25 20 19 18 argue that the nuclear family is no longer the dominant 3 or more dependent children 896544 family type. Non-dependent children only 10 88867 Table 3 provides a somewhat different picture. It looks at the percentage of people living in each type of household. Lone parent It shows that in 1961, 52% of people lived in households Dependent children 235677 made up of a couple with dependent children. By 2006, Non-dependent children only 444433 this figure had dropped to 37%. Even so, this is still a lot of Multi-family households 311111 people living in nuclear family households. Figures for one year are just a snapshot of one part of a All households family’s life cycle. Many households contain people who (=100%) (millions) 16.3 18.6 20.2 22.4 24.1 24.2 have been, or will be, members of nuclear family households – for example, couples with no children and Source: Social Trends, 2002, 2007, Office for National Statistics people living alone. And the majority of British children still live in couple-headed households – 76% in 2006, Families and households 95

5.3 Lone-parent families Table 3 People in households: by type of household and family in which they live Definition

Great Britain Percentages The official definition of a lone-parent family goes as follows. A mother or father living without a partner, with their 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2006 dependent child or children. The child must be never-married and aged either under 16 or 16 to under 19 and undertaking One person 4 6 8 111212 full-time education. Partner in this definition refers to either a marriage or cohabitation partner (Haskey, 2002). One family households The above definition is not as straightforward as it seems. Couple What about a father who does not live with the mother and No children 18 19 20 23 24 25 child but is in regular contact, takes part in ‘family’ Dependent children 52 52 47 41 39 37 decisions and provides for the family in various ways – Non-dependent children only 12 10 10 11 9 8 from income support to helping the child with homework? Lone parent 3 4 6 10 12 12 Is he still a member of the family? A number of separated and divorced couples attempt to Other households 1299455 share the responsibility for raising their children. This is Total population (millions) 51.4 54.4 54.8 56.2 57.2 57.1 known as co-parenting or joint parenting. It is difficult to see such arrangements as simply lone-parent families Source: Social Trends, 2002, 2007, Office for National Statistics (Neale & Smart, 1997). Faced with this kind of problem, some sociologists have argued that the term lone-parent household is more compared to 92% in 1972 (Social Trends, 2007). This precise. It simply states that the ‘absent parent’ is not part suggests that living in a nuclear family is a phase that most of the household – ie, does not live under the same roof people, as children and adults, go through in the course of (Crow & Hardy, 1992). their life (O’Brien, 2000). Family diversity assessed Types of lone parents The extent of family diversity should not be exaggerated. Lone parents are a diverse group. This can be seen from Most people, as children and adults, live parts of their lives the ways they became lone parents. The various routes into in nuclear families. Even so, the trend is towards family lone parenthood are summarised below. diversity as the figures in Tables 2 and 3 indicate. There ● The ending of a marriage either by separation or has been a significant decline in: divorce (separated and divorced lone parents) ● the proportion of households made up of a couple with ● The ending of cohabitation where the partners separate dependent children (single lone parents) ● the proportion of people in such households and ● Birth to a never-married, non-cohabiting woman (single ● the proportion of dependent children living in couple lone parents) ● families. Death of a partner – for example, a husband dies leaving his wife with dependent children (widowed This decrease in nuclear families has been matched by lone parents). an increase in lone-parent families. This indicates an increase in family diversity. Despite these diverse routes into lone parenthood, most lone-parent families have one thing in common, they are The terms nuclear family and couple family conceal headed by women – over 90% in 2006. further diversity. The couple may be: ● married for the first time Trends in lone-parenthood ● remarried ● cohabiting In Britain, since the early 1970s, lone-parent families, as a proportion of all families with dependent children, ● opposite sex have steadily increased – from 7% in 1972 to 24% in ● same sex. 2005 (Social Trends, 2007). Over the past 30 years there has been a significant During the 1960s, divorce overtook death as the main increase in remarriage, cohabitation and same-sex source of lone-parent families. From then until the mid- couples. Again, this can be seen as indicating an increase 1980s, a large part of the increase was due to marital in family diversity. breakup – the separation or divorce of a married couple. The rest of this unit looks at specific examples of family After 1986, the number of single lone mothers grew at a diversity, focusing on lone-parent families, reconstituted faster rate. This group is made up of 1) never-married families, and gay and lesbian families. cohabiting women whose partnership ended after their 96 Chapter 2 child was born and 2) never-married women who were not estimated that the average length of time spent as a lone cohabiting when their child was born. Each group parent is a little over 5 years (Allan & Crow, 2001). The accounts for around half of single lone mothers. routes in and out of lone parenthood are summarised in Table 4 illustrates these trends. It shows various types of Activity 23. lone parent families as a percentage of all families with dependent children. Explaining the trends The above statistics are snapshots at particular points in Why has lone parenthood increased so rapidly over the time. Families move in and out of lone parenthood. It is past 35 years? Divorce As Table 4 shows, a large part of the increase from Table 4 Lone-parent families 1971 to 1991 was due to marital breakup. The divorce rate rose rapidly after the Divorce Reform Act came into force Great Britain Percentages in 1971. Reasons for the rise in divorce are outlined on pages 89-92. 1971 1981 1991 2001 2005 Lone mothers key terms Single 126911 key terms Widowed 22111 Cereal packet image of the family Stereotypical view of the Divorced 24668 family common in advertising. The family is presented as Separated 22444 nuclear with a traditional division of labour. All lone mothers 7 11 18 20 24 Lone-parent family A parent without a partner living with their dependent children. Lone fathers 12122 Dependent children Children either under 16 or 16-19 and All lone parents 813192226 undertaking full-time education. Co-parenting/joint parenting Parents who continue to share Source: General Household Survey, 2005, Office for National responsibility for raising their children after they have Statistics separated or divorced.

activity23 moving in and out of lone parenthood

Non-cohabiting Separation from Separation from Death of Divorce never-married mothers cohabiting partner marital partner partner

Lone-parent families

Marriage or Reconciliation Children no Cohabitation remarriage of partners longer dependent

Adapted from Crow & Hardy, 1992

question Lone parenthood is not a permanent status. Explain with reference to the above diagram. Families and households 97

Cohabitation breakup Over the same period, the number the 1950s and 60s, is not often heard today. of marriages was steadily declining and the number of Lone-parent families are becoming increasingly couples cohabiting increasing. Reasons for the increase in acceptable. They are less likely to be described with cohabitation are outlined on page 88. negative phrases such as ‘broken families’ and Since 1986, the number of single lone mothers has ‘incomplete families’. grown at a faster rate than any other category of lone Changing attitudes towards lone parenthood reflect a parent. By 2005, they accounted for over 45% of all lone growing acceptance of the diversity of family life. This mothers in Britain. Roughly half became lone mothers as a makes lone parenthood a more likely choice. result of a breakup of their cohabitation. Cohabiting However, it is important not to exaggerate changing couples with children are twice as likely to end their attitudes. As the following quotation shows, lone parents relationship than married couples with children (Haskey, and their children are often still seen as second-class 2001). families. ‘I think single parents have a lot to prove Non-cohabiting never-married mothers This group form because we’re constantly being told that we’re not a the other half of single lone mothers. Their children were correct family; that we can’t look after our children the born outside marriage and cohabitation. Their numbers same as a two-parent family’ (quoted in Beresford et al., have increased rapidly since the mid-1980s. 1999). Choice Very few women give lone parenthood as their Economic independence Lone parenthood is only first option. In other words, the vast majority would prefer possible if individuals are able to support themselves and to raise their children with a partner. For example, in one their children. However, for the majority, economic study only one out of 44 lone mothers had deliberately independence from a partner means barely making ends decided to become a lone mother from the outset meet. (Berthoud et al., 1999). Most lone-mother families live in poverty – defined as However, this does not rule out choice. Many women living below 50% of average income after housing costs choose to end a marriage or cohabitation. They see this have been met. Often, the low pay levels of many decision as a solution to a problem. It ends a relationship ‘women’s jobs’ plus the costs of childcare mean that lone which is unhappy, which may be violent and abusive, mothers are better off on state benefit than in paid and destructive for themselves and their children employment. However, there is some evidence that (Bernardes, 1997). In this sense, they are choosing to government New Deal schemes are helping some lone become a lone parent. parents and their children out of poverty (see page 73). Similarly, many non-cohabiting never-married mothers choose lone parenthood from the options available to Views of lone parenthood them. These options are: The parents’ views As noted earlier, becoming a lone ● An abortion parent was not usually the lone mother’s or father’s first ● Give the baby up for adoption choice option. The vast majority would rather raise their ● In some cases, the opportunity to cohabit with or children with a partner in a happy relationship. Failing marry the father. this, most choose to become lone parents. Many decide Many women decide against these options and choose to separate from their partners, believing that it is better lone parenthood. To some extent, this choice reflects to become a lone parent rather than endure an unhappy changing attitudes. and destructive relationship. Many decide to keep their Finally, a growing number of women are actively child and raise it themselves, seeing this as preferable to choosing to become single mothers. They take steps to abortion, to adoption, or to cohabiting with or marrying become pregnant with the intention of raisng the child the child’s other parent. themselves. In 1988, 28,000 women in England and And, although being a lone parent is far from easy, Wales did not register the father’s name on their child’s many see benefits. In the words of one lone mother, ‘I’m birth certificate. This number rose to nearly 50,000 in a bloody sight better off than many women who are 2006. Many of these women will have actively chosen to married and have to run around after the husband as well become single mothers (Hill, 2007). as the kids’ (Sharpe, 1984). Changing attitudes As outlined in the previous unit, there New Right views These views are outlined on pages 68-70. is greater tolerance of births outside marriage (see page To recap, lone-parent families fail to provide adequate 00). The stigma attached to children of unmarried mothers socialisation. In lone-mother families, there is no father has reduced considerably. The term ‘bastard’ is rarely present to discipline the children and provide a male role heard, and the less offensive ‘illegitimate’, which implies model. This can lead to underachievement at school, and improper or immoral, is passing out of common usage. anti-social behaviour ranging from rudeness to crime. Boys There is far less pressure for single mothers to get grow up with little awareness of the traditional married. The term ‘shotgun wedding’, frequently used in responsibilities and duties of a father. Lone mothers become 98 Chapter 2 dependent on state benefits. Their children lack examples mothers. From a feminist viewpoint, this indicates that of the disciplines and responsibilities of paid employment. women have the freedom to choose. Rather than seeing the As noted earlier, if the children of lone parents do have lone-parent family as a malfunctioning unit, some see it as more problems, this may have little to do with lone an alternative family form in which women are free from parenthood as such. It may well result from the poverty male domination. And there is evidence that many single that most lone parents experience (Allan & Crow, 2001). mothers welcome this independence and the opportunity it Feminist views Lone parenthood usually means lone provides to take control of their own lives (Graham, 1987).

activity24 lone parents Item A Household income Families with dependent children Great Britain: 2005 Family type Gross weekly household income £0.00- £100.01- £200.01- £300.01- £400.01- £500.01- £700.01- £100.00 £200.00 £300.00 £400.00 £500.00 £700.00 and over

Married couple % 445691953 Cohabiting couple % 5 6 6 12 10 27 35 Lone parent % 11 30 19 13 10 11 6

Source: General Household Survey, 2005, Office for National Statistics

Item B DIY guide to single motherhood This guide to becoming a single mother was published in the USA in 2007. It was met with praise and criticism. Cynthia Nixon, who plays Miranda in the TV series Sex and the City, praised the book as ‘a thoroughly engaging and informative book about the decision to become a single mother’. Others were not so kind. The author, Louise Sloan, has been called ‘the epitome of selfishness’ and ‘a woman screeching about the human rights of her own child, whom she is deliberately handicapping by condemning him to a fatherless life’. Source: Hill, 2007

Item C Justifying single motherhood Louise Sloan, author of Knock Yourself Up states that ‘Independent women today are not prepared to sit dolefully on a shelf as their fertility runs out. Nor are they willing to settle for Mr You’ll Have To Do or “accidentally” get pregnant by a lover reluctant to commit’. Source: Hill, 2007

questions 1 What does item A indicate about the economic situation of many lone parents? 2 Look at Items B and C. Argue the case for and against choosing to become a single mother. Families and households 99

5.4 Reconstituted families Table 5 Stepfamilies Many lone parents find new partners and form new families. These reconstituted families or stepfamilies are Type of stepfamily Great Britain: 2005 defined as a married or cohabiting couple with dependent % children, at least one of whom is not the biological offspring of both partners (Haskey, 1994). Couple with child(ren) from the woman’s previous Compared to lone-parent families, there has been little marriage/cohabitation 86 research, public debate or government policy directed Couple with child(ren) from the man’s previous towards reconstituted families. This may be because such marriage/cohabitation 11 Couple with child(ren) from both partners’ previous families tend to present themselves as ‘normal’ family marriage/cohabitation 3 groupings. And it may be because they are sometimes seen as a ‘solution’ to the so-called ‘problem’ of lone parenthood (Allan & Crow, 2001). Source: General Household Survey, 2005, Office for National Statistics There has been a rapid increase in the number of reconstituted families. In 1998–99, they accounted for around 6% of all families with dependent children in close and regular relationships with their absent biological Britain. By 2005, the figure rose to 10% (General parent, other children may hardly see them. Household Survey, 2005). Children are likely to stay with their mother after the break-up of a partnership. This can be seen from Table 5 – Diversity and reconstituted families 86% of stepfamilies contain at least one child from the Reconstituted families are a diverse group. Parentline Plus, female partner’s previous relationship. formerly the National Stepfamily Association, has identified 72 different ways in which stepfamilies can be formed. For Tensions within reconstituted families example, some are formed by first marriage, some by Reconstituted families tend to present themselves as remarriage, some by cohabitation. And once formed, this ‘normal’, ‘ordinary’ families. And, if estimates are correct, diversity continues. For example, some children may have they may well become ‘the norm’. Many reject labels such activity25 the ‘new extended families’

questions Reconstituted families have been described as the new a) What does this mean? extended families. b) What advantages does it suggest? 100 Chapter 2 as stepfamilies, step-parents and stepchildren. Despite this idea of family (Weeks et al., 1999a). Many believe they desire to present themselves simply as a family, are choosing their own family members and creating their reconstituted families experience particular problems. own families. Families are social groups with boundaries. These These families of choice are based on partnerships, close boundaries include some people (these are my family friends and members of their family of origin. This members) and exclude others (these are not). Clear network provides mutual support, loving relationships and boundaries give families a definite sense of identity and a sense of identity. It feels like a family. As one unity. Sometimes the boundaries of reconstituted families are interviewee put it, ‘I think the friendships I have are not clearly drawn. They may become fuzzy when partners family’ (Weeks et al., 1999b). from the couple’s previous relationships become involved in Same-sex partnerships In recent years, increasing numbers the new family, especially if the children maintain a close of gays and lesbians have formed households based on relationship with the non-residential ‘natural’ parent. This same-sex partnerships. And many are demanding the same may weaken the boundaries of the reconstituted family and rights as heterosexual partnerships – for example, the right threaten its unity (Allan & Crow, 2001). to marry and adopt children. This does not mean they wish Being a step-parent can be a difficult and delicate to copy heterosexual relationships, they simply want the relationship. There are no clearly stated norms defining this same rights as everybody else. role. For example, to what degree should a step-parent be In practice, same-sex partnerships tend to be more involved in disciplining the child? Things are made more democratic than heterosexual partnerships. Many gay and difficult if the child resents sharing their biological parent lesbian couples strive for a relationship based on with a new partner and, in some cases, with other children. negotiation and equality (Weeks et al., 1999a). The role of the stepfather is often shifting and uncertain – a sort of uncle, father, big brother, friend or companion Same-sex parents A growing number of lesbians are depending on the time and place (Bedell, 2002). choosing to have children and to raise them with a female partner. Many use artificial insemination with sperm The additional strains of reconstituted families may help donated by friends or anonymous donors. In the traditional to explain their high level of breakup. A quarter of sense of the word, they are choosing to have a ‘family’. stepfamilies break up during their first year. And half of all remarriages which form a stepfamily end in divorce. But, Gay men have more limited options. Either they must as Peter Eldrid of Parentline Plus warns, ‘It’s important not find a surrogate mother to bear their children, or else to assume that every difficulty you face is to do with being adopt. In the UK, the adoption route was closed until 2002 a stepfamily. All families have upheavals’ (quoted in Bedell, when an Act of Parliament made it legal for gays and 2002). And, as reconstituted families become increasingly lesbians to adopt children. common, norms will probably develop to clarify the roles Children Concerns about children’s gender identity and of those involved, so reducing the tension that lack of sexual orientation have been the main focus of research on clarity brings. gay and lesbian parenting. Most studies show that children raised by gay and lesbian parents are no different from New opportunities those raised by heterosexuals (Fitzgerald, 1999). The Research has tended to focus on the problems of evidence suggests that what matters is the parent-child reconstituted families. There is another side to the coin. For relationship rather than the sexual orientation of the parents. the adults, they offer the chance of a successful partnership after an earlier one has failed. And, if the parents are happy and committed to making the new family work, then the key term children are likely to be happy too (Bedell, 2002). Family of choice A family whose members have been chosen, Reconstituted families can provide new and rewarding rather than given by birth and marriage. relationships for all concerned. The family expands overnight with step-brothers and sisters, step-cousins, step- parents and uncles, and step-grandparents. An expanded 5.6 Families and cultural diversity family network can lead to arguments, jealousy and conflict. But, it can also lead to a wider support network This section looks at the effects of social class and ethnicity and enriched relationships. on family life.

5.5 Gay and lesbian families Social class and family diversity Many sociologists argue that social class has an important Until recently, there was little research on gay and lesbian influence on family life. They make the following points. families. This began to change in the 1990s. Income inequality In general, the lower a person’s class Families of choice Judging from a series of in-depth position, the lower their income. Income inequality leads interviews conducted in the mid-1990s, many gays and to variations in living standards, housing quality and lesbians are developing new ways of understanding the lifestyles. For example, low-income families are more likely Families and households 101 activity26 families of choice Item A A ‘legal’ family Item B Our family Amanda and her partner Ruth decided to have children – they each had a son. The father is a close friend. He is now seen as part of the family. Amanda writes: ‘Our children love having two mummies. They know they are different. They are proud of being special. At this young age, mummies are still hot property, and to have two is twice as nice. They see their dad regularly, and ring him when they want. And having three parents, they get all the extra grandparents, aunties, uncles, and cousins too. All our families have been fantastic. Some of them had their doubts when we first told them that we were having children, but since our boys first came into the world they have been cherished by an extended family that goes beyond a basic biology. I’m excited about our future. I know things will not always be easy. I know that as our children get older, and learn Noah and Mackenlie pose with their parents, Hazel, left and about sexuality and the pressures of conformity, they will Donna, right. Hazel is the biological parent of Noah, and have many questions. They may face prejudice themselves. Donna is the biological parent of Mackenlie. The two lesbians I hate that thought, but I know that as a family we have the cross-adopted each other’s child to legally form their family. strength to help them deal with it.’ Item C A neighbour’s response Source: The Independent, 4.2.2002 ‘We (a lesbian couple) live together in a stable unit with a child. It sometimes feels like a marriage. But I only have to walk out into the street to know that it’s not. There’s one neighbour next door that just won’t speak to us. She spoke to question us before we had the baby, and now she won’t speak to us.’ Source: Journal of Social Policy 1999, 28:689–709, Cambridge There’s no particular problem with gay or lesbian families – University Press apart from some heterosexuals! Discuss.

to live in overcrowded and substandard housing, and less Diversity within ethnic groups There is a danger in talking likely to own a car or afford a family holiday. about ‘typical ethnic families’. Often there is as much Life chances These refer to a person’s chances of obtaining family diversity within minority ethnic groups as there is things defined as desirable – eg, good health – and within White society. avoiding things defined as undesirable – eg, unemployment. And there is a danger of ignoring cultural variation within Often, there is a fairly close relationship between social ethnic groups. For example, within the South Asian class and life chances. For example, the higher the class community there are variations in religion – Sikhs, Muslims position of a child’s parents, the more likely the child is to and Hindus – in countries of origin – India, Pakistan and attain high educational qualifications and a well paid, high Bangladesh – and in regions within those countries – for status job. example, Goa and Bengal. Family breakup As noted earlier, the lower the class Finally, there is a danger of exaggerating differences position of a married couple, the more likely they are to between minority ethnic and White families and of divorce. High divorce rates are related to poverty – to low creating stereotypes in the process – for example, Asians income and reliance on state benefits (Kiernan & Mueller, live in extended families and their marriages are arranged. 1999). Asian families Most Asian households are based on nuclear families. However, around 20% are extended families, a Ethnicity and family diversity higher proportion than other groups. Although there is a To some degree, ethnic groups have their own subcultures trend towards nuclear families, wider kinship ties remain – norms and values which differ from those of mainstream strong (Westwood & Bhachu, 1988). culture. And to some degree, these subcultures influence Asians are more likely to marry and to marry earlier than family life. This section takes a brief look at ethnic minority their White counterparts. Cohabitation and divorce are rare groups and family diversity in the UK. (Berthoud & Beishon, 1997). Marriages are sometimes 102 Chapter 2 arranged, but there is little research on this subject. There people were and what they should do. Today, people have is some evidence which suggests that the couple have far more freedom to try on different identities and to try out more say in arranged marriages as Western ideas about different lifestyles (Giddens, 1991; 1992). love and romance become more influential (Allan & Crow, Where does the family fit into late modernity? If Giddens 2001). is correct, family diversity is a reflection of the African-Caribbean families In 2001, nearly 48% of African- opportunities and priorities of late modernity. People have Caribbean families with dependent children were lone- greater freedom to construct their own domestic parent families compared to around 22% for Britain as a arrangements. They are not bound by existing family forms whole (Social Trends, 2007). African Caribbeans have the and family roles. There are more choices available and lowest marriage rate, the highest proportion of single more opportunities to experiment, create and change. (never-married) lone mothers, and the highest divorce rate Within limits, people can tailor their partnerships and (Berthoud et al., 1999). their families to meet their individual needs and to reflect Statistics such as these have led some researchers to talk their own identities. They can choose to cohabit or to about the ‘problem’ of the ‘African-Caribbean family’. marry, to end one partnership and to begin another. The However, this ignores the strength of wider kinship emphasis is on building and constructing family units, on networks – in particular, the support provided for lone creating and defining family relationships. People build mothers by female relatives. This support can cross national reconstituted families. They enter uncharted territory boundaries with family members in the UK and West Indies constructing gay and lesbian families with no clear patterns providing support for each other (Goulborne, 1999). to work from. They choose to become lone parents rather Multicultural families Recent statistics suggest an increase than accept an unsatisfactory relationship. in the number of partnerships between people from According to Giddens (1992), relationships in late different ethnic groups. Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim (2002) modernity are increasingly based on confluent love – deep uses the term multicultural families for families in which emotional intimacy in which partners reveal their needs the partners come from different ethnic backgrounds. She and concerns to each other. Commitment to the recognises that such couples may face prejudice from their relationship lasts as long as the individual receives ethnic groups of origin, and conflict because they bring sufficient satisfaction and pleasure from it. Failure to differing expectations of family life to the relationship. experience this is justification, in itself, for ending the However, she is cautiously optimistic about the promise of relationship. If Giddens is correct, this helps to explain the multicultural families. They may help to break down fragility of partnerships in late modernity, as seen in the barriers between ethnic groups. And they reflect a growing high rates of separation and divorce. opportunity for individual choice – people are now Evaluation Giddens’s views of late modernity help to choosing partners who fulfil their personal needs rather explain the trend towards family diversity. However, he than being directed by the concerns of their parents or the may have exaggerated people’s freedom to choose. Take norms of their ethnic group. lone-parent families. In one sense they are not based on choice – at least not first choice. Many single (never- married) mothers did not choose to become pregnant. key terms However, they did choose to have the baby and raise it Life chances A person’s chances of obtaining things defined themselves (Allen & Dowling, 1999). Similarly, divorced as desirable and avoiding things defined as undesirable. lone mothers did not set out to become lone parents. This Multicultural families Families in which the partners are from was a second-best choice after the failure of their marriage. different ethnic groups. Even so, there is evidence to support Giddens’ claim of increased choice in late modernity. People can choose between marriage and cohabitation, they can choose to remain married or to divorce, they can choose to become a 5.7 Family diversity and society lone parent or to maintain a partnership, they can choose to This section examines family diversity in the context of the become a single mother, they can choose to remain a lone wider society. It looks at views which see increasing family parent or to form a reconstituted family. There is far greater diversity as a reflection of broader changes in society as a freedom to make these choices than there was 50 years ago. whole. Postmodernity Giddens and late modernity Some sociologists believe that the modern age has ended According to the British sociologist Anthony Giddens, we and that we now live in the postmodern era. They live in an era known as late modernity. This era is describe this era as a time of change, of flux, of fluidity characterised by choice and change. Opportunities to and uncertainty. Gone is the consensus or agreement choose an identity and select a lifestyle are increasingly about norms and values which characterised most of the available. In the pre-modern era, tradition defined who modern age. Families and households 103

The American sociologist Judith Stacey (1996) sees contemporary family arrangements are diverse, fluid and family diversity as a reflection of postmodern society. unresolved’. There is no one family form to which everyone aspires. Stacey welcomes this diversity, seeing it as an There are no generally agreed norms and values directing opportunity for people to develop family forms which suit family life. In her words, ‘Like postmodern culture, their particular needs and situations. She looks forward to activity27 class, ethnicity and family diversity Item A Class differences Item B A multicultural couple

Outside the family home

This couple have a business specialising in wedding accessories for multicultural couples

questions

1 With reference to Item A, suggest how class differences might affect family life. 2 Look at Item B. a) What problems might this couple experience? b) How can an increase in multicultural families be seen Outside the family home as a positive development? 104 Chapter 2 activity28 choice and creativity Item A Lesbian families Item B Reconstituted families ‘With no script to follow, we are making up our own story and hoping that we’ll live happily ever after.’ Amanda Boulter referring to her lesbian partner and their two boys. Quoted in The Independent, 4.2.2002. ‘I don’t necessarily think we should be wanting to mimic everything, kind of anything that heterosexual couples or heterosexual relationships have. I don’t see that we need to be mimicking them. I think it’s about having choice and about being able to be creative and decide what we want for ourselves.’ Source: Journal & Social Policy 1999, 28:689–709, Cambridge University Press questions 1 How does Item A reflect Giddens’ picture of late modernity? 2 Look at Item B. To what extent are reconstituted families based on choice? the possibility of more equal and democratic relationships which she sees in many gay and lesbian families. key terms Evaluation Stacey’s research was conducted in Silicon Late modernity The term used by Giddens to describe the Valley in California, home to many of the world’s most contemporary period, which is characterised by choice and advanced electronics companies. This is hardly typical of change. American society in general. She also studied research Postmodernity The era after modernity which is characterised findings on gay and lesbian families. Again, these groups by fluidity, uncertainty and a lack of consensus. are hardly typical. Despite this, Stacey may well have Confluent love Deep emotional intimacy which individuals identified those at the forefront of a trend which is expect from their partnerships. spreading to the wider society.

summary 1. Many sociologists see families and households in today’s cohabitation, some by first marriage, others by remarriage. society as more diverse than ever before. 9. There are particular tensions in reconstituted families, partly 2. In Britain, nuclear family households have declined as a because the roles of family members often lack clear proportion of all households. The proportion of people living definition. in these households has also declined. Despite this, living in 10. Reconstituted families offer new opportunities – they can a nuclear family is a phase that most people go through. lead to a wider support network and enriched relationships. 3. There is diversity within nuclear families – eg, the couple 11. Gay and lesbian parents are adding further diversity to may be married or cohabiting. family life. 4. In Britain since the early 1970s, lone-parent families have 12. Most studies show that children raised by gay and lesbian increased from 8% to 26% of all families with dependent parents are no different to those raised by heterosexuals. children. 13. Social class and ethnic differences add yet further diversity 5. Lone parents are a diverse group – eg, some were previously to family life. married, some cohabiting, some neither. 14. According to Anthony Giddens, family diversity results from 6. Although very few women choose lone parenthood as their broader changes in late-modern society. In particular, family first option, choices are involved – eg, whether to keep, diversity reflects the growing freedom to choose identities abort, or give the baby up for adoption. and select lifestyles. 7. Lone parenthood has become increasingly acceptable. 15. According to Judith Stacey, family diversity reflects the lack 8. There has been a rapid increase in reconstituted families. of consensus, the uncertainty and the fluidity of postmodern They are a diverse group – eg, some are formed by society. Families and households 105

Unit 6 Gender, power and domestic labour

convincing evidence of ‘male domestication’ (Oakley, keyissues 1974). Oakley’s own research conducted in the early 1 To what extent is the division of domestic labour linked 1970s shows a clear division of labour along gender to gender? lines. Based on interviews with 40 women with one or 2 To what extent is this division unequal? more children under 5, it shows clearly that wives saw housework and childcare as their responsibility and 3 What does this indicate about the distribution of power? received little help from their husbands. 4 What changes have taken place in these areas? Since these early studies, there has been considerable research on gender and the division of domestic labour. This research shows that most women: ● still become mothers and housewives 6.1 Introduction ● experience a period of full-time housework, though this This unit looks at domestic labour – work conducted by is becoming shorter people as members of a household. It looks, for example, ● return to work part time when their youngest child is at housework and childcare and asks who does what. at school. Most of the research in this area focuses on the This early period of full-time housework sets the pattern contribution of husband and wife to domestic tasks. It asks for the future, as the following findings indicate. four main questions. ● Housework and childcare remain the primary ● First, to what extent is the division of domestic labour responsibility of women. based on gender? For example, are certain household ● As women enter the labour market in increasing tasks done by men and others by women? numbers, there is some evidence of men making a ● Second, is the division of domestic labour equal – do greater contribution to domestic tasks. partners pull their own weight, is the division of ● However, this increased contribution is not significant. labour fair? As a result, most working wives have a dual burden or a ● Third, what does this indicate about the distribution of dual shift – paid employment and domestic labour power within the family? Is power shared equally (Allan & Crow, 2001). between husband and wife or do men dominate the The findings summarised above are taken from small- domestic scene? scale studies often based on interviews, and large-scale ● Fourth, what changes have taken place in these areas? surveys usually based on questionnaires. For example, For example, is there a move towards a more equal Fiona Devine’s small-scale study of car workers’ families in distribution of power? Luton indicated that men’s contribution to domestic labour increased when their wives re-entered paid employment. 6.2 Gender and the domestic division of But the man’s role is secondary – ‘Above all women remain responsible for childcare and housework and their labour husbands help them’ (Devine, 1992). In 1973, Michael Young and Peter Willmott announced the This picture is reflected in large-scale surveys such as the arrival of the symmetrical family (see pages 81-82). They British Social Attitudes Survey and the British Household claimed that conjugal roles, the roles of husband and wife, Panel Survey. These surveys show a clear gender division were becoming increasingly similar. In the home, the of labour in most household tasks. However, they do couple ‘shared their work; they shared their time’. indicate a slight trend towards sharing tasks. Husbands increasingly helped with domestic chores such Evidence from the Time Use Surveys conducted by the as washing up and cleaning. They also helped more with government in 2000 and 2005 is shown in Activity 29, raising children, though this still remained the main Item A, and in Table 6 (Layder et al., 2006). Item A responsibility of the wife. Decisions about family life were compares the amount of time spent on housework in 2005 largely shared. It appeared that the division of labour based by women and men in full-time employment – a total of on gender was breaking down. 151 minutes a day by women and 113 minutes a day by In 1974, Ann Oakley dismissed this view of the sharing men. Table 6 compares the amount of time spent on caring husband. Young and Willmott had claimed that housework and childcare by all women and men in 2000 72% of husbands ‘help in the house’. To be included in and 2005. It shows a decrease in time spent on housework this figure, husbands only had to perform one household and an increase in time spent on childcare. It also shows chore a week. In Oakley’s words, this is hardly that significant gender differences remain. 106 Chapter 2

Gender and domestic tasks – evaluation Table 6 Time Spent on housework and childcare Great Britain, 2000 and 2005 Much of the research into gender divisions of domestic labour is based on time-use studies. This research asks who does what and how long does it take them. There are Activity 2000 2005 problems with this method. Average minutes per person per day Time Women tend to underestimate time spent on Housework domestic labour. This often happens when several tasks are performed at the same time. For example, women often Men 128 101 combine childcare with tasks such as cleaning and Women 215 180 preparing meals. As a result, they underestimate the amount of time spent on childcare (Leonard, 2000). Childcare (of own household members) Men tend to overestimate time spent on domestic labour. Men 11 15 For example, in one study, men estimated they spent an average of 11.3 hours a week on childcare. However, their Women 28 32 diary entries showed only 1.7 hours a week (Pleck, 1985). Source: The Time Use Survey 2005, Office for National Statistics Urgency Time-use studies say little about the urgency of tasks. Women’s domestic tasks, such as cooking and activity29 gender and domestic labour Item A Gender divisions Item B Household tasks

Time spent on housework by full-time workers, Great Britain, 2005

Cooking, washing up

Shopping, appointments

Cleaning, tidying

Repairs and gardening

Washing clothes Women Men Pet care

010203040 Minutes per day

Source: The Time Use Survey 2005, Office for National Statistics

questions 1 Look at Item A. To what extent are tasks allocated on the basis of gender? 2 Look at Item B. Judging from Item A, which of these pictures are untypical? Families and households 107 washing clothes, are more urgent than typical male tasks 6.3 Gender and the division of emotion such as gardening and household maintenance work (McMahon, 1999). Responsibility vs help There is a big difference between So far domestic labour has been defined as household tasks being responsible for a task and helping with a task. For such as ironing and cooking, and time spent looking after example, being responsible for cooking and cleaning is not children. Little has been said about the emotional side of the same as helping with those tasks. Being responsible domestic labour. Partnerships and families are kept requires more thought and effort, it can be more tiring and together as much if not more by emotion work than by the more stressful (McMahon, 1999). Again, this aspect of more practical household tasks. Emotion work refers to the gender divisions and domestic tasks is not revealed by love, sympathy, understanding, praise, reassurance and time-use studies. attention which are involved in maintaining relationships. Job satisfaction Time-use studies tell us little about the According to many women, it is they rather than their amount of satisfaction women and men derive from male partners who are responsible for most of the emotion domestic labour. Typical female tasks are often experienced work. In other words, emotion work is gendered. A study as tedious, boring and monotonous. Typical male tasks are conducted by Jean Duncombe and Dennis Marsden (1993, more likely to be experienced as interesting and creative. 1995) based on interviews with 40 couples found that most For example, some men regard DIY and gardening as women complained of men’s ‘emotional distance’. They hobbies rather than chores (Allan, 1985). felt they were the ones who provided reassurance, tenderness and sympathy, while their partners had key terms problems expressing intimate emotions. Men showed little key terms awareness or understanding of their ‘shortcomings’, seeing Conjugal roles Marital roles, the roles of husband and wife. their main role as a breadwinner – providing money rather Symmetrical family A family in which the roles of husband than emotional support. and wife are similar. Dual burden/dual shift The double burden/shift of paid These findings are reflected in other studies. For employment and domestic labour. example, research into family meals shows that women Time-use studies Studies which examine how people use their give priority to their partner’s and children’s tastes, often at time – how long they spend on various activities. the expense of their own. They do their best to make mealtime a happy family occasion (Charles & Kerr, 1988). activity30 emotion work

questions 1 How do the pictures illustrate emotion work? 2 Why do you think women are primarily responsible for emotion work in the family? 108 Chapter 2

According to Duncombe and Marsden (1995), many Are these questions still relevant today? Aren’t women have to cope with a triple shift – 1) paid work 2) partnerships rapidly moving towards equality? Haven’t housework and childcare and 3) emotion work. many already reached the stage where the domestic division of labour is equal? These questions are about power. This section looks at key terms various ways of defining and measuring power and applies Emotion work The emotional support which members of a them to family life. social group – in this case the family – provide for each other. Triple shift The three areas of responsibility which many Decision making women have – 1) paid work, 2) housework and childcare, The decision-making model measures power in terms of 3) emotion work. who makes the decisions. For example, if wives made most of the decisions concerning the home then, in this context, they would have most power. However, this fails to take 6.4 Family finances account of the importance of the decisions. For example, the wife may make more decisions but those decisions are So far, this unit has outlined evidence which indicates that minor and trivial. The really important decisions are made domestic tasks, childcare, and emotion work are divided by her husband. along gender lines. This section looks at money management within families. It reaches a similar The following study uses the decision-making approach conclusion – access to and control over money are and takes the importance of decisions into account. Stephen gendered. And this division of labour along gender lines Edgell (1980) interviewed 38 middle-class couples. He tends to favour men. asked them who made the decisions and how important those decisions were. Wives dominated decision making in Systems of money management Jan Pahl’s Money and three areas – interior decoration, children’s clothes, and Marriage (1989) identified various systems of money spending on food and other household items. These management used by the 102 couples in her study. They decisions were frequent and seen as not very important. ranged from a housekeeping allowance system whereby Men had the main say when it came to moving house, the husbands give their wives a fixed sum of money for buying a car and other major financial decisions. These housekeeping expenses and control the remaining money, decisions were infrequent and seen as important. Other to a pooling system where both partners see themselves as decisions, such as holidays and children’s education were equally responsible for and jointly controlling money made by both husband and wife (see Item A, Activity 35). management. A later study by Carolyn Vogler and Jan Pahl (1994), based on interviews with over 1200 British Based on decision making and the importance of the couples, showed that whatever money management system areas of decision, it appears that husbands have more was used, men tended to come out on top. power than their wives. Inequalities in money management Vogler and Pahl report Evaluation This study is over 20 years old and is based on the following results. When asked who gets most personal a small, unrepresentative sample – 38 middle-class spending money, 58% of couples said it was equally couples. It uses the decision-making approach. There are a distributed, 12% said the husband, 4% the wife, and the number of problems with this approach. For example, it rest disagreed amongst themselves. When asked who ignores agenda-setting – which issues should be placed on suffers cutbacks when money is tight, it was wives who the agenda to be decided upon. The person who sets the reported most hardship. They were more likely to cut back agenda may use this power to their own advantage. on their own food and clothing, and shield their children and husband from hard times. And when asked who has Non-decisions the final say in important financial decisions, 70% say The decision-making approach fails to take account of both, 23% the husband and 7% the wife. non-decisions. Many actions do not involve conscious Trends Vogler and Pahl see a trend towards greater equality decisions – as such, they can be seen as ‘non-decisions’. in access to and control of family finances. They argue that They are based on taken-for-granted assumptions – for greater equality depends in part on women’s full-time example, women should take primary responsibility for participation in the labour market. There is a large body of childcare. Often there is little or no discussion because research which indicates that the partner with the largest those involved are simply following social norms which are income has the biggest say in family decision-making. largely unquestioned. In terms of domestic labour, there are a number of non- 6.5 Domestic labour, power and gender decisions. The following are traditionally seen as women’s work. Are families patriarchal or male dominated? Are women ● Washing, cleaning, ironing exploited by their male partners? Do men get the best deal in ● Childcare the home? Do they get their own way in domestic situations? ● Emotion work. Families and households 109 activity31 gender, power and domestic labour Item A Making decisions

Perceived Decision area importance Frequency Decision maker Moving Very important Infrequent Husband Finance Very important Infrequent Husband Car Important Infrequent Husband House Very important Infrequent Husband and wife Children’s education Very important Infrequent Husband and wife Holidays Important Infrequent Husband and wife Weekends Not important Frequent Husband and wife Other leisure activities Not important Frequent Husband and wife Furniture Not important Infrequent Husband and wife Interior decorations Not important Infrequent Wife Food and other domestic spending Not important Frequent Wife Children’s clothes Not important Frequent Wife Source: Edgell, 1980

Item B Satisfaction Item C Choice Many women appear to be satisfied with the domestic In recent years, there has been a string of newspaper articles division of labour. They recognise that they do most of about successful and powerful career women who gave up highly- the work, but only 14% said they were dissatisfied with paid jobs in order to take care of their children. They include: their partner’s contribution. ● Lisa Gordon, corporate affairs director of Chrysalis Records Source: Baxter & Western, 1998 who earned £336,000 a year. ● Penny Hughes, formerly in charge of Coca-Cola UK, who gave up £250,000 a year. ● Tina Gaudoin, former editor of the glossy women’s magazine Frank. Item D The triple shift Source: Guardian, 02.12.02

questions 1 Judging from Item A, who has most power – husbands or wives? Give reasons for your answer. 2 a) Use Items B, C and D to argue that men have more power than women. b) Using the same information, criticise this view. 110 Chapter 2

It is often taken for granted that the man’s job is more Shaping desires important than his partner’s, since she will probably give Power can be seen as the ability to shape the wishes and up paid employment when the couple have children. desires of others in order to further one’s own interests. In Who benefits? Those who gain from non-decisions can this way, a dominant group can persuade others to accept, be seen as more powerful than those who don’t. Take the or actually desire, their subordinate position. In terms of assumption that men’s jobs are more important than their this argument, men have power over women because female partner’s jobs. This assumption lies behind the many women accept and even desire their traditional roles following behaviour of newly-wed couples. as mothers and housewives, and accept their subordinate ● Around 1/3 of men changed jobs at or near their status. For example, women often put their partners and wedding. Typically, this change advanced their children’s preferences first when shopping for food. And careers. they usually put ‘the family’ first when spending on ● Over 2/3 of women changed jobs at or near their clothes and entertainment (Charles, 1990). wedding. Typically, this resulted in lower pay and Women get satisfaction from self-sacrifice. Her loved lower job status (Mansfield & Collard, 1988). ones gain pleasure from her actions. This confirms her Judging by this study, men gain and women lose from identity as a good mother and wife (Allan & Crow, 2001). the taken-for-granted assumption that men’s jobs should The fact that she wants to serve and sacrifice can be seen take priority over women’s jobs. In terms of the as an indication of male power. consequences of this non-decision, men have more power than women. Evaluation This view of power is based on the assumption At some time in their lives, most women are full-time that it is not in women’s interests to accept or desire their mothers and housewives. Who benefits from following traditional roles as housewife and mother. Any pleasure these traditional social roles? According to many feminist they experience from their ‘subordination’ is ‘false writers, men are the beneficiaries. First, they gain from pleasure’ because it disguises their exploitation and avoiding the negative aspects of these roles. Second, they makes it more bearable. directly benefit from much of their partner’s domestic But who is to say that women in the family are labour. exploited and oppressed? As noted earlier, it’s a matter of Full-time domestic labour means that the wife is weighing the evidence and making a judgement. economically dependent on the male breadwinner. This reduces her power in the household. There is a tendency Power and same-sex households to see housework as low status, as different from ‘real’ work (Oakley, 1974). Typical women’s jobs – washing, So far, this section has looked at the distribution of ironing and cleaning – are often experienced as boring, power in heterosexual families – families in which the monotonous and unfulfilling. And these are the very jobs partners are male and female. The focus now moves to which directly benefit their partner, providing him with power in same-sex families where both partners are clean clothes and a clean home. Similarly, women’s either male or female. responsibility for emotion work can be seen as an Equality as an ideal Most studies of gay and lesbian example of ‘he gains, she loses’. partnerships are based on interviews. Bearing in mind Allocating housework and emotion work to women is that people don’t always do what they say, this is what often based on a non-decision – it is ‘normal’ and the interviews reveal. Same-sex couples emphasise ‘natural’ for women to perform such tasks therefore there equality and strive to remove power differences from is no decision to make. In terms of this view of power, their relationship. They see issues like the division of men gain at the expense of women therefore men have domestic labour as a matter for discussion and more power than women. negotiation. They feel that being lesbian or gay offers more opportunities for equality. As one woman put it, Evaluation Choosing winners and losers is based on ‘It’s much easier to have equal relations if you’re the judgements. What’s wrong with being a housewife and a same sex’ (Weeks et al., 1999a). mother? Housework might be boring and monotonous but so are many jobs outside the home. Today, many women Women focus on alternatives to the unequal division of have the freedom to choose between a career and domestic labour which they see in heterosexual becoming a full-time mother and housewife. This is relationships. Men focus on alternatives to the macho hardly a non-decision. And many women who give up male and the passive female which they see in paid employment feel they’ve gained from the decision heterosexual relationships. In both cases the emphasis is (see Activity 31). on equality (Weeks et al., 1999a). There is, however, plenty of evidence to support the view Lesbian households A study of 37 cohabiting lesbian that in general men gain and women lose. Take the triple couples by Gillian Dunne (1997) indicates how far these shift – women combining paid work, domestic labour and ideals are translated into reality. Some of the couples emotion work. The clear winner here is the man. have children, and in most cases childcare was shared. Families and households 111

Similarly, time spent on housework tended to be shared equally. However, when one partner was in full-time summary employment, she did less housework than her partner in part-time work. 1. The division of domestic labour is gendered – household tasks are divided along gender lines. Explanations Why are same-sex relationships more equal 2. Housework and childcare remain the primary responsibility than heterosexual relationships? Gillian Dunne (1997) of women. suggests the following reasons. 3. There is evidence of a gradual increase in men’s ● Gender inequalities in the labour market shape gender contribution to domestic labour, especially where their inequalities in partnerships. Men generally have jobs partners are in full-time employment. with higher status and pay than their partners and this 4. There are problems with time-use studies of domestic tends to shape their relationships at home. labour. For example, women tend to underestimate and ● Gay and lesbian partnerships are free from the social men to overestimate time spent on household tasks. norms and conventions which surround and direct 5. Emotion work is mainly performed by women. As a result, heterosexual relationships. They are not weighed many women have a triple shift – 1) paid work, down by this cultural baggage. As a result, they have 2) housework and childcare, 3) emotion work. more freedom to construct ‘families of choice’ 6. Research into money management within families indicates (see pages 100-101). that control over money is gendered – men tend to have greater control. 7. There is evidence of a trend to greater equality in access to and control of family finances, especially where women are in full-time employment. 8. Research indicates that power is unequally distributed in families, with male partners having the largest share. 9. Decision-making studies indicate that in general husbands have more power than their wives. 10. Non-decisions – issues that do not reach the point of key terms decision-making – tend to favour men. They are likely to gain at the expense of their partners. Decision-making approach A method for measuring power in terms of who makes the decisions. 11. There is a tendency for many women to accept their Agenda-setting Deciding which issues will be placed on the subordinate position. From this, it can be argued that men agenda to be decided upon. have power over women. Non-decisions Issues which never reach the point of 12. Studies of lesbian and gay households suggest that there is decision making. a more equal division of domestic labour between partners.

activity32 same-sex relationships Item A Talking about relationships Item B Partners and mothers ‘Everything has to be discussed, everything is negotiable.’ ‘There are no assumptions about how you will relate, what you will do, who does what.’ Source: Journal of Social Policy 1999, 28: 689–709 Cambridge University Press

question With some reference to Items A and B, suggest why the domestic division of labour in lesbian families may be more equal than in heterosexual families. Lesbian couple sharing childcare 112 Chapter 2

Unit 7 Childhood and children

behaviour considered appropriate for children, the way keyissues children should be treated, and the length of time that 1 How have views of childhood changed? childhood should last, are socially constructed. 2 How have children been affected by these changes? Cross-cultural evidence Evidence from different cultures provides support for the view that childhood is a social construction. If childhood were simply a ‘natural’ state, then it would be similar across all cultures. This is not the case. The social construction of childhood Anthropological studies show that other cultures treat Childhood can be seen as a social construction. From this children in ways which might seem unusual or even point of view, it is not a natural state or a biological stage. unnatural in contemporary Britain. Raymond Firth (1963), Instead, it is shaped and given meaning by culture and in his study of the Pacific island of Tikopia, found that society. As a result, the idea of childhood, the types of children carried out dangerous tasks such as using sharp activity33 childhood across cultures Item A Child soldier Item B Blackfoot boys

A member of a local militia in Zaire The Blackfoot Indians lived on the Plains of Western Canada. Children were taught the skills of horse riding at an early age. One of Long Lance’s earliest recollections was falling off a horse. He was picked up by his eldest brother and planted firmly on the horse’s back. His brother said, ‘Now, you stay there! You are four years old, and if you cannot ride a horse, we will put girls’ clothing on you and let you grow up a woman.’ Fathers\ were responsible for the physical training of the Blackfoot boys. They wanted to harden their bodies and make them brave and strong. Fathers used to whip their sons each morning with fir branches. Far from disliking this question treatment, the youngsters proudly displayed the welts produced by whipping. question Sometimes they were whipped in public and they competed to see who could How do Items A and B indicate that childhood stand the most pain. is socially constructed? Source: The autobiography of a Blackfoot Indian Chief, Long Lance 1956 Families and households 113 tools and fishing in the open sea. They were allowed to separation of children from the world of adults. This carry out these tasks when they themselves felt ready rather process began in the 16th century when the upper classes than when adults decided they were competent or safe to sent their children to schools to be educated. In the early do so. years of the industrial revolution, child labour was widespread – children and adults worked side by side. A brief history of childhood Throughout the 19th century, a series of factory acts In Centuries of Childhood (1962), the French historian banned the employment of children in mines and factories. Philippe Ariès argued that the concept of childhood did not By the end of the 19th century, elementary state education exist in medieval Europe. He based his argument on was compulsory in most European countries. Children contemporary letters, diaries and other documents, plus the were now physically separated from adult settings and had way children were depicted in paintings of the time. Ariès a separate legal status. claimed that soon after children were weaned, they were This process was accompanied by the development of regarded as little adults and treated as such. From an early experts specialising in children – child psychologists, age, they worked alongside adults in the fields or in paediatricians (doctors who specialise in children), cottage industries, they dressed like adults and in many educationalists and parenting experts. According to Ariès, ways behaved like adults. ‘Our world is obsessed by the physical, moral and sexual The emergence of modern childhood Ariès sees the problems of childhood’. Children are seen as different from modern concept of childhood developing from the adults. As a result, they have special needs. Because of this activity34 little adults Item A Medieval Europe In medieval society the idea of childhood did not exist. This is not to question suggest that children were neglected, forsaken or despised. The idea of question childhood is not to be confused with affection for children: it corresponds What evidence do the paintings in Item B to an awareness of the particular nature of childhood, that particular provide to support Ariès’ statement in Item A? nature which distinguishes the child from the adult, even the young adult. In medieval society, this awareness was lacking. That is why, as soon as the child could live without the constant solicitude (care) of his mother, his nanny or his cradle-rocker, he belonged to adult society. Source: Ariès, 1962

Item B Paintings

Group of doctors (right) and men, women and Family saying grace before a meal (1585) children (left), 15th century 114 Chapter 2 they require treatment, training and guidance from an army no natural distinction that marks off children as a certain of specially trained adults. This is very different from the category of person’. Seeing children as innocent and Middle Ages when ‘the child became the natural wholesome or wicked and sinful or a mixture of both is not companion of the adult’. right or wrong, it is simply a meaning given to childhood at Evaluation Ariès has been criticised for overstating his case. a particular time and place (Stainton Rogers, 2001). In certain respects, children in medieval Europe were seen as different from adults. For example, there were laws Childhood in an age of uncertainty prohibiting the marriage of children under 12 (Bukatko & Nick Lee (2001) sees a change in the social construction Daehler, 2001). However, many historians agree with the of childhood towards the end of the 20th century. He broad outline of Ariès’s history of childhood in Western claims that for most of the century adults and children Europe. were seen as ‘fundamentally different kinds of humans’. Adults were stable and complete, children were unstable and incomplete. Adults had become, children were key term becoming. Adults were self-controlling, children were in Social construction Something that is created by society, need of control. constructed from social meanings and definitions. In the early 21st century, ‘growing up’ is no longer seen as a journey towards personal completion and stability. This is because adulthood is no longer complete and Images of childhood stable. Adult relationships are increasingly unstable as Wendy Stainton Rogers (2001) looks at the social indicated by high divorce rates. The labour market is construction of childhood in 20th century Europe. She changing rapidly and ‘jobs for life’ are a thing of the past. identifies two ‘images’ of childhood – ‘the innocent and With new partners and new jobs, adults are in a constant wholesome child’ and ‘the wicked and sinful child’. Both state of becoming. They are living in an ‘age of images coexist – they exist together. Both have a long uncertainty’. history and continue to the present day. They can be seen Where does this leave children? For much of the 20th in a variety of forms – for example, in novels such as century, childhood was defined in relation to adulthood. Arthur Ransome’s Swallows and Amazons with its Adults and children were very different. Children had yet charming and wholesome children and William Golding’s to become full human beings. They were not fully rational, Lord of the Flies where children descend to their ‘natural’ they were not seen as ‘persons in their own right’, they had savage and barbaric selves. to be guided along the path to adulthood by child experts Each image suggests a particular way of acting towards and child trainers such as teachers and social workers. children. The image of the innocent and wholesome child By the 21st century, adults were becoming more like suggests that children should be protected from everything children. Both were in a continual state of becoming, both that is nasty about the adult world, from violence and from were defining and redefining their identities, both were the worries and concerns of adults. Childhood should be a unstable and incomplete. happy, joyous and carefree time. By contrast, the idea of an essentially sinful child suggests that children should be This growing similarity between adults and children is restrained, regulated and disciplined. leading to a new social construction of childhood. Children are seen increasingly as ‘beings in their own Both these views of childhood imply that adults should right’. As such, they have their own concerns, their own be concerned about children and take responsibility for interests, and should have their own rights, just like adult their upbringing. members of society. This is reflected in the UN Convention The welfare view The first view suggests that children are on the Rights of the Child (1989). Article 3 states: vulnerable and need protection. This ‘welfare view’ forms ‘In all actions concerning children, whether the basis of social policy towards children in the UK today. undertaken by public or private social welfare For example, the Children Act of 1989 states that ‘When a institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities court determines any question with respect to the or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child upbringing of a child … the child’s welfare shall be the shall be a primary consideration.’ court’s paramount consideration’. Changes in the social construction of childhood result in The control view The second view assumes that children changes in the way adults treat children. This can be seen are unable to control their anti-social tendencies. As a from the 1989 Children Act which stated that in court result, they need regulation and discipline. This ‘control proceedings, ‘the child’s welfare must be paramount’. In view’ is reflected in education policy – children must cases of divorce, the court used to decide which parent had submit to education and the form and content of their custody of the children. Since 1989, the child’s view is education must be strictly controlled from above. taken into account – children have a say in decisions about According to Wendy Stainton Rogers, these images of who they will live with. This is a long way from the childhood are social constructions. She argues that ‘there is traditional view that children should be seen and not heard. Families and households 115

The end of childhood? Will the 21st century see the end of childhood? Will new summary social constructions end up abolishing the whole idea of childhood? 1. Many sociologists see childhood as a social construction According to Neil Postman (1983) in The Disappearance rather than a natural state. Ideas about childhood vary of Childhood, this process is well underway. Postman between different societies and different times. argues that childhood is only possible if children can be 2. According to Philippe Ariès, separated, and therefore protected from, the adult world. In ● The concept of childhood did not exist in medieval his words, ‘Without secrets, of course, there can be no Europe. Children were seen as little adults. such thing as childhood’. The mass media, and television ∑ ● Modern ideas of childhood as a separate state in particular, have brought the adult world into the lives of began with the onset of formal education and the children. Secrecy has been wiped out by television. As a gradual withdrawal of children from the workplace. result, the boundaries between the worlds of children and 3. Wendy Stainton Rogers identifies two images of adults are breaking down. Postman believes that in the childhood in modern Western society – ‘the innocent long run, this means the end of childhood. and wholesome child’ and ‘the wicked and sinful child’. Dual status Postman has been criticised for overstating his The first image suggests that children are vulnerable and case. Clearly television and the media in general have need protection – the welfare view. The second image brought adult priorities and concerns into the lives of suggests children need regulation and discipline – the children. But childhood is a long way from disappearing. control view. For example, children in late 20th century Western societies 4. According to Nick Lee, adulthood has become less have become a major economic force. Their tastes and stable and more uncertain. In these respects, it has preferences, not just in toys and games, but also in become more like childhood. This similarity has led to a information and communication technologies such as change in the social construction of childhood in the personal computers and mobile phones, have a major effect 21st century. Children are increasingly seen as having on what is produced and purchased (Buckingham, 2000). their own rights and interests. According to Nick Lee (2001), childhood has not 5. Neil Postman argues that the media is breaking down disappeared, it has become more complex and ambiguous. the boundaries between the worlds of children and Children are dependent on their parents, but in another adults, leading to the ‘disappearance of childhood’. sense they are independent. There is a mass children’s 6. Postman has been criticised for overstating his case. market which children influence – they make choices, they Childhood is a long way from disappearing. For example, decide which products succeed and fail, though at the end children remain a distinct group – they are a major force of the day, they depend on their parents’ purchasing power. in the market place. And they remain dependent on their This is one of the ambiguities of childhood in the 21st parents. century. Things are not clear-cut. Children are both dependent and independent. activity35 ambiguities of childhood Item A ‘Pester-power’ Item B Young and sophisticated

Children can influence what adults buy through ‘pester-power’. In the Aged 11 UK, the take-up of satellite and cable television, video, camcorders and home computers is much higher in households with children: 35% of households with children now subscribe to cable or satellite television, for example, as compared with 25% overall; while 90% of households with children have access to a video cassette recorder as compared with 75% overall. Source: Buckingham, 2000

question Why is childhood in the 21st century seen as ‘ambiguous’? Make some reference to Items A and B in your answer. 116 Chapter 2

Unit 8 Demographic trends

the average number of children that a woman would have keyissues during her lifetime. It is calculated each year on the 1 What are the main demographic trends in the UK available evidence. since 1900? Overall the TFR in the UK has declined. It is estimated 2 What explanations have been given for changes in that the TFR in 1900 was 3.5 children per woman. Official births, deaths and family size? TFR measurements began in 1940. Since then, TFR peaked at 2.95 in 1964 during the 1960s ‘baby boom’. It reached a record low of 1.63 in 2001 and rose to 1.84 children per 7.1 Demographic changes woman in 2006.

Demography is the study of populations. It includes the Deaths/mortality measurement of births, deaths and migration which can lead to changes in population size and structure. Mortality means death. It is measured in two main ways. Demography also involves an examination of the reasons Actual numbers This refers to the actual number of deaths for changes in populations. For example, it attempts to in a population over a given time period – usually a year. explain why people in the UK are living longer. Despite the large population growth in the UK This section presents a brief overview of the main between1901 and 2005, the annual number of deaths has demographic trends in the UK since 1900. The material is remained fairly steady. In 1901 there were 632,000 deaths drawn from various issues of Social Trends, Annual in the UK, in 2005 there were 582,000. Abstract of Statistics and from National Statistics Online. Death rate The death rate for the population as a whole is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per A growing population year. The death rate in the UK has fallen from an average In 1901, the population of the UK was 38.2 million. By of 18.4 in 1900-02 to 9.4 in 2005. When the population mid-2006, it had grown to 60.6 million. The rate of grows steadily and there is little change in the annual population growth has slowed during these years. Between number of deaths the death rate will automatically fall. 1901 and 1911, the growth rate averaged 1% per year. In Infant mortality rate This measure refers to the number of the 21st century it is around 0.25% per year. deaths of infants under one year per thousand live births. The main factor accounting for population growth has The infant mortality rate in the UK has fallen dramatically been natural change – the difference between births and from 142 in 1901 to 5.1 in 2005. Infant mortality deaths. Every year since 1901, apart from 1976, there have accounted for 25% of deaths in 1901 and for less than 1% been more births than deaths. Since the late 1990s, in 2005. migration into the UK has been an increasingly important factor in population growth. For example, between 2001 and 2005, migration resulted in an average annual increase Life expectancy of 182,000 people compared to an average annual Life expectancy is the number of years a person can expect increase of 92,000 people through natural change. to live based on data from a particular year. Table 7 shows life expectancy at birth in the UK for males and females. Births/fertility For example, the average life expectancy for females born Births are measured in three main ways. in 1901 was 49 years. By 2003-05, females could expect Actual numbers This refers to the actual number of live to live for 81 years. births in a population over a given time period. Overall, there has been a decline in the actual number of live births in the UK. In 1901, there were nearly 1.1 million, in 2005 Table 7 Life expectancy at birth, UK there were nearly 723,000. 1901 1951 1991 2003-05 Birth rate This measure refers to the number of live births per thousand of the population per year. For example, if Males 45.5 66.1 73.2 76.6 the birth rate is 15, then 15 live babies were born for each thousand members of the population in that year. The UK Females 49.0 70.9 78.8 81.0 birth rate has fallen steadily from an average of 28.6 in 1900-02 to 12.0 in 2005. Adapted from various issues of Social Trends and Annual Abstract of Statistics, Office for National Statistics The total fertility rate (TFR) This is the measure most commonly used by demographers. The total fertility rate is Families and households 117

Ageing population The first half of the 20th century saw the introduction of a The UK has an ageing population. This means that the range of vaccines (from the 1920s onwards) and antibiotics average age of the population is increasing. The proportion (from the mid-1930s). However, all the major diseases – of older people is growing and the proportion of younger tuberculosis, measles, scarlet fever, pneumonia and people is declining. For example, from 1971 to mid-2006, whooping cough – were steadily declining before the the population over 65 grew by 31% (from 7.4 to 9.7 introduction of effective medical treatment (Hart, 1985). million) whilst the population under 16 declined by 19% Around two-thirds of the fall in mortality comes from a (from 14.2 to 11.5 million). People are living longer and decline in mortality during the first 15 years of life. The women are having fewer children. major reduction in infant and child death rates from 1900 to 2006 occurred during the early years of the 20th century, Family size well before widespread immunisation which dates from the 1940s and 50s. As the section on births has shown, fertility in the UK has Advances in medicine have made a contribution to the fallen from 1900 to 2006. The total fertility rate (TFR) is decline in mortality. However, there are probably more used as a rough indicator of family size. It is estimated that important factors accounting for this decline. the TFR in 1900 was 3.5 children per woman. The TFR in 2006 was 1.84. Welfare measures Today the most common family size is two children. In During the later years of the 19th century and the early England and Wales, 37% of women reaching age 45 in years of the 20th century, national governments and local 2006 had a completed family size of two children. The authorities began to assume more responsibility for the proportion of women having three or more children has health and welfare of their citizens. There were marked fallen from nearly 40% for women born in 1941 to 30% for improvements in the disposal of sewage, the removal of women born in 1961. Childlessness has increased in recent refuse and the purification of water – all of which provided years. One in ten women born in 1941 were childless a healthier environment. compared to nearly one in five women born in 1961. In 1902, Bradford started the first school meals service and in 1914 the government made free school meals ‘for key terms the needy’ compulsory. In 1907, school medical examinations were introduced. The Liberal governments of Demography The study of populations. 1905-1915 directed help towards the poorest groups in Natural change The difference in the size of a population society. For example, the 1911 National Insurance Act resulting from the difference between births and deaths. provided sickness benefit for workers with low incomes. Birth rate The number of live births per thousand of the population per year. Measures such as these raised living standards and Total fertility rate (TFR) The average number of children that a reduced malnutrition amongst the poorest. woman would have during her lifetime. Death rate The number of deaths per thousand of the Nutrition and living standards population per year. The first half of the 20th century saw a rapid decline in Infant mortality rate The number of deaths of infants under one absolute poverty – the inability to obtain adequate food and year per thousand live births. shelter. A number of researchers argue that adequate Life expectancy The number of years that a person can expect nutrition is the most important factor accounting for the to live. Ageing population A population in which the average age decline in mortality, particularly the decline in infant and is increasing. child mortality. A healthy diet raises levels of resistance to infection and increases the chances of recovery from infection (Livi-Bacci, 2007).

7.2 Explaining demographic changes Fertility Overall, there has been a decline in the birth rate and the Mortality total fertility rate in the UK from 1900 onwards. Women are There has been a significant decline in mortality in the UK having fewer children and families are becoming smaller. from around 1830 to the present day. Life expectancy has Various reasons have been suggested for this. They include steadily increased. The death rate has steadily declined and the following. there has been a dramatic fall in infant mortality. Various Economic factors The cost of raising children has steadily causes have been suggested for the decline in mortality. risen from 1900 to the present. The minimum school They include the following. leaving age rose from 14 in 1918, to 15 in 1947 and 16 in Advances in medicine Around 60% of the decline in 1973. Growing numbers of young people are continuing to mortality from 1850 to 1970 was due to a decrease in further and higher education. As a result, children are infectious diseases. How much of this was due to advances becoming increasingly expensive as their economic in medicine? dependency on parents lasts longer and longer. 118 Chapter 2 activity36 demographic trends in the UK Item A Natural change Item B Fertility

1.2 Live births, deaths and natural change1901-2005, United Kingdom 3.50 Total fertility rate,1960-2006, United Kingdom 1.1 3.00

1 Births 2.50 Deaths 0.9 Natural change 2.00

Millions 0.8 1.50

0.7 1.00 Children per woman

0.6 0.50

0.5 0.00 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2005 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2006 Year Year

Adapted from various issues of Social Trends, Office for National Statistics Source: Office for National Statistics question 1. Briefly describe what is shown by Items A and B.

Surveys by building societies and insurance companies when they wish to re-enter the labour market. One way to illustrate this. For example, research by LV (formerly reduce risk is to have fewer children or none at all. Liverpool Victoria) estimated that the cost of raising a child Changing opportunities Researchers often point to and supporting them through university was £180,000 in expanding educational and occupational opportunities for 2006, a rise of 28% over the past four years. A survey by women as reasons for the decline in fertility. There was a the Skipton Building Society in 2006 reported that 20% of rapid increase in female undergraduates between 1970/71 respondents said they would remain childless because of and 2000/05. And during those same years, the proportion the cost of a child, while another 20% who already had of women in paid employment increased from 56% to 70% children said they would not have any more because they (Social Trends, 2007) These changes provide alternatives to could not afford it (Womack, 2006). women’s traditional role as mothers and child-raisers. One Individualisation According to the German sociologists way of taking advantage of these growing options is to have Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim (1995, 2001), fewer children or no children. we are now living in the second modernity which began Changing attitudes Research indicates that women’s around the mid-1970s. They see this era as characterised by concerns and priorities are changing. For example, Sue individualisation and risk. Individualisation means that Sharpe’s study of working-class girls in London schools in people are increasingly released from the norms, roles and the early 1970s found that their main concerns for the belief systems of the wider society. To a greater extent, they future were ‘love, marriage, husbands and children’. When are free to construct their own lives. And they increasingly she returned to the same schools in the 1990s, the girls’ demand a ‘life of their own’. priorities had changed to ‘job, career and being able to Children can conflict with this demand – they impose and support themselves’ (Sharpe, 1976 and 1994). intrude, they place limits on parents’ freedom, they restrict Attitudes to childlessness have changed. The word their options and make demands on their time, energy, ‘childless’ suggests a loss. Now many women who choose emotions and finances. As a result, children are often not to have children see themselves as ‘childfree’ – they postponed, their numbers are reduced and, in a growing emphasise liberation from children rather than loss of number of cases, people choose not to have them. children. From this point of view, the decision about Risk Beck and Beck-Gernsheim argue that risk, uncertainty whether or not to have children is a lifestyle option. and insecurity characterise societies in the second modernity. For example, relationships are increasingly seen as a source of risk and uncertainty with the high divorce key terms rate and the even higher rate of cohabitation breakup. Childless women Women who, for whatever reason, do not Having children is an added risk factor. It can put a strain produce children. on a couple’s relationship. It is a financial risk. And, if Childfree women Women who choose not to have children as mothers take time out of paid employment when their a lifestyle option. children are young, it increases the risk of not finding a job Families and households 119 summary

1. The population of the UK has grown from 38.2 million in 8. The following reasons have been suggested for the decline in 1901 to 60.6 million in 2006. mortality. ● 2. Most of this growth is due to natural change. ∑ Advances in medicine ∑ ● Welfare measures from local and national government 3. Actual numbers of live births, the birth rate and the total ∑ ● Improvements in nutrition and living standards. fertility rate have all fallen since 1901. 9. The following reasons have been suggested for the decline in 4. The annual number of deaths has remained fairly steady since fertility. 1901. However, the death rate has almost halved from 1900 ● to 2005. ∑ Economic factors – the growing cost of children ● 5. There has been a dramatic fall in infant mortality and a steady ∑ Individualisation rise in life expectancy from 1901 to 2005. ∑ ● The growing risk and uncertainty of societies in the second 6. The UK has an ageing population. modernity ● 7. There has been a decline in family size and an increase in ∑ Changing opportunities for women childlessness. ∑ ● Changes in women’s concerns and priorities. activity37 mortality and fertility Item A School Meals Item C Generations apart

School meals, Bradford, 1908 Grace, aged 71 ‘Having children wasn’t something that Monday Lentil and tomato soup. Currant roly-poly pudding. even occurred to me to question. In those Tuesday Meat pudding (stewed beef days, it was automatically accepted that and boiled suet pudding). motherhood was just what girls did.’ Ground rice pudding. Source: The Observer, 18.03.07 Wednesday Yorkshire pudding, gravy, peas. Rice and sultanas. Thursday Scotch barley broth. Currant Vicki, aged 17 pastry or fruit tart. ‘I used to be neutral about the idea of Friday Stewed fish, parsley sauce, being a mother but as I’ve got older and Green Lane School kitchen, Bradford peas, mashed potatoes. Cornflour blancmange. seen the sacrifices I would have to make, (All these meals included bread) I’ve become really against the idea. The Item B Tuberculosis first word that springs to mind when I think about being a mother is ‘trapped’. I 4000 Deaths from tuberculosis, feel that if I want to be successful in my 3500 England and Wales, 1840-1970 career, I don’t have any choice except not 3000 to become a mother.’ 2500 ‘I’m not alone in this decision. A

2000 substantial number of my female friends are quite definite that we never will. I 1500 Antibiotics genuinely don’t think I’ll regret my Death rate (per million) 1000 Vaccination decision when I’m an old woman. I want 500 to be able to look back at a life of achievements, adventures, success and 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 one packed full of friends.’ Source: McKeown, 1976 Source: The Observer, 18.03.07 questions 1 Look at Item A. How might school meals have made a contribution to the decline in the death rate? 2 What does Item B suggest about the contribution made by medical advances to the reduction of deaths from tuberculosis? 3 How might the comments in Item C help to explain the decline in fertility? Sociological methods 120 3 Sociological methods Introduction Are the following statements true or false? ● There has been a steady increase in lone-parent families. ● Low family income reduces a child’s chances of success in education. ● More and more women are taking up paid employment. According to the 2007 edition of Social Trends, published by the Office of National Statistics, all the above statements are true. ● In Britain in 1981, 12% of families with dependent children were headed by lone parents. By 2006, this had doubled to 24%. ● In England in 2005/06, 32.6% of pupils receiving free school meals attained five or more grades A* to C at GCSE.The figure for pupils who did not receive free school meals – those from higher income families – was significantly higher at 60.7%. ● Between 1971 and 2006, the employment rate for working-age women in the UK rose from 56% to 70%. The statements at the beginning of this introduction are not based on opinion or prejudice, guesses or gossip.They are based on research. Research involves systematically collecting and analysing information. The term data is often used for information gathered as part of a research project. This chapter looks at sociological research methods – the methods used by sociologists to collect and analyse data.

chaptersummary

Unit 1 looks at the kinds of data used in research. Units 5, 6 and 7 examine three methods of data Unit 2 provides an overview of the research collection – questionnaires, interviews and observation. process. Unit 8 looks at secondary sources of data.

▼▼▼ Units 3 and 4 look at two types of research – ▼▼Unit ▼ 9 examines further types of research, including life experiments and social surveys. histories, longitudinal studies and comparative studies.

Unit 1 Types of data

Secondary data refers to data which already exists. It keyissues includes data from historical records, official statistics, 1 What types of data do sociologists use? government reports, diaries, autobiographies, novels, 2 How good is that data? newspapers, films and recorded music.

1.1 Primary and secondary data 1.2 Quantitative and qualitative data One of the first questions sociologists ask when starting a A second question sociologists ask when starting research research project is ‘What kind of data will I use?’ There are is ‘What form do I want the data in?’ There are two forms two main types of data – primary data and secondary data. of data – quantitative data and qualitative data. Researchers Often researchers use both types. often use both forms. Primary data refers to information which was not present Quantitative data This is data in the form of numbers. before the research began. It is generated by the Examples of quantitative data are given in the introduction researcher during the actual process of research. It includes to this chapter. Here are some more examples from the data produced by questionnaires, interviews and year 2000. Twenty-six per cent of 16 to 24 year olds in observations. England and Wales had taken cannabis in the past year. 121 Chapter 3

In Britain, nine per cent of people with managerial/ 1.3 Validity and reliability professional occupations went to the opera in the past year compared to one per cent of people with unskilled manual A third question sociologists often ask when starting jobs (Social Trends, 2002). research is ‘How good will my data be?’ Ideally, they want data which is valid and reliable. Quantitative data is particularly useful for measuring the strength of relationships between various factors. The Validity Data is valid if it presents a true and accurate above examples would be useful data for measuring description or measurement. For example, official statistics relationships between 1) age and illegal drug use and on crime are valid if they provide an accurate 2) social class and leisure activities. measurement of the extent of crime. Reliability Data is reliable when different researchers using Qualitative data This refers to all types of data that are not the same methods obtain the same results. For example, if in the form of numbers. It includes: a number of researchers observed the same crowd at the ● Descriptive data from observations, eg a description of same sporting event and produced the same description of behaviour in a pub crowd behaviour, then their account would be reliable. ● Quotes from interviews, eg a woman discussing her The method – in this case observation – produces reliable marriage results. ● Written sources, eg diaries, novels and autobiographies However, reliable data may not be valid. Say the crowd ● Pictures, eg photographs, paintings and posters was at a baseball match in the USA, and the sociologists ● Films and recorded music. were English and knew nothing about baseball. They may Qualitative data can often provide a richer and more well fail to understand the crowd’s responses to the game. in-depth picture of social life than the numbers provided As a result, their description of the crowd’s behaviour may by quantitative data. Many sociologists combine be reliable – they all produce the same descriptions – but quantitative and qualitative data in their research. invalid – their descriptions are inaccurate. activity1 types of data Item A World War 1 recruiting poster from USA Item B A Hamar woman

Item C Social class and leisure Great Britain Percentages Managerial/ Other Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled professional non-manual manual manual manual Sporting events 24 20 18 15 7 Plays 29 17 8 6 5 Opera 9 3 2 1 1 Ballet 7 3 1 1 1 Contemporary dance 4 2 1 1 1 Classical music 17 8 4 2 2 Concerts 19 17 13 9 5 Art galleries/Exhibitions 30 18 8 6 7 Source: Social Trends, 2002 Office for National Statistics Sociological methods 122

questions 1 What types of data are Items A, B and C, quantitative or 4 Ask 10 people what the rings round the neck of the qualitative? Give reasons for your answer. woman in Item B indicate. Are their observations 2 How might a sociologist studying images of gender use a) valid, b) reliable? Item A? These rings or torques made of iron are engagement 3 How might a sociologist use the data in Item C? presents. They indicate her future husband’s wealth and are worn for life.]

key terms summary Data Information collected as part of a research project. 1. Sociologists often use both primary and secondary Primary data New data produced by the researcher during data in their research. the research process. 2. Quantitative data is useful for measuring the strength Secondary data Data which already exists, which can then be of relationships between various factors. used by the researcher. 3. Qualitative data can provide a rich and in-depth picture Quantitative data Numerical data – data in the form of of social life. numbers. Qualitative data All types of data that are not in the form of 4. Ideally, research data should be both valid and reliable. numbers. Validity Data is valid if it presents a true and accurate description or measurement. Reliability Data is reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results, ie the same description or measurement.

Unit 2 The research process

opportunity. Similarly, a sociologist who believes in gender keyissues equality may study the position of women at work and in 1 What practical and theoretical considerations influence the home, comparing their workloads and rewards with the research process? those of men.

2 What ethical issues are raised by sociological research? Values of society The values of researchers often reflect the values of society. Feminists have criticised mainstream (or ‘malestream’) society as male-dominated and based on Designing a research project, conducting the research, and male values. They have made similar criticisms about analysing the results involve a number of decisions. These sociology. For example, sociological research has include choosing a topic, selecting appropriate research traditionally focused on male concerns and male interests. methods, and deciding whether the research is morally As a result, female issues have been seen as unimportant right. and, until fairly recently, as unworthy of research. For example, Ann Oakley (1974) broke new ground when she 2.1 Choosing a topic chose to research housework, a topic then considered by many male sociologists to be of little significance. Choosing a topic for research is influenced by a range of factors. Some of these will now be briefly examined. Values in society change and with them the priorities and concerns of researchers. Today, gender inequality is seen as Values of the researcher Researchers are likely to study a major issue. And in sociology it forms the focus of a large something they consider to be important. And what they number of research projects. see as important is influenced by their values. For example, a sociologist who believes strongly in equality of Funding Choosing a research project is also influenced by opportunity may study the relationship between social a number of practical issues. For example, is it affordable? class and educational attainment, since there is evidence Most research projects conducted by professional that class inequality prevents equality of educational sociologists require outside funding. Research funds are 123 Chapter 3 activity2 choosing a research topic

Vegetable gardening Women’s jobs questions 1 Choose one of these topics for research. 2 Explain why you have chosen this topic.

Asian and White rioters in Bradford, 2001 available from various sources – charitable foundations which reflect feminist issues – in particular gender such as the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and the inequalities. Runnymede Trust, government organisations such as the Every theoretical position sees certain aspects of society Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), and as particularly important. For example, Marxism sees the industry. Each funding body has its own priorities. For class system as the foundation of capitalist society. As a example, industrial organisations will tend to fund projects result, Marxists tend to focus on topics such as class dealing with their own particular concerns, such as inequality, class conflict and class identity. solutions to stress in the workplace. The choice of research project is often shaped by the priorities of the funding body. 2.2 Choosing research methods Availability of data It makes little sense to choose a Having selected a topic, the researcher must then choose research topic where there is little or no data available and appropriate methods to collect and analyse data. The little chance of producing it in the future. For example, choice of methods depends on a number of factors. Some there is probably insufficient data to conduct a study of of these factors will be introduced briefly in this section child abuse in Anglo Saxon England. And there is little and examined in more detail in later sections. chance of conducting a systematic study of secret service organisations such as MI5 and MI6. Theoretical position Choosing a research topic is also Practical considerations influenced by the theoretical position of the sociologist. As Some methods are more suitable than others for noted earlier, feminist sociologists will tend to select topics conducting particular types of research. Think about the Sociological methods 124 problem of studying a teenage gang whose members Theoretical considerations sometimes commit illegal acts. They are often hostile to A number of sociologists suggest there are two main outsiders, particularly those they see as representing research traditions, or approaches to research, within authority. Asking gang members for interviews or sociology (Halfpenny, 1984). These ‘approaches’ are often presenting them with questionnaires is unlikely to produce called interpretivism and positivism. They are based on the required data. However, joining in their activities and different views of human behaviour. They sometimes lead gaining their trust can allow the researcher to obtain to the use of different research methods. information by observing their behaviour. This method has Interpretivism Some sociologists argue that been used successfully by a number of sociologists understanding human behaviour involves seeing the studying gang behaviour. world through the eyes of those being studied. People A researcher can only observe and record the behaviour give meaning to their own behaviour and to the of a small number of people. What if the research involved behaviour of others, they define situations in certain making general statements about the relationship between ways and act accordingly. To understand their behaviour, social class and criminal behaviour? Some sociologists it is essential to discover and interpret the meanings and have claimed that members of the working class are more definitions which guide their actions. likely to commit crime than members of other social classes. It would take a lifetime of observation to assess this This view of human activity is sometimes called claim. For purely practical reasons, some sociologists have interpretivism. Sociologists who support this view tend to turned to official statistics on crime to investigate the favour particular research methods. For example, many see relationship between social class and criminal behaviour. participant observation – observing the people being (However, there are problems with the use of official studied by joining their activities – as a suitable method for statistics as Section 8.1 shows.) discovering the meanings which guide their actions.

activity3 choosing methods Item A Casual sex Laud Humphreys studied casual sex between gay men in public toilets in the USA. His main method of research was observation. He pretended to be a ‘voyeur-lookout’. A voyeur doesn’t join in but gets pleasure from watching the activities of others. A lookout warns of approaching police. Source: Humphreys, 1970

Item B Sex for money Don Kulick used observation to study transsexual prostitutes in Brazil during 1996. He rented a small room in a house with 13 transsexual prostitutes. The prostitutes are referred to as ‘travestis’. ‘I associated with travestis pretty much continually during those eight months, eating breakfasts of sweetened coffee and buttered rolls with them when they woke up about midday, chatting with them as they sat in doorsteps, plucking whiskers from their chins in the late afternoon sun, crowding onto mattresses with them as they lay pressed together smoking cigar-sized joints and watching late- night action movies on television. Every night, from about 8pm until 1 or 2am, I walked the streets with them at their various points of prostitution.’ Source: Kulick, 1998

question Why do you think Humphreys and Kulick chose observation as their main research method? A ‘lady boy’ transsexual prostitute in Bangkok, Thailand 125 Chapter 3

Interpretivists also tend to favour in-depth, unstructured Social facts are external to individuals and direct their interviews since this method gives people the opportunity behaviour. In this sense, they are similar to the forces to talk about their behaviour as they see it. Asking them to which are external to and direct the behaviour of matter, fill in a questionnaire is unlikely to provide such freedom which is studied by the natural sciences. According to of expression. positivists, this means that the methods and approaches of Interpretivist sociology attempts to discover and the natural sciences are often appropriate for the study of understand the meanings and definitions that direct social social facts. life. It assumes that some research methods are better than Dividing sociologists into interpretivists and positivists is others for this purpose. a simplistic and rough and ready division. However, it’s a useful starting point for understanding different approaches Positivism By contrast, positivist sociology tends to model to research. A flavour of this difference can be seen from itself on the natural sciences such as physics and chemistry. Activity 4. It favours ‘hard’, quantitative data, rather than the ‘soft’ qualitative data often used by interpretivist sociology. It is less concerned with the meanings people attach to their 2.3 Ethical issues behaviour and more with the behaviour itself. Behaviour can be directly observed and quantified – for Ethical considerations can have an important influence on example, number of visits to the opera in one year. the research process. Meanings cannot be directly observed, they can only be Ethics are moral principles – beliefs about what is right interpreted, for example the meanings that direct people to and wrong. In terms of research, ethics are the moral go to the opera. principles which guide research. Sociological associations in many countries have a set of ethical guidelines for Positivist sociology attempts to measure behaviour by conducting research. Sociology departments in universities translating it into numbers. This makes it possible to use usually have an ethics committee to ensure that research statistical tests to measure the strength of relationships conducted by members of the department is in line with between various factors. This may indicate causal these guidelines. relationships – that one factor causes another. There is a growing awareness that those who participate Some research methods are more likely to produce data in research have rights and that researchers have in a numerical form. Questionnaires are an example. It is responsibilities and obligations. For example, should fairly easy to translate the answers to a questionnaire into participants be informed about the purpose of the numbers. And some existing data is available in a research and what their participation involves? Should numerical form – for example, official statistics. researchers make every effort to ensure that participants Positivist sociology attempts to explain human behaviour come to no physical or psychological harm? Is it ever by discovering cause and effect relationships. It requires justifiable to deceive participants about the purpose of the data in the form of numbers for this purpose. Some research? These are some of the ethical questions research methods are designed to do this and, as a result, researchers should consider. tend to be favoured by positivist sociologists. Informed consent Many researchers argue that those they Social facts Positivists argue that sociologists should focus are studying should be given the opportunity to agree or on social facts rather than actions which can be explained refuse to participate in the research. This decision should by the unique experience of individuals. Social facts are be ‘informed’ – information must be made available on aspects of society – for example, the institutions and values which to base a decision to participate or not. Researchers of society. Social facts direct individual behaviour but have should therefore provide information about the aims of the an existence outside individuals – they are part of the research, what the conduct of the research involves, and wider society. The following example illustrates this view. the purposes to which the research will be put. Suicide is usually seen as a very personal act which can Deception This means that information is withheld from only be explained in terms of an individual’s experience – participants and/or they are provided with false information. for example, he took his own life because his wife left him They may be unaware they are participating in a research and he was depressed. However, the suicide rate – the study. They may be misled about the purpose of the study number of suicides as a proportion of the total population and the events that may take place during the research. – can be seen as a social fact. It can be argued that the Clearly, participants cannot give informed consent if suicide rate is determined by factors in the wider society – they are deceived. Is deception ever justifiable? Some by social facts external to the individual. researchers argue that deception is justified if there is no This view is illustrated in Activity 4, Item A which argues other way of gathering data. This means using a research that one social fact – the level of social isolation in society method such as covert (hidden) observation so that people – causes another social fact – the suicide rate. Here the are unaware they are participating in research. Or, it explanation is social (found in society) rather than means misleading participants about aspects of the individual (found in individual experience). research. For example, Humphreys (1970) gathered further Sociological methods 126 activity4 researching suicide Item A Explaining suicide Item B Understanding suicide In a famous study entitled Suicide, first published in 1895, From an interpretivist view, suicide is a meaning which people give the French sociologist Emile Durkheim examined the to certain deaths. The job of the sociologist is to discover why suicide rates of different groups in society. He compared particular deaths are defined as suicides. From observations of the following groups and, using official statistics, found inquests and discussions with coroners, the British sociologist that in each case, the group on the left had a higher suicide J. Maxwell Atkinson believes that coroners have a picture of a rate than the group on the right. typical suicide and a typical suicide victim. Road deaths are rarely seen as suicides whereas deaths by drowning, hanging, gassing and City dwellers : Rural dwellers drug overdose are more likely to be interpreted as suicides. The Older adults : Younger adults typical suicide victim is often seen as a lonely, friendless, isolated Unmarried : Married individual with few family ties. Married without children: Married with children Source: Atkinson, 1978 Durkheim argued that members of each group on the left are more socially isolated than those on the right. For Item C A typical suicide? example, married couples without children have fewer ties to bind them together than married couples with children. Durkheim believed he had found a causal relationship between two social facts, the level of social isolation and the rate of suicide – the higher the level of social isolation, the greater the likelihood of suicide. Source: Durkheim, 1970

questions

1 How do Items A and B illustrate positivism and The Maniac Father and The Convict Brother Are Gone – The Poor Girl, interpretivism? Homeless, Friendless, Deserted, Destitute, and Gin Mad, Commits Self Murder. 2 Explain Item C from a) Durkheim’s and b) Atkinson’s (From a series of illustrations entitled ‘The Drunkard’s Children’ drawn by view. George Cruikshank in 1848)

information about some of the gay men in his research by Practice (1996), confidentiality must be honoured ‘unless calling on their homes and pretending to be conducting a there are clear and overriding reasons to do otherwise’. It health survey. has been argued that when people in powerful positions Privacy Researchers generally agree that participants’ misuse their power, then there may be a case for naming privacy should be respected. The problem here is that most names (Homan, 1991). research intrudes into people’s lives. It has been argued Protection from harm There is general agreement that that if participants consent to take part in research, then research participants should be protected from harm. This they accept this. However, they may be unaware of the includes any harmful effects of participating in the actual extent of the intrusion. With hindsight, they may see it as research process and any harmful consequences of the an invasion of privacy. research. Certain research methods, which are generally Publication of research findings may harm those who considered ethical, may result in an invasion of privacy. have been studied. For example, a study by Jason Ditton of Take the case of the informal, unstructured interview – it workers in a bread factory revealed all sorts of fiddles and often develops into a friendly chat between researcher and petty thefts. As Ditton himself recognised, management participant. In this relaxed atmosphere, participants may may well clamp down on such practices after publication reveal all sorts of personal and private matters which they of his book (Ditton, 1977). may later regret. Ethics and the research process As noted earlier, all Confidentiality It is generally agreed that the identity of researchers have values which define what is right and research participants should be kept secret. According to wrong. To some extent, these ethical values will affect the British Sociological Association’s Statement of Ethical every stage of the research process. If, for example, 127 Chapter 3 researchers see poverty, male domination, racial discrimination, or private education as ethically wrong, summary then they may choose to study these topics in order to reveal the wrongs and discover ways to right them. 1. The choice of research topic may be influenced by the ∑ ● values of the researcher ∑ ● values of society ∑ ● type of funding ∑ ● availability of data key terms ∑ ● theoretical position of the researcher. Interpretivism An approach which focuses on the meanings 2. The choice of research methods may be influenced by and definitions which guide and direct behaviour. practical, theoretical and ethical considerations. Positivism An approach which attempts to explain behaviour in 3. There are two main approaches to research in terms of cause and effect relationships. sociology – interpretivism and positivism. Each Participant observation A research method where the approach tends to favour particular research methods. researcher joins the activities of those they are observing. 4. The research process is influenced by ethical Social Facts Aspects of society which are external to individuals considerations. Most sociologists believe that and which direct their behaviour. participation in research should be based on informed Covert observation Hidden observation. Participants are unaware consent, that participants should be protected from that they are being observed as part of a research project. harm, that their privacy should be respected and their Ethics Moral principles – beliefs about what is right and wrong. confidentiality assured.

activity5 ethics and research Item A The National Front Item B Missing lessons

Nigel Fielding conducted a study of the National Front, which many, including Fielding, considered to be a vicious, racist organisation concerned with White supremacy. Part of his research involved attending local meetings of the Front, during which he concealed his real reason for being Val Hey studied friendship between girls. Her research was based there. In order to avoid suspicion he contributed to on observation in two schools. She would sometimes give the girls discussions, appearing to be sympathetic to the Front’s small gifts and even excuses to miss lessons in exchange for beliefs. cooperating in her research. Source: Fielding, 1981 Source: Hey, 1997 Sociological methods 128

Item C Illegal drug use In their study of illegal drug use, Howard Parker and his colleagues found that some of the responses to their questionnaires revealed that individuals were not coping with their drug use. The researchers had to decide whether to offer help and advice or maintain the confidentiality they had promised. Source: Parker et al., 1998

Smoking cannabis questions 1 Why do you think Fielding chose to study the National 4 How would you have dealt with the problem faced by Front? Parker in Item C? Give reasons for your decision. 2 Discuss the ethical issues involved in his research methods. [ (In the end, the researchers decided to treat each case 3 Do you think Hey (Item B) was justified in helping the girls individually.]) truant from lessons? Explain your answer.

Unit 3 Experiments

varies – from oval, to triangular, to rectangular, etc. In this keyissues way it is possible to find out how hull shape affects speed. 1 What are the main types of experiments? Quantifying results The results of experiments are usually 2 Why are experiments rarely used by sociologists? quantified – presented in the form of numbers. Thus the speed of a model boat in the laboratory can be measured in centimetres per second using a metre rule and a stopwatch. Using a standard objective system of 3.1 Laboratory experiments measurement is important as it reduces reliance on the judgement of the investigator and is therefore more likely For most people the word experiment conjures up a picture to produce reliable data. And, it allows other researchers to of white-coated researchers in a laboratory using scientific replicate or repeat experiments and directly compare the equipment to prove or disprove something. This is quite a results. good starting point for understanding the experimental Correlation and causation If changes in one variable (eg, method. the shape of the hull) are matched by changes in another The main aspects of the experimental method can be variable (eg, the speed of the boat) then there is a illustrated by the following example. This experiment was correlation between the two variables. But this does not conducted to test the hypothesis or supposition that, ‘The mean that one causes the other. However, being able to speed of a boat depends on the shape of its hull’. control variables in a laboratory does help us to judge Controlling variables In order to discover the effect of hull whether the correlation is causative rather than shape on speed it is necessary to identify and control all coincidental. In the case of the boat, the only apparent the variables or factors which might affect speed. This is change is in hull shape so any change in speed is likely to difficult to do outside a laboratory since variables such as result from this. wind strength and temperature cannot be controlled. In a Laboratory experiments and people Laboratory laboratory, it is possible to control such variables and keep experiments have been very successful in the natural them constant so that hull shape is the only factor which sciences such as physics and chemistry. However, many 129 Chapter 3 sociologists have serious doubts about their application to result, their actions may be very different from their human beings. This is partly because people act in terms of behaviour in the ‘real’ world. An attempt to get round this their definitions of situations. They are likely to define is the field experiment, an experiment which takes place in laboratories as artificial situations and act accordingly. As a people’s everyday situations. activity6 laboratory experiments Item A Imitative aggression A group of nursery school children watched an adult mistreating a Bobo doll – a large inflatable rubber doll – by punching it, kicking it and hitting it with a mallet. The experimenter, Albert Bandura, then exposed this group and another group who had not watched the violence to the following ‘frustrating experience’. The children were shown a room full of exciting toys and given the impression they could play with them. They were then told they could not play with them. They were then taken, one by one, to a room of unattractive toys which included a Bobo doll and a mallet. As Bandura had predicted, those who had earlier watched the mistreatment of the Bobo doll were more likely to imitate this behaviour and show aggression towards the doll. Source: Bandura, 1973 Imitating adults – attacking a Bobo doll.

Item B The real world Can the results of laboratory experiments be applied to the real world? For example, does the Bobo doll experiment suggest a link between violence in films and violence in real life? Unlike people, Bobo dolls are designed to be knocked around, they invite violent behaviour. As such, they are hardly suitable for an investigation into imitative aggression. Critics of experiments argue that the many differences between the laboratory situation and real life undermine any attempts to apply research findings to the claim that films promote aggressive or violent behaviour by imitation. Source: Williams, 1981

questions 1 What hypothesis is being tested in Item A? 2 Do you agree with the views outlined in Item B? Give reasons for your answer. Described as ‘sickeningly violent, appallingly funny and arrestingly accomplished’, Reservoir Dogs became a cult movie in the mid-1990s (Chronicle of the Cinema, 1995). Sociological methods 130

3.2 Field experiments key terms Field experiments are conducted in normal social situations such as the classroom, the factory and the street corner. Hypothesis A statement that can be tested about the The following example was devised to test the effect of relationship between two or more variables. Variables Factors which affect behaviour. Variables can vary or social class on interaction between strangers (Sissons, change, eg temperature can increase or decrease. 1970). An actor stood outside Paddington Station in Replication Repeating an experiment or research study under London and asked people for directions. The actor, place the same conditions. and request were kept the same but the actor’s dress varied Correlation A measurement of the strength of the from a businessman to a labourer. The experiment relationship between two or more variables. indicated that people were more helpful to the Laboratory experiment An experiment conducted in specially ‘businessman’. It could therefore be argued that people built surroundings. were responding to what they perceived as the actor’s Field experiment An experiment conducted in everyday social social class. However, there are other possibilities. For settings. example, the actor may behave more confidently in his Experimental effect Any unintended effect of the experiment role as businessman and people might respond to his level on the participants. Hawthorne effect Changes in the behaviour of participants of confidence rather than level of class. resulting from an awareness that they are taking part in an Lack of control Field experiments are always going to be experiment. inexact and ‘messy’. It is impossible to identify and control Experimenter bias The unintended effect of the experimenter all the variables which might affect the results. For on the participant. example, it is difficult, if not impossible, to control the social class of the people asked for directions in the above experiment. Most of them may have been middle class. If experimenter is young or old, male or female, Black or so, they may have been more helpful to the ‘businessman’ White and so on. People also tend to act in terms of how because he seemed ‘more like them’. they think others expect them to act. This might explain the The Hawthorne effect Whether in the laboratory or in results in the experiment involving the actor dressed as a more normal social contexts, people are often aware they businessman and a labourer. He might be conveying two are participating in an experiment. And this in itself is different expectations and this may affect the responses to likely to affect their behaviour. This particular experimental his request for directions. For example, he may expect effect is often known as the Hawthorne effect since it was more help in his role as businessman and unintentionally first observed during a study at Hawthorne Works of the convey this to the participants. The unintended effect of the Western Electricity Company in Chicago in the late 1920s. experimenter on those being studied is known as The researchers conducted an experiment to discover experimenter bias. whether there was a relationship between the workers’ Ethical questions Is it right to experiment on human productivity and variables such as levels of lighting and beings? This depends partly on the nature of the heating and the frequency of rest periods. The researchers experiment. Nearly everybody would reject the medical were puzzled as the results appeared to make little or no experiments performed on inmates against their will in sense. For example, productivity increased whether the Nazi concentration camps. However, fewer people would temperature in the workplace was turned up or down. The object to the actor asking directions outside Paddington only factor which appeared to explain the increase in Station. Should people be told they are the subject of an productivity was the workers’ awareness that they were experiment? Yes, according to the British Psychological part of an experiment – hence the term Hawthorne effect. Society, unless it’s absolutely necessary to deceive them, Experimenter bias People act in terms of how they and then they must be told immediately afterwards (British perceive others. They will tend to respond differently if the Psychological Society, 1998). summary 1. There are two main types of experiments – laboratory artificial situations. Critics argue that as a result, findings experiments and field experiments. from laboratory experiments may not apply to everyday 2. Experiments are often designed to test hypotheses. social situations. 3. Experiments are usually intended to measure the strength of 6. Field experiments help to avoid artificiality, but they do not relationships between two or more variables. provide the same control of variables. 4. Ideally, laboratory experiments allow the researcher to 7. Both laboratory and field experiments have been criticised control all the important variables. for experimental effects. As a result, their findings may be low in validity. 5. Laboratory experiments have been criticised for creating 131 Chapter 3 activity7 asking directions questions 1 Suggest reasons for the different responses pictured above. 2 Using this example, outline some of the problems with field experiments.

Same man... … different response

Unit 4 Social surveys

population might be adult males, female pensioners, keyissues manual workers, 16-19 year old students, parents with 1 What is a social survey? dependent children and so on. A sample is a selection of part of the population. Samples are necessary because 2 What types of sample are used for social surveys? researchers rarely have the time and money to study everybody in the population. For example, if their research was based on women aged 16 and over in the UK, it 4.1 What is a social survey? would cover over 23 million people. Most researchers try to select a sample which is Survey data The National Readership Survey tells us that in representative of the population. This means that the 2000, The Sun was the most popular daily newspaper in sample should have the same characteristics as the Britain – read by 20% of adults. The International population as a whole. Thus, if a researcher is studying the Passenger Survey tells us that Spain was the most popular attitudes of British women, the sample should not consist overseas holiday destination in 2000 – visited by 28% of of 1000 nuns, 1000 women over eighty or 1000 divorced UK residents who had a holiday abroad. And the British women since such groups are hardly representative of Gambling Prevalence Survey informs us that the National British women. With a representative sample, Lottery Draw was the most popular gambling activity in generalisations are more likely to be true – findings from Britain in 1999, with 65% of people aged 16 and over the sample are more likely to be applicable to the participating. (All figures from Social Trends, 2002.) population as a whole. Definition The above information comes from social surveys. A social survey involves the systematic collection Sample design and composition of the same type of data from a fairly large number of Sampling unit Who should be included in a sample? In people. Social surveys are usually designed to gather many cases it is fairly easy to define a sampling unit – ie, a information on the same variables – eg, age and cinema member of the population to be studied. Dentists, males attendance – from those participating in the survey. This between 30 and 40 years of age, females who own their often means asking everybody the same set of questions. own businesses, people with one or more GCE A levels, can be defined without too many problems. However, 4.2 Sampling other groups are not so easy – how would you define a semi-skilled manual worker or a person living in poverty? Nearly all social surveys are based on a sample of the Who would you include in a population of ‘criminals’? Do population to be investigated. ‘Population’ is the term you limit the population to those convicted of a crime? Or given to everybody in the group to be studied. The do you include everybody who has ever broken the law, in Sociological methods 132 which case you would include nearly every adult in the lead to an all male sample if every 10th person was UK? selected. Sampling frame Once the research population has been Stratified samples Stratified samples offer a solution to the defined, the sample is selected from a sampling frame – a problem of representativeness. The population is divided list of members of the population to be studied. In some into separate strata in terms of one of more characteristics, cases an appropriate sampling frame is readily available, eg age, gender, ethnicity, class. A sample is then drawn eg the Electoral Register for a study of voting behaviour. which reflects those characteristics. Thus if the aim is to In other cases researchers may have to rely on listings, reflect gender divisions in the UK, 51% of the sample will such as the Postcode Address File or telephone be randomly selected from the female stratum and 49% directories, which may or may not be suitable for their from the male stratum. In terms of gender, the sample will purposes. And all listings have drawbacks – not everyone be representative of the population as a whole. is included, they are often out of date, certain groups are A stratified sample can only be selected if researchers likely to be over or under-represented, eg the poor are have sufficient information. In some cases, this is fairly less likely to appear in telephone directories. Sometimes, easy to obtain. For example, the distribution of age in the those who have data needed for a sampling frame are UK population can be obtained from census data and this unwilling to release it. This happened to Howard Newby can then be mirrored in the sampling frame. In other cases, (1977) when the Ministry of Agriculture refused to supply the necessary information is difficult or impossible to information for his study of Suffolk farmworkers. Newby obtain. Religion provides an example. How do we get had to use the Yellow Pages for his first sampling frame. accurate information on the distribution of atheists, Many farmworkers were absent from this directory and agnostics, Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, Hindus and so those included were probably unrepresentative of the on in the population as a whole? And even if we can group. discover this, available sampling frames such as electoral The design and composition of the sample will partly registers may be no use at all since they provide no depend on the type of sample used. Some of the more information about religious belief and practice. common types will now be outlined. Quota samples A market researcher stands on a street corner looking for likely ‘victims’. She has to find twenty Types of sample women between the ages of 30 and 45 to answer a questionnaire on magazine readership. She fills her quota Random samples A random sample gives every member of with the first twenty women passing by who a) fit the the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected. required age group and b) agree to answer her questions. Every name is given a number and then a list of random The sample selection is not random – it is not randomly numbers is used to select the sample. This avoids bias in selected from a sampling frame. The researcher simply fills selection. If researchers choose who to include and who to her quota from the first available bodies. This method is leave out, they may select a sample which supports their known as quota sampling. It is ‘a method of stratified hypothesis. sampling in which the selection within strata is non- random’ (Moser & Kalton, 1971). Systematic samples This form of sampling systematically Quota sampling is often used for opinion polls and selects people from the sampling frame by choosing every market research. It has its advantages – it is simpler, 5th, 10th, 20th, or whatever, sampling unit. This method quicker and cheaper than stratified random sampling. was used by Young and Willmott (1957) in their first study However, it is less likely to produce a sample which is of Bethnal Green (see page 51). They selected every 10th representative of the research population. For example, name from the borough’s electoral register. where and when a quota is filled can make significant Neither random nor systematic samples necessarily differences to the sample. Stopping people on the street produce representative samples. Few sampling frames during weekday working hours would exclude many cover everybody in the research population. For example, people in paid employment. And the fact that researchers on electoral registers certain groups are unrepresented can choose who they interview can bias the sample still (those not old enough to vote) or under-represented (the further. Faced with two young men one ‘smart’ and unemployed). ‘pleasant’ looking, the other just the opposite, researchers Even if the sampling frame covers the entire research would probably choose the former. In quota sampling, population, a representative sample is not guaranteed. people in the same strata do not have an equal chance of Simply because it is random, a random sample may being selected. select, for example, a disproportionate number of Labour Snowball and volunteer samples Sometimes researchers voters from an electoral register. However, the larger the have great difficulty obtaining people for their samples. sample the less likely this will be. Systematic sampling First, lists for a sampling frame might not be available. can lead to an unrepresentative sample if the sampling Second, the research population might be so small that frame is organised systematically. For example, a list of normal sampling methods would not supply the numbers married couples in which husband follows wife would needed. Third, members of the research population might 133 Chapter 3 not wish to be identified. Think of the problems in locating There are many reasons for non-response. They include: the following: burglars, heroin users, collectors of ancient 1 Failure to make contact because people have moved, Greek coins, gay men, members of a Masonic Lodge. One are on holiday, in prison, working away from home or possibility is to use a network of like-minded or like- simply out when the researcher calls. situated individuals. This is the basis of snowball sampling, 2 Contact is made, but the interview cannot be conducted so-called because of its similarity to rolling a snowball. because the person is ill, deaf, experiencing some Snowballing works like this. The researcher finds personal tragedy or can’t speak English. someone who fits the bill. They are asked to find another 3 The person refuses to participate. Reasons may include person who fits and so on. In this way a network of no time, no interest, sees no point in the research, is members of the research population is built up and this suspicious of, dislikes, or is embarrassed by the forms the basis for the sample. researcher. Snowballing has the obvious advantage of creating a sampling frame where other methods may fail. However, it Problems of non-response Does non-response make the is unlikely to provide a representative sample since it is not sample unrepresentative? Does it bias the sample and random and relies on personal recommendation. produce systematic error? Often the answer is we don’t Volunteer samples provide an alternative to snowballing. know since little or nothing is known about those who do Advertisements, leaflets, posters, radio or TV broadcasts, not participate. Sometimes information on non-participants newspaper or magazine articles announce the research and does become available. This happened in the surveys request volunteers for the sample. Annette Lawson (1988) attempting to predict the 1992 General Election result. wrote a newspaper article about her study of adultery. She Opinion polls underestimated the Conservative vote by used the article to obtain a volunteer sample by asking 8.5%. Over half of this underestimate was due to those readers who had experienced adultery to complete a who refused to participate – they were much more likely to questionnaire. Five hundred and seventy-nine readers vote Conservative. This produced an unrepresentative responded to her request. sample and in large part accounted for the failure to Volunteer sampling has much the same advantages and predict the election result (Horizon, BBC TV, 1994). disadvantages as snowballing. In addition, volunteer Evidence such as this suggests that non-response can be samples are self-selected which may systematically bias the a serious problem. sample in a particular direction. For example, those who volunteer may have a particular reason for doing so. key terms 4.3 Responding to surveys Social surveys Systematic collection of the same type of data from a particular population. Response rates It’s one thing creating a representative Sample A selection from the research population. sample, it’s quite another getting everybody in the sample to Sampling unit A member of the research population. participate in the survey. The response rate – the percentage Sampling frame A list of members of the research of the sample that participates – varies widely. For example, population. Shere Hite’s The Hite Report on the Family (1994) based on Random sample A sample which gives every member of the questionnaires in magazines had a mere 3% response rate, sampling frame an equal chance of being selected. whereas everybody Ann Oakley (1974) asked to take part in Systematic sample A systematic selection of people from the her research on housework agreed to do so. sampling frame, eg every 10th member. Stratified sample A sample which attempts to reflect particular characteristics of the research population. The summary population is divided into strata in terms of age, gender etc, and the sample is randomly drawn from each stratum. 1. Social surveys are designed to provide information Quota sample A stratified sample in which selection from about particular populations. the strata is not random. 2. They are based on samples which aim to represent the Snowball sample Members of the sample select each other. research population as a whole. Volunteer sample Members of the sample are self- 3. Whatever type of sample is used, there is no guarantee selected, eg they choose to respond to a questionnaire that it will be representative. printed in a magazine. 4. A high level of non-response can result in an Response rate The percentage of the sample that unrepresentative sample. participates in the research. Sociological methods 134 activity8 sampling Item A A stratified random sample We wish to study the career plans of university students and have sufficient funds to interview 125. Before selecting the sample, the sampling frame is stratified into departments, eg Physics and Chemistry, and years, eg students in their first year of study. There are 5,000 students in the university and the sample of 125 is one fortieth of this total. The example below shows the numbers of students randomly selected from years 1, 2 and 3 in the Physics department. Source: Arber, 1993

Stratification by department and year Department Year Number in Number in year sample

Physics 1 120 3 2 100 3 3 100 2 Total 320 8

Item B A volunteer sample Shere Hite’s (1994) report on family life in three Western societies received a great deal of publicity. Some of its ‘findings’ Will the readership of Penthouse, a men’s magazine, provide were dramatic. More than one in four women ‘have no a representative sample? memory of affection by their father’. Four out of ten fathers frighten their sons with their violent tempers. And 31% of girls magazines such as Penthouse in America, Women Against and young women ‘report sexual harassment or abuse by a Fundamentalism in Britain and Nouvelles Questions Feminists male family member’. in France. Her statistics come from the 3% who responded. Hite’s findings were based on 3028 completed She claims that self-selected samples are acceptable as long as questionnaires. Her sample was a self-selected volunteer the study is large enough. sample. Hite distributed 100,000 questionnaires, mainly in Source: Kellner, 1994 questions 1 Why do you think the researchers in Item A decided to use a stratified random sample? 2 According to one critic, Hite’s ‘findings’ are rubbish (Kellner, 1994). Discuss this claim with reference to a) her sampling procedure and b) the response rate.

Unit 5 Questionnaires

method for gathering data in social surveys. They are keyissues sometimes handed to or posted to the respondent – the 1 What are questionnaires? person answering the questions – and he or she is asked to 2 What are their advantages and disadvantages? fill them in. This is known as a self-completion questionnaire. They are sometimes read out by an interviewer who records the answers. This is known as an 5.1 What are questionnaires? interview questionnaire or a structured interview. Questionnaires are lists of questions. They are the main Comparable data In theory questionnaires produce data 135 Chapter 3 which can be directly compared. Everybody is answering British Social Attitudes Survey. It is an attempt to measure exactly the same questions and are therefore responding to people’s belief in God. Respondents were asked to choose the same thing. Any differences in the answers will the statement which best fits their beliefs. therefore reflect real differences between the respondents. Operationalising concepts is difficult, especially when This is fine in theory. However, it’s easier said than done. sociologists themselves cannot agree on their meaning. For As we shall see, the same questions worded in exactly the example, how do we operationalise concepts such as same way can mean different things to different people. poverty and social class? Often concepts are operationalised And in the case of the structured interview there is the in different ways in different studies which means the results problem of interviewer bias – the effect an interviewer may are difficult, if not impossible, to compare. And the problem have on respondents’ answers. Imagine how the age, of comparability becomes even greater when we attempt to gender and personality of an interviewer might affect your discover what respondents really mean when they answer answers on a sensitive subject such as sexual behaviour. questions. This problem will be looked at shortly. Quantifiable data Questionnaires are usually designed to generate data which can be easily quantified – put into Coding answers Answers to questions are coded. This numbers. Here is an example from British Social Attitudes: means they are classified into various categories. When the 17th Report (Source: UK Data Archive, 2000). It shows concepts, such as belief in God, are operationalised, the the percentage of respondents who chose each option. questionnaire can be pre-coded. The responses to the Constructing questions in this way makes it easy to Belief in God questionnaire are pre-coded into seven quantify the results. categories. The researcher simply has to count the number of people who choose each category. Quantifying the data A frank scene in a film shows a man and woman having is easy. sex. How would you feel about this being shown on one of the regular television channels? It is more difficult to code a written answer. Consider the % agreeing following. Should not be allowed to be shown at all 23 Question Do you believe in God? Only after midnight 18 Only after 10pm 35 Only after 9pm 18 Answer It depends what you mean by God. Do you Only after 8pm 3 mean a God that just exists apart from this Allowed to be shown at any time 2 world? Or, do you mean a God that controls what happens in this world? Sometimes, I think I believe in the first type of God. Numerical data lends itself to statistical techniques. It makes it possible to discover whether or not there is a correlation – a statistical link – between two or more variables. This answer is difficult to code. Researchers usually have Operationalising concepts Questionnaires are designed to a list of categories in terms of which written answers are measure things. And to do this, those ‘things’ must be coded. Often, however, written answers don’t fit neatly into operationalised, ie put in a form which allows them to be a particular category. For example, the above answer measured. How, for example, do you measure the strength would not fit neatly into any of the categories in the Belief of religious belief? The example below is from the 1998 in God questionnaire. Written answers are sometimes difficult to code. As a Belief in God, Britain, 1998 (%) result, they are difficult to quantify. I don’t believe in God. 10 I don’t know whether there is a God and I don’t believe there is any way to find out. 15 5.2 Types of questions I don’t believe in a personal God but I do believe Closed questions There are two main types of questions in a Higher Power of some kind. 14 used in questionnaires – closed and open. In closed I find myself believing in God some of the time questions, the range of responses is fixed by the but not at others. 14 researcher. The respondent usually has to select one While I have doubts, I feel that I do believe in God. 23 answer from two or more given alternatives. The I know God really exists and I have no doubts about it. 21 questions above on sex on television and belief in God Don’t know and no answer. 3 are examples of closed questions. Here is a different example in which the respondent is asked to rank the Source: UK Data Archive, 1998 alternatives provided. Sociological methods 136

● Postal questionnaires allow a geographically dispersed Which do you feel are the most important factors in sample to be contacted easily and cheaply. choosing a university? Please rank the following in ● No interviewer bias – the interviewer does not influence order of importance to you. Number them from 1 = the respondent’s answers. most important, to 7 = least important. Disadvantages Closeness to a town or city ● Good academic reputation A relatively low response rate – often well below 50% Good chance of getting a job after graduation for postal questionnaires. This may destroy the Attractive campus representativeness of the sample. ● Good social facilities Respondents may not understand the questions or Good accommodation follow the instructions. ● Availability of real ale Answers may be incomplete, illegible or incomprehensible. Source: Newell, 1993 ● Closed questions may seriously limit what respondents want to say. Closed questions are relatively easy, quick and cheap to classify and quantify. They are pre-coded in the sense that Structured interviews the categories are set and the respondent simply has to In a structured interview the interviewer reads out the choose one or rank some. However, the researcher has questions and records the responses in writing, on audio- chosen the available responses and in this respect is tape or on a portable computer. imposing his or her choice of alternatives on the respondent. Look at the question above on choosing a Advantages university. Can you think of any ‘important factors’ not ● Response rate usually much higher than for postal given? There is a way round this problem by adding ‘other, questionnaires. please specify’ which asks the respondent to add, in this ● Interviewers can explain the purpose of the research, case, any other reasons for choosing a university. clarify questions and ask for further details. This can Open questions An open question asks the respondent to result in more information. answer a question in their own words. Open questions give ● Respondents who cannot read and write can be the respondent more freedom, but coding the responses included in the survey. can be difficult and time consuming. In many cases it Disadvantages might be difficult to fit responses into a particular category. ● More expensive – interviewers are usually paid. Most researchers see closed questions as suitable for ● Cost increases if sample spread over a wide area. simple, factual data such as age, gender and income level. ● Interviewer bias. Open questions are usually seen as more suitable for data on attitudes and values where respondents are required to express how they feel. An open question allows them to 5.4 Questions and answers say things in their own way. Constructing a questionnaire is not easy. The researcher 5.3 Types of questionnaires must make sure that questions are clear and unambiguous. Where possible, words and phrases should Self-completion questionnaires be simple and straightforward. Leading questions, eg Self-completion questionnaires can be left with ‘Don’t you agree that …’ should be avoided as they direct respondents either to be picked up later or posted back to the respondent to a particular answer. Questions should the researcher. Postal questionnaires, as their name be meaningful and relevant – there’s not much point in suggests, are mailed to respondents with a request to mail asking people if they’ve enjoyed their holiday abroad if them back to the researcher. Usually most of the questions they’ve never been out of the country. And, most in self-completion questionnaires are closed and pre- importantly, the questions must mean the same thing to coded. all respondents. If they mean different things respondents are, for all intents and purposes, answering different Self-completion questionnaires have the following questions. And this means that their answers cannot be advantages and disadvantages. directly compared. Advantages Researchers sometimes use a pilot study to iron out ● Inexpensive – no interviewers to pay, cheap to classify problems with questionnaires. They test the questions on results. a relatively small number of people who share the ● As a result, often possible to survey a large sample. characteristics of the main sample. A pilot study can be ● Fast and efficient analysis possible with pre-coded invaluable for removing ambiguity and misunderstanding. closed questions. Answers can be easily quantified and Yet all the preparation in the world cannot completely entered straight on to computers. remove the basic problems of questions and answers. 137 Chapter 3

What do answers mean? Are respondents telling the truth? Yes and no. Are they giving the answers they think the key terms researcher wants? Sometimes. Do all respondents understand the questions? Not always. Do the questions Self-completion questionnaire A questionnaire completed by mean the same to all respondents? Probably not. Do the respondent. respondents’ answers reflect their behaviour in everyday Structured interview/interview questionnaire A questionnaire life? Maybe. Given all this, what appears to be a precise, read out by an interviewer who also records the answers. reliable and efficient research method – the social survey – Operationalise Translating concepts into a form which can be measured. may be nothing of the sort. Coding Classifying answers into various categories. Closed questions Questions in which the range of responses Creating an impression Everybody plays the game of is fixed by the researcher. ‘impression management’. They try to manage the Open questions Questions which allow the respondent to impression of themselves which others form. This can answer in their own words. shape their responses to a questionnaire and more Postal questionnaire A questionnaire mailed to respondents particularly to a structured interview. Consider the with a request to mail it back after completion. following example. Pilot study A preliminary study designed to identify any Survey after survey has shown a high level of church problems with the main study. attendance in the USA, far higher than for any comparable Western industrial society. Yet figures produced by the churches tell a somewhat different story. For example, statistical tests to measure the strength of relationships surveys conducted by Gallup suggested that 35% of between variables. This may indicate causal relationships – Episcopalians (a type of Christians) in the USA had been to that one variable causes another. church in the last 7 days, yet figures from the churches It is fairly easy to translate the answers to a questionnaire indicated that only 16% actually did so. Why the into numbers. This is particularly so with closed questions. discrepancy? It appears that many respondents were As a result, positivists tend to favour questionnaires as a concerned with giving the ‘right’ answer to the interviewer – they wished to appear upright, decent and respectable method of producing data. and regular church attendance was, to many, a way of giving this impression (Bruce, 1995). Interpretivism By contrast, interpretivists are concerned Examples such as this suggest that researchers must with the meanings which guide and direct human actions. know as much as possible about what questions and Many interpretivists would reject questionnaires as a means answers mean to respondents. Only then can they write of discovering meanings. They argue that questionnaires, appropriate questions and be in a position to interpret the particularly those with closed questions, fail to give people answers. the freedom to talk about their behaviour as they see it.

Words and meanings For a questionnaire to do its job, questions have to have the same meaning for all summary respondents. The following example from the USA summary illustrates how easy it is for a question to be interpreted 1. Questionnaires are the main method for collecting data differently. A survey of reading habits produced the in social surveys. unexpected result that working-class respondents read 2. In theory, questionnaires provide directly comparable more books than middle-class respondents. This result was data. largely due to the interpretation placed on the word ‘book’. 3. Closed questions are pre-coded. They produce data Unlike most middle-class respondents, those from the which is easy to quantify. working-class included magazines in their definition of 4. Answers to open questions can be difficult to code and books. quantify. This illustrates that the more researchers know about 5. Self-completion questionnaires and structured those they study, the better the questions they ask and the interviews each have their advantages and better their interpretation of the answers. disadvantages. 6. It can be difficult to discover what respondents’ 5.5 Theoretical considerations answers actually mean.

Positivism Two research traditions – positivism and interpretivism – were introduced on pages 146-147. As noted, positivists tend to favour ‘hard’, quantitative data. Positivist sociologists attempt to measure behaviour by translating it into numbers. This makes it possible to use Sociological methods 138 activity9 asking questions Item A On the toilet Item B Non-existent videos The Video Recording Bill was passed by the Conservative government in 1984. Its aim was to place strict controls on ‘video nasties’. Survey evidence was used to support the bill. Children were given a list of video titles and asked to indicate which they had seen. Forty per cent claimed to have seen at least one of the video nasties on the list. Later, Guy A study based in Bristol asked nearly 2,000 people to Cumberbatch fill out a questionnaire on how many times they went presented to the toilet during the week and the shape, size, children with a consistency and texture of their faeces. They were list of fictitious titles such required to tick whether it was ‘like a sausage or as ‘I vomit on your cannibal Have you watched this video? snake but with cracks on its surface’ or ‘fluffy with apocalypse’. Sixty-eight per cent ragged edges’ and so on. claimed to have seen at least one of these non-existent videos. Source: O’Connell Davidson & Layder, 1994 Source: Harris, 1984

Item C Saying one thing, doing another In the early 1930s, Richard LaPiere, a social psychologist at Stanford University, travelled 10,000 miles across the USA with a young Chinese-American couple. At the time, there was widespread prejudice against Asians and there were no laws preventing racial discrimination in public accommodation. They visited 250 hotels, restaurants and campsites and only once were they refused service. After the trip, LaPiere sent a letter to all the places they had visited asking, ‘Will you accept members of the Chinese race as guests in you establishment?’ 92% said ‘no’, 7% said ‘uncertain, depends on questions the circumstances’ and only 1% said ‘yes’. 1 Read Item A. Comment on the accuracy of the data which this Source: LaPiere, 1934 questionnaire might produce. 2 What problems do Items B and C raise for interpreting answers to questionnaires? 139 Chapter 3

Unit 6 Interviews

given alternatives. And, as structured interviews are more keyissues formal than other types, there may be less chance of 1 What are the main types of interviews? interviewer bias. 2 What are their advantages and disadvantages? However, structured interviews can place strict limitations on respondents’ answers. This is particularly true of closed questions which force respondents to choose between pre-set alternatives. This prevents respondents 6.1 Types of interviews from answering in their own words and in their own way. Structured interviews As outlined in the previous unit, Semi-structured interviews – advantages and structured interviews are simply questionnaires which are disadvantages read out by the interviewer who then records the This type of interview has many of the advantages of the respondent’s answers. The same questions are read out in structured interview. In addition, it allows the interviewer the same order to all respondents. to probe – to jog respondents’ memories, and ask them to clarify, spell out and give examples of particular points. Semi-structured interviews Each interview usually has the This can add depth and detail to answers. same set of questions, but in this case the interviewer has the freedom to ‘probe’. Respondents can be asked to clarify However, this gain is accompanied by a loss of their answers, to provide examples, and to develop what standardisation and comparability (May, 2001). Although they’ve said. the basic questions are pre-set, probes are not, which results in non-standard interviews. This means that each Unstructured interviews By comparison, unstructured interview is somewhat different. As a result, the data is not interviews are more like an everyday conversation. They strictly comparable since, to some extent, interviewees are are more informal, open-ended, flexible and free-flowing. responding to different questions. Questions are unlikely to be pre-set, though researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover. This gives Group interviews – advantages and disadvantages the interview some structure and direction. Focus groups are becoming increasingly common in sociological research. They have been used to study the Group interviews The interviews discussed so far involve effects of long-term imprisonment, victims of crime, two people – an interviewer and a respondent or conflicts within organisations and changes in working interviewee. Group interviews involve the interviewer and practices among steel workers (May, 2001; Walklate, a group of respondents – usually between 8 and 10 people. 2000). In some group interviews, the respondents answer The results of focus group interviews are sometimes questions in turn. In others, known as focus groups, different from those of individual interviews. This does not participants are encouraged to talk to each other. They are mean that one is ‘right’ and the other ‘wrong’. Interaction guided rather than led or directed by the interviewer – for within groups affects people’s opinions. Since much of our example, they are asked to discuss particular questions or lives is spent in groups, it is important to obtain data from topics. this source (May, 2001). Structured interviews – advantages and Some researchers find focus groups provide a rich source disadvantages of qualitative data. In her study of victims of crime, Sandra Walklate (2000) claims that without the use of focus Why use different types of interviews? Each type has its groups, many of the shades of meaning and subtleties of strengths and weaknesses. Structured interviews have many people’s views would be lost. of the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires. They are particularly suitable for simple, straightforward, ‘factual’ information such as a respondent’s age, gender, Unstructured interviews – advantages educational qualifications and occupation. Unstructured interviews are often seen to have the Structured interviews are seen as more likely to produce following advantages. comparable data – since all respondents answer the same questions this should allow researchers to directly compare Sensitive groups Some groups are less likely than others to their responses and identify similarities and differences. provide information for researchers. They might be Quantifiable data is more likely since questions can be suspicious of outsiders, hostile towards them, afraid of structured to provide yes/no answers or choices between them or simply uncomfortable in their presence. An Sociological methods 140 unstructured interview can allay these feelings as it Meanings and opinions are not simple and clear-cut. There provides an opportunity for understanding and trust to are shades of meaning. Opinions are not cut and dried, develop between interviewer and interviewee. This can be they are hedged with qualification. A skilled interviewer seen from the following example. Postal surveys were used can encourage and enable people to spell out this in London to find out why people did not apply for welfare complexity. Structured interviews with pre-set questions are benefits to which they were entitled. The response rate was unlikely to capture this range of meaning. However, not very low, due partly to fear and suspicion, a reaction often everybody agrees with this view. The British Social found amongst the frail and the elderly. Research indicated Attitudes Survey uses a very detailed structured interview that a one-to-one interview was the most effective way of and a self-completion questionnaire to discover attitudes gaining information, in large part because interviewers on a range of issues. were able to put respondents’ minds at rest (Fielding, 1993). Unstructured interviews – disadvantages Sensitive topics Unstructured interviews are also seen as Interviewer bias Interviewer bias is unavoidable. To some particularly suitable for sensitive topics. Respondents may extent the interviewer will affect the responses of the be more likely to discuss sensitive and painful experiences interviewee. if they feel that the interviewer is sympathetic and understanding. Unstructured interviews provide the Interviewers are people with social characteristics – they opportunity for developing this kind of relationship. Joan have a nationality, ethnicity, gender, social class, age group Smith’s (1998) study about the family background of and so on. They also have particular personalities – they homeless young people produced detailed and in-depth may be shy or outgoing, caring or uncaring, aggressive or information using unstructured interviews. unaggressive. These social and psychological characteristics will be perceived in certain ways by interviewees and will have some effect on their Respondent’s viewpoint Structured and semi-structured responses. In some cases this may systematically bias interviews give respondents few opportunities to develop the results. their answers and direct the interview into areas which A number of American studies have examined the effect interest them. The researcher has constructed the questions of the social characteristics of interviewers and and, in the case of closed questions, the range of possible respondents. J. Allan Williams Jr (1971) claims that the answers. In these respects the researcher has decided greater the status difference between interviewer and what’s important. respondent, the less likely respondents are to express their An unstructured interview offers greater opportunity for true feelings. He found that African-Americans in the 1960s respondents to take control, to define priorities and to were more likely to say they approved of civil rights direct the interview into areas which they see as interesting demonstrations if the interviewer was Black rather than and significant. In this way, they have a greater chance to White. express their own viewpoints. And this can lead to new and important insights for the researcher. Social desirability In general, people like to present themselves in a favourable light. This can result in Validity and depth If respondents feel at ease in an respondents emphasising socially desirable aspects of their interview situation they will be more likely to open up and behaviour and attitudes in the presence of interviewers. As say what they really mean. Unstructured interviews can noted in the previous unit, Episcopalians in the USA tend provide this opportunity. They are therefore more likely to to exaggerate the frequency of their attendance at church produce valid data and to produce richer, more vivid and in order to appear upright and respectable (see page 158). more colourful data. They also allow interviewers more Respondents tend to be open about and even exaggerate opportunity to pursue a topic, to probe with further aspects of their behaviour which they see as socially questions, to ask respondents to qualify and develop their desirable, and to conceal or minimise aspects seen as answers. Because of this, the resulting data may have more undesirable. depth. Validity Do respondents tell lies? Is their memory hazy or Meanings and attitudes Many researchers see unstructured faulty? Is what they say in interviews different from what interviews as particularly suited to discovering meanings, they have done or will do? In some cases the answer is yes values, attitudes, opinions and beliefs. People often take to all these questions. An instance has been given above in these for granted and find it difficult to spell them out. For the case of church attendance. Voting intention is a case example, what exactly are people’s religious beliefs; what where people’s intentions expressed in interviews and their does music really mean to them; what do they really think actions at a later date are sometimes different. And there is about the welfare state? Unstructured interviews can evidence that some people tell downright lies, for example explore such areas without the limitations of pre-set when recounting their sexual activity to an interviewer questions. (O’Connell Davidson & Layder, 1994). 141 Chapter 3

Comparability Interviews, particularly those at the key terms unstructured end of the continuum, can develop in all sorts of directions. As a result, data from one interview to the Structured interview A questionnaire which is read out and next can vary considerably. This makes comparisons filled in by the interviewer. Semi-structured interview Similar to a structured interview, between data from different interviews difficult. It also but the interviewer is allowed to probe with additional means that generalisations should be treated with caution. questions. Unstructured interview Few, if any, pre-set questions, though Coding and quantifying It is difficult to code and quantify researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover. much of the qualitative data produced by unstructured Group interviews Interviews which involve an interviewer and interviews. a group of respondents. Focus groups Group interviews in which the interviewer encourages respondents to discuss topics with each other. 6.2 The interview process Interviewer bias The effect that the interviewer has on the respondent’s answers. Books on research methods are full of advice on how to Non-directive interviewing An interviewing technique which conduct effective interviews and how to avoid pitfalls and seeks to avoid leading or directing respondents to answer in problems. particular ways. Rapport A friendly, trusting and understanding relationship. Non-directive interviewing The standard advice is to be non-directive, to avoid leading respondents and to allow them to express themselves in their own way. The idea is aggressive approach Becker states, ‘I coerced many to minimise interviewer bias. It is important to establish interviewees into being considerably more frank than they rapport – a friendly and understanding relationship – while had originally intended’. at the same time appearing sensible and businesslike. Interviewers should not be too familiar, they must maintain a certain distance or respondents will be unduly summary influenced. Probing is allowed, in order to get respondents summary to clarify or develop their answers, but it must be used with 1. There are four main types of interview – structured, care as it can easily lead to bias (Fielding, 1993). semi-structured, unstructured and group interviews. 2. Structured interviews are seen as more likely to Active approaches Non-directive interviewing can result in produce comparable data. an artificial situation which makes respondents feel uneasy. 3. The probes available with semi-structured interviews Some sociologists have found that non-directive can add depth and detail to answers. approaches can be frustrating for both parties. Platt (1976) 4. Unstructured interviews provide an opportunity to notes that respondents ‘would have liked guidance on develop trust and understanding. This is important with what I regarded as relevant, but I was anxious not to mould sensitive groups and sensitive topics. It can add validity the data to my preconceptions by giving them any. This and depth to respondents’ answers. produced a few tortured interviews in which an unhappy 5. Unstructured interviews are more prone to interviewer respondent spoke at length on aspects of the research bias and social desirability effects, both of which will which it was probably clear were not of interest to me.’ reduce validity. There is some evidence that more direct and aggressive 6. Focus groups provide an opportunity to obtain people’s interviewing techniques can produce more information. views in a group situation. They can be a rich source of Howard Becker (1971) used this approach with some qualitative data. success in his interviews with Chicago schoolteachers. He 7. The standard advice to interviewers is to avoid found that many of the teachers were prejudiced against direction and develop rapport. However, on occasion, working class and ethnic minority pupils, information they more active approaches may produce better results. would not normally volunteer. However, by adopting an Sociological methods 142 activity10 interviewing Item A Interviewers

Item B Three interviews Interview 1 An eight-year-old Black boy from Harlem in New Interview 3 The boy and the interviewer are the same as in the York is interviewed by a ‘friendly’ White interviewer who second interview. This time the interviewer sits on the floor, presents him with a toy jet plane and asks him to describe it. the boy is provided with a supply of crisps and his best friend The setting is formal. There are long silences followed by short is invited along. The change is dramatic. The boy is two or three word answers, which hardly provide an adequate enthusiastic, talkative, and gives a detailed description of the description of the plane. toy plane. Interview 2 Another Black boy from Harlem is interviewed. Source: Labov, 1973 Again the setting is formal but this time the interviewer is Black and raised in Harlem. The boy responds in much the same way as the boy in the first interview. questions 1 You are being interviewed on a) your sexual behaviour 2 Explain the idea of interviewer bias using your answers to and b) your views on race relations. Choose an Question 1. interviewer for each interview from Item A. Explain your 3 Suggest reasons for the similarities and differences choices. between the three interviews in Item B.

Unit 7 Observation

journalist who dyed his skin black in order to discover keyissues what it was like to live as a Black man in the southern 1 What are the main types of observation? states of America in the late 1950s. It was used by the 2 What are their advantages and disadvantages? anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski who spent many years studying the Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea. He observed the most intimate details of their lives as he peered into grass huts gathering data for Sex and 7.1 Participant observation Repression in Savage Society (1927). And it was used by the sociologist Erving Goffman (1968) when he adopted How do we really find out about the way of life of a group the role of assistant to the athletics director in order to of people? One way is to join them – to participate in their study the experience of patients in a mental hospital in daily activities and observe what they say and do. This Washington DC. research method is known as participant observation. It was used by John Howard Griffin (1960) a White 143 Chapter 3

Ethnography as nosy, interfering outsiders, unless they are sponsored by Participant observation is one of the main research a trusted member of the group who grants the researcher methods used in ethnography. Ethnography is the study of entry. This happened in Judith Okely’s (1983) study of the way of life of a group of people – their culture and the traveller-gypsies. Entry was a long and difficult process structure of their society. Often researchers attempt to ‘walk until she gained the friendship and trust of a family who a mile in their shoes’ – to see the world from their had recently suffered a tragic death. The sympathetic and perspective, discover their meanings and appreciate their understanding relationship she developed with members of experiences. Many argue that participant observation is the this family provided entry to the rest of the group. most effective method of doing this. Participant observation gives researchers the opportunity Conducting research to observe people in their natural setting as opposed to the more artificial contexts of the laboratory or the interview. It Looking and listening Participant observation involves allows researchers to see what people do as opposed to looking and listening. The general rule is to ‘go with the what they say they do. flow’ rather than forcing the pace and influencing people’s Participant observation has produced a number of classic behaviour. Since the aim is to observe people in their ethnographies – Elliot Liebow’s (1967) study of Black normal setting, the researcher must not disturb that setting. ‘streetcorner’ men in Washington DC; William F. Whyte’s Blending into the background is usually recommended, (1955) account of an Italian-American gang in Boston – though this is not always possible. For example, a and a range of anthropological studies of small scale non- participant observer in a classroom can stand out like a Western societies from the Yanomamo of Amazonia sore thumb. This can result in an ‘artificial’ lesson. (Chagnon, 1968) to the Mbuti of Zaire (Turnbull, 1961). However, it’s surprising how soon he or she becomes invisible and taken for granted. In his study of a secondary school, Walford (1993) found that it took four weeks of Gaining entry observation before any class misbehaved. However, the Participant observation cannot work unless the researcher situation changed rapidly after this time and Walford was gains entry into the group and some degree of acceptance soon watching ‘mock wrestling’ and chairs flying around from its members. This can be difficult. Many groups don’t the classroom! want to be studied, especially those whose activities are seen as deviant or criminal by the wider society. However, Asking questions Watching and listening are not always as the following examples indicate, it is often possible to adequate for the researcher’s purposes. Sometimes a enter even closed groups. participant observer must take a more active role in order For his research into casual sex between men in public to obtain information. This usually involves asking toilets – the ‘tearoom trade’ – Humphreys (1970) acted as a questions. In such cases, the dividing line between lookout. By performing this useful and accepted role, he participant observation and unstructured interviews is gained the trust of those he observed without having to blurred. For example, William Whyte (1955) discussed his join their sexual activities. observations with Doc, the leader of the gang Whyte was studying, to the point where Doc became ‘a collaborator in On other occasions, researchers have to participate more the research’. directly in order to gain entry. Dick Hobbs (1988) wanted to research the relationship between criminals and The key informant Doc became a key informant – a detectives in the East End of London. He agreed to coach a member of the group who has a special relationship with local soccer team when he discovered that Simon, a the researcher and provides vital information. As noted detective, was the father of one of the players. He earlier, Dick Hobbs developed a friendship with a detective developed a friendship with Simon who provided him with called Simon. In Hobbs’ (1988) words, Simon ‘emerged as introductions and vouched for him (said he was OK). my principal police informant, granting me formal and Hobbs also drank in The Pump, a local pub that was informal interviews, access to documents, and frequented by several detectives. These contacts enabled introductions to individuals and settings that would Hobbs to gain entry into the world of the detectives – he otherwise be inaccessible’. joined their conversations and observed their activities. Sometimes researchers are forced into even greater Hanging around A good deal of participant observation is participation to gain entry. Festinger (1964) found that the informal, unplanned and unstructured – it consists of only way to observe a small religious sect was to pretend ‘hanging around’. In his study of pilferage from the docks to be a believer and become a member of the sect. in St Johns, Newfoundland, Mars (1982) wandered round The above examples are of covert research where the the wharves and sheds chatting to the dockers, and hung identity and purpose of the researcher are kept hidden. round bars drinking with them in the evening. Overt research, where those being studied are aware of the researcher’s role and purpose, has its own problems of Recording observations Recording the findings of access and acceptance. People often reject what they see participant observation can be a problem, especially when Sociological methods 144 the research is covert. Researchers usually write up the methods are more likely to reflect the priorities of the day’s findings each evening whilst events are still fresh in researcher to the exclusion of those of the researched. For their mind. In some cases the toilet has proved a useful example, the designer of a questionnaire has decided what place to make brief notes, which are written up in a more is relevant and significant and this may bear little detailed form later (Festinger, 1964; Ditton, 1977). relationship to the lives of those being studied. However, a lot relies on the researcher’s memory which is By watching and listening, a participant observer has the inevitably selective. chance to discover the priorities and concerns, the In the field Participant observation can be a long process meanings and definitions of people in their everyday with a year or more being spent ‘in the field’. It can require situations. There may therefore be less likelihood of dedication, stamina and courage. Researchers are often cut distorting people’s view of the world. off from the normal supports of family and friends, sometimes living a double life in an alien setting. And Practicality Sometimes participant observation may be the participant observation can be dangerous. For example, only method with any chance of success. Some groups are Haralambos (1994) was threatened with guns on more than closed to outsiders – their members reject requests for one occasion during his research into African-American information. Such groups may include those involved in music on the south side of Chicago. criminal activity, those whose behaviour is regarded as deviant by the wider society (eg, certain religious sects) Many of the advantages and disadvantages of participant and those who are hostile to the wider society (eg, some observation have been mentioned already. Some of the members of ethnic minority groups). Under these more important will now be summarised. circumstances, joining the group, participating in its members’ activities, obtaining their cooperation and even Advantages of participant observation their trust, may be the only way of obtaining information. Validity What people say and what they do are sometimes very different, as indicated earlier in the units on Disadvantages of participant observation questionnaires and interviews. Participant observation Time, money and personal cost As already noted, offers the chance to discover what people actually do, the participant observation can involve personal cost – stress chance to obtain valid data. For example, Haralambos and even danger. And costs in terms of time and money (1994) observed African-Americans who a few hours can be considerable – some researchers spend years in the earlier had said they disliked blues, singing and dancing to field. However, given the quality of information that blues music and quite obviously enjoying themselves. participant observation can produce, many would see Insight Looking back on his observation of a street-corner these costs as reasonable. gang in Boston, William Whyte noted, ‘As I sat and Loss of objectivity The personal involvement which listened, I learned the answers to questions that I would participant observation demands can reduce objectivity. An not have had the sense to ask if I had been getting my observer can identify so strongly with a group that the information solely on an interviewing basis’. This behaviour of its members is invariably seen in a positive comment has been echoed by many participant light. In rare cases, this identification is carried to its observers. For example, during her observation of the extreme – observers ‘go native’, join the group and never Moonies, a religious movement, Eileen Barker (1984) return to their former lives. handed out leaflets advertising a concert organised by the Conversely, researchers can view those they observe in a Moonies at the Royal Albert Hall. She found that trying to negative light. Something of this can be seen from the convince members of the public to take an interest actually Policy Studies Institute study of policing in London. At helped to convince her that the concert was a worthwhile times researchers had to walk away from situations when activity. Barker’s participation provided an insight into the they found the behaviour of the police racist and offensive. workings of religious sects – by selling the group’s beliefs This does not necessarily result in a biased view, but it to others they are actually selling those beliefs to does little to encourage objectivity. themselves. Other research methods rely to a greater extent on prior Changing behaviour Would you change your behaviour if knowledge. For example, to ask relevant questions in an a participant observer joined your social circle? The answer interview you must already know something about the is yes, even if you weren’t aware you were being observed. group under investigation. Participant observation can This is how ‘Doc’, William Whyte’s main informant in the provide the kind of insight, fresh information and new streetcorner gang, saw the effect of participant observation directions for research which are less likely to come from on his own behaviour. In Doc’s words, ‘You’ve slowed me other methods. up plenty since you’ve been down here. Now, when I do something, I have to think what Bill Whyte would want to Insider’s view Many supporters of participant observation know about it and how I can explain it. Before, I used to argue that it offers the best opportunity to discover how do things by instinct’ (Whyte, 1955). people see the world in which they live. Other research Given the importance of observing everyday life in its 145 Chapter 3 normal setting, do comments like this invalidate the are not a threat to society and that extensive police findings of participant observation? While recognising the surveillance is therefore unnecessary. problem, many researchers would say no. After a while most people get used to an observer and carry on more or Theoretical considerations less as normal. This is how David Hargreaves (1967) saw Positivism From a positivist viewpoint, participant his effect as a participant observer in a boys’ secondary observation has its uses. It provides information which can school. ‘Initially my presence caused changes in the boys’ be used to construct relevant and meaningful questions for behaviour though once they became accustomed to me, a questionnaire. And this will produce quantifiable data. they behaved normally.’ However, as an end in itself, a participant observation study is not particularly useful. It produces little if any Replication Participant observation studies are difficult, if quantifiable data. And the numbers observed are small – not impossible, to replicate – repeat under the same or very too small to provide a representative sample which can similar conditions. There are various reasons for this. form a basis for generalisations. Participant observation is often unsystematic – there are no fixed procedures; things happen and the observer tags Interpretivism As noted earlier, participant observation along. gives the researcher an opportunity to capture the ‘insider’s Participant observation relies heavily on the personal view’ – to see the world from the point of view of those qualities of the researcher. To some degree, these qualities being observed. Interpretivists are concerned with the will affect how well they get on with those they observe, meanings and definitions which direct action. Often these what they see and how they interpret it. And this reduces meanings and definitions are taken for granted. People are the chance of replication, as the following example not aware of them. Observing their behaviour provides an suggests. In the late 1920s, Robert Redfield (1930) studied opportunity for the researcher to interpret these taken-for- the village of Tepoztlan in Mexico. He found a close-knit granted meanings. As a result, interpretivists tend to favour society characterised by cooperation and a strong sense of participant observation as a method for collecting data. belonging. Seventeen years later, Oscar Lewis (1951) studied the same village. He pictured a society divided by fear, envy and distrust. Maybe the differences were due to 7.2 Non-participant observation changes during the intervening years but, more probably, they reflect differences between the two observers. The researcher need not participate to observe people’s behaviour. A non-participant observer is like a birdwatcher Generalisation Sample sizes in participant observation in a hide, observing behaviour without joining in. For studies are small. The researcher can’t be everywhere example, a researcher may secretly observe children’s observing large numbers of people. In view of the small behaviour in a school playground from an upstairs room in numbers, it is not possible to generalise from the findings the school. They may use a behaviour schedule – a of participant observation. However, these findings can be checklist of activities which are noted as and when they used to refute or support generalisations from larger occur. studies. Or they can produce fresh insights which can then Compared to participant observation, non-participant be investigated on a larger scale. observation has a number of advantages and disadvantages. Ethical questions All research involves ethical issues – questions of right and wrong. Participant observation, Advantages particularly when it is covert (hidden), brings these issues ● The observer is less likely to influence the group, centre stage. According to the British Sociological especially if group members are completely unaware of Association, sociologists should explain the purpose of his or her presence. their research to those they study. However, these are ● Researchers have more opportunities for using research guidelines rather than hard and fast rules (Hornsby-Smith, aids such as behaviour schedules and notebooks. 1993). Many sociologists would justify covert research under Disadvantages particular circumstances. For example, Nigel Fielding ● (1993) justified his covert observation of the National Front As non-participants, researchers have fewer ‘on the basis that this racist group was particularly hostile opportunities for discovering the meanings which direct to sociology’. Laud Humphreys (1970) argues that covert the actions of those they observe. ● participant observation is the only practical way to observe As a result, researchers are more likely to impose their the ’tearoom trade’ – casual sexual encounters between gay own interpretations and meanings on to behaviour they men in public toilets. He justifies his research because it observe (O’Connell Davidson & Layder, 1994). destroys various harmful myths – for example, straight people are not drawn into gay sex – and it shows that gays Sociological methods 146

key terms summary Participant observation The researcher participates in the 1. Many researchers argue that participant observation is activities of those he or she is observing. the most effective method of seeing the world from the Ethnography The study of the way of life of a group of perspective of those being studied. people. It often involves an attempt to see the world from 2. Participant observation involves looking and listening. their point of view. 3. The advantages of participant observation include: Covert research The identity of the researcher and purpose of the research are hidden from those being studied. ∑ ● The chance to discover what people actually do Overt research The identity of the researcher and purpose of ∑ ● The chance to gain new insights the research are made clear to those being studied. ∑ ● The opportunity to take the insider’s view Key informant A member of a group being observed who ∑ ● Practicality – it may be the only method with a develops a close relationship with the researcher and helps chance of success. them by answering questions, introducing them to other 4. The disadvantages of participant observation include: members, and so on. ∑ ● Time, money and personal costs Non-participant observation The researcher observes, but ∑ ● A possible loss of objectivity does not participate in the activities of those being studied. ∑ ● The possibility of changing the behaviour of those Behaviour schedule A checklist of activities which are noted observed on the schedule when they occur. ∑ ● Difficulties in replicating research ∑ ● Small samples, therefore not possible to generalise ∑ ● Ethical problems, particularly with covert observation. 5. Non-participant observation is less likely to affect the behaviour of those observed. But, it provides fewer opportunities for discovering the meanings which direct their actions. activity11 participant observation Item A Just hang around The following extract is taken from William Whyte’s participant observation study of an Italian-American gang. Sometimes I wondered whether just hanging on the street corner was an active enough process to be dignified by the term ‘research’. Perhaps I should be asking these men questions. However, one has to learn when to question and when not to question as well as what questions to ask. I learned this lesson one night in the early months when I was with Doc (the gang leader) in Chichi’s gambling joint. A man from another part of the city was regaling us with a tale of the organisation of gambling activity. I had been told that he had once been a very big Whyte’s research was carried out in the Italian-American community of gambling operator, and he talked knowingly about many South Boston. Many east coast American cities have large Italian interesting matters. He did most of the talking, but the communities. This picture shows ‘Little Italy’ in New York. others asked questions and threw in comments, so at length I began to feel that I must say something in order to be part of the group. I said: ‘I suppose the cops were all paid off?’ The gambler’s jaw dropped. He glared at me. Then he denied vehemently that any policemen had been paid off and immediately switched the conversation to another subject. For the rest of that evening I felt very uncomfortable. The next day Doc explained the lesson of the previous evening. ‘Go easy on that “who”, “what”, “why”, “when”, stuff, Bill. You ask those questions, and people will clam up on you. If people accept you, you can just hang around, and you’ll learn the answers in the long run without even having to ask the questions.’ Source: Whyte, 1955 147 Chapter 3

Item B In the classroom The following extract is taken from David Hargreaves’s study of an all-boys secondary school in England. He sat at the back of the classroom to observe lessons. Later, he talked to some of the boys about the behaviour of the teachers. This is what they said. ‘When you’re in he tries to act calmly as though he’s a little angel and all that.’ ‘They put on a show for you. They put the good act on, smiles and all that.…’ ‘Like if Mr O’s getting mad ’cos someone’s ripped a book or something, but if you’re in he seems to drop it. If you weren’t there, he’d get real mad.’ Source: Hargreaves, 1967

Item C In the pub Item D Backstage

As part of his research, Rubenstein completed police training Dick Hobbs’s research involved much heavy drinking in pubs and rode as an ‘armed observer’ in patrol cars in Philadelphia and he experienced some of the dangers of ‘going native’. He – and perhaps that degree of involvement has helped to writes: ‘I often had to remind myself that I was not in a pub to produce what will surely become a classic. His City Police is an enjoy myself but to conduct an enquiry and repeatedly woke insider’s view of backstage police behaviour. In microscopic up the following morning with an incredible hangover facing detail, Rubenstein takes us into the policeman’s world. The the dilemma of whether to bring it up or write it up’. information he collected on violence and corruption could Source: Hobbs, 1988 only have been gained by a trained observer who was accepted by the policemen. Source: Punch, 1979 questions 1 Item A points to one of the main problems of participant 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation. What is this problem and how is it usually observation indicated by Items B, C and D? dealt with?

Unit 8 Secondary sources

researchers using methods such as questionnaires, keyissues interviews and observation. Primary data is new data that did not exist before the research began. 1 What are the main secondary sources of data? 2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Secondary data There is a vast range of existing these sources? information which is available for sociological research. It includes letters, diaries, novels, autobiographies, legal Primary data So far, this chapter has been mainly documents, parish records, official statistics, newspapers, concerned with primary data – data produced by magazines, television and radio programmes, recorded Sociological methods 148 music, films, photographs and paintings. These sources of As noted earlier, there are two main sources of data for information are known as secondary sources and the data unemployment statistics – the benefit system and social itself as secondary data. surveys. And there are two main definitions of This unit looks at a number of secondary sources and unemployment – the claimant count definition which uses assesses the usefulness of secondary data. data from the benefit system, and the International Labour Organisation definition which uses data from the Labour Force Survey. Although both measures show broadly the 8.1 Official statistics same levels of and trends in unemployment, there are Sources of official statistics differences. Sociologists using official statistics on unemployment Official statistics are numerical data produced by national should be aware of how these statistics have been and local government bodies. They may be a by-product of constructed. This applies to all official statistics, no matter the normal workings of a government department. For what the topic. example, the claimant count measure of unemployment – a measure of unemployment based on the number of people Who decides what statistics are collected and published? who claim unemployment-related benefit – is a by-product Official statistics are government statistics. Elected of administering the benefit system. Or official statistics representatives and government officials decide what may result from research designed to produce them – for information is important and useful and, on this basis, what example, the Labour Force Survey collects information on data to collect and publish. And, maybe more importantly, unemployment from a quarterly survey of 60,000 they decide what not to collect and publish. households. These decisions may be ‘political’. They may reflect the Official statistics cover a wide range of behaviour concerns and priorities of government rather than a desire including births, deaths, marriage and divorce, the to provide sound and reliable information. For example, distribution of income and wealth, crime and sentencing Muriel Nissel, the first editor of Social Trends, an annual and work and leisure. The following are among the main publication of the Office for National Statistics has written, sources of official statistics. ‘From time to time, there has been great pressure on directors of statistics in departments to withhold or modify 1 Government departments Departments such as statistics, particularly in relation to employment and health, Children, Schools and Families and the Home Office and professional integrity has forced some to threaten regularly request information from organisations such as resignation’ (Nissel, 1995). local tax offices, social services departments, hospitals, job centres and police stations. This information is then Are official statistics politically biased? Does the actual processed and much of it published. construction of statistics reflect government interests? Are they shaped to present the government of the day in a 2 Surveys The Office for National Statistics is the favourable light? The following evidence suggests that in government agency responsible for compiling and some cases this might happen. analysing many of the UK’s economic, social and population statistics. Surveys are a major source of According to the Labour Party, Conservative governments statistical data. Every ten years the Office for National changed the method used to count unemployment over 30 Statistics carries out the Census of the Population which times between 1982 and 1992. And in practically every covers every household in the UK. Each head of case, these changes resulted in a drop in the official level household must, by law, complete a questionnaire that of unemployment (Denscombe, 1994). At best, some deals with family composition, housing, occupation, would argue, this is politically convenient, at worst it is transport and leisure. Other large scale surveys include outright fiddling to present the government in a better light. the annual General Household Survey based on a detailed questionnaire given to a sample of nearly Do official statistics provide valid measures? 12,000 people and the New Earnings Survey based on a Do official statistics really measure what they claim to 1% sample of employees drawn from Inland Revenue measure? For example, do the annual crime statistics PAYE records. produced by the Home Office provide an accurate measurement of crime? Even the Home Office accepts that Using official statistics the answer is no. Similar criticisms can be made for a Official statistics provide a vast array of quantitative data. range of official statistics from unemployment and suicide However, sociologists cannot accept them at face value – to the distribution of income and wealth. they must use them only with care and caution. It is The problem of validity was examined with reference to essential to bear the following points in mind. suicide statistics in Activity 4. It is looked at again in terms How are official statistics constructed? Sociologists must of crime statistics in Activity 12. know how official statistics are constructed in order to Advantages of official statistics Despite the above assess the quality of the data they provide. The example of warnings, official statistics can be very useful for unemployment statistics shows why. sociological research. They have the following advantages. 149 Chapter 3

● Published statistics are readily available and cost little discover these meanings and how they are constructed. For or nothing to use. example, an interpretivist sociologist would not use suicide ● Care is taken to select representative samples and statistics to explain why people commit suicide. Instead, sample sizes are often large. Surveys as large as the they would ask why certain kinds of death are defined as General Household Survey are usually outside suicide. In this sense, suicide is a meaning (see page 146). sociologists’ research budgets. Take crime statistics. The question is not whether they ● Many government surveys are well planned and are accurate or inaccurate. A crime is simply a meaning organised with detailed questionnaires or interview given to an event. And the job of the sociologist is to schedules. As such, they meet the standards of understand how this meaning is constructed. sociological research. ● Surveys are often conducted regularly, for example on a A Marxist view From a Marxist viewpoint, official statistics fortnightly, monthly, annual or ten yearly basis. This can are an aspect of ruling class ideology. Generated by allow for comparisons over time and the identification government departments and agencies, official statistics of trends. derive from questions asked by, information processed by, ● Sometimes official statistics are the only major source of and results either suppressed or made public by a state information on a particular topic. which represents the interests of the capitalist class. As such, they provide information which helps to maintain Perspectives on official statistics and justify the power of capital and disguise the reality of exploitation and oppression.

A positivist view From this perspective (see pages 146- 147), official statistics are a potentially valuable source of quantitative data. They have their faults but, in may cases, summary they provide measures of behaviour that can be used to 1. Sociologists using official statistics should be aware of investigate possible cause and effect relationships. how those statistics have been constructed. An interpretivist view From this perspective (see page 2. Decisions on what statistics to collect and publish may 146), official statistics are not ‘facts’, they do not represent be politically biased. some objective reality ‘out there’ in the real world. Instead, 3. In some cases, official statistics fail to produce valid they are definitions and meanings in terms of which people measures. construct social reality. The job of the sociologist is to 4. Official statistics can provide valuable data for sociological research. 5. Positivists see official statistics as a potentially valuable key term source of quantitative data. Interpretivists see official statistics as meanings in terms of which people Official statistics Statistics produced by local and national construct their social reality. Marxists see official government, government agencies and organisations funded statistics as an aspect of ruling class ideology. by government.

activity12 crime statistics Item A Ethnicity and crime In 2005, Black Caribbeans and Black Africans made up around 3% of the UK population, but 15% of the prison population. The police rely on the public to report crimes to them. Evidence indicates that White people are more likely to report Black rather than White suspects. Black males were five times more likely to be stopped by police under stop and search powers. If arrested for the same offence, Blacks were more likely to be charged than their White counterparts. And if found guilty of the same offence, Black people were more likely to be sent to prison. Research indicates that statistics which link ethnicity and crime result from a series of decisions based on prejudice and discrimination. This is why so many Black people end up in prison. Source: May, 2001 and Prison Reform Trust, 2006 Stop and search in Brixton, South London Sociological methods 150

Item B The social construction of crime statistics

Excluded from crime statistics Included in crime statistics

All criminal Not observed acts committed

Observed by public or police

Not reported

Reported to police

Not taken seriously

Taken seriously by police

Not detected questions

Detected 1 a) What are the statistics in Item A actually measuring? b) Do they indicate a link between ethnicity and crime? Not charged 2 Look at Item B.

Charged a) Why does it suggest that crime statistics must be treated with caution? Not guilty b) Item B assumes that there are such things as ‘criminal acts’ which are either included in or excluded from Found guilty official statistics. Criticise this view.

8.2 Documents Thematic analysis This approach looks for the motives and ideologies which The term documents covers a wide range of written and are seen to underlie documents. For example, a news recorded material. It includes letters, diaries, memoirs, broadcast may reflect the interests of powerful groups in autobiographies, novels, newspapers, advertisements, society. The job of the researcher is to uncover this posters, photographs and radio and television broadcasts. underlying ideology. The Glasgow University Media Group This section looks at some of the ways sociologists have combined content and thematic analysis in their analysis of analysed documents. Ray Pawson (1995) distinguishes TV news broadcasts in the 1970s and 80s. They made a three main types of analysis, 1) formal content analysis, strong case that there is a pro-management, anti-union bias 2) thematic analysis and 3) textual analysis. in the reporting of industrial disputes. Formal content analysis However, there are a number of problems with thematic analysis. Who is to say that the sociologist’s interpretation This method attempts to classify and quantify the content of the underlying ideology is correct? And if it is correct, of a document in an objective manner. Say you were does the existence of such ideology matter? Readers of The interested in the portrayal of gender roles in children’s Sun, for instance, may see through or ignore or be unaware fiction published during the last five years. You could take of its right-wing views. This may well explain why a a sample of the books and analyse each in terms of the significant minority of Sun readers regularly vote Labour. same pre-set categories. For example, which activities are shared by girls and boys and which are limited to one or the other. The results are then quantified and interpreted. If, Textual analysis for example, preparing food and taking care of younger Rather than looking for underlying ideologies, this method brothers and sisters is limited to girls, then it could be involves a close examination of the ‘text’ of a document to argued that gender roles remain distinct. see how it encourages a particular reading and creates a Critics accept that formal content analysis can often particular impression. Ray Pawson (1995) gives the effectively measure simple straightforward aspects of following example from a newspaper headline, GIRL content – see the example in Activity 13, Item A. However, GUIDE, 14, RAPED AT HELLS ANGELS CONVENTION. they argue that it says little about the meaning of a This is an example of the ‘innocent victim’/’wicked document, either in terms of its meaning to the audience or perpetrator’ pair which creates the impression of two the meaning the producer intends to communicate. extremes, one good, the other evil. It is one of the many 151 Chapter 3 tricks of the trade used to convey particular messages. As with thematic analysis, the problem with textual key terms analysis is reading things into the text which may have Formal content analysis A method which seeks to classify little or nothing to do with the intentions of the producers and quantify the content of a document. or the interpretations of the audience. Thematic analysis A method which seeks to identify the themes, motives and ideologies which underlie a document. Audience research Textual analysis A method which closely examines the ‘text’ of a document to see how it encourages a particular reading Some researchers argue that the focus of document and creates a particular impression. research should be the audience. From this viewpoint, the Audience research An investigation of audience audience is not made up of passive consumers who are understanding of and response to documents. brainwashed by underlying ideologies or swayed by textual ‘tricks of the trade’. Instead, it sees audiences actively negotiating the meaning of messages with the outcome of each year, much of it in military hardware. When asked to negotiation ranging from acceptance to indifference to explain Palestinian distrust of the Americans, 66% of the opposition (Pawson, 1995). sample had no idea, 24% thought America ‘supported’ The news game But finding out how audiences respond is Israel and only 10% mentioned money and arms (Philo & far from easy. Jenny Kitzinger’s use of the ‘news game’ Miller, 2002). provides a novel and interesting alternative to the methods This study shows the importance of audience research. examined so far. Small ‘audience groups’ averaging three Sociology is the study of people in society. When people from different social backgrounds were given a set researchers examine ‘documents’ such as TV news, a major of 13 photographs taken from TV news items and concern is how they affect members of society. And this documentaries about AIDS. The groups were asked to requires researchers to discover the meanings people give select pictures and use them to write a news report on to those documents and the understandings they draw from AIDS. Kitzinger (1993) concluded from this exercise that them. To do this they must ‘ask the audience’. audiences are selective in their interpretation of news. They highlight certain views and modify or oppose others. Historical documents They are able to ‘read between the lines’ of news reports, For studying the past, historical documents are often the to uncover dominant themes and to construct alternative major and sometimes the only source of information. Max accounts which draw on their personal experience and Weber’s classic study The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of political beliefs. This gives some indication of the variety Capitalism could not have been written without a range of and complexity of audience responses. historical documents. For example, he illustrates the spirit The ‘news game’ was first used by Greg Philo to study of capitalism with quotes from two books by Benjamin audience response to the media and the miners’ strike of Franklin, Necessary Hints to Those that would be Rich 1984/85. It represents an important change of direction – (1736) and Advice to a Young Tradesman (1748). Weber from the document, to the document in relation to the builds a strong case for the religious basis of the capitalist audience. work ethic by quoting from the speeches and writings of ministers such as John Calvin (1509-1564). Audience understandings In more recent research, Greg Philo and David Miller (2002) examined BBC and ITN TV Geoffrey Pearson’s Hooligan: A History of Respectable news broadcasts of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. The Fears (1983) provides a more recent example of the use of broadcasts focused on images of violence and the bleak historical documents. Pearson looks back to Victorian prospects for peace. The researchers’ audience sample England and forward to today to show that ‘for generations included 300 young people aged 17-22. The responses of Britain has been plagued by the same fears and problems’. this sample show how TV news affected their knowledge He looks at ‘hooliganism’ – street crime and violence – the and understanding of the conflict. moral panics it generates and its ‘discovery’ time and time again as something new, in contrast to the ‘good old days’. News broadcasts made little reference to the history and Pearson builds up a substantial case for this argument with background of the Israeli/Palestinian conflict. Broadcasts a range of historical documents which include newspapers, referred to ‘occupied territories’ but provided no magazines such as Punch and The Teacher’s World, explanation of what they were. Only 9% of the young contemporary novels and government reports. people sampled knew it was Israelis occupying Palestinian land, 71% had no idea what the term meant, and 11% Using historical documents Historical documents are often actually thought it was the Palestinians occupying Israeli a long way from the objectivity which sociologists strive land. Broadcasts showed Palestinians burning the American for. They are usually biased, prejudiced, one-sided and flag and mentioned their distrust of American peace concerned with putting over a particular point of view. proposals. There was little or no mention of why. For However, as long as researchers take them for what they example, there was hardly a reference to the fact that the are, historical documents provide a rich and valuable USA supplied some three billion dollars of aid to Israel source of data. Thus Lord Ashley’s announcement in the Sociological methods 152

House of Commons in 1843 that, ‘the morals of the copy? For example, the writings of Roman historians have children are tenfold worse than formerly’ (quoted in been copied and recopied by hand. How true to the Pearson, 1983) cannot be seen as a balanced assessment of originals are the copies? juvenile morality. However, for Pearson’s study of ‘respectable fears’, it is a very useful piece of data since it Credibility Is the author of the document ‘sincere’ or does exemplifies a fear that has recurred throughout the past two he or she distort the evidence in order to mislead the centuries. reader? There are plenty of examples of distortion, deceit Historical documents bring their own problems of and outright lies in documents. Former US President Nixon interpretation because they are from a different era, a denied all knowledge of the illegal break-in at the different culture, and those who produced them are often Democratic Party’s headquarters which became known as dead. Add to this the fact that interpretation relies heavily the Watergate Affair. This lie appeared in TV and radio on the researcher’s viewpoint and background and it is broadcasts by Nixon and his officials, and in White House clear that there is plenty of room for disagreement. For press releases. example, J. Berger argued that a number of paintings from the 17th and 18th centuries showed how art patrons at the Representativeness To what extent is the document time were very concerned with material possessions. He representative? For example, is a newspaper article typical saw this concern as linked to the rise of capitalism. of the articles which appear in that particular newspaper? However, as Berger himself notes, this interpretation was The question of representativeness is particularly important hotly disputed by an art critic (discussed in Macdonald & in the case of historical documents as many have been lost Tipton, 1993). or destroyed. Those that remain may be untypical. For example, a study of witchcraft in 17th century New Assessing historical documents John Scott (1990) provides England was based on court records relating to 114 four ‘quality control criteria’ for assessing documents which suspects. The researcher believes that these surviving are particularly applicable to historical documents. records are only the ‘tip of the iceberg’, a ‘tip’ which may Authenticity The first refers to authenticity. Is the document well be unrepresentative (discussed in O’Connell Davidson genuine or a forgery? As the famous 60 volume Hitler & Layder, 1994). Diaries which surfaced in 1983 showed, forgeries can fool even top historians. Or, is the document an original or a Meaning What does a document mean? This ranges from activity13 analysing documents Item A Content analysis Item B Newspaper headlines Television programmes containing reference to or depiction of disability

Genre Number of Percentage Number Percentage We must help Now innocents programmes of total with of total with the innocent demand millions programmes disability disability AIDS victims News 221 27 54 42 Current affairs 28 4 0 0 Documentary 155 19 21 16 Magazine 70 9 20 16 Informational 59 7 4 3 Debate 15 2 2 2 The AIDS Religious 9 1 2 2 Innocent AIDS innocents Quiz 24 3 3 2 victim leaves Trauma of youngsters facing Music/dance 38 5 0 0 legacy of hope prejudice in the playground Educational 5 0.6 2 2 Game show 44 5 0 0 Chat show 24 3 4 3 Sport 36 4 1 1 Special broadcast 46 6 12 9 Special interest programme 3 0.4 3 2 Other 27 3 0 0 These headlines refer to men and women infected with Total 804 99 128 100 the AIDS virus through blood transfusions, and mother to child transmission in the womb. Source: Cumberbatch & Negrine, 1992 Source: Kitzinger, 1993 153 Chapter 3 the literal meaning of the text – can the researcher meaning and significance. As the previous section on ‘literally’ understand it, eg can the researcher read a text in analysing documents has indicated, questions of meaning Anglo Saxon English – to higher level interpretations of will never be settled.

Item C First World War posters

Item D The Israeli/Palestinian conflict Palestinian boy with a slingshot hurling stones at a Jewish settlement in the occupied territories

questions 1 a) What does Item A tell us? b) What further information might be useful? 2 Analyse the headlines in Item B using thematic and textual analysis. 3 What use might a sociologist studying gender make of the posters in Item C? 4 a) What additional information would you need in order to understand what’s going on in Item D? b) Do you think most young people in the UK have this information? Explain your answer. Sociological methods 154

summary 1. There are three main methods for the analysis of documents 3. For studying the past, historical documents are often the – formal content analysis, thematic analysis and textual major and sometimes the only source of information. analysis. In each case, the analysis is conducted by the 4. Historical documents are usually biased and one-sided but researcher. this does not necessarily detract from their usefulness. 2. In recent years, the focus has moved towards audience 5. Historical documents can be assessed in terms of their research. The emphasis here is on how audiences interpret authenticity, credibility, representativeness and meaning. documents. activity14 historical documents Item A The diaries of a cabinet minister objective nor fair – although as a lifelong political scientist I have tried to discipline myself to objectivity. In particular, I Richard Crossman was an MP and cabinet minister in the have tried to avoid self-deception, especially about my own Labour government of 1964-1970. His political diaries were motives; the tendency to attribute to others my own worst published after his death in 1975. failings; and the temptation to omit what might make me Memory is a terrible improver – even with a diary to check look silly in print. I have been urged by many to remove all the tendency. And it is this which makes a politician’s the wounding passages about colleagues or officials. I have autobiography so wildly unreliable. But if I could publish a not done so because it would make the book untrue, and I diary of my years as a minister without any editorial hope that when some of them find me intolerably unfair, improvements, as a true record of how one minister thought they will recall the follies and illusions I faithfully record and felt, I would have done something towards lighting up the about myself. A day-by-day account of a Government at secret places of British politics and enabling any intelligent work, as seen by one participant, is bound to be one-sided elector to have a picture of what went on behind the scenes and immensely partisan. If it isn’t, it too would fail to be true between 1964 and 1970. to life. Of course the picture which this diary provides is neither Source: Crossman, 1975 Item B Images of Africans

A bill of sale

This advert for Pears The crest of Sir William soap was actually Hawkins, an English sea painted on a rock in captain who made a fortune from the Sudan by invading the slave trade in the 16th century. British forces. questions 1 With some reference to Item A, suggest why diaries might 2 a) Provide a sociological interpretation of the be preferable to autobiographies as a source of documents in Item B. information. b) Critically assess your interpretation. 155 Chapter 3

Unit 9 Types of research

extent, it will also reflect their attitudes and opinions. Some keyissues would see this as a serious criticism of the life history. For 1 Why use different types of research? example, Stands In Timber has been criticised by other 2 What are their strengths and weaknesses? members of his tribe for being too pro-Crow – the Crow are traditional enemies of the Cheyenne. A further criticism concerns the researcher. There is a This chapter has already looked at three types of research – temptation for researchers to lead the respondent as life experiments, social surveys and ethnography. This unit histories are recounted, particularly when areas of interest looks at several more. to them are touched upon. For example, Margot Liberty (1967) writes, ‘My tendency was at first to press him for stories. I soon found it far better to trust his own instinct. 9.1 Life histories Where he did not volunteer material freely he usually had little to say.’ As their name suggests, life histories are accounts of people’s lives which they tell to researchers. While accepting many of the criticisms of life histories, supporters argue that they are far outweighed by the Something of the flavour and significance of life histories valuable information that a good life history can provide. can be obtained from a brief discussion of Cheyenne Memories, the life history of John Stands In Timber (1884- 1967) as told to the anthropologist Margot Liberty. He was a member of the last generation who experienced the 9.2 Case studies traditional way of life of the Cheyenne Indians during the A case study is a study of one particular case or instance of 19th century. something. It may be a study of a particular school, factory The Cheyenne were a non-literate society, so oral or hospital, or a study of a single individual such as a accounts are particularly important. Stands In Timber’s manual worker, a mother with dependent children, or a account of his life and the history and culture of his people retired person. The life history is an example of a case is given from the Cheyenne point of view. In Margot study. Using examples from the previous section, it is the Liberty’s words, ‘John has given us the history of the study of one Cheyenne Indian or one Polish peasant. Cheyennes as they themselves recall and interpret it’ Case studies have a number of advantages. (1967). Much of the material is new, that which isn’t ● confirms, complements and amplifies 19th century By focusing on a particular case, they can provide a ethnographic accounts. richer and more detailed picture than research based on large samples. Advantages Life histories have illuminated many areas of ● This may result in new insights and fresh ideas. social life. For example, The Polish Peasant in Europe and ● Case studies can provide useful information for a larger America, a five volume work first published from 1918 to research project. For example, the experiences of one 1920, included an extensive life history of a Polish peasant retired person could be used in a questionnaire in order which provided many valuable insights into the experience to discover how far they apply to other retired people. of migration from Poland to the USA (Thomas & Znaniecki, ● There is a better chance of a questionnaire or interview 1958). The Jack Roller (Shaw, 1930) is a story, written in being relevant and meaningful if it is based, at least in his own words and from his own point of view, of a young part, on a case study. American ‘jack roller’, the 1930s equivalent of today’s ● Theories can be tested to see whether they apply in ‘mugger’. It is this first-hand account of people’s particular situations. Sociologists at Lancaster University experience of their life as they see it which many tested the theory of secularisation (the idea that religion researchers regard as the main value of the life history. It is becoming less important in modern societies) by can provide insights and information which are not conducting a case study of religion in a single town – obtainable from any other source, as Stands In Timber’s life Kendal in the Lake District. history shows. It can give a picture of the process and Some of the advantages of case studies can be seen from development of social life over time. It can also serve as a Macbeath and Mortimore’s (2001) study of school basis for confirming or questioning other interpretations effectiveness. They used case studies of a small number of and accounts. And it can direct researchers into new areas schools in addition to a large-scale social survey. The case and encourage them to ask new questions. studies helped them identify key themes to explore in their Disadvantages However, as the title Cheyenne Memories survey, allowed them to check that their survey findings suggests, the life history is heavily dependent on people’s held true in particular schools, and added depth to their memory which is inevitably patchy and selective. To some quantitative data. Sociological methods 156

Case studies have sometimes been criticised as limited is their strength. They are a valuable warning to rash and and unrepresentative. Since they are one-off instances, they sweeping generalisations. A single case study can call into cannot be used as a basis for generalisation. However, this question the findings of a much larger study. activity15 bullying – a case study The only thing that prevented me from enjoying my first year at high school was one person in my class who started to bully me. This led to several other people following his example and my life became sheer misery. At first, I was upset but able to cope with it, then I became angry and distressed. I couldn’t sleep for worrying about the next day. It would be name-calling, stone-throwing and threatening. It all got too much and I decided to tell my Mum and Dad. We all agreed that I had to tell the teacher. The next day, though worried, I did. The teacher was very sympathetic and said it must stop. We had lunch meetings to discuss the problems. The bullies were very surprised that they were included instead of being punished. We discussed my feelings at being bullied and we would agree on some plan of action so that I would get support from my friends. Once the bullies realised that they were being included, the bullying ceased. Source: Donnellan, 1994

question Using examples from this activity, suggest some advantages of the case study approach.

9.3 Longitudinal studies Parker’s team found that cannabis was the most frequently used illegal drug. It was also the first drug that How can you show what a person looks like? One way is most of the sample experimented with. Working-class to produce a photograph. This is similar to most young people were more likely to experiment at an early sociological research which consists of a snapshot, a one- age, though by 18 the middle class had caught up. There off investigation of an aspect of social life. Another way of were few differences between boys and girls. By aged 18, showing what a person looks like is to produce a series of 20-25% of the sample were regular users. photographs taken at different points in their lifetime. This shows how their appearance changes and develops. The Advantages As these findings suggest, the strength of the equivalent in sociology is the longitudinal study which longitudinal study is its ability to examine developments examines the same group of people over a fairly long over time. By studying the same group, ie by keeping the period of time. same sample, the researcher can be sure that any changes As the following example shows, longitudinal studies can in attitudes and behaviour are not simply due to changes in provide important insights. Each year from 1991 to 1995, the makeup of the sample. 1125 young people in Merseyside and Greater Manchester filled in a confidential questionnaire about their attitudes to Disadvantages But keeping the same group is one of the and use of illegal drugs. At the start of the research, main difficulties with longitudinal studies. The National members of the sample were aged 14, by the end, aged 18. Child Development Study has attempted to follow the lives The study was carried out by a team of sociologists led by of every child born in Britain between 3rd and 9th March Howard Parker (1998). Parker was interested in the extent 1958. Follow-up surveys were conducted in 1965, 1969, of illegal drug use within this age group and whether 1974, 1981, 1991 and 1999 to trace developments in sensational media reports about widespread drug abuse health, education, family life, career and so on, and to try were accurate. The questionnaire was concerned with the to establish links between these changes and factors such types of drugs taken, reasons for the first use of drugs, how as class, gender and ethnicity. The survey began with drug use changed over time and why some people refused 17,400 children but by 1999 researchers were able to to take drugs. contact only 11,400 members of the original sample. 157 Chapter 3

Reasons for this sample attrition included death, 9.4 The comparative method emigration, refusal to participate and failure to trace. The result is not just a smaller sample but, in all probability, a Comparative studies make comparisons between different less representative one. societies, between different groups within the same society, and between societies and groups over time. Researchers are aware of this and attempt to minimise the problem of sample attrition. This can be seen from the Durkheim’s study of suicide is an example of a lengths that some go in order to trace members of an comparative study (see page 146). He compared suicide original sample. Parker’s team sent letters, follow-up letters, rates in different European societies, eg Italy, England, further reminders and even Christmas cards to their sample. France and Denmark, at different time periods, eg 1866-70, If none of these worked they actually went from door to 1871-75, 1874-78. He also compared suicide rates for door tracking their ‘lost’ respondents. The National Child different groups within society, eg rates for Protestants Development Study has adopted a similar approach, compared to Catholics, city dwellers compared to rural contacting relatives, visiting workplaces and searching dwellers, and married compared to unmarried people. telephone directories and electoral registers. As this The comparative method helps sociologists to investigate suggests, longitudinal studies can cost a great deal of time what causes what. For example, Durkheim’s study and money. Few organisations have the resources to fund suggested that religion may be a factor affecting the suicide an investigation which continues for twenty years or more. rate. His figures indicated that the suicide rate for

activity16 Britain and France Item A Similarity – production technology Item B Difference – nationality

Fawley oil refinery, Hampshire Britain and France

Duncan Gallie compared workers in oil refineries in Britain and France. Would the same kind of production technology – in this case the technology used in oil refineries – lead to the same kind of behaviour at work? Gallie found important differences between British and French workers, for example there were far more strikes in the French refineries. Source: Gallie, 1978

question How might the comparative method be useful for explaining behaviour at work? Sociological methods 158

Protestants within particular societies was higher than the Evaluation The comparative method has some obvious rate for Catholics. The same applied to comparisons strengths. It provides a natural laboratory for researchers to between societies – the suicide rate for Protestant countries estimate the influence of variables. It allows researchers to was significantly higher than the rate for Catholic societies. look at the effect of culture on behaviour. But cross-cultural research has inbuilt problems. How, for A natural laboratory The comparative method is the example, can a Western researcher understand non- nearest most sociologists get to the laboratory method of Western cultures? When he or she compares marriage in the natural sciences. Unlike laboratory experiments, various cultures, are they comparing like with like? Does variables in the real world cannot be systematically marriage mean the same thing in different societies, does it manipulated and controlled. However, it is possible to find involve the same rights and responsibilities? Despite these ‘natural’ laboratories which allow the influence of variables problems, the comparative method holds considerable to be estimated. promise (May, 2001). Europe provided a natural laboratory for Durkheim. He found a statistical link between suicide rates and religion between European societies, within those societies, and 9.5 Triangulation and methodological over different time periods. pluralism

Cross-cultural studies Is social inequality universal – ie, is The types of research outlined in this unit may draw data it found in every society? Is a division of labour based on from various research methods and various sources. For gender natural – ie, is it natural to have male jobs and example, a case study might be based on participant female jobs? These are important questions, particularly for observation or interviews, on primary or secondary data, those concerned about social inequality. Cross-cultural on quantitative or qualitative data. Sometimes, different studies – studies based on a number of different cultures – kinds of data and research methods are combined within a help to answer this type of question. For instance, if cross- single study. cultural evidence indicated that, in some societies, gender Triangulation Some researchers combine different research has little or no influence on job allocation, then this methods and different types of data in order to check the suggests that any influence of gender on the division of validity and reliability of their findings. This is known as labour is based on culture rather than nature. triangulation. For example, if participant observation and activity17 methodological pluralism Our research on victims of crime was based on methodological pluralism. This approach favours neither qualitative or quantitative research methods. It is a position which recognises that different research techniques can uncover different layers of social reality and that the role of the researcher is to look for confirmations and contradictions between those different layers of information. So, for example, for the first stage of our data- gathering process we walked round our two research areas with police officers, we frequented the public houses, and we engaged in in-depth interviews with a variety of people working in the localities. Then, on the basis of this information, we produced a criminal victimisation survey questionnaire and conducted a survey in each area, and, on the basis of this experience, moved into focus group discussions with survey participants. So, as a research process, we were always moving between quantitative and qualitative data looking for ways of Victims of crime making sense of the different layers of social reality which were being revealed to us. question Source: Walklate, 2000 According to this extract, what are the main advantages of methodological pluralism? 159 Chapter 3 interviews produce conflicting findings, this raises religion as they saw it. Barker also lived as a participant questions about the validity of the data. This often leads to observer in several centres with the Moonies at various further research to re-examine the original findings. times during the six years of her research. This enabled her Methodological pluralism Other researchers combine to gain the trust of many members of the church, resulting different research methods and different types of data in in information which would not have been given to an order to build up a fuller picture of social life. This outsider. Two years after the start of her research, she approach is known as methodological pluralism. constructed a large (41 page) questionnaire based on her findings from interviews and observation. This provided It recognises that each method and type of data has its information from a larger sample and was intended to particular strengths and weaknesses. Combined they are reveal ‘social patterns, trends and tendencies and gain a seen to produce a more comprehensive and rounder more reliable understanding of regularities between picture of social reality. And their combination can also variables – of “what goes with what”’. provide new insights and new directions for research. Barker claims that combining different methods of Some of the strengths of methodological pluralism can be investigation gave her a much fuller picture than any one seen from Eileen Barker’s (1984) study of the Moonies – the method or data source could have provided. Unification Church. She conducted in-depth interviews, each lasting 6-8 hours, with a number of Moonies. The interviews dealt with their background, why they became a Moonie, their life in the church and the meaning of summary 1. Life histories provide a first-hand account of people’s key terms life experience as they see it. This can result in valuable insights. However, life histories are dependent on Life history An account of an individual’s life as told to a people’s memory which is often patchy and selective. researcher. 2. Case studies focus on a particular case. This can Case study A study of one particular case or instance of provide a rich and detailed picture. A single case study something. can call into question the findings of a much larger Longitudinal study A study of the same group of people at study. various times over a period of years. 3. The main strength of the longitudinal study is its ability Sample attrition The reduction in size of a sample during a to examine developments over time. The main problem longitudinal study. is sample attrition – the steady loss of sample Comparative studies Studies which make comparisons members. between different societies and different groups within the same society. 4. The comparative method provides a ‘natural Cross-cultural studies Studies based on a number of different laboratory’ within which the influence of variables can cultures. Studies which compare different cultures. be estimated. It allows researchers to examine the Triangulation Combining different research methods and effect of culture on behaviour. The main difficulty for different types of data in order to check the validity and researchers is understanding different cultures. reliability of findings. 5. Triangulation provides a check on the validity and Methodological pluralism Combining different research reliability of research findings. methods and different kinds of data in order to build up a 6. Methodological pluralism builds up a fuller picture of fuller picture of social life. social life. Education 160 4 Education and methods Introduction Why do we spend the best years of our life in school? Until recently, most people managed quite well without a formal education. They learned what they needed from family, friends, and neighbours. This type of informal education continues to be an important part of the socialisation process.What’s new is a state system of formal education. It consists of specialised institutions – schools, colleges and universities – and selected knowledge and skills transmitted by professionals – teachers and lecturers. Education is important. It takes up a significant proportion of people’s lives – at least eleven years. And it affects them for the rest of their lives. It’s very expensive – in 2006/07 government expenditure on education in Starting out the UK was £71.5 billion, 12.9% of all public expenditure. And the cost rises year by year (HM Treasury, 2007).

chaptersummary Unit 1 looks at the role of education in society. Unit 5 focuses on the classroom. It examines the hidden curriculum, pupil subcultures, teacher-pupil relationships

▼▼ Units 2, 3 and 4 outline explanations for the differences in educational attainment between different and the organisation of teaching and learning.

social classes, gender and ethnic groups. ▼▼ Unit 6 looks at how government policy has shaped the education system from 1870 to the present day.

Unit 1 The role of the education system

apart. Social order is largely based on social solidarity – keyissues social unity. Social solidarity results from shared norms and 1 What are the main views of the role of the education values. Shared norms mean that social life is predictable system? and runs smoothly. Shared values usually result in people 2 What are their strengths and weaknesses? cooperating and pulling in the same direction. When analysing a particular part of society, such as the This unit looks at the role of education in society. In simple family or the political system, functionalists often ask, terms, this means what does education do? Does it benefit ‘What is its function?’ By this they mean, ‘How does it society and if so, how? Is it harmful to society, or to certain meet society’s basic needs?’; ‘How does it contribute to the groups within society? Is it doing its job well or badly? maintenance and well-being of society?’ Functionalism is no longer fashionable. However, function- alist ideas about the role of education in society still influence 1.1 Functionalist perspectives some researchers. These ideas will now be examined.

Functionalism is a sociological theory which is based on the following ideas. Society has certain basic needs, the Emile Durkheim most important of which is the need for social order. Social solidarity Writing over 100 years ago, the French Without order, society would tend to disintegrate, to fall sociologist Emile Durkheim argued that social solidarity – 161 Chapter 4 activity1 social solidarity Item A Oath of allegiance Item B Teaching history Davy Crockett’s story has been retold on countless occasions in schools across the USA. Davy Crockett pulled himself up by his own bootstraps. He became a skilled hunter and marksman in the backwoods of Tennessee, before joining the US army as a scout. He was elected three times as a Congressman. Hearing of the Texans’ fight for freedom against Mexico, he gathered a dozen volunteers to American school children pledging loyalty to their flag help them. He died fighting the and country. Mexican army in 1836. Source: Newark, 1980 question

How can Items A and B be used to illustrate the view Davy Crockett (right) at the Alamo that education helps to unite members of society? social unity – is essential for the survival of society. Social parents to children. According to Durkheim, the solidarity is based on ‘essential similarities’ between specialised division of labour in industrial societies relies members of society. According to Durkheim, one of the increasingly on the educational system to provide the skills main functions of education is to develop these similarities and knowledge required by the workforce. and so bind members of society together. The USA provides a vivid illustration of Durkheim’s Talcott Parsons views. Its population is drawn from all over the world. A Secondary socialisation Writing in the 1950s and 1960s, common educational system has helped to weld this the American sociologist Talcott Parsons developed diverse mass of human beings into a nation. It has Durkheim’s ideas. He saw the educational system as the provided common norms and values, a shared sense of history and a feeling of belonging to a wider society. main agency of secondary socialisation, acting as a bridge between the family and the wider society. Schools build on History and social solidarity Durkheim sees a common the primary socialisation provided by the family, history as vital for uniting members of society. American developing value consensus – agreement about the values schoolchildren grow up with stories about their country’s of society – and preparing young people for their adult founders, eg George Washington cutting down his father’s roles (Parsons, 1951, 1961). cherry tree, and their country’s heroes, eg Davy Crockett who grew up in the backwoods of Tennessee, was elected Individual achievement is a major value in modern to Congress, and died a hero, fighting for freedom against industrial society. In schools, young people are encouraged the overwhelming force of the Mexican army at the Battle to achieve as individuals. High achievement is rewarded of the Alamo in Texas in 1836. with praise, high status, good grades and valuable qualifications. This prepares young people to achieve as With a shared history, people feel part of a wider social individuals in the world of work. group – it is their country, made up of people like themselves. In this way, education contributes to the Equality of opportunity – an equal chance for everybody development of social solidarity. – is another major value in modern society. Schools transmit this value by offering all their pupils an equal Specialised skills Industrial society has a specialised division of labour – people have specialised jobs with chance of success. specific skill and knowledge requirements. For example, According to Parsons, schools are miniature versions of the skills and knowledge required by plumbers, the wider society. They reflect the values of the wider electricians, teachers and doctors are very different. In society. Young people are required to act in terms of those preindustrial societies there were fewer specialised values in the classroom. And, as a result, they are prepared occupations. Occupational skills were often passed from for adult roles. Education and methods 162

Role allocation Parsons sees role allocation as one of the main functions of the educational system. This involves 1.2 Marxist perspectives sifting, sorting, assessing and evaluating young people in Marxism is a theory named after its founder, Karl Marx terms of their talents and abilities, then allocating them to (1818-1883). It starts from the idea that the economic appropriate roles in the wider society. For example, people system largely shapes the rest of society. So, for example with artistic talent are directed towards and trained for the political and educational systems are largely shaped by occupations such as photographer, graphic designer and the economic system. fashion designer. Marxists argue that there are two main classes in society Role allocation involves testing students in order to – the ruling class and the subject class. The power of the discover their talents, developing those talents on ruling class comes from its ownership of the economic appropriate courses, then matching those talents to the jobs system. Thus in today’s society, capitalists – those who own for which they are best suited. private industry – form the ruling class – and workers – those who sell their labour in return for wages – form the Functionalism and education – evaluation subject class. According to Marx, the ruling class exploit the subject class – they gain at the expense of the workers. The following criticisms have been made of functionalist Workers produce wealth in the form of goods and services views of education. yet a large part of that wealth is taken from them in the ● Rather than transmitting society’s values, the education form of profits by the capitalist class. system may be transmitting the values of a ruling class In Marx’s words the ruling class ‘rule also as thinkers, as or ruling elite. producers of ideas’. These ideas justify their position, ● History teaching in schools may reflect a white, middle- conceal the true source of their power and disguise their class view. This may discourage social solidarity. Many exploitation of the subject class. In Marx’s view this ruling ethnic minority groups are demanding that history class ideology is a far more effective means of domination teaching reflect their historical experience and their than more obvious forms of control such as physical force. viewpoint. For example, in the USA, African-American It presents a false picture of society which keeps the history is now a major part of the history curriculum. subject class in its place. ● There is evidence that certain groups underachieve in schools – for example, the working class and certain activity2 examinations ethnic minority groups. This suggests that a) pupils do not have an equal opportunity b) their talents have not been effectively developed and assessed and c) the system of role allocation is not very efficient. ● Is the educational system providing the knowledge and skills required in the workplace? It is difficult to see a direct link between many school subjects and the world of work.

key terms

Social solidarity Social unity. Specialised division of labour A labour force with a large number of specialised occupations. Secondary socialisation The process of socialisation which builds on the primary socialisation usually conducted by the family. Value consensus An agreement about the major values of society. Individual achievement Achieving success as an individual rather than as a member of a group. questions Equality of opportunity A system in which every person has an equal chance of success. How can the type of formal examinations pictured here: Role allocation The system of allocating people to roles a) encourage individual achievement which suit their aptitudes and capabilities. b) form part of the process of role allocation? 163 Chapter 4

Education and ideology fundamental to social control. He sees the main role of Louis Althusser, a French Marxist philosopher, argues that education as transmitting this ideology. no class can hold power for long simply by the use of force. Ideology provides a much more effective means of Correspondence theory control – if people’s hearts and minds are won over then In Schooling in Capitalist America (1976) Samuel Bowles force becomes unnecessary. and Herbert Gintis claim that there is a close Althusser (1972) argues that in modern society the correspondence between the social relationships in the education system has largely replaced the church as the classroom and those in the workplace. This main agency for ideological control. In the past, people correspondence is essential for social reproduction – the tended to accept their station in life because they saw it as reproduction of new generations of workers appropriately God’s will. Today, this acceptance comes in part from their schooled to accept their roles in capitalist society. experience of education. School and workplace Schools, like the wider society, are First, schools transmit an ideology which states that based on hierarchies – layers of authority. Teachers give capitalism is just and reasonable. Second, schools prepare orders, pupils are expected to obey. Pupils have little pupils for their roles in the workforce. Most are trained as control over their work, over the curriculum they follow. workers – they are taught to accept their future exploitation This corresponds to their later experience of lack of and provided with an education and qualifications to control in the workplace. Schools reward punctuality, match their adult work roles. Some – the future managers, obedience and hard work; they discourage creativity, administrators and politicians – are trained to control the independence and critical awareness. This is directly in workforce. Their educational qualifications legitimate – line with the kind of worker required by employers in justify and make right – their position of power. They capitalist society. become the ‘agents of exploitation and repression’. Young people get little direct satisfaction from their Althusser argues that ideology in capitalist society is education. They are motivated largely by external rewards activity3 social reproduction Item A Role allocation and rewards Education and methods 164

Item B Two views of role allocation

questions 1 How does the ideologically sound young woman in Item A illustrate Bowles and Gintis’s theory of the role of education in society? 2 Using Item B, briefly compare functionalist and Marxist views of role allocation. such as educational qualifications. This is reflected in the social background. The higher a person’s class of origin – workplace – work itself provides little satisfaction, workers the class they began in – the more likely they are to attain are motivated by external rewards such as pay. Bowles and high educational qualifications and a top job. The class Gintis argue that this correspondence between school and system tends to reproduce itself from generation to the workplace effectively reproduces workers from one generation and this process is legitimised by education. In generation to the next. Bowles and Gintis’s words, ‘Education reproduces Social inequality Capitalist society is unequal. If this inequality by justifying privilege and attributing poverty to inequality were seriously questioned it might threaten social personal failure’. stability. One way of avoiding this is to promote the belief Role allocation Bowles and Gintis reject the functionalist that inequality is justified. According to Bowles and Gintis, view of role allocation. Those who get the highest education legitimates social inequality by broadcasting the qualifications and the top jobs do so because of their social myth that it offers everybody an equal chance. It follows background and because they work hard and do what that those who achieve high qualifications deserve their they’re told. Bowles and Gintis found that students with success. And since high qualifications lead to top jobs, high grades tend to be hardworking, obedient, conforming people who get those jobs have earned them. In this way and dependable rather than creative, original and social inequality appears just and legitimate. independent. These characteristics are rewarded with high However, Bowles and Gintis argue that rewards in grades because they are the very qualities required for a education and occupation are based not on ability but on subordinate, obedient and disciplined workforce. 165 Chapter 4

Learning to labour based on opposition to authority. In some respects this In a study entitled, Learning to Labour: How working-class behaviour made sense. They were destined for low-skill kids get working-class jobs (1977), the British sociologist jobs so why bother to work hard. Paul Willis studied a group of 12 working-class boys (the School and work Willis found a number of similarities ‘lads’) during their last year and a half at school and their between the attitudes and behaviour developed by the lads first few months at work. in school and those of the shopfloor at work. Having a laugh Counter-school culture Willis did not find a simple was important in both situations as a means of dealing with correspondence between school and work. Nor did he find monotony, boredom and authority. And at work, as at that the lads were shaped by the educational system. school, a bunch of mates to mess around with and support Instead, the lads rejected school and created their own you in an ‘us and them’ situation remained important. counter-school culture. But, it was this very rejection of So, like Bowles and Gintis, Willis argues for a school which prepared them for the low-skill, low-status correspondence between school and work. But this is not jobs they were to end up in. produced by the school – the lads are not the docile, The lads rejected educational success as defined by the obedient pupils of Bowles and Gintis’s study. The lads school. They saw the conformist behaviour of hardworking themselves have produced the correspondence by their pupils – the ‘ear ‘oles’ – as a matter for amusement and rejection of the school. And in doing so they have prepared mockery. School was good for a laugh and not much else. themselves for their place in the workforce. They have Boredom was relieved by mucking around and breaking learned to have a laugh, to put up with boredom and rules. The lads actively created a counter-school culture monotony, and to accept the drudgery of low-skill jobs. methods1 methodological pluralism

Paul Willis’s study focused on 12 boys during their last 18 months at school and their first few months at work. He wanted question to discover how the boys saw their experience of schooling and Willis’s method is an example of methodological pluralism. work. He used ‘observation and participant observation in class, around the school and in leisure activities, regular recorded Suggest possible advantages of this approach to his research. group discussions, informal interviews and diaries’. Source: Willis, 1977

activity4 learning to labour

question How does this cartoon illustrate Willis’s view of how lads adapt to low-skill, boring jobs? Education and methods 166

Twenty years on Willis’s study was conducted in a Critics argue that Rikowski has gone too far with his secondary school in Birmingham in the 1970s. Twenty claim that education is heading for privatisation. While years later, a similar study was conducted in the West some services are being subcontracted to the private sector, Midlands by Máirtín Mac an Ghaill (1994). Some of the there is little or no evidence that governments in the UK working-class young men – the ‘macho lads’ – were similar intend to privatise the educational system as a whole to Willis’s lads. They rejected the authority of the teachers (Hatcher, 2005). and the values of the school. However, this was a time of high unemployment when many traditional low-skill 1.3 Feminist perspectives working-class jobs were disappearing. Because of this, the macho lads’ behaviour was ‘outdated’ – the jobs it Feminist perspectives focus on gender inequalities in prepared them for were fast becoming a thing of the past. society. Feminist research has revealed the extent of male domination and the ways in which male supremacy has Business takeover of schools been maintained. From a feminist viewpoint, one of the main roles of education has been to maintain gender Marxist views have become unfashionable in recent years. inequality. However, Glenn Rikowski (2002, 2005) argues that they are still relevant. He claims that education is becoming increasingly privatised as more and more aspects of Gender and education education – for example, school dinners – are being From the 1960s onwards, feminist sociologists highlighted subcontracted to private industry. Rikowski sees this as the the following gender inequalities in education. beginning of a ‘business takeover of schools’. He argues that education will become like any other private company Gendered language Reflecting the wider society, school – it will be run ‘primarily for the benefit of shareholders’ textbooks (and teachers) tended to use gendered language and its main concern will be to produce profit. – ‘he’, ‘him’, ‘his’, ‘man’ and ‘men’ when referring to a person or people. This tended to downgrade women and make them invisible. Marxism and education – evaluation Gendered roles School textbooks have tended to present Marxists see education in a negative light. It transmits males and females in traditional gender roles – for ruling class ideology and produces a passive and obedient example, women as mothers and housewives. This is workforce which fits the requirements of capitalism. And particularly evident in reading schemes from the 1960s and when young people actively reject schooling, this can 1970s. prepare them for monotonous, low-skill jobs. This view of the role of education is based partly on the belief that Gender stereotypes Reading schemes have also tended to capitalism is unjust and oppressive, and that it exploits the present traditional gender stereotypes. For example, an workforce. analysis of six reading schemes from the 1960s and 70s found that: However, it is possible to accept some of the findings of ● Marxist sociologists without accepting their view of Boys are presented as more adventurous than girls ● capitalism. Both Bowles and Gintis and Willis provide As physically stronger ● evidence to support their claims. Schools do reward hard As having more choices. ● work, conformity and obedience. And some students who Girls are presented as more caring than boys ● learn to live with what they see as the boredom of school As more interested in domestic matters ● are prepared for the monotony of low-skill jobs. As followers rather than leaders (Lobban, 1974). Women in the curriculum In terms of what’s taught in schools – the curriculum – women tend to be missing, in key terms the background, or in second place. Feminists often argue that women have been ‘hidden from history’ – history has Ruling class ideology A false picture of society which justifies the position of the ruling and subject classes. been the history of men. Legitimate Justify, make right. Subject choice Traditionally, female students have tended Correspondence theory A theory which shows a correspondence to avoid maths, science and technology. Certain subjects or similarity between two things and suggests that they are were seen as ‘boys’ subjects’ and ‘girls’ subjects’. Often causally related – for example, the experience of school and girls’ subjects had lower status and lower market value. work is similar, and the requirements of the workplace shape what goes on in the classroom. Discrimination There is evidence of discrimination against Social reproduction The reproduction of new generations of girls in education simply because of their gender. For workers with the skills and attitudes required for their roles in example, when the 11-plus exam was introduced in the capitalist society. 1940s, the pass mark for boys was set lower than the mark Counter-school culture A rejection of the norms and values of the for girls in order to make sure there were roughly equal school and their replacement with anti-school norms and values. numbers of boys and girls in grammar schools. In other words girls were artificially ‘failed’ so boys could ‘succeed’. 167 Chapter 4

Further and higher education Traditionally, the number of 1.4 Social democratic perspectives female students going on to further and higher education has been lower than for boys. There is evidence that Social democratic perspectives on education developed in teachers often gave boys more encouragement than girls to the 1960s. They have had an important influence on go on to university (Stanworth, 1983). government educational policy. Social democratic theorists start from the view that Feminist perspectives – evaluation everybody should have an equal chance to succeed in the educational system. This is not only fair and just, it also Feminist perspectives have been valuable for exposing brings practical benefits. A well-educated workforce will gender inequality in education. Partly as a result of lead to economic growth. sociological research, a lot has changed – for example, much of the sexism in reading schemes has now disappeared. Equal opportunity Today, women have overtaken men on practically every measure of educational attainment. Their grades at GCSE The British sociologist A.H. Halsey is one of the leading and A level are significantly higher than those of male social democratic theorists. He criticised functionalist students. And more women than men are going on to views which claimed that the education system in Western higher education. The concern now is the industrial societies provided equality of opportunity. underachievement of boys rather than discrimination Halsey’s work from the 1960s onwards showed clearly that against girls. social class has a significant effect on educational attainment. In general, the higher a person’s social class of origin – the class into which they were born – the higher methods2 their educational qualifications. For example, middle-class content analysis students tend to achieve higher qualifications than working-class students. This suggests that schools are not Content analysis was used to analyse the way gender roles providing equality of opportunity for all young people were presented in six reading schemes used in primary (Halsey et al., 1961; 1980). schools in the 1960s and 1970s. The schemes included the Janet and John and Ladybird series. The results of the study According to social democratic theorists, this is both are shown under the subheading ‘gender stereotypes’ in wrong and inefficient. It is wrong because in a democracy Section 1.3 (see also Activity 5, Item B). everybody has a right to equal opportunity. It is inefficient because it wastes talent. If people don’t have the The content analysis listed the toys played with and the opportunity to develop their aptitudes and abilities, then activities performed by boys only, girls only, and both boys their contribution to society as a whole will be reduced. and girls. It noted who took the lead in the activities that Inequality of educational opportunity means that both boys and girls took part in. And it listed the number of everybody suffers. adult roles presented and the gender of the people who played those roles. Education and the economy The author suggests that the distinctive gender activities and According to social democratic theorists, there is a close roles portrayed in the reading schemes may have an link between education and economic growth. Modern important influence on gender socialisation. economies require an increasingly specialised and highly- Source: Lobban, 1974 trained workforce. The educational system reflects this requirement (Halsey et al., 1961). question Over the past 50 years there has been more education, and more specialised education. The school leaving age Assess the strengths and weaknesses of content analysis has steadily risen and growing numbers of young people in studying the effect of reading schemes on gender are continuing into further and higher education. There has socialisation. also been a rapid growth in vocational education – education which aims to provide specific workplace skills.

key terms Social democratic perspectives – evaluation It is difficult to unravel the relationships between education Gendered language Language which uses one gender to refer and the economy. Some researchers argue that the growth to both genders. in education greatly exceeds the needs of the economy. For Stereotype An exaggerated and distorted view of the example, Randall Collins (1972) points to studies which characteristics of members of a social group. suggest that once mass literacy has been achieved, Curriculum The subjects taught in school and their content. education makes little difference to economic growth. He Sexism Bias against a particular gender – usually females. claims that when companies do require specific skills, they Education and methods 168 activity5 gender and education Item A Learning to launder Item B Peter and Jane

Girls at school learning to do the laundry, 1908. The girl on the These pictures are taken from the Ladybird Key Words Reading right is using a mangle to get water out of the clothes. Scheme published in 1964.

Item C In the classroom Michelle Stanworth’s research looked at gender relations in A level classes at a further education college. Interviews with teachers and pupils revealed that both men and women teachers took more interest in their male pupils, asking them more questions in class and giving them more help. Asked which students they were most concerned about, women teachers named boys twice as often as girls. Male teachers named boys ten times as often as girls. When asked which pupils they were most ‘attached’ to, teachers named boys three times as often as girls. Teachers underestimate girls’ ambitions. Only one girl was mentioned as questions likely to get a management job and male teachers could not envisage any occupation other than marriage for two thirds of the girls. One girl, who was 1 How might a feminist sociologist analyse getting the top marks in her class in both her main A level subjects, and who Items A and B? wanted a career in the diplomatic service, was described by her woman teacher 2 Use Item C to support the view that as likely to become ‘the personal assistant to somebody rather important’. there is discrimination against girls in Source: Stanworth, 1983 the classroom. usually provide their own training courses. 1.5 Neoliberal / New Right perspectives Other researchers claim that the growth in vocational Neoliberal/New Right ideas developed in the early 1980s. education with its focus on workplace skills is vital for They took a very different view of the route to educational economic development. And still others argue that the and economic success. increased pace of technological and economic change calls for a flexible workforce with a good general education rather than specific vocational training (Brown The problem et al., 1997). These points will be returned to in Unit 4 of According to neoliberal/New Right thinkers, advanced this chapter. industrial economies such as the USA and Britain were declining. Much of this decline was due to social democratic policies. These policies resulted in: key term ● Too much state control – the ‘nanny state’ got too Vocational education Education which aims to provide involved in people’s lives. specific workplace skills. ● This crushed people’s initiative and stifled their enterprise. They relied on the state rather than taking 169 Chapter 4 activity6 a social democratic view

question How does this cartoon illustrate the social democratic view of education?

responsibility for their own lives. ● Allowing schools and colleges to become self- ● This can be seen in welfare dependency – the poor had managing. This means giving teachers and come to depend on state ‘handouts’ rather than pulling administrators control over finance, staffing and school themselves up by their own bootstraps. policy. This encourages grassroot initiative and ● State control and welfare benefits cost a lot of money enterprise rather than relying on direction from above. which meant high taxation. And this will motivate teachers to improve standards. ● Because of this there was less money to invest in private ● The above measures will lead to better school industry – the really productive sector of the economy. management and higher quality teaching. This is what’s needed to raise educational standards for all (Chubb & The solution Moe, 1997). ● Neoliberal/New Right perspectives offered the following Higher standards will mean higher qualifications, solutions to the decline of advanced industrial societies. particularly for those at the bottom. And this will give them a better chance of escaping from welfare ● Restore enterprise and initiative. dependency. ● Roll back the state and make people responsible for their own destiny rather than relying on state Education and globalisation institutions, state guidance and state handouts. ● Increase competition not only in the private sector but Neoliberal/New Right thinkers argue that education is also the public sector – schools and hospitals should essential for success in an increasingly competitive global compete in much the same way as companies in the market-place. A nation’s position in the world market will private sector. depend on the quality of its education. ● This will increase productivity and efficiency, and result The way to achieve economic success is the marketisation in economic growth. of schools. This involves competition and choice – schools must compete in the market and offer a real choice. This Education will raise standards as parents and students will choose the most successful schools, which will expand to meet the Where does education fit into all this? The job of schools is demand for places, and reject the failing schools, which to raise educational standards and instil enterprise, drive will contract or close (Lauder et al., 2006). and competitive spirit. The neoliberal/New Right programme for raising Neoliberal / New Right perspectives – evaluation educational standards runs as follows. ● Competition between schools and colleges – the best will Neoliberal/New Right views leave a number of attract more students, the worst won’t get any and go out unanswered questions (Halsey et al., 1997). of business. This means that teachers and administrators First, does competition between schools raise standards? will have real incentives to improve standards. And Measured in terms of GCSE and A level results, standards parents and their children will have real choice. are improving. However, this may have little or nothing to Education and methods 170 do with competition between schools. opportunity for students from low-income backgrounds? Second, is a choice of schools and colleges available? In Available evidence suggests that the answer is ‘no’ (Halsey some areas, there is no alternative to the local et al., 1997). comprehensive. In other areas, where choice exists, middle-class parents are in a better position to get their children into the best schools. For example, where there key terms are limited places, they tend to be more successful at Welfare dependency Depending on state benefits for support negotiating with teachers. and accepting this as a way of life. Third, can schools make up for inequalities in the wider Marketisation of schools Competition between schools in the society? For example, with good management and high educational market-place. quality teaching, can schools provide equality of

summary

1. From a functionalist perspective, education performs the ∑ ∑ ● The use of gendered language and gender stereotypes following functions: ∑ ∑ ● Omitting women from the curriculum ∑ ● Developing and reinforcing social solidarity ∑ ∑ ● Defining certain subjects as ‘girls’ subjects’ and others as ∑ ● Providing the skills and knowledge required for a ‘boys’ subjects’ specialised division of labour ∑ ∑ ● Discriminating against female students in terms of ∑ ● Developing value consensus and preparing young people grammar school, further and higher education places. for adult roles 4. From a social democratic perspective, education: ● ∑ ● Assessing young people in terms of their talents and ∑ ∑ Should provide every young person with an equal chance abilities and allocating them to appropriate roles in the to develop their talents and abilities wider society. ∑ ∑ ● This will benefit society as a whole by producing 2. From a Marxist perspective, education: economic growth ● However, social class is a barrier to equality of ∑ ● Transmits ruling class ideology educational opportunity. ∑ ∑ ● Prepares pupils for their role in the workplace 5. According to neoliberal/New Right perspectives, the role of ∑ ∑ ● Legitimises inequality and disguises exploitation education is to instil drive, initiative and enterprise. This will ∑ ∑ ● Rewards conformity and obedience come from: ∑ ∑ ● Reproduces new generations of workers, schooled to ∑ ∑ ● Competition between schools and colleges accept their place in capitalist society. ∑ ∑ ● Motivating teachers to improve standards 3. From a feminist perspective, education has promoted, and to ∑ ∑ ● Providing parents and students with a choice of schools some extent still does promote, male dominance by: and colleges.

activity7 the educational market-place

question How does this cartoon illustrate neoliberal/New Right views of education? 171 Chapter 4

Unit 2 Social class and educational attainment

● Ethnicity comes next. It has about twice the effect of keyissues gender. 1 What are the differences in educational attainment ● Gender Despite capturing public attention, gender is between social class groups? least important. Class has over five times the effect on educational attainment (Gillborn & Mirza, 2000). 2 What explanations are given for these differences? This unit looks at class differences in educational attainment. The next two units look at ethnic and gender Class, gender and ethnicity make a difference to differences. educational attainment – the educational qualifications and grades students achieve. If you want the best possible start, you should be born at the top of the class system, as a 2.1 Measuring class and educational female, and as a member of the Chinese ethnic group. Statistics indicate that in general the higher your social attainment class, the higher your attainment, that Chinese are the most In general, the higher a person’s social class of origin – the successful ethnic group, and that girls do better than boys. class they were born into – the higher their educational How important are class, ethnicity and gender? qualifications. This has been shown time and time again ● Class is most important. Its effect on educational over the past 50 years by sociological research and attainment is nearly three times greater than ethnicity. government statistics. methods3 official statistics

Most of the government statistics on social class and the government replaced the SEG (socio-economic group) educational attainment are provided by the Youth Cohort Study classification of social class with the NS-SEC (National Statistics – a series of longitudinal surveys based on large samples of Socio-economic Classification). Although similar in many young people aged 16–19 in England and Wales. As the respects these two classifications are not the same. statistics in Activity 8 show, data from the Youth Cohort Study provide a comparison over time of class differences in educational attainment. question The way things are defined and measured sometimes What are the advantages and disadvantages of using official changes. This can be a major problem when comparing official statistics to compare class differences in educational statistics over time. Social class provides an example. In 2001, attainment over time?

methods4 longitudinal surveys and postal questionnaires

The Youth Cohort Study is a series of longitudinal studies. It The 10th Youth Cohort Study usually contacts respondents at the end of compulsory schooling, then again at aged 17, 18 and 19. In 2000, the 10th Year Number of Number completed Age Youth Cohort Study sent postal questionnaires to a random questionnaires sent and returned sample of 24,500 young people. 13,720 returned the 2000 24,500 13,720 16 completed questionnaire. They were then sent the second 2001 13,720 10,152 17 questionnaire a year later. The fourth and final questionnaire 2002 10,152 7,208 18 was completed and returned by only 5,572 people, 23% of the 2003 7,208 5,572 19 original sample. question Source: Youth Cohort Study, 2004, Office for National Statistics What are the advantages and disadvantages of using longitudinal surveys and postal questionnaires to study social class and educational attainment? Education and methods 172

To what extent does social class affect educational educational qualifications change – from O levels to attainment? How has the effect of class changed over time? GCSEs, from GNVQs to vocational A levels, and so on. This is where we run into problems. Is it possible to But whatever the level or type of educational directly compare statistics over the years? The short answer qualification, and whatever the definition of social class, is ‘no’. Definitions of social class vary from study to study. there is no doubt that class has a significant effect on The official definition of class used in government research educational attainment. To appreciate this effect, work changes – the last major change was in 2001. And carefully through Activity 8. activity8 educational attainment and social class Item A GCSE and social class, 2004 Item B GCSE and social class, 1989 and 2000 Pupils achieving five or more GCSE grades A* to C Pupils achieving five or more GCSE grades A* to C

England & Wales England & Wales 80 80 1989 77 2000 69 60 65 60 60 53 52 40 40 45 42 40 Percentages 36 Percentages 33 30 20 20 21 16 12 0 0 Higher Lower Intermediate Lower Routine Managerial/ Other Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled professional professional supervisory professional non-manual manual manual manual

Source: Youth Cohort Study, 2004 Youth Cohort Studies, Social Trends, 2001, Office for National Statistics

Item C Higher education and social class Participation rates in higher education Great Britain Percentages Social class 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Gain 1991-2001

Professional 55 71 73 78 79 82 79 82 73 76 79 +24 Intermediate 36 39 42 45 45 47 48 45 45 48 50 +14 Skilled non-manual 22 27 29 31 31 32 31 29 30 33 33 +11 Skilled manual 11 15 17 18 18 18 19 18 18 19 21 +10 Partly skilled 12 14 16 17 17 17 18 17 17 19 18 +6 Unskilled 6 9 11 11 12 13 14 13 13 14 15 +9

Adapted from Age Participation Index, Department of Education and Skills, 2003 The table shows the percentage of people under 21 from each social class who enter undergraduate courses in higher education. The figures on the right show the increase in percentage points for each class from 1991 to 2001. questions 1 What does Item A suggest about the relationship use different definitions of class. between social class and educational attainment? 3 What changes does Item B indicate between 1989 and 2 No matter what definition of social class is used, there are 2000? significant class differences in educational attainment. 4 Summarise the trends shown in Item C. Comment on this statement using Items A and B which 173 Chapter 4

2.2 Explaining class differences in differences in educational attainment are not due to class attainment differences in intelligence.

During the 1960s and 70s, class differences in attainment Material deprivation were the main focus of the sociology of education. During the 1980s and 90s, class went out of fashion. Sociologists During the 1960s, sociologists claimed that the low turned to ethnic and gender differences in attainment. And attainment of many working-class pupils resulted from a some claimed that class was not nearly as important as it lack of something. They were deprived. This deprivation used to be. was material – a lack of money and the things that money could buy – and cultural – an absence of the attitudes and Only in the last ten years have a few sociologists returned skills that were needed for educational success. to class and attainment. Because of this, the research in this section is either recent or drawn from the 1960s and 70s. In general, the higher a child’s class of origin, the higher Despite the earlier research being dated, it remains their family income. High income can provide many important. Class is still the most significant social factor educational advantages – a comfortable well-heated home, accounting for differences in educational attainment. spacious rooms with a desk to work at, a home computer with internet access, reference and revision books, extra home tuition and the option of private education. Class, intelligence and attainment At the other end of the scale, children in poverty often At every level of education – from nursery to university – live in cramped, cold and draughty conditions. Shortage of upper and middle-class children tend to do better than money means they are more likely to have part-time jobs in working-class children. This remains the case even when the evenings and at weekends, and to leave school at the they have the same intelligence quotient (IQ). minimum leaving age. Poverty often leads to ill health. And Most researchers believe that the same range of ability is this can result in absence from school, tiredness and present in every social class. This means that class irritability. activity9 material deprivation Item A Growing up poor Item B Homelessness A report on the effects of homelessness on schoolchildren by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate for Schools makes the following points. Their chances of doing well are slim. ‘Sustainable achievement is often beyond their reach.’ Cramped sleeping conditions leave the children tired, listless and unable to concentrate. In one London school, a four-year-old boy spent a whole day sleeping outside the headteacher’s office. The inspectors found evidence of ill health caused by poor diet, and stress from permanent insecurity. For some, the crises which led to homelessness produce social and emotional difficulties. Weak reading, writing and verbal skills among primary school children are combined with a poor self-image. ‘I can’t read,’ a seven-year-old girl told her teacher. ‘Don’t you know I’m simple?’ The report notes that many hostel rooms lack such basics as chairs and table. As a result, children often find it hard to do homework. A fourth year question GCSE pupil had to work on her bed and could only start when the sisters she shared the room with How might growing up in poverty disadvantage children at were asleep. school? Source: The Times, 10.08.90 Education and methods 174

The costs of education Traditionally, many working-class By comparison, middle-class subculture was seen as students left school at the minimum leaving age because non-fatalistic, future-time orientated and concerned with their parents could no longer afford to support them. deferred gratification. However, since the introduction of the GCSE examination These differences in class subcultures were seen to place in 1988, a far higher proportion of 16-19 year olds have pupils from working-class backgrounds at a disadvantage. continued into further education. For example, fatalism will not encourage pupils to More recently, the introduction of tuition fees and the improve their grades. And present-time orientation and abolition of student grants has meant that many young immediate gratification will discourage sustained effort for people with working-class backgrounds feel they cannot examination success. afford to go on to higher education. As Item C in Activity 8 shows, it is those at the top of the class system who have Cultural deprivation theory benefited most from the expansion of university places. Even though grants are available for students from low- The views of sociologists such as Douglas and Sugarman income families, many are still put off by the costs of have been used to provide support for what came to be higher education (Machin, 2003). known as cultural deprivation theory. This theory states that those at the bottom of the class system are deprived of important values, attitudes, experiences and skills which Home and school are essential for educational success. Their home life Many sociologists in the 1960s saw differences in primary lacks the kind of stimulation needed for high attainment – socialisation as the main reason for class differences in for example, there is an absence of books and educational attainment. In a large-scale study of British children toys. They receive little encouragement from parents and, entitled The Home and the School, J.W.B. Douglas (1964) as a result, lack the motivation to succeed at school. claimed that middle-class children received more attention To make matters worse, what the ‘culturally deprived and encouragement from their parents during their early child’ does have tends to be seen as ‘substandard’ – well years. This provided a foundation for high attainment in below the high quality norms and values of middle-class their later years. subculture. Deprived of what’s needed for success and Based on questionnaires given to over 5000 parents, saddled with low standard norms and values, it’s no Douglas concluded that the degree of parents’ interest in wonder, so the argument goes, that culturally deprived their children’s education was the single, most important children fail in droves. factor affecting attainment. His research suggested that, in general, middle-class parents showed more interest than Evaluation Cultural deprivation theory has been strongly working-class parents. They were more likely to visit the criticised. There is evidence that if class differences in school and to encourage their children to stay on beyond culture exist, then they are slight and of little significance. the minimum school leaving age. Much so-called culturally deprived behaviour may be due to lack of money rather than lack of the norms and values More recent research provides support for Douglas’s needed for high attainment. For example, working-class conclusion. It is based on data from the National Child students may leave school earlier because of low income Development Study, an ongoing longitudinal study which rather than lack of motivation and parental follows the lives of every person born in Britain during one encouragement. particular week in 1958. According to Leon Feinstein (2003), evidence from this study shows that class differences in Cultural deprivation theory blames the failings of the parental interest and support is the most important factor child on his or her background. This diverts attention from accounting for class differences in educational attainment. the failings of the educational system which may contribute to, or account for, class differences in Class subcultures attainment. This view will be considered shortly. Differences in social class subcultures – the norms, attitudes and values typical of each class – were often seen as part of the explanation for class differences in attainment. key terms The British sociologist Barry Sugarman (1970) described working-class subculture as: Material deprivation A lack of money and the things that ● Fatalistic – accepting the situation rather than working money can buy. to improve it Cultural deprivation A lack of certain norms, values, ● attitudes and skills. In this case, those necessary for Present-time orientated – living for the moment rather educational success. than planning for the future Social class subcultures The distinctive norms and values ● Concerned with immediate gratification – taking shared by members of each social class. pleasures now rather than making sacrifices for the future. 175 Chapter 4

Speech patterns and class simple and unfinished, detail is omitted, explanations not Cultural deprivation theory Extreme versions of cultural given and information taken for granted. This is because a deprivation theory see the speech patterns of those at the considerable amount of shared knowledge between bottom of the class system as inferior. For example, the speaker and listener is assumed. American psychologist Carl Bereiter argues that the speech By comparison, the elaborated code spells out what the patterns of many low-income children are inadequate to restricted code takes for granted. Meanings are made meet the demands of the education system. As a result, explicit, explanations provided, details spelt out. As such, they directly contribute to educational failure. the elaborated code tends to be context-free (not tied to a This view has been rejected by the American linguist context such as a particular friendship group) and its William Labov (1973). He examined the speech patterns of meanings are universalistic (they can be understood by low-income African-American children from Harlem in everybody). New York. He claimed that their speech patterns were not Class and speech codes According to Bernstein, most inferior to standard English, they were just different. Those middle-class children have been socialised in both the who saw them as inferior simply failed to understand low- restricted and elaborated codes and are fluent in each, income black dialect. whereas many working-class children are limited to the Restricted and elaborated codes The British sociologist restricted code. Since teachers use the elaborated code, Basil Bernstein identified two forms of speech pattern, the working-class pupils are placed at a distinct disadvantage. restricted code and the elaborated code. The restricted They are less likely to understand what teachers say and code is a kind of shorthand speech, usually found in are more likely to be misunderstood and criticised for what conversations between people who have a lot in common, they themselves say. eg friends and family members. It is often tied to a context, Bernstein insists that working-class speech patterns are eg it cannot be fully understood outside the family circle, not substandard or inadequate. However, they do place and its meanings tend to be particularistic, that is, specific working-class pupils at a disadvantage since the elaborated to the speaker and listener. Sentences are often short, code is the language of education.

activity10 speech patterns

Bernstein showed four pictures to five-year-old boys and Elaborated code ‘Two boys are playing football and one asked them to describe what was going on. Here are two boy kicks the ball and it goes through the window. The ball examples, the first by a working-class boy using the breaks the window and the boys are looking at it, and a man restricted code, the second by a middle-class boy using the comes out and shouts at them because they’ve broken the elaborated code. window. So they run away and then that lady looks out of her Restricted code ‘They’re playing football and he kicks it, window, and she tells the boys off.’ and it goes through there. It breaks the window and they’re Source: Bernstein, 1973 looking at it and he comes out and shouts at them because they’ve broken it. So they run away and then she looks out and she tells them off.’ question How do the examples in Item A illustrate some of the features of the restricted and elaborated codes? Education and methods 176 methods5 interviews

The boys in the following interviews are African- Americans from low-income working-class families in Harlem, New York. Interview 1 An eight-year-old boy is interviewed by a ‘friendly’ White interviewer who presents him with a toy jet plane and asks him to describe it. The setting is formal. There are long silences followed by short two or three word answers, which hardly provide an adequate description of the plane. Interview 2 Another Black boy from Harlem is interviewed. Again the setting is formal but this time the interviewer is Black and raised in Harlem. The boy responds in much the same way as the boy in the first interview. Interview 3 The boy and the interviewer are the same as in the second interview. This time the interviewer sits on the floor, the boy is provided with a supply of potato crisps and his best friend is invited along. The change is dramatic. The boy’s conversation is articulate and enthusiastic, and, in linguistic terms, rich and diverse. He provides a detailed description of the toy plane. Source: Labov, 1973 question What are the advantages and disadvantages of interviews in the study of class and young people’s speech patterns? Harlem, New York

Evaluation Bernstein’s research shows how schools can culture is generally regarded as superior because those at contribute to class differences in educational attainment. the top have the power to define it as such. In reality, Because schools demand the use of the elaborated code, however, it is no better or worse than any other culture. middle-class pupils have a built-in advantage. But because it is highly valued and sought after, it forms Some researchers have questioned Bernstein’s view that the basis of the educational system. members of the working-class are limited to the restricted Children born into the middle and upper classes have a code. He provides little hard evidence to support his view. built-in advantage. Their culture is closer to the culture of And much of this evidence comes from interviews given by the school so they will be more likely to succeed. For middle-class adults to five-year-old working-class boys. example, their language is closer to that of teachers so they Such interviews may reveal little about the linguistic ability are more likely to understand what’s being taught and to be of young people – see Methods 5, interviews. rewarded for what they say and write. According to Bourdieu, the dominant culture can be seen as cultural capital since it can be converted into material key terms rewards – high qualifications, high status jobs, high Restricted code Shorthand speech in which detail is omitted salaries, high living standards. and information taken for granted. Bourdieu concludes that the primary purpose of Elaborated code A speech pattern in which details are spelt education is cultural and social reproduction. The out, explanations provided and meanings made explicit. education system reproduces the dominant culture and in doing so helps to reproduce the class system. And, by creating educational success and failure, it legitimates the Cultural capital positions of those at the top and those at the bottom. The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1977) starts from Bourdieu’s idea of cultural capital has been influential in the idea that there is a dominant culture in society. The the renewed interest in class and educational attainment in higher people’s position in the class system, the greater the the 1990s and 2000s. This can be seen from the following amount of dominant culture they are likely to have. This three studies. 177 Chapter 4

the middle class at an advantage. They have the key terms knowledge and skills to make the most of the opportunities on offer. Compared to the working class, they have more Dominant culture The culture of those in the higher levels of material capital, more cultural capital and more social the class structure which is generally regarded as superior. capital – access to social networks and contacts which can Cultural capital Culture that can be converted into material provide information and support. In Ball’s words, middle- rewards such as high salaries and high living standards. class parents have ‘enough capitals in the right currency to ensure a high probability of success for their children’. Class, mothers and cultural capital Strategies The aim of parents is to give their children maximum advantage in the education system. The choice of In an important study entitled Class Work: Mothers’ school is vital. And this is where middle-class parents come involvement in their children’s primary schooling, Diane into their own. Compared to working-class parents, they are Reay (1998) states that, ‘It is mothers who are making more comfortable dealing with public institutions like cultural capital work for their children’. Her research is schools. They are more used to extracting and assessing based on interviews with the mothers of 33 children at two information. For example, they use their social networks to London primary schools. talk to parents whose children are attending the schools on All the mothers are actively involved in their children’s offer. They collect and analyse information – for example, education. The working-class mothers worked just as hard the GCSE results of the various schools. And they are more as the middle-class mothers. But it was not simply hard used to dealing with and negotiating with teachers and work that counted. In addition, it was the amount of administrators. As a result, when entry into a popular school cultural capital available. And the middle-class mothers is limited, they are more likely to gain a place for their child. had most. The school/parent alliance Middle-class parents want Middle-class mothers had more educational middle-class schools. In general, schools with mainly qualifications and more information about how the middle-class pupils have the best results and the highest educational system operated. They used this cultural status. And these schools want middle-class pupils. They capital to good effect – helping children with their are seen as easy to teach and likely to perform well. They homework, bolstering their confidence and sorting out will maintain or increase the school’s position in the exam problems with their teachers. Where the middle-class league table and its status in the education market. mothers had the confidence and self-assurance to make Conclusion Many middle-class parents work extremely demands on teachers, the working-class mothers talked in hard to get their children into the most successful schools. terms of ‘plucking up courage’ and ‘making myself go and But, what they gain for their children can be at the expense see the teacher’. Where middle-class mothers knew what of working-class children. the school expected from their children and how to help them, working-class mothers felt they lacked the Class and higher education knowledge and ability to help their children. In Degrees of Choice (2005), Diane Reay, Miriam David Middle-class mothers not only have more cultural and Stephen Ball looked at the influence of social class on capital, they also have more material capital, ie, more university choice. They found that middle-class students money. Over half the middle-class mothers had cleaners, from fee-paying schools were most likely to choose elite au pairs or both. This gave them more time to support their universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. This reflected children. Working-class mothers could not afford help with the amount of cultural capital they possessed – they had the domestic work. Nor could they afford private tuition which knowledge and confidence to select the top universities and many middle-class mothers provided for their children. to see themselves as suited for and entitled to ‘the best’. According to Diane Reay, it is mothers who have the Middle-class students from state schools tended to choose main influence on their children’s education. Their middle-ranking ‘redbrick’ universities such as Manchester effectiveness depends on the amount of cultural capital at and Liverpool. Working-class students were more likely to their disposal. And this depends on their social class. choose the lower-ranking, less prestigious ‘new’ universities. They had less cultural capital. They lacked confidence in Education, class and choice their academic ability and social skills – they feared failure In recent years, government education policy has and felt they wouldn’t fit in socially at higher-ranking encouraged schools to compete, and offered parents and universities. As a result, they did not apply to and so students choices between schools. Choosing the ‘right’ excluded themselves from the top universities. primary and secondary school is important. It can make a As more and more people are going to university, the difference to students’ examination results and their less valuable degrees become. Attending an elite chances of climbing the educational ladder. university can raise the status of a degree. In general, the In Class Strategies and the Education Market: The middle higher the class position of students, the more likely they classes and social advantage, Stephen J. Ball (2003) argues are to choose a high status university. Again the middle that government policies of choice and competition place class come out on top. Education and methods 178

respond to them and interpret their actions in terms of this methods6 sampling label. There is a tendency for a self-fulfilling prophecy to result. The pupil will act in terms of the label and see The sample of students for Degrees of Choice was drawn themselves as bright (so fulfilling the prophecy others have from six schools and colleges in and around London. made). ● An 11-18 mixed comprehensive with a large working class intake Setting and streaming ● A comprehensive sixth-form consortium which served a socially mixed area Most secondary schools have some system for placing pupils in teaching groups in terms of their perceived ability ● A tertiary college with a large number of A level – ie, the way teachers see their ability. These groups students include sets in which pupils are placed in subject groups ● A further education college which runs higher (they may be in set 1 for maths, set 3 for art) or streams in education access courses which they are placed into class groups (class 1, 2, 3) and ● Two prestigious single-sex private schools – one boys taught at that level for all subjects. and one girls. A number of studies (eg Hargreaves, 1967; Lacey, 1970; The educational institutions selected for the sample Ball, 1981) have looked at the effects of ability grouping varied considerably in terms of the social class in secondary schools. In general, they have found a background of their students. tendency for middle-class pupils to be placed in the Source: Reay, David and Ball, 2005 higher groups and for working-class pupils to be placed in the lower groups. Most teachers prefer to teach higher ability groups. The conduct of pupils in higher groups is likely to be better questions than of those in lower groups. Those in lower groups tend 1. Judging from the institutions from which the sample to develop an anti-school subculture in which breaking was drawn, would you say it was representative? Give school rules is highly regarded by some pupils. Teachers reasons for your answer. spend more time controlling behaviour in these groups at the expense of teaching. They expect less from these 2. Why did the authors aim to produce a representative pupils, deny them access to higher level knowledge and sample? skills, and place them in lower level examination tiers. Evaluation To what extent does setting and streaming advantage the largely middle-class higher groups and key term disadvantage the largely working-class lower groups? The evidence is inconclusive – it is not possible to reach a Social capital The support and information provided by firm conclusion. In general, more recent research contacts and social networks which can be converted into indicates that setting and streaming have little or no effect material rewards. on pupils’ achievement. However, there is some evidence that ability grouping may raise attainment in the top groups and lower it in the bottom groups (Ireson & 2.3 Social class in schools Hallam, 2001). Where ability groups do have a major effect is in setting for examination entry. This section looks at social class in the classroom. In particular, it looks at evidence which suggests that schools sometimes discriminate against working-class pupils and in Examination sets favour of middle-class pupils. GCSE examinations are tiered. Most are split into higher and foundation tiers. Pupils entered for the foundation tier cannot Labelling theory obtain Grades A* to B. In other words, the highest grade Pupils are constantly being assessed and classified. They they can achieve is Grade C. Until recently, mathematics are defined as able or less able, placed in particular sets or was divided into three tiers – higher, intermediate and streams, entered for particular examinations and given or foundation. Grades A* to B were only available to students denied access to certain parts of the school curriculum. entered for the higher level. Grade C was the highest grade Research indicates that teachers are more likely to define possible in the intermediate exam, Grade D was the highest middle rather than working-class pupils as ‘able’, ‘good grade possible in the foundation exam. students’ and ‘well behaved’. This may well disadvantage Students are usually placed in sets for exam entry – for working-class pupils. example, in the higher or lower history set for entry to the A label is a major identifying characteristic. If, for higher or foundation tier history exam. Middle-class example, a pupil is labelled as ‘bright’, others will tend to students tend to be placed in the higher sets, working-class 179 Chapter 4 activity11 cultural and social capital Item A Supporting your child Item B Choosing a school Liz, a middle-class mother, spells out how she supports her son Here are some comments from middle-class mothers at primary school. about choosing schools for their children. ‘One is the support I give him at home, hearing him read, making him read every night, doing homework with him, ‘You talk to other people who’ve got children there trying to get the books he needs for his project. I see that who come from Riverway, how are they coping. You as a support role. The other side, in the particular case of spend a lot of time talking outside the school gates Martin, is where he has had difficulties and finds reading to people you know in the same situation, that’s very, very difficult. So a lot of my time has been spent how you discover things really.’ fighting for extra support for him and I mean fighting.’ (Mrs Grafton) Later in the interview, she discusses the tuition Martin receives. ‘We spoke to teachers in the schools, spoke to ‘Well he just wasn’t making enough progress in school so other parents, and spoke to my friends who are we decided we’d have to get him a tutor.’ scattered across the borough and where their Josie, a working-class mother talks about her son’s reading children went and what they thought about it.’ difficulties. (Mrs Gosling) ‘I have tried, I really have. I knew I should be playing a role in getting Leigh to read but I wasn’t qualified. ‘There was definitely a feeling that this step into Therefore it put extra pressure on me because I was no secondary education would have a very, very big good at reading myself, it was too important for me to influence on what they do in the rest of their life. So handle and I’d get very upset and angry at Leigh.’ you had to put a lot of your attention into each ‘I always found if I went to the class teacher, she’d take school and approach each school as if your child it very personal and think I was attacking her. I wasn’t. I was definitely going to go there, and size it up, was just bringing it to her attention in case she didn’t assess your own reactions to it and all the rest of it.’ know, you know, that in my opinion he’s not progressing.’ (Mrs Cornwell) Source: Reay, 1998 Source: Ball, 2003

Item C The school/parent alliance

questions 1 Using Item A, suggest how cultural capital might give middle-class children an advantage. 2 Using Item B, suggest how social capital might give middle-class children an advantage. 3 How does the cartoon in Item C illustrate the school/parent alliance?

students in the lower sets. Set placement is based on more to do with teachers’ perceptions of what counts as teachers’ assessment of students’ ability. According to ability than students’ actual ability. The result is research by David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell (2001), discrimination against many working-class students. They teachers are more likely to see middle-class students as are denied the opportunity of even attempting to obtain the having the ability to enter higher level exams. And this has higher grades. Education and methods 180 methods7 participant observation

David Hargreaves (1967) examined the effects of streaming on ● ‘When you’re in he tries to act calmly.’ the behaviour of students and teachers in a boys’ secondary ● ‘They put on a show for you.’ school. He used participant observation as his main research ● ‘If you weren’t there he’d get real mad.’ method. He sat at the back of the classroom observing students At first Hargreaves’ presence ‘also caused changes in the boys’ and teachers. behaviour though I am convinced that once the boys became Some of the teachers changed their behaviour when observed. accustomed to me, they behaved normally’. Mr H made the boys work quietly from their textbooks. Mr O Source: Hargreaves, 1967 usually set written work and joined Hargreaves at the back of the classroom for a chat. Mr L sent boys to the back of the room with their books to show Hargreaves their work. For the most part, however, the teachers ‘appeared to behave quite naturally question and act as if I was not in the room at all’. What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant The boys noted some changes in their teachers’ behaviour. observation for conducting research in the classroom?

Conclusion This section has looked at social class and educational key terms attainment in terms of what happens within the school. Some Label A major identifying characteristic placed on a person by researchers argue that class differences in attainment result others. It identifies them as a certain kind of person. from the sifting, sorting and assessment of pupils in terms of Self-fulfilling prophecy A person sees themselves in terms of teachers’ perceptions of social class, ability and conduct. the label placed upon them and acts accordingly. In this way, Others argue that class differences in attainment are the prophecy others have made comes to pass. primarily due to what happens outside the school – to the Anti-school subculture Another term for counter-school social inequalities generated by the class structure. Schools culture. A rejection of the norms and values of the school and their replacement with anti-school norms and values. from this point of view do little more than reflect and Setting The placement of pupils into subject groups in terms rubber stamp existing inequalities. of their perceived ability. Other researchers see class differences in attainment Streaming The placement of pupils into class groups in terms resulting from a combination of what happens inside and of their perceived ability. They are taught at that level for all outside the school. From this viewpoint the inequalities of subjects. the class system are reinforced in the classroom.

summary

1. Class, ethnicity and gender make a difference to educational education. Their effectiveness largely depends on the attainment. Class makes the greatest difference. amount of cultural capital at their disposal. Middle-class 2. The following explanations have been given to explain why mothers have most. pupils with working-class backgrounds are less successful. ● A lack of social capital. Stephen Ball’s research argues that ∑ ● Material deprivation – a lack of money and the things that social capital is vital when choosing schools. Middle-class money can buy. mothers, with their wide social networks, have most. ● ● A lack of encouragement, stimulation and interest from In general, students with larger amounts of cultural and parents. social capital will choose to attend the more prestigious universities. ● Working-class subculture with its emphasis on fatalism, ● Middle-class pupils are more likely to be placed in higher present-time orientation and immediate gratification. streams, working-class pupils in lower streams. In general, ● Cultural deprivation – an absence of the norms, values and research indicates that streaming and setting have little or skills needed for high attainment. This view has been no effect on pupils’ achievement. However, they may raise strongly criticised. attainment in the top groups and lower it in the bottom ● The use of the elaborated code in schools which groups. disadvantages many working-class pupils. ● What does have an effect is the tendency to enter more ● A lack of cultural capital. According to Diane Reay, it is working-class pupils for lower level exams, so denying them mothers who have the main influence on their child’s the opportunity to obtain the top grades. 181 Chapter 4

Unit 3 Gender and educational attainment

more ambitious? Why did fewer girls than boys take high keyissues status subjects such as maths, physics and chemistry? Why 1 What are the gender differences in educational were girls less likely to go to university? attainment? By the 1990s, the concern had shifted to underachieving 2 What explanations are given for these differences? boys. The so-called gender gap in education now meant failing boys and successful girls. For the late Professor of Education, Ted Wragg, ‘the underachievement of boys has In the 1960s and 70s, sociologists were concerned about become one of the biggest challenges facing society today’. the apparent underachievement of girls. Why weren’t they For the former Chief Inspector of Schools, Chris activity12 gender and educational attainment IItem A GCSEs Item C Higher education Percentage of pupils attaining five or more GCSE grades Students in higher education A*-C• (England)• United Kingdom Boys Girls Gender 1600 % % difference %

2007 59.7 66.8 7.1 1400 Males 2006 52.6 62.2 9.6 Females 1200 2004 48.4 58.4 10.0 2002 46.4 57.0 10.6 1000 2000 44.0 54.6 10.6 800 1998 41.3 51.5 10.2

1996 39.9 49.4 9.5 Thousands 600 1994 39.1 47.8 8.7 400 1992 34.1 42.7 8.6 1990 30.8 38.4 7.6 200 Source: Department for Education and Skills 0 1970/71 1980/81 1990/91 2001/02 2004/05

Item B A levels Source: Various issues of Social Trends, Office for National Statistics Attainment of two or more GCE A levels or equivalent qualifications (United Kingdom)•

Percentages United Kingdom 50

40 Females

30 Males

20

10 question 0 question 1990/1 1993/4 1996/7 1999/2000 2004/5 Briefly summarise the trends shown in Items A, B and C. Source: National Statistics Online Education and methods 182

Woodhead, underachieving boys are ‘one of the most changed in recent years. Sue Sharpe compared the disturbing problems facing the education system’. attitudes of working-class girls in London schools in the The impression sometimes given by the media is of boys early 1970s and 1990s (Sharpe, 1976 & 1994). She found failing in droves and of girls racing ahead. But is there that the 1990s girls were: really a gender crisis in education? Work carefully through ● more confident Activity 12. It contains the kind of statistics on which ● more assertive claims of a gender crisis are often based. Then we’ll look at ● more ambitious various ways of interpreting this evidence. ● more committed to gender equality. The main priorities of the 1970s girls were ‘love, 3.1 Interpreting the statistics marriage, husbands and children’. By the 1990s, this had changed to ‘job, career and being able to support The picture of failing boys and achieving girls is based on themselves’. And education was seen as the main route to the kind of statistics presented in Activity 12. What’s wrong a good job and financial independence. with this picture? Boys are doing better Over the past 50 years, the Changes in the labour market and attitude to work educational performance of boys and young men has There has been a steady rise in the number of women in steadily improved. Overall, the performance of girls has the labour market. Between 1971 and 2006, the UK risen at a faster rate. However, this hardly justifies employment rate for working age women rose from 56% to blanketing all boys as underachievers. Many boys are 70% (Social Trends, 2007). This has been accompanied by doing extremely well (Coffey, 2001). a rise in women’s occupational ambitions – increasing Only some boys are failing Only certain groups of boys are numbers are looking forward to careers rather than simply underachieving. There is a close link between male jobs. This has led to a higher value being placed on underachievement and social class – compared to other education as a means to a good job. Studies of primary and groups, a high proportion of working-class boys are failing secondary pupils indicate that girls are increasingly aiming (Epstein et al., 1998). for occupations which require degree level qualifications What’s new? In some respects, there’s nothing new about (Francis & Skelton, 2005). girls outperforming boys. When the 11-plus exam was In the past, women tended to see employment as a introduced in the 1940s, more girls passed than boys. The stopgap before marriage. Increasingly, they see their results were fiddled so that roughly equal numbers of boys occupation as reflecting their identity and as a means for and girls went to grammar schools. If the results hadn’t self-fulfilment (Francis & Skelton, 2005). been ‘adjusted’, then two-thirds of grammar school places According to Sue Sharpe (1994), girls are increasingly would have gone to girls (Chitty, 2002). wary of marriage. They have seen adult relationships Hiding girls’ failure The preoccupation with so-called breaking up all around them. And they have seen women ‘failing boys’ diverts attention from underachieving girls. A coping alone in what was once a ‘man’s world’. Girls were high proportion of working-class girls are failing in the now concerned with standing on their own two feet rather school system (Plummer, 2000). than being dependent on a man. As a result, they were more likely to see education as a means to financial What has changed? In general, the educational independence. performance of girls has improved significantly since the 1980s. And, in general, their improvement has been greater Changes in marriage and marital breakup than that of boys. But this does not mean that boys as a group are failing. As noted earlier, the educational Over the past 30 years, there have been fewer marriages, performance of most boys is improving. more divorces and more lone-parent families, most of which are headed by women (Social Trends, 2007). Gender, class and ethnicity Although the gender gap is significant, it is important to note that class has over five times the effect on educational attainment than gender, and Changes in schools ethnicity twice the effect (Gilborn & Mirza, 2000). The abolition of the 11-plus exam and the introduction of comprehensive schools by most local education authorities has removed some of the barriers to girls’ achievement. No 3.2 Explaining girls’ improvement longer are girls artificially ‘failed’ in order to get equal numbers of boys and girls into grammar schools. Why are girls doing so well? Here are some of the explanations suggested by researchers. There has been a growing awareness of gender bias in schools and attempts to remove it. For example, there was a recognition that girls were put off by what were Changes in attitudes traditionally seen as ‘boys’ subjects’ such as maths, Judging from a number of studies, girls and young women’s technology, physics and chemistry. This led to the attitudes towards education, work and marriage have introduction of equal opportunity initiatives such as Girls 183 Chapter 4 into Science and Technology. insecure, risk-filled society, they look to themselves, In 1988, the National Curriculum provided a compulsory becoming more self-reliant and self-sufficient. Financial core curriculum for all students up to the age of 16 – no independence is one way of guarding against risk and matter what their gender. Although the compulsory core becoming self-sufficient. And education is one of the main has now been slimmed down, all students still have to take routes to well-paid jobs which can provide this maths and science. independence. Ulrich Beck (1992) argues that women are leading the Changes in society – risk and individualisation move towards the individualised self. They are ‘setting the pace for change’. As a result, it is women who are in the A number of sociologists claim that today’s society is forefront of the improvement in educational attainment. characterised by risk, uncertainty and individualisation. For example, with the rising divorce rate, the future of marriage is increasingly uncertain. And the same applies to the future of work. ‘Jobs for life’ have largely disappeared and a person’s working life is becoming more unpredictable. key term At the same time, a process of individualisation is Individualisation The process whereby people see themselves occurring. People are increasingly seeing themselves as as individuals rather than members of social groups. individuals rather than as members of social groups. In an activity13 changing girls Item A Girl power Item B Changing drinks and changing times

Early 1970s Early 1990s

question How might Items A and B help to explain girls’ rising 2007 educational attainment? Education and methods 184

3.3 Why are some boys failing? the lower working class. Growing up in such families can threaten traditional working-class masculine identities As noted earlier, most boys and young men are improving (Jackson, 1998). their performance in primary, secondary, further and higher education. However, their levels of attainment are rising more slowly than those of girls. And some boys are doing Work, home and school badly – in particular some working-class boys. In recent years, working-class boys have become Working-class boys have always had problems with the increasingly vulnerable and insecure. They have seen educational system for the reasons outlined in Unit 2. jobless men in the neighbourhood, dependent on welfare Some researchers believe that these problems have grown with little hope for the future. They have seen traditional in recent years for the following reasons. working-class jobs drying up. They have seen more and more men fail as breadwinners and fathers. Changes in the job market This has been seen as a ‘crisis’ in working-class Manual jobs With the decline in manufacturing and the masculinity. How do boys deal with this crisis at school? increasing automation of production, there has been a School and working-class identity Some working-class boys rapid reduction in semi-skilled and unskilled jobs. The attempt to deal with the identity problem by adopting an shrinking of this section of the job market has hit working- aggressive, macho ‘laddishness’. They reject what they see class males hard. In 2002, the highest unemployment rate as the middle-class values of the school. Schoolwork is – at 10% – was for men in semi-skilled and unskilled defined as ‘sissy’ work. As one boy put it, ‘The work you do occupations which do not usually require formal here is girls’ work. It’s not real work’ (Mac an Ghaill, 1994). qualifications (Social Trends, 2003). In other words, it’s not the kind of work that ‘real’ men do. Manual ‘macho’ jobs fitted traditional working-class Those who work hard are put down as ‘swots’ and ‘keenos’. masculine identities. The collapse of this sector of the job As a result, the anti-school subculture described by Paul market has left these identities uncertain, threatened and Willis in his study of working-class ‘lads’, develops and confused (Jackson, 1998). directs the boys’ behaviour (see page 165). Rejecting the Service sector jobs The new jobs in the service sector tend values of the school, some boys look for acceptance, to be desk jobs in offices and call centres, or jobs involving recognition and respect by acting out the norms and values care for others which require sensitivity and interpersonal of the anti-school subculture. Reinforced by their peers, skills. These jobs do not sit happily with traditional they make a considerable contribution to their own working-class masculine identities. And even the more educational failure. ‘macho’ jobs in the public services – eg, police, fire service and paramedics – now require higher levels of sensitivity Laddish behaviour and social skills (Mahony, 1998). The anti-school subculture of a section of working-class ‘lads’ has a long history. It has been described by Changes in male roles sociologists over the past 50 years. What appears to have Traditionally the working man was a father, husband and changed in recent years is that aspects of this subculture breadwinner. With increasing numbers of lone-parent have spread to a far larger part of the school population. families, over 90% of which are headed by women, these In Lads and Ladettes in School, Carol Jackson (2006) roles are closed to many men (see pages 95-98). And boys examined what she calls ‘laddish behaviour’ among 13-14 growing up in these families lack the role models of father, year old boys and girls. This behaviour was based on the husband and breadwinner. idea that it is uncool to work hard at school. And, if you’re Lone-parent, mother-headed families are concentrated in seen as uncool, you won’t be popular. This view was held methods8 semi-structured interviews

In Lads and Ladettes in School, Carol Jackson (2006) gave ways? She was worried about asking leading questions and semi-structured interviews to 203 Year 9 pupils in eight directing them to give the answers she expected and believed schools. She conducted some of the interviews herself – were correct. Jackson was a white British woman in her mid-30s. The other Source: Jackson, 2006 interviews were conducted by her colleague a White British woman in her 40s. question While Jackson found the interviews provided ‘rich information’, she found it difficult to get students to spell out What are the advantages and disadvantages of using semi- the motives for their behaviour. Why did they behave in laddish structured interviews in a study of laddish behaviour? 185 Chapter 4 activity14 a changing world Item A The decline of manufacturing Item C New opportunities If the sort of work available to young working-class people is largely in the service industries, they will need qualities such as warmth, empathy, sensitivity to unspoken needs, and high levels of interpersonal skills to build an effective relationship with customers. Source: Mahoney, 1998

Derelict engineering works, Willenhall, West Midlands Working in a call centre

Item B Aggressive masculinity For many working-class boys, the traditional route to status, question pride and security is closed. What some boys are left with is a bitter sense that trying to get work is pointless, and an Use Items A to C to provide an explanation for the aggressive culture of masculinity to fill in the despairing gaps. educational failure of some working-class boys. Source: Jackson, 1998

by nearly all the boys and girls in Jackson’s study, whatever their social class background. summary The boys based their laddish behaviour on the dominant 1. The educational performance of females has improved view of masculinity – they acted tough, messed around, had significantly since the 1980s. They have overtaken males a laugh, disrupted lessons and rejected school work as at every level from primary to higher education. ‘feminine’. Most wanted to do well at school but feared 2. Overall, the performance of males has also improved, but losing popularity if they were seen to work hard. The at a slower rate. solution was to work secretly, usually at home. However, 3. The following reasons have been suggested for the particularly for the working-class boys who often lacked improvement in female performance: appropriate facilities at home (eg, a computer with internet ∑ ● Changes in attitudes – eg, increasing concern with access), this was at best a partial solution. For many, laddish financial independence behaviour at school reduced their chances of success. ∑ ● Changes in the labour market – more women in the Why has laddish behaviour developed in recent years? workforce First, as noted earlier, the decline of manual jobs has ∑ ● Changes in marriage – rising divorce rate and growth threatened traditional working-class masculinity. Laddish of lone-parent families behaviour may be seen as an attempt to rebuild a ∑ ● Changes within schools – eg, reduction in gender bias masculine identity. Second, there is increasing pressure to ∑ ● Changes in society – risk, uncertainty, individualisation. succeed. Schools are striving to raise standards and improve their standing in league tables. This places growing pressure on pupils to attain high grades. Laddish 4. The following reasons have been suggested for the behaviour can help to deal with the fear of possible failure relatively low attainment of boys, particularly some and with the shame of actual failure that this pressure working-class boys. ● produces. This is summarised in the following quote: ‘I’m ∑ The threat to working-class masculinity resulting from not stupid, I just didn’t do any work’ (Jackson, 2006). the reduction in traditional working-class jobs and the growth in female-headed families ∑ ● The development of an anti-school culture which key term rejects the values of the school and helps rebuild a masculine identity Laddish behaviour In terms of behaviour in school, messing ∑ ● The spread of laddish behaviour as a response to the around, having a laugh, disrupting lessons, acting tough, fear of failure and the shame of failure. public rejection of hard work. Education and methods 186

Unit 4 Ethnicity and educational attainment

Ethnicity and gender Just how much are the differences in keyissues attainment at GCSE due to ethnicity? We already know that 1 How does ethnicity affect educational attainment? social class and gender affect attainment. Before going 2 What explanations have been given for ethnic further, it is important to look at their influence in order to differences in attainment? assess the effect of ethnicity. Work through Activity 16 now in order to assess the effect of gender. As noted earlier (see page 171) class has the most important effect on educational attainment – three times The bar chart in Activity 16 shows that in each of the greater than ethnicity. Ethnicity comes next. It has around ethnic groups, girls do better than boys. Clearly, there is a twice the effect of gender (Gillborn & Mirza, 2000). gender gap in attainment. But, even taking this into account, there are still important ethnic differences. For The evidence indicates that: example, Chinese girls do better than Chinese boys, but ● All ethnic groups have improved their educational they also do better than girls from other ethnic groups. attainment. The effect of gender varies in different ethnic groups. For ● There are significant differences in the attainment of example, the highest gender gap is between Black ethnic groups (Gillborn & Mirza, 2000). Caribbean girls and boys – over 16 percentage points. And The following section looks at some of the evidence on the lowest gender gap is between Chinese girls and boys – which these statements are based. just over 9 percentage points. These figures suggest that gender does not operate in isolation. In this case, it appears 4.1 Ethnicity and attainment – evidence to be affected by ethnicity. Ethnicity and class Recent figures on the relationship Activity 15 looks at ethnicity and educational attainment at between ethnicity, social class and educational attainment GCSE level. at GCSE are not available. However, figures are available Ethnicity Activity 15 shows that all groups have improved for a comparison of attainment at GCSE of pupils eligible their performance at GCSE level since 1992. Bangladeshi for free school meals (FSM) – those from low income students have made the most significant improvement. And groups – and those not eligible for free school meals (non- Indian students have the highest percentage of A*-C grades. FSM) – those from higher income groups. The comparison White students have made the smallest improvement. And gives some indication of the effects of class, since class Black students have the lowest percentage of A*-C grades. involves income inequality. Look at the bar chart in Despite overall improvement, there are still significant Activity 17 to see the effect of income differences on differences in attainment between ethnic groups. attainment at GCSE. activity15 ethnicity and attainment

Attainment of 5 or more GCSEs A*- C by ethnicity England and Wales percentages

Ethnic group 1992 1996 2000 2004 2006 Gain 1992-2006 White 37 45 50 55 58 +21 Black 23 23 39 34 48 +25 Indian 38 48 60 72 72 +34 Pakistani 26 23 29 37 51 +25 Bangladeshi 14 25 29 45 57 +43

Note: Black includes people of African-Caribbean and Black African origin. Source: Various Youth Cohort Studies, Office for National Statistics question Summarise the relationship between ethnicity and educational attainment indicated by the table. 187 Chapter 4 activity16 ethnicity, gender and attainment at GCSE Attainment of 5 or more GCSE grades A*-C, by ethnicity and gender, England (percentages), 2006

White British

Indian

Pakistani

Bangladeshi Boys Black Caribbean Girls

Black African

Chinese

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage % Source: National Curriculum Assessments, question SFR 04/2007, DfES, London What relationships between ethnicity, gender and educational attainment are indicated by the bar chart?

activity17 ethnicity, income inequality and attainment at GCSE Pupils achieving 5 or more GCSE grades A*-C, by ethnic group and FSM (free school meals) status, 2003 (percentages)

White British

Indian

Pakistani

Bangladeshi Non-FSM Black Caribbean FSM

Black African

Chinese

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage % Source: Ethnicity and Education, 2005 question DfES, London What relationships between ethnicity, income inequality and educational attainment are indicated by the bar chart?

The bar chart in Activity 17 shows that income inequality these grades – a difference of only 7 percentage points affects all ethnic groups. However, its influence varies from (DfES, 2005). group to group. Coming from a low-income background appears to affect White British more than minority ethnic pupils. For example, in 2003, 56% of non-FSM and 20% of Post-16 education FSM White British pupils attained A*-C grades at GCSE – a Young people from minority ethnic groups are more difference of 36 percentage points. By comparison, 50% of likely to continue their education after 16 than the majority non-FSM and 43% of FSM Bangladeshi pupils attained White group. Table 1 shows full-time and part-time initial Education and methods 188 participation rates for higher education, that is rates for However, the influence of class on ethnic performance starting higher education courses. Whites have the lowest appears to vary from group to group. In particular, class rate at 38%, Black Africans the highest at 73% appears to affect Whites to a greater extent than minority (Connor et al., 2004). Members of minority ethnic groups ethnic groups. For example, Bangladeshi pupils are most make up 16% of home undergraduates in England, nearly likely to come from working-class backgrounds, yet their double their share of the population (Modood, 2006). performance at GCSE in 2006 was little different from However, apart from the Chinese and Indian students, Whites. In general working-class Bangladeshi pupils do minority ethnic group students are less likely to attend better than working-class White pupils at age 16. The prestigious universities, more likely to drop out and less same applies to higher education. Compared to working- likely to obtain a high-grade degree (Modood, 2006). class Whites, a higher proportion of working-class minority ethnic group members attend higher education (Modood, 2004). Table 1 Higher education initial participation rates England, 2001/2 (percentages) Cultural factors To some degree, ethnic groups have their own subcultures – norms, values and beliefs which are Ethnic group Male Female All distinctive to each particular group. Does this have any effect on educational attainment? White 34 41 38 All minority ethnic groups 55 58 56 Language differences have been seen as a reason for differences in educational attainment. As the most recent Black Carribbean 36 52 45 immigrant group, Bangladeshis are likely to be less familiar Black African 71 75 73 with the English language. However, the experience of Black other 56 72 64 other groups suggests that this will be a temporary Indian 70 72 71 disadvantage. The high attainment of Indian pupils Pakistani 54 44 49 indicates that a second language is not a barrier to Bangladeshi 43 33 39 achievement (Modood et al., 1997). And, as the GCSE Chinese 47 50 49 results in Activity 15 suggest, Bangladeshi pupils appear to be rapidly overcoming any language barriers which might Source: Connor, H., Tyers, C., Modood, T. and Hillage, J. (2004) have slowed their progress. The value placed on education can affect the levels of parental encouragement and pupil motivation, which, in turn, influence educational attainment. Research evidence 4.2 Explaining ethnic differences in indicates that minority ethnic parents may place a higher attainment value on education, give their children greater encouragement and expect more from them than many This section looks at factors in 1) the wider society and 2) White parents (Connor et al., 2004). This may explain why within schools that may affect the attainment levels of class appears to have less effect on minority ethnic attainment ethnic groups. and on minority ethnic entry into higher education. A large body of research has focused on the low Ethnicity, society and attainment attainment of African-Caribbean boys in secondary schools. Tony Sewell (1997), an African-Caribbean writer, argues Explaining ethnic differences in attainment is difficult that cultural factors provide part of the explanation. A high because of: proportion of African-Caribbean boys are raised in lone- ● Changes over time – for example, at GCSE Bangladeshi parent families, usually headed by women. Lacking the students have made major improvements from 1992 to male role model of a father figure, some are drawn into 2006, significantly greater than other ethnic groups. gangs which emphasise an aggressive masculinity and ● Changes at different levels of the educational system. reject authority. In schools, this version of Black For example, the attainment of many African- masculinity can result in opposition to the authority of Caribbean boys declines during secondary education. teachers and a rejection of academic achievement. However, it improves significantly after compulsory Sewell claims that only a minority of African-Caribbean schooling as a high proportion participate in further boys adopt this approach (see page 000 for further details and higher education. of his research). And, as Table 1 indicates, many may well Social class As outlined in Unit 2, class has a significant grow out of this form of masculinity – 36% go on to higher effect on educational attainment. Ethnic groups who tend education compared to 34% for White males. to be less successful in secondary school have a higher Sewell’s research has been criticised for what some see as proportion of pupils from working-class backgrounds. Part blaming the boys rather than the schools. Critics argue that of their level of educational attainment can therefore be the way African-Caribbean boys are treated in schools is the explained in terms of class rather than ethnicity. main reason for their relatively low attainment at GCSE. 189 Chapter 4

The influence of culture can be seen from the attainment people simply because they are seen to be members of a of Chinese students. Compared to other ethnic groups, their particular group – for example, not giving them a job attainment is higher, the gender gap is smaller and the effect because of their group membership. of class is less. A study based on semi-structured interviews People may be completely unaware that they are with 80 14-16 year-old Chinese students, 30 Chinese discriminating against others. And they are often shocked parents and 30 teachers from London schools reported the when this is revealed to them. following findings (Archer, 2006). Both students and parents placed a very high value on education – it was seen as a ‘way of life’. For both middle and working-class families, methods9 questionnaires university was ‘a must’. Parents invested considerable time, energy and money in their children’s education – ‘education In The School Effect Smith and Tomlinson (1989) gave is very much a family project’. A family’s standing in the questionnaires to parents and teachers. community is partly due to the educational performance of the children. And children appreciated their parents’ high questions expectations, encouragement and support. 1 Why might a questionnaire fail to reveal racism in schools? 2 Why might parents and teachers be the wrong people to Ethnicity, schools and attainment ask about racism in schools? The focus now moves from the wider society to what goes on in the classroom. Discrimination and setting Jayleigh – not its real name – is School effectiveness a comprehensive school. In 1988, 41% of its pupils were of Asian origin. Some schools are better than others when it comes to exam results. In The School Effect, David Smith and Sally At Jayleigh a greater proportion of White pupils (77%) Tomlinson (1989) followed the progress of over 2,400 were entered for GCSEs than Asian pupils (70%). In pupils from the age of 11 to 16 in 18 multi-ethnic addition, White pupils were entered for more GCSEs (an comprehensives. They found that different schools average of 6.2) than Asian pupils (5.8). Whether or not achieved very different results with children of similar pupils could take GCSEs depended largely on teachers’ background and ability. According to the authors, ‘what assessment of their attainment and potential. school a child goes to makes far more difference than Pupils at Jayleigh were set in terms of ability. Asian pupils which ethnic group he or she belongs to’. were more likely to be placed in lower sets even when they had the same assessment from the same primary Evaluation Reviewing The School Effect, David Gillborn school as White pupils. And to get in the top sets, Asians and David Drew (1992) state that, ‘Crucially the work generally needed higher marks than Whites. Pupils tended reminds us that individual schools possess the power to to remain in the same sets throughout secondary school. influence the educational experiences, achievements and And set placement largely determined GCSE entry. As a future life chances of their pupils’. result, fewer Asians were entered for GCSEs, and those that But they see two major problems. The first concerns were entered took fewer GCSEs. methodology – in particular, the size and nature of the This study by the Commission for Racial Equality (1992) sample. For example, there were only 146 African- concluded that, ‘Here was a school which, however Caribbean pupils at age 16, too small a number on which unintentionally, was using a setting system that appears to to base conclusions. A second concern is Smith and have set up barriers to a significant number of Asian pupils, Tomlinson’s view that racism was not a significant factor in and, in some instances, might have discriminated against the education of ethnic minorities. The results of their them unlawfully’. questionnaire given to parents and teachers suggested that racism was not a problem in school. But there is a growing It is impossible to estimate the extent of the ‘Jayleigh body of research which suggests that racism is widespread situation’. However, similar examples of systematic in many schools. And it may well have a significant effect discrimination on ethnic grounds have been found in other on educational attainment. schools. This can be seen from Activity 18 which looks at setting in a Midlands comprehensive school. It refers to CSEs and O levels which were replaced by GCSEs. CSE is a Racism in schools lower level examination. A CSE grade 1 is equivalent to an Racism refers to prejudice and discrimination against O level grade C. groups seen as racially different. Prejudice means members of those groups are prejudged in terms of negative stereotypes – sweeping generalisations are made about all members of the group – for example, they are aggressive, lazy and so on. Discrimination means acting against Education and methods 190 activity18 ethnicity and setting Item A Allocation to exam sets

Third year exam results Set placement (marks out of 100) (O = GCE O level)

Ethnicity Pupil English Maths French Physics English Maths French Physics

African- A 73 44 58 --- CSE CSE CSE --- Caribbean B 62 63 60 59 CSE CSE CSE CSE C 64 45 56 72 CSE CSE --- CSE D 68 37 82 --- CSE CSE CSE ---

Asian E 51 77 --- 55 O O --- O F 60 56 58 --- O O O --- G 61 62 55.5 --- O O O --- H 54 55 --- 40 O O --- O

White I 61 62 --- 62 O O --- O J 52 57 55 --- O O O --- K 75 82 77.5 72 O O O O L54756472OOOO

A CSE grade 1 is equivalent to an O level grade C. Source: Education for Save by John Egglestone®© © Trentham Books Ltd. 1986

Item B Setting and perceived behaviour question The deputy head admitted that setting was not based solely on exam results – ‘It is the question case that the school tends to put the dutiful children in O level groups’. Some teachers In view of Items A and B, do you saw African-Caribbean students as ‘less cooperative’. One English teacher described all think that racial discrimination her African-Caribbean students as ‘a disruptive influence’. It appeared that at least some played a part in the setting of students were placed in lower sets on the basis of teachers’ views of their behaviour students? Explain your answer. rather than ability. Source: Wright, 1986

Classroom interaction attention – nearly all of it negative. Their behaviour was usually seen as aggressive, disobedient and disruptive. Primary schools The evidence examined so far suggests They were often singled out for criticism, even for actions that ethnic minority students experience discrimination which were ignored in other pupils. As a result, they often during their school careers. Studies of classroom felt picked on and treated unfairly. interaction support this. Cecile Wright’s research, Secondary schools Research by David Gillborn (1990) conducted in 1988/89, was based on classroom largely reflects Wright’s findings. He spent two years observation in four inner-city primary schools (Wright, studying an inner-city comprehensive school gathering data 1992). It found that teachers perceived and treated ethnic from classroom observation and interviews with teachers minority children differently from White children. and students. He found that the vast majority of teachers Asian children, especially the younger ones, were often tried to treat all students fairly. However, they perceived seen as a problem, but as a problem that could be largely students differently and on this basis treated them differently. ignored. They received least attention, were often excluded In particular, they often saw the actions of African-Caribbean from classroom discussions and rarely asked to answer students as a threat where no threat was intended. And they questions. Teachers tended to assume that their command reacted accordingly by disciplining them. of English was insufficient for full classroom participation. African-Caribbean students were more likely to be Yet they also saw Asian pupils as well disciplined and criticised and punished, even when members of other highly motivated. ethnic groups committed the same offence. As a result, African-Caribbean children – especially boys – were there was considerable tension and conflict between White expected to behave badly. They received considerable teachers and African-Caribbean students. 191 Chapter 4 activity19 different treatment The following is taken from observation of a nursery class of four-year-olds.

Teacher: Let’s do one song before home time. Peter:(White boy) Humpty Dumpty. Teacher: No, I’m choosing today. Let’s do something we have not done for a while. I know, we’ll do the Autumn song. What about the Autumn song we sing. Don’t shout out, put your hand up nicely. Mandy:(shouting out) Two little leaves on a tree. Teacher: She’s nearly right. Marcus:(African-Caribbean boy with his hand up) I know. Teacher:(talking to the group) Is she right when she says ‘two little leaves on a tree’? Whole group: No. Teacher: What is it Peter? Peter: Four. Teacher: Nearly right. Marcus:(waving his hand for attention) Five. Teacher: Don’t shout out Marcus, do you know Susan? Susan:(White girl) Five. Teacher:(holding up one hand) Good because we have got how many fingers on this hand? Whole group:Five. Teacher: OK, let’s only have one hand because we’ve only got five leaves. How many would we have if we had too many. Don’t shout out, hands up. Mandy:(shouting out) One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten. Teacher: Good, OK how many fingers have we got? Marcus:Five. Teacher: Don’t shout out Marcus, put your hand up. Deane, how many? Deane:Five. Teacher: That’s right, we’re going to use five today. What makes them dance about, these leaves? Peter:(shouting out) The wind. Teacher: That’s right. question

Source: Wright, 1992 Make out a case that the teacher’s treatment of Marcus is a) racist b) non-racist. Education and methods 192 methods10 ethnography Supporters of ethnography argue that we should study people in their normal, everyday settings. question What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the ethnographic method for studying racism in schools.

Máirtín Mac an Ghaill (1988) studied a boys’ represented in the lower sets and in the lower tiers for comprehensive in the early 1980s. The school was GCSE exam entry. And African-Caribbean boys in streamed with boys being demoted to lower streams for particular tend to be regarded as badly behaved and what was seen as bad behaviour. In the words of one troublesome by many teachers, even when their teacher ‘There are boys of relatively higher ability in the behaviour is similar to that of White boys. This can only lower sets, especially among the West Indians. I’ve told disadvantage ethnic minority pupils (Pilkington, 2003). you before Johnson and Brian were marvellous at Maths, especially problem-solving. But it’s their, it’s the West Indians’ attitude and that must decide it in the end. You can’t promote a boy who is known to be a troublemaker, key terms who’s a dodger. It will look like a reward for bad behaviour.’ Prejudice Prejudging members of groups in terms of stereotypes – sweeping generalisations which are applied to all Many African-Caribbean pupils responded with members of the group. Prejudice can be positive or negative. resistance. They formed an anti-school peer group, the Discrimination Acting in a certain way towards people because Rasta Heads, which rejected many of the school’s norms they are seen to be members of a particular group. and values. Discrimination can be positive or negative. Racism Prejudice and discrimination against groups seen as Racism in schools – evaluation racially different. Methodology Wright, Gillborn and Mac an Ghaill’s Ethnography A research method based on direct observation studies use a research method known as ethnography. of relatively small groups, often over fairly long periods of time. This involves direct observation of relatively small groups, often over fairly long periods of time. Because the samples are small, it is not possible to make generalisations – ie, to say that the findings apply to all multi-ethnic schools. summary However, the insights ethnography provides are unlikely 1. There are significant differences in the educational to come from research methods such as questionnaires. attainment of ethnic groups. However, these differences For example, in The School Effect, Smith and Tomlinson’s change over time – eg, over the past 20 years – and questionnaire to parents and teachers revealed little vary from one level of the educational system to evidence of racism in schools. Ethnographic methods another – eg, from secondary to higher. often give a very different picture. But not always. 2. The following factors outside the school have been seen An alternative view Peter Foster (1990) conducted an to affect ethnic differences in attainment. ethnographic study of a multi-ethnic comprehensive ∑ ∑ ● Social class – affects the attainment of all ethnic between 1985 and 1987. He found no evidence of groups, but its influence varies from one group to the racism. Students from ethnic minorities were not treated next. White students appear most affected by class. differently from White students. In fact, minority students, ● especially African-Caribbean girls – achieved better ∑ ∑ Cultural factors – there is evidence that cultural factors, such as the value parents place on education results than White pupils. and peer group subcultures, may partly account for Foster admitted that the school he studied was ethnic differences in attainment. distinctive. It was situated in a community with a long 3. The following factors within schools have been seen to history of ethnic cooperation. And, at the time of his affect ethnic differences in attainment. study, the staff were involved in an anti-racist programme. Whatever the differences between this school and others, ∑ ● Racism – particularly directed against African Foster’s study warns against the dangers of generalising Caribbeans from a few examples. ∑ ● Discrimination in setting Despite this warning, there is evidence of racism in ∑ ● Discrimination in everyday classroom interaction. schools. Ethnic minority pupils tend to be over- 193 Chapter 4

Unit 5 Relationships and processes within schools

the same way, then they are all transmitting similar keyissues messages. And these messages will form part of the hidden 1 What is the hidden curriculum and how does it operate? curriculum of the school. 2 What are pupil subcultures and how do they develop? Defining the hidden curriculum 3 What factors shape teacher-pupil relationships? The formal school curriculum consists of the knowledge 4 How are teaching and learning organised? and skills which pupils are expected to acquire. In state schools, part of this curriculum – the National Curriculum – is laid down by the government. It is spelt out in detail in 5.1 The hidden curriculum official publications. The hidden curriculum is the messages schools transmit Look back to Activity 19 on page 000, which shows how to pupils without directly teaching them or spelling them Marcus, a four-year-old African-Caribbean boy, is given a out. It consists of ideas, beliefs, norms and values which hard time by his teacher. Let’s assume that Marcus has a are often taken for granted and transmitted as part of the tendency to over-enthusiasm, but apart from this is a well- normal routines and procedures of school life. It includes behaved and likeable boy. What message is the teacher the unwritten and often unstated rules and regulations sending to Marcus and the other children? which guide and direct everyday school behaviour If she consistently puts all African-Caribbean children (Ballantine & Spade, 2001). down, then her unspoken message states that African- Caribbean children are different, that they should not be shown the same kindness and consideration as other How is the hidden curriculum transmitted? children, and that they are troublesome and need keeping The hidden curriculum is transmitted in many different in check. If other teachers treat African-Caribbean pupils in ways. Think about the following.

activity20 hidden messages Item A Power and gender Item B Social control and ethnicity In Britain’s secondary schools, women tend to remain in the Exclusion is one of the methods of social control which lower teaching ranks and in particular subject areas. Those schools can use to deal with students they regard as who are promoted often end up as head of year, responsible troublesome. Black pupils are more likely to be excluded than for pastoral care – dealing with students’ problems. White pupils. In 2004/05, 39 in every 10,000 African- Source: Langham, 2000 Caribbean pupils were permanently excluded compared to 13 in every 10,000 White pupils. Item C School assembly Source: Social Trends, 2007, Office for National Statistics Assembly started when teachers marched their tutorial groups to the hall, where they were expected to stand in straight lines. Here, senior house staff were much in evidence as they were concerned that pupils should stand up straight and stand quietly until the headmaster arrived. Meanwhile, other teachers stood around the edge of the hall, talking to each other, making jokes, and exchanging stories until the headmaster entered. Source: Burgess, 1983 question What messages are being transmitted by Items A, B and C? Education and methods 194

School organisation how it relates to the wider society. ● Is there a hierarchy of power, status and authority? Functionalist views As outlined earlier, functionalists see ● Who holds the top posts (eg, headteacher, senior staff), the transmission of society’s core values as one of the main who occupies the lowest (eg, cleaners)? What is their functions of the education system. This can be seen as part class, gender, ethnicity and age group? of the hidden curriculum. It is hidden in the sense that ● Are there mixed-ability classes, or are pupils divided teachers and pupils are often unaware of the process. It is into streams or sets? Are certain groups – eg, working- part of the curriculum because it’s found in every school. class boys – usually found in certain sets? Talcott Parsons (1951, 1961) provides an example using ● Are lots of pupils excluded? If so, which pupils? the value of individual achievement, one of the major values in Western industrial society. In schools young The behaviour and attitudes of those in authority people are required to achieve as individuals. They take exams on their own, not as a member of a team. Their ● How do the head, senior staff, other teachers and individual achievements are carefully graded and assessed. support staff (eg cooks and caretakers) relate to each High achievement is rewarded with praise, high status, other and to pupils? good grades and valuable qualifications. In this way, young ● Are pupils allowed to have a say in school life? people are encouraged to value individual achievement. ● How do those in authority relate to pupils in general And this prepares them to achieve as individuals in the and to the class, gender and ethnicity of pupils? wider society. Transmitting messages Messages are transmitted in all Marxist views As outlined earlier, Marxists argue that the these areas. For example, if the top posts are filled by main job of schools is social reproduction – producing the males, this says something about gender relationships. If next generation of workers schooled to accept their roles in pupils have little or no say in the running of the school, capitalist society. this says something about power in organisations. If For Bowles and Gintis (1976), this is done primarily disproportionate numbers of working-class boys are found through the hidden curriculum. They claim that schools in the lower sets, this says something about inequality in produce subordinate, well-disciplined workers who will the wider society. submit to control from above and take orders rather than question them. Schools do this by rewarding conformity, The hidden curriculum – functionalist and Marxist obedience, hard work and punctuality, and by penalising views creativity, originality and independence. Functionalist and Marxist perspectives on education were Schools are seen to transmit ruling class ideology – a outlined in Unit 1. Each contains a particular view of the false picture of society which justifies social inequality and hidden curriculum – what it is, how it is transmitted and the capitalist system.

activity21 views of the hidden curriculum Item A Prize day Item B Learning to submit In a study of 237 students in their final year at a New York high school, the researchers claimed that high grades were linked with perseverance, obedience, consistency, dependability and punctuality. Students with high grades were often below average when measured in terms of creativity, originality and independence of judgement. Source: Bowles & Gintis, 1976 questions 1 How can Item A be used to support a functionalist view of the hidden curriculum? 2 How can Item B be used to support a Awards for academic excellence in an American school Marxist view of the hidden curriculum? 195 Chapter 4

Conclusion successful and those defined as unsuccessful – the two The idea of a hidden curriculum is useful. Clearly, there’s a groups became polarised. lot more being taught and learned in schools than the The subculture of success Pupils in the top stream formal curriculum of English, maths, science, and so on. accepted the value system of the school – they worked And clearly much of this is ‘hidden’ – teachers and learners hard and were well-behaved. The system rewarded them are often unaware of what’s going on. with prestige – they were praised and respected by The content of the hidden curriculum is open to teachers. And the boys reinforced each other’s behaviour – interpretation. Have the functionalists got it right? Have the they were members of a successful peer group sharing the Marxists got it right? This partly depends on how you see same values. capitalist society. The subculture of failure Pupils in the bottom stream developed an anti-school subculture which became more 5.2 Pupil subcultures extreme as the years went by. The school’s values were turned upside down – boys gained prestige for giving Pupil subcultures are the distinctive norms and values cheek to a teacher, truanting, refusing to do homework, developed by groups of young people in schools. The anti- and for smoking and drinking. school subculture identified by Paul Willis in his study of This was a group thing – boys gained respect from other working-class boys in a secondary school is an example of members of the group for anti-school behaviour. In this a pupil subculture (see page 165). way, they reinforced each other’s behaviour. And in the This section asks what subcultures exist in schools and process, their school work steadily deteriorated. where do they come from. Are they a reflection of life Conclusion Lacey’s study suggests that pupil subcultures outside the school – do pupils bring their subculture from develop within the school. They are a response to the way the neighbourhood into the school? Or, do subcultures pupils are perceived by teachers, by other pupils, and by develop in response to pupils’ experiences within schools – themselves. And they are a reaction to the way school for example, their placement in particular sets? Or, do they classes are organised – in this case, streamed – and all that develop from young people’s experiences both inside and this ‘says’ about pupils in different streams. outside the school?

A white, male, middle-class subculture key terms One of the earliest studies of pupil subcultures was Pupil subcultures The distinctive norms and values developed conducted in the late 1950s/early 60s by Colin Lacey by groups of young people in schools. (1970). The pupils were mainly middle class and attended Differentiation Separating pupils into groups on the basis of Hightown Grammar School (not its real name). Many had their perceived ability and behaviour. been high achievers at their local primary school – they Polarisation The widening gap in terms of measured ability were the ‘top scholars, team leaders, head boys and and behaviour between top and bottom classes. teachers’ favourites’. In their first year, all new boys showed high levels of commitment to the school, proudly wearing their school caps and jackets, and enthusiastically attending school White, male, working-class subcultures functions and clubs. In class, they were eager, straining to The lads As outlined earlier, Paul Willis studied a small answer questions, cooperating with their teachers and group of working-class boys – the ‘lads’ – during their last competing among themselves. Six months into the second year and a half at school (see page 165). In many ways the year, one class was seen by their teachers as difficult to anti-school subculture developed by the lads was similar to teach. In the words of one teacher, ‘They’re unacademic, the behaviour of the boys in the bottom stream in Lacey’s they can’t cope with the work’. What had happened to study of Hightown Grammar. However, Willis’s explanation transform a group of high-achieving, academically-able first of the subculture’s development is very different. year pupils into ’unacademic’ second year pupils? To help According to Willis, the lads’ behaviour reflected a) their explain this, Lacey introduced two concepts – expectations of future employment and b) the working- differentiation and polarisation. class subculture they brought to school with them. The lads Differentiation This is the process by which teachers judge were keen to leave school as soon as possible and looked and rank pupils in terms of their academic ability (as forward to ‘real’ work – adult, male, manual jobs. School perceived by the teacher) and their behaviour. On this was a waste of time. basis, they are differentiated into streams. As time goes on, ● The lads didn’t need academic qualifications for the pupils get a sense of how both teachers and fellow pupils jobs they wanted. rate and rank them. ● They despised those who conformed to the school’s Polarisation Gradually, a gap opened up – and kept values – who they called the ‘ear ‘oles’ – seeing them as growing – between the pupils who were defined as cissies. Education and methods 196

● They wanted a context – manual work – where they Macho Lads The Macho Lads were relegated to the bottom could be real men. two sets for all their subjects. They were academic failures The lads’ anti-school subculture reflected the working- and treated as such by their teachers. Like Willis’s lads, class culture they’d learned from their fathers, elder they rejected the school’s values and the teachers’ brothers and other men in the neighbourhood. Having a authority. Their concerns were acting tough, having a ‘laff’, a lack of respect for authority and messing around laugh, looking after their mates and looking smart. The are aspects of manual working-class male subculture. The teachers viewed them with suspicion and policed their lads are attracted to this kind of behaviour and reproduce it behaviour, banning certain clothes and hairstyles, and in the classroom. making constant demands – ‘Sit up straight’, ‘Look at me For Willis, the lads’ anti-school subculture is shaped when I’m talking to you’ and ‘Walk properly down the mainly by their expectations about the jobs they hope to corridor’. get and by the working-class subculture they bring with Academic Achievers Apart from the Macho Lads, Mac an them to school. Ghaill identified two other working-class pupil subcultures. Working-class peer groups Willis has been criticised for The Academic Achievers saw hard work and educational basing his conclusion on a very small sample – 12 boys – qualifications as the route to success. They were in the top and for ignoring other pupil subcultures in the school. sets, and received preferential treatment in terms of Máirtín Mac an Ghaill (1994) studied Year 11 students in timetabling, books and experienced teachers. The the early 1990s, in Parnell School (not its real name), a Academic Achievers tended to come from the upper levels comprehensive in the West Midlands. He identified three of the working class. working-class male peer groups, each with a distinctive New Enterprisers The New Enterprisers saw a different subculture. route to success. They focused on vocational subjects such Mac an Ghaill argues that to some extent these as business studies and technology and looked forward to a subcultures are shaped by: future in high-skilled areas of the labour market. ● the way students are organised into sets ● the type of curriculum they follow White, female subcultures ● the teacher-student social relations which result from Most of the research has focused on male subcultures. the above. However, the following studies suggest some interesting

activity22 the Macho Lads Darren: It’s the teachers that make the rules. It’s them that decide that it’s either them or us. So you are often put into a situation with teachers where you have to defend yourself. Sometimes it’s direct in the classroom. But it’s mainly the headcases that would hit a teacher. Most of the time it’s all the little things. Interviewer: Like what? Gilroy: Acting tough by truanting, coming late to lessons, not doing homework, acting cool by not answering teachers, pretending you didn’t hear them; that gets them mad. Lots of different things. Noel: Teachers are always suspicious of us (the Macho Lads). Just like the cops, trying to set you up. Source: Mac an Ghaill, 1994 Messing around question Provide a brief explanation for the attitudes expressed above. 197 Chapter 4

methods11 involving participants

Mac an Ghaill’s research at Parnell School was based mainly work. As one student said to Mac an Ghaill, ‘I’ve talked to you on participant observation. He also used informal group in a way that I’ve never talked to anyone and still don’t, can’t’. discussions, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, and Source: Mac an Ghaill, 1994 diaries kept by the students. He aimed to break down the barriers between himself and the research participants. There was give and take as they shared their life histories. And the question students directly contributed to the research process by question helping Mac an Ghaill construct the questionnaire that they How effective do you think Mac an Ghaill’s research methods later completed. Involving the research participants seemed to were? Give reasons for your answer. contrasts between male and female pupil subcultures. labelled as less able and placed in lower sets. Again, this Exaggerated femininity Research by Scott Davies (1995) in can lead to anti-school subcultures. Canada indicates that girls’ resistance to schooling is less As noted earlier, African-Caribbean students sometimes aggressive and confrontational than male anti-school bring Black street culture into the classroom. And this can behaviour. Where the ‘lads’ display an ‘exaggerated be seen by some teachers as disruptive with its emphasis masculinity’, the Canadian girls adopt an ‘exaggerated on aggressive masculinity. femininity’. A variety of subcultures Sociologists tend to focus on anti- They expressed their opposition to school by focusing on school subcultures. In some ways, they are more interesting traditional gender roles. In Davies’s words, ‘Girls and colourful than conformist subcultures. Particularly in accentuate their femininity in exaggerated displays of the case of African-Caribbeans, this tends to overlook the physical maturity and hyper-concerns with “romance” on variety of responses to schooling. the one hand, and prioritise domestic roles such as In a study of African-Caribbean students in a boys-only, marriage, child-rearing and household duties over 11-16 comprehensive school, Tony Sewell (1997) identifies schooling on the other hand’. So they wrote school off and four main responses. invested their hopes in romance and future domestic roles. ● Conformists These pupils (41%) accepted the value of You’re wasting my time John Abraham’s study of an education and the means to achieve educational English comprehensive indicates a different strategy of success – behaving well and working hard. Conformists resistance. The girls pushed the school rules to the limit felt they couldn’t succeed educationally and embrace and responded to discipline by suggesting that it prevented the values and norms of their own Black peer group. them from getting on with their work. Teachers’ objections This is a gamble, because if they don’t succeed, they to their behaviour were rejected as a waste of their may lose the security which comes from being seen as valuable time (Abraham, 1995). a part of the Black community. ● African-Caribbean male subcultures Innovators These students (35%) accepted the value of education and wanted academic success but rejected Anti-school subcultures A number of studies have the schooling process. Although anti-school, they tried identified African-Caribbean anti-school subcultures. These to keep out of trouble. They attempted to distance subcultures are seen to develop from factors both inside themselves from the conformists and from teachers. and outside the school (Gaine & George, 1999). ● Retreatists A small group (6%) of loners who made Within schools, teachers tend to see African-Caribbean themselves as inconspicuous as possible. Many had males as aggressive, challenging and disruptive. Often this special educational needs. is a misreading of African-Caribbean youth subculture – ● Rebels These students (18%) rejected the school and ways of walking, talking and dressing are sometimes projected an image of aggressive masculinity. Some interpreted by teachers as a challenge to their authority modelled themselves on the Jamaican Yard Man, noted when none is intended. As a result of these for his supposed physical and sexual prowess. They misconceptions, African-Caribbean students tend to be treated the Conformists with contempt, they were singled out for punishment when White and Asian students challenging and confrontational, and sometimes violent. are just as guilty. This leads some pupils to suspect teachers Many saw academic qualifications as worthless – White of racism. And this can lead to anti-school subcultures racism would prevent them from achieving high status (Connolly, 1998). occupations. As a result of both their class and ethnicity, a Conclusion The above study is important because it shows disproportionate number of African-Caribbean students are the variety of African-Caribbean pupil subcultures rather Education and methods 198 activity23 African-Caribbean students Item A Working for himself Item B Setting a good example Calvin has set up in business as a ‘mobile barber’. Although Interviewer: Do you belong to a gang? still at school, he says he can make up to £300 a week. Kelvin: No, because my mum says I shouldn’t hang around Interviewer: How important is it for you to own your students who get into trouble. I must take my own business? opportunity while I can. Calvin: It is important for Black people to make Interviewer: What students in this school do you avoid? money because White people don’t take us Kelvin: They are fourth years, you can easily spot the way seriously because we’re poor. they walk around in groups, they are mostly Black Interviewer: Is education important to you? with one or two Whites. They’re wearing baseball Calvin: Not really. I know what I need to know from hats and bopping (Black stylised walk). the street. I’ll give it three years and I bet no- Interviewer: Don’t you ever bop? one will bother with school. There ain’t no Kelvin: Sometimes for a laugh, but it’s really a kind of walk jobs for no-one and they don’t want to give for bad people. I wouldn’t walk like this in school jobs to Black people. in front of the teachers. It sets a bad example. Source: Sewell, 1997 Source: Sewell, 1997 Item C Celebrating

questions 1 It is important not to see the anti-school subculture as the typical response of African-Caribbean young men. Discuss with some reference to Items A and B. 2 Briefly explain why African-Caribbean girls often do well at school and college.

Celebrating successful GCSE results than simply focusing on anti-school subcultures. in response to the open racism of a small number of This study also shows how pupil subcultures are teachers and the clumsy, well-meaning but often unhelpful influenced by what goes on inside and outside the school. ‘help’ offered by many teachers in response to the girls’ For example, the Rebels drew on Black street culture, ethnicity (Mirza, 1992) – see page 200. arriving at school with patterns in their hair. This was African-Caribbean girls usually keep a low profile, keep banned, despite White boys being allowed to wear their distance and avoid confrontation. In this way, they ponytails. This is seen as a lack of respect and pupils maintain their self-respect and don’t have to compromise. responded aggressively. Teachers punished them and so an anti-school subculture developed, shaped by factors from both inside and outside the school (Sewell, 1997). 5.3 Teacher-pupil relationships This section looks at the relationships between teachers African-Caribbean female subcultures and pupils. It focuses on the way teachers define, classify A number of studies of African-Caribbean female pupil and evaluate pupils and how these processes affect pupils’ subcultures have produced the following picture (Mac an behaviour. Ghaill, 1988, 1992; Gillborn, 1990; Mirza, 1992). These findings apply to many, though by no means all, students. Teacher expectations Generally, African-Caribbean girls are pro-education – A famous study conducted in 1964 by Robert Rosenthal they are ambitious, determined to succeed, and are aiming and Leonora Jacobson, looked at the effects of teachers’ for high-status, well-paid occupations. However, they tend expectations on pupils’ behaviour. The researchers told not to identify with their teachers and school. This is partly teachers in a primary school in California that they had 199 Chapter 4 identified a number of pupils – the ‘spurters’ – as likely to from it. Those in the lowest class grouping were seen as make rapid progress. Unknown to the teachers, these less able, lacking motivation and difficult to control. As a pupils were selected at random. Yet, judging from the result, teachers felt the best they could do was ‘just try to results of intelligence tests, the spurters made greater get some basic things over to them’ (Becker, 1971). progress than their classmates over the next year. Teachers were unaware that the social class background Rosenthal and Jacobson concluded that their progress of pupils influenced their assessments. Nor did they realise was due to the way they were defined. Their teachers that perceptions of class also influenced the level of work expected more from them, conveyed this expectation to they felt appropriate for pupils. them, and the pupils acted accordingly. Yet, in Rosenthal Class in a nursery school An American study of children and Jacobson’s (1968) words, the only difference between starting nursery school shows how early and how quickly the ‘spurters’ and their classmates was ‘entirely in the the link between class and ability can be made. By the minds of teachers’. eighth day, children had been allocated to one of three Rosenthal and Jacobson used the idea of a self-fulfilling tables depending on the teacher’s perception of their prophecy to explain their results. If people are defined in a ability. And this perception, unknown to the teacher, was certain way, this definition includes a prediction or prophecy of their future behaviour. If others act as if the prophecy is true, then there is a tendency for it to come to activity24 an ideal pupil pass – to fulfil itself. The definition acts as a label. According to labelling theory, if someone is labelled as a certain kind of person, others will respond to them in terms of the label. And there is a tendency for the person to adopt that identity and act in terms of it. Evaluation Rosenthal and Jacobson’s research has been extremely influential. However, attempts to replicate (repeat) their study have produced mixed results with some suggesting that labelling was of little or no significance. However, many researchers argue that labelling is important, that the self-fulfilling prophecy is real, and that it can help to explain differences in educational attainment. methods12 replication question

Using Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study as an example, suggest why it is important to replicate studies.

Teachers’ perceptions and social class How do teachers assess pupils’ ability? To some extent by their exam results and the reports of other teachers on pupils’ progress and potential. But, as Units 2, 3 and 4 indicate, teachers’ assessments can be affected by pupils’ social class, ethnicity and gender. And this in turn, can affect teachers’ relationships with pupils. Class and the ‘ideal pupil’ An early study looking at the influence of pupils’ class on teachers’ perceptions was conducted in the early 1950s by the American sociologist questions Howard Becker. He interviewed 60 teachers from Chicago How does this cartoon illustrate: high schools and found they tended to share an image of the ‘ideal pupil’. a) the ideas of labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy Teachers perceived middle-class pupils as closest to this b) teachers’ expectations of and relationships with pupils? ideal, and pupils from the lower working class as furthest Education and methods 200 based on the child’s class background, with working-class Relationships with teachers were often strained and children being placed on the ‘lower-ability’ table (Rist, difficult. According to Sewell, teachers were sometimes 1970). frightened by the physical size and aggression of some of Class and ‘ability’ Research in Britain presents a similar the more assertive pupils. There was a tendency to lump all picture. David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell (2001) African-Caribbean boys together. Those who conformed to conducted research in two London secondary schools from the school’s values and those who rebelled against them 1995 to 1997. They discovered that teachers had a were often judged and treated in terms of the same ‘common sense understanding of ability’. Using this as a negative stereotypes. yardstick, they allocated pupils to different Sewell divided the teachers into three groups in terms of examination sets. their relationships with African-Caribbean pupils. Working-class pupils were more likely to be seen as 1 Supportive teachers About 10% of staff. They did their disruptive, as lacking in motivation and lacking in parental best to support and guide pupils and usually established support. As a result, they ‘face a particular problem in good relationships. convincing teachers that they have “ability”’. And because 2 Irritated teachers About 60% of staff. Although they of this, they are more likely to be placed in lower level sets could be supportive, they felt firmer discipline was and entered for foundation tier examinations. needed. They blamed the boys’ street culture for many As a result of making a link between so-called ‘ability’ of the school’s problems. and social class, teachers systematically discriminated 3 Antagonistic teachers Around 30% who were either against working-class pupils (Gillborn & Youdell, 2001). openly racist or objected to African-Caribbean street Class and teacher-pupil relationships As the section on culture – for example, hairstyles and ‘bopping’ (a pupil subcultures indicated, teachers’ perceptions of stylised walk). As the term ‘antagonistic teachers’ students can have an important effect on day-to-day suggests, their relationships with African-Caribbean relationships. Generally, teachers prefer to teach pupils pupils were strained and sometimes hostile. they see as able and highly motivated. They place these African-Caribbean girls A study by Heidi Mirza (1992) of students in higher sets and respond more favourably two south London comprehensives focused on 62 young towards them. As a result, teacher-pupil relationships tend Black women, aged 15-19. Mirza identifies five types of to be positive. teacher in terms of their relationships with and attitudes Conversely, teachers’ views of students who have been towards Black students. defined as less able and placed in lower sets tend to be less 1 Overt racists A small minority who the girls avoided favourable. These students may respond with resentment where possible. and hostility. And this can result in discipline problems and 2 The Christians Tried to be ‘colour blind’, claiming to negative relationships between teachers and pupils. see no difference between ethnic groups and the White majority, and refusing to see racism as a problem. They Teachers’ perceptions and ethnicity sometimes expected too little of the girls and gave them glowing reports for average achievement. African-Caribbeans Gillborn and Youdell’s (2001) findings 3 The crusaders Anti-racists who tried to make their about working-class pupils outlined above apply equally to lessons relevant to Black students. Because they knew African-Caribbean pupils, no matter what their social class. little about their students, lessons tended to be Thus, there was a tendency to see African-Caribbean pupils confusing and irrelevant. as less able and more disruptive. This reflects the findings of a number of studies, particularly of African-Caribbean 4 Liberal chauvinists Like the crusaders, they were well- boys (see pages 00 and 00). meaning, but tended to underestimate their students’ ability. Primary schools As noted earlier, Cecile Wright’s research in inner-city primary schools indicated that teachers tended 5 Black teachers A small group who showed no to see African-Caribbean children, especially boys, as favouritism and were liked and respected. The girls aggressive and disobedient. They were singled out for found their help and advice extremely valuable. criticism and punishment, for which they felt picked on In general, the young women in Mirza’s research were and unfairly treated. As a result, teacher-pupil relationships ambitious, hard-working and determined to succeed. They tended to be negative – abrasive and sometimes hostile rejected the negative views of their blackness, the low (Wright, 1992). expectations of their potential, and the patronising and Secondary schools Wright’s findings from primary schools unhelpful ‘help’. They tended to keep their distance and are mirrored in studies of secondary schools. For example, maintain a cool relationship with their teachers. Tony Sewell’s (1997) study of a boys’ 11-16 comprehensive South Asian pupils Cecile Wright’s study of four inner-city school suggested that African-Caribbean boys’ were singled primary schools gives the following picture of the out for punishment. For example, they made up 32% of the relationship between teachers and Asian children in the student population but comprised 85% of those excluded. nursery units. 201 Chapter 4

Asian children, especially the younger ones, were often (for further details, see page 00). seen as a problem, but as a problem that could be largely Gender and society Some studies suggest that if only ignored. They received least attention, were often excluded teachers got rid of their sexist attitudes then everything from classroom discussions and rarely asked to answer would be alright. Boys and girls would then be treated questions. Teachers tended to assume that their command equally. But classroom interaction is a two-way process. It of English was insufficient for full classroom participation. is not simply teacher led. Yet they also saw Asian pupils as well disciplined and Jane French (1986) argues that pupils bring their own highly motivated (Wright, 1992). behaviour patterns to the classroom, patterns which differ Paul Connolly’s (1998) study of a multi-ethnic, inner-city for boys and girls. Basing her research on video recordings primary school gives the following picture of the of children in infant schools, French found that boys were relationship between South Asian five and six-year-olds more mobile and active, they were more disruptive and and their teachers.The children were seen as obedient, demanded more attention. Although girls were eager and hard working and conformist. Teachers expected them to interested, they were more likely to obey rules, for produce high quality work. example, raising their hands and waiting for permission to Girls were seen as models of good behaviour. When the speak. Simply because their behaviour was more boys did misbehave, this was seen as ‘silly’ rather than a problematic, boys got more attention. challenge to the teacher’s authority. As a result, they were Gender behaviour is shaped by the wider society and not punished as much as African-Caribbean boys. Boys brought into the classroom. In French’s view, ‘the most were often praised for good work, while girls tended to be determined action taken within the school cannot left alone – teachers felt they didn’t need the same help effectively counter the influence of peer group, magazines, and encouragement (Connolly, 1998). television and family’.

Teachers’ perceptions and gender 5.4 The organisation of teaching and ‘Girls get much less attention than boys ‘cos boys make a learning fuss and make themselves noticed – they wanna be noticed so they make a racket’ (quoted in Lees, 1986). This This section looks at how pupils are allocated to teaching complaint finds support from a number of studies. groups, and how this shapes what they are taught and the Typical boys and girls In his study of a comprehensive examinations they take. It draws together and develops school, conducted in 1986, John Abraham (1995) asked material from various parts of the chapter. teachers to describe a typical boy and a typical girl. The There are two main types of teaching groups – ability typical boy is not particularly bright, likes a laugh, groups and mixed-ability groups. sometimes deliberately misbehaves and always wants to be Ability groups These are groups of pupils who are seen to noticed. The typical girl is bright, well-behaved and have similar abilities. Setting and streaming are two ways hardworking, doesn’t say much, can be timid, silly and of dividing students into ability groups. Setting allocates gigglish. pupils to subject groups – a pupil could be in set 1 for Boys tend to be seen as behaviour problems. They were English and set 3 for maths. Streaming places pupils in the told off for misbehaviour much more often than girls. same ability group for all subjects – for example, a pupil is However, not all this attention was negative. Boys were placed in class 3 and taught at that level for all subjects. asked many more questions than girls in maths and in Mixed-ability groups In these groups, pupils are some English classes. Maybe as a result of this imbalance, randomly or intentionally mixed in terms of their perceived girls asked teachers far more questions than boys. ability. Attending to boys In Invisible Women: The schooling Setting is the most common form of ability grouping in scandal, Dale Spender (1983) tape-recorded lessons given schools in England and Wales. It becomes increasingly by herself and other teachers. Boys received over 60% of common as pupils approach GCSE. Streaming was typical teachers’ time – 62% in her case even though she tried to of primary schools in the 1940s and 50s. It began to die divide her time equally between boys and girls. Compared out with the decline of the 11-plus exam. Mixed-ability to boys, girls were ‘invisible’. They tended to blend into teaching throughout pupils’ school careers is found in only the background, a strategy encouraged by the fact that a small number of schools. boys often poked fun at their contributions to lessons. And teachers usually allowed boys to get away with insulting Ability groups and abusive comments to girls. Michelle Stanworth’s (1983) study of A-level students and Supporters of ability groups make the following points. teachers in a college of further education reflects this focus Different abilities – different teaching Young people have on boys. Stanworth found that teachers gave more time different abilities. This means they need to be taught: and attention to boys, were more likely to know boys’ ● At different speeds names, and expressed more concern and interest in them Education and methods 202

● In different ways points. ● At different levels. Social benefits Mixed-ability groups encourage The most efficient way of doing this is to create teaching cooperation and friendly relationships between students. groups of pupils with similar abilities. For the wider society, they reduce class differences and Different abilities – different tasks There’s no point in class conflict. giving the same tasks to pupils of different ability. For Ability is not fixed In practice, most pupils remain in the example, only some can cope with higher level maths. same set or stream. This assumes that their ability is fixed – Different abilities – different exams Because pupils have that it won’t change. However, there is a lot of evidence different abilities, they need different exams at different which suggests that ability – as measured by tests – is not levels – for example, GCSE at higher and foundation levels. fixed. Setting affects attainment The set or stream in which a Mixed-ability groups pupil is placed can affect their attainment. For example, it can raise attainment in the top set and lower attainment in Supporters of mixed-ability groups make the following the bottom set. This is unfair – all pupils should have an activity25 teachers and pupils Item A Social class Item B Ethnicity Teacher A: Some of the class have written to Oldham Samuel, a seven-year-old African-Caribbean pupil, talks to a Town Council for material for the New researcher. Town project. Samuel: I always get done and always get picked on. … I want Teacher B: They’re really bright, are they? to go to a Black school with all Black teachers, it’s Teacher A: Mostly from middle-class families, well better. I want to go to a school with just Black motivated. people. Researcher:Why? Source: Keddie, 1973 Samuel: Because when you go to a school with White people they give you horrible food and you’re always picked A Head of Faculty in a secondary school explains the on when you don’t do nothing. When it’s White school’s poor showing in the ‘league tables’. ‘We are people, they just say stop that and stop doing this. weighted down the lower end, unfortunately, because we Researcher: How does this make you feel? are a working-class school.’ Samuel:(Long thoughtful pause) Sad. Source: Gillborn & Youdell, 2001 Source: Wright, 1992 Item C Gender Alison: All the teachers I didn’t like, they always favoured the boys and never taught us – the girls. Researcher: How did they favour the boys in their teaching? Alison: It was usually the boys who were noisy in the class and if a girl put her hand up they always keep her waiting and just never get round to it. And if a boy and a girl put up their hand at the same time they’d always talk to the boy. They’d never have time for the girls. Source: Abraham, 1995 questions 1 What does Item A suggest about teachers’ perceptions of middle and working-class pupils? 2 Read Item B. Samuel may deserve everything he gets or he may not. Briefly discuss. 3 In what ways do Alison’s comments in Item C reflect the findings of research? 203 Chapter 4 equal chance. pupils to ability groups makes little or no difference. There Setting discriminates Those allocated to lower sets or is some research, however, which indicates that it does streams tend to be from working-class or minority ethnic make a difference. This research suggests that although the backgrounds. This can prevent them from obtaining the overall attainment level may remain the same, this is knowledge required for a high grade in examinations – for because those in the top sets do better and those in the example, at GCSE level. In contrast, a disproportionate bottom sets do worse. Possible reasons for this have number of White, middle-class pupils are placed in the already been outlined – labelling, the self-fulfilling upper sets/streams. Ability groups discriminate in favour of prophecy, teacher expectations, and pupil subcultures. the White middle-classes and against those from working- Where does this leave us? The short answer is we don’t class and minority ethnic backgrounds. really know. Research evidence on the effects of ability grouping is inconclusive – it is not clearcut. Behaviour rather than ability This can be used as a basis for allocating pupils to ability groups. For example, there is Setting and tiered exams evidence that African-Caribbean pupils have been placed in examination sets which were below their measured League tables and setting From 1992 onwards, the test and ability because their behaviour was seen as unsuitable for examination results of every secondary school in the higher sets (see pages 189-190). country were published. Results from primary schools were published from 1997. This led to local and national ‘league What are the effects of ability grouping? tables’ as schools were ranked in terms of their results. In A large number of studies have been carried out on the effects of ability grouping on pupils’ attainment. Here are the conclusions of two surveys of these studies. key terms ● ‘In general, the research findings indicate that Ability groups Groups of pupils who are seen to have similar streaming and setting compared with mixed-ability abilities. teaching have no effect, either positive or negative, on Setting Allocating pupils to ability groups in terms of subjects average pupil achievement (across the ability range) at – for example, set 1 or 2 for English. either primary or secondary level’ (Sukhnandan & Lee, Streaming Placing pupils in the same ability group for all subjects – for example, class 1 or 2. 1998). Mixed-ability groups Groups in which pupils are randomly or ● ‘The weight of evidence from research on ability intentionally mixed in terms of their ability. groupings within schools indicates that they have rather Tiered exams Exams with two levels. The maximum possible little impact on overall attainment’ (Ireson & Hallam, grade varies with each tier. 2001). So, what’s all the fuss about? It appears that allocating

summary 1. The hidden curriculum transmits messages to pupils which 7. Teachers’ evaluation of and relationship with pupils is are not spelled out. It consists of ideas, beliefs, norms and affected by their perception of pupils’ ability. values which are embedded in the normal routines and 8. Teachers’ views of ability are affected by pupils’: procedures of school life. ∑ ● Social class 2. From a functionalist view, the transmission of society’s core ∑ ● Gender values can be seen as part of the hidden curriculum. ∑ ● Ethnicity. 3. From a Marxist view, social reproduction and the 9. There are two main types of teaching groups – ability groups transmission of ruling class ideology are part of the hidden and mixed-ability groups. curriculum. 10. Research indicates that in general ability groups, eg sets or 4. Pupil subcultures can reflect: streams, compared with mixed-ability groups have no ● Neighbourhood subcultures significant effect on overall attainment. ● ∑ Ability groupings within the school 11. However, there is some evidence that higher ability groups ● ∑ A combination of both. increase attainment levels and lower ability groups decrease 5. Pupil subcultures are influenced by: attainment levels. ∑ ● Social class 12. The pressure in schools to improve exam results has led to ∑ ● Gender an increase in setting. ∑ ● Ethnicity. 13. Setting for exams can have a real effect on attainment – for 6. The way teachers define, classify and evaluate pupils can example, placing students in sets for GCSE foundation tiers affect pupils’ behaviour and teacher-pupil relationships. denies them any opportunity of achieving the higher grades. Education and methods 204 the words of one Head of Year in a London are allocated to sets for examination entry. For example, comprehensive, ‘A school now lives or dies on its results’ they may be allocated to the higher or foundation set for (quoted in Gillborn and Youdell, 2001). English. And this is where ability grouping in terms of sets The pressure to improve results led to an increase in has a major effect. It actually prevents those in lower sets setting in the belief that this would lead to improved from having any chance of attaining higher grades. examination performance. This belief was reinforced by GCSEs have two levels – higher and foundation. The government policy. The Labour Party’s election manifesto highest grade that pupils entered for foundation level can of 1997 stated that: attain is grade C. There is no way they can get an A*, A ‘Children are not all of the same ability, nor do they or B. learn at the same speed. That means “setting” According to David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell children in classes to maximise progress, for the (2001), this system discriminates against pupils in lower benefit of high fliers and slower learners alike.’ sets. And it discriminates against working-class and Tiered exams and setting GCSE exams are tiered. Pupils African-Caribbean pupils who are disproportionately allocated to lower sets. activity26 setting Item A Tony Blair Item B Tiered exams

Two Tiers

A* A B C C D D Tony Blair visits the Ridings School in Halifax E

‘Different children move at different speeds and have differing F Higher Tier abilities. The modernisation of the comprehensive principle requires G that all pupils are encouraged to progress as far and as fast as they Foundation Tier are able. Grouping children according to ability is an important way of making that happen.’ Source: The Guardian, 08.06.96 Source: Gillborn & Youdell, 2001

Item C Teachers’ comments Teacher A: You don’t find any behaviour problems with the top set – they’ve got the intelligence. questions

Teacher B: When you get your next year’s timetable and you see that it is a top 1 Write a letter of no more than 100 or bottom set then you get certain images. If you get a top set you words to Tony Blair about his views in tend to think that their behaviour will be better. You tend to think Item A. with a bottom set you will get more discipline problems. I look 2 Using the information in Item B, state forward to teaching my top-set third year but dread my bottom-set why setting for examinations can third year. With the bottom group I go in with a stony face but I make a real difference to pupils’ know that with the top set if I say fun’s over they will stop. But if I attainment. give a bottom set rope they’ll take advantage of you. 3 How might the teachers’ views in Source: Abraham, 1995 Item C affect pupils’ attainment? 205 Chapter 4

Unit 6 Social policy and education

● Primary for 5 to 11-year-olds keyissues ● Secondary for 11 to 15-year-olds 1 What have been the main policies on education from ● Further/higher education. 1870 onwards? 2 What effect have they had on the role of education and The tripartite system students’ experience of education? The major changes were in the secondary sector. The question was, what sort of secondary education would provide equality of educational opportunity for all children 6.1 The 1870 Education Act from the age of 11? Before 1870, public schools educated the children of Types of pupil The response owed much to the theories of upper classes, and grammar schools taught the children of psychologists and educationalists of the 1920s and 1930s. the middle classes. Both types of school were fee-paying. These theories were based on the idea that there were Working-class children were limited to elementary schools different types of pupils, with differing aptitudes and run by churches and charities. Standards were often abilities, and that a child’s type could be identified by appallingly low and around one third of children received intelligence testing. On the basis of this, the 1944 Act no schooling at all (Royle, 1997). The 1870 Education Act aimed to ‘fill the gaps’ left by church and charity schools. It provided state-run activity27 intelligence elementary schools for five to eleven-year-olds. They charged a maximum fee of nine pence a week. tests In 1880, elementary education was made compulsory up ● Underline the odd one out: to the age of 10. It aimed to teach basic literacy and numeracy, ‘morality’ and Biblical knowledge. In 1891, House Igloo Bungalow Office Hut elementary education was made free. The school leaving age was raised to 12 in 1889 and to 14 in 1918. ● Underline which of these is not a famous composer: The 1902 Education Act This Act made local authorities ZOTRAM SATSURS REVID MALESO responsible for secondary education. It encouraged the building of fee-paying grammar schools, many of which offered free places to children from low-income ● Insert the word missing from the brackets: backgrounds who passed a scholarship exam. Fee (Tip) End In broad terms, up to the Second World War (1939- Dance (....) Sphere 1945), there were three types of school for children from different class backgrounds: ● Underline the odd one out: ● elementary schools for the working classes ● grammar schools for the middle classes ● public schools for the upper classes. 6.2 The 1944 Education Act ● Draw the next one in the sequence: During and after the Second World War, there was widespread debate over the kind of society that should follow the war. Education was a central issue in this debate. It was felt that the nation was not making full use of the talents of its people, particularly those in the lower classes. Changes in the education system were seen as a way to remedy this. questions The 1944 Education Act aimed to give every pupil an equal chance to develop their abilities to the full within a 1 Answer the test questions. free system of state education. The Act reorganised the 2 What are the problems of forecasting children’s structure of education in England and Wales into three academic ability on the basis of intelligence tests? stages. Education and methods 206 introduced a national test for 11-year-olds – the 11-plus test Social class divisions One of the main aims of the 1944 – as a means of allocating children to one of three types of Act was to widen educational opportunities for working- secondary school. class pupils. But the class divide in education remained. Types of school The three types of secondary school were Research indicates that two-thirds of boys from middle- grammar schools, technical schools and secondary modern class backgrounds went to grammar schools compared to schools. This became known as the tripartite system of only a quarter of boys from working-class backgrounds secondary education. (Halsey et al., 1980). Grammar schools were intended for pupils defined as bright and academic – those whose abilities lay in 6.3 The comprehensive system reasoning and solving logical problems. They were to study classics, mathematics, science and other ‘difficult’ subjects Educational policy in the 1960s was directed by social in preparation for GCE O and A-level exams. Around 20% democratic ideas (see pages 167-168). From a social of the school population went to grammar schools. democratic perspective, everybody should have an equal Technical schools were intended for children with an chance to succeed. Clearly, the tripartite system was not aptitude for technical subjects. These schools emphasised providing equality of educational opportunity. vocational training and technical skills and were attended This was seen as both wrong and inefficient. A well- by around 5% of the school population. Most children educated workforce leads to economic growth. The went to secondary modern schools. These children were tripartite system wasted talent. This reduced people’s seen as less academic and more practical. They were given contribution to the economy, which meant that everybody a basic education with little opportunity to take external suffers. examinations until CSEs – a lower level exam – were introduced in the 1960s. Three into one The tripartite system had provided three schools of unequal quality and unequal status. Why not The tripartite system was intended to provide separate replace them with a single school for everyone? This but equal types of schooling geared to the particular talents simple solution would end inequality between schools. It of the child. The Act stated that each type of school should promised equal opportunities for all young people to have equal status, or ‘parity of esteem’, with buildings, develop their talents and abilities in schools of equal status equipment and staffing being of similar quality. However, – in comprehensive schools. these ideals did not work in practice. In a comprehensive system, young people of all abilities and from all social backgrounds attend the same type of Criticisms of the tripartite system school (except for those in private education). They are The 11-plus was unreliable It became increasingly clear provided with the same opportunities to obtain that a young person’s educational future could not be qualifications and training. There is no entrance exam, no predicted by an IQ test at 11. When secondary modern selection at age 11. pupils were finally allowed to take GCE O levels, some were getting better results than many grammar school The development of comprehensives pupils. In 1965, the newly elected Labour government sent a The selection process was unfair and wasteful Selecting circular to local authorities requesting them to submit plans pupils at 11 was unfair – it denied many the opportunity of to reorganise secondary education along comprehensive continuing their education beyond 15. It was also a waste lines. In 1970, when the Labour government was defeated, of ability, both for the student and for the nation. around one-third of young people in secondary education No parity of esteem Secondary modern schools were seen were attending comprehensive schools. as second-rate by parents, pupils and employers. Grammar The Labour Party returned to power in 1974 and passed schools always had higher status because they specialised legislation requiring local authorities to go comprehensive. in academic subjects which led to well-paid, high-status By the end of its period in office (May, 1979), over 80% of occupations. As a result, there was no parity of esteem – secondary school pupils attended comprehensives. no equality of status – between the schools in the tripartite system. The limitations of comprehensives Three-quarters of students ‘failed’ For most pupils, the There was a lot of hope riding on comprehensives. To alternatives at age 11 were a grammar or secondary some extent, this hope was justified. But it was too much modern school. There were relatively few technical to expect comprehensives to compensate for the schools. The 11-plus was intended as a selection device for inequalities in the wider society and provide equal allocating pupils to appropriate schools. It was soon seen opportunities for all. as a pass/fail exam. Three-quarters of the school population Examination results Critics of the comprehensive system ‘failed’ and went to secondary modern schools. And with claimed it would lower educational standards. They this ‘failure’ came the danger of labelling and the self- believed that the ‘high academic standards’ of the grammar fulfilling prophecy. schools would be diluted in the comprehensives. Table 2 207 Chapter 4 activity28 successes and failures Item A Failing Item B Pigeon-holed

As a youngster, I was a product of the 11-plus examination. In 1955, I failed the exam and still today remember the trauma, grief and unhappiness it caused. I can remember how, as 11-year-olds, we were called into the school hall and a list was read out of who had passed the exam. When my name was not read out, I was devastated. I can remember running out of the school gates, home. Because I had failed the 11-plus, my mother was distraught and I can recall the feeling of failure. It took many years to get over the trauma. questions I was fortunate to go to a secondary modern school that took GCEs and it was not until I had successfully passed 1 Why did Gerald Steinberg feel a failure? those exams that the feeling of failure partially disappeared. 2 What does the cartoon suggest about the tripartite Source: The Guardian, 22.01.96 system? suggests that they were wrong. Educational standards were system. In particular, they hoped that the examination higher in 1983, when less than 4% of secondary school results of working-class pupils would improve compared to pupils went to grammar schools, than in 1969, when 21% those of middle-class pupils. Although the educational went to grammar schools. qualifications of all school leavers improved, class Social class divisions Supporters of comprehensive differences remained largely unchanged. In other words, education hoped that class differences in educational examination results in general got better but the gap attainment would be reduced by the comprehensive between top and bottom stayed more or less the same (Ferri et al., 2003). Table 2 Highest qualifications of school leavers Breaking down class barriers Many of those who supported the comprehensive system looked forward to 1969 1983 schools attended by pupils from across the entire social (%) (%) class spectrum. They hoped that this social mix would help One or more A levels 12 14 to break down class barriers. However, most 5 or more O levels (A-C grades) 7 10 comprehensives recruit from a local catchment area. Often, these areas are largely middle class or working class. As a 1 to 4 O levels (A-C grades) 18 28 result, many comprehensives are primarily ‘single class’, so 1 or more O levels (D-E grades) 37 52 tending to reinforce rather than break down existing class No qualifications 50 10 divisions. Source: Social Trends, 1972 and 1986, Office for National Statistics Streaming and setting Many comprehensives divide pupils into ability groups. A disproportionate number of middle- Education and methods 208 class pupils are placed in the top streams and sets and a line of argument led to the new vocationalism – direct disproportionate number of working-class pupils in the government involvement in youth training. bottom streams and sets. Some see this as another form of Training schemes Conservative governments introduced a selection, not unlike the tripartite system. number of training schemes for young people. For example, the Youth Training Scheme (YTS), started in 1983, 6.4 Conservative educational policy, was a one-year, work-based training scheme for school leavers. It was replaced by Youth Training (YT) in 1990. In 1979-1997 addition to workplace training, YT offered young people In May 1979, the Conservative Party, led by former the chance to take vocational qualifications. Education Minister Margaret Thatcher, were elected. Their Vocational qualifications The development of training aims were to: schemes was accompanied by new vocational ● Develop an educational system which met the needs of qualifications. The National Council for Vocational industry Qualifications, set up in 1986, established National ● Raise standards throughout Britain’s schools and Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) for a range of specific colleges. occupations. More general vocational qualifications were also The new vocationalism introduced. General National Vocational Qualifications Until the 1970s, vocational training – training for work – (GNVQs) allowed young people to keep their options open was seen as the responsibility of employers. They would rather than specialise in a particular occupation. GNVQs teach new recruits the skills needed in the workplace. This assessed skills, knowledge and understanding in broad view began to change with the rise in youth unemployment occupational areas such as Art and Design, Business, in the 1970s. Schools, it was argued, were producing young Health and Social Care, Manufacturing, and Leisure and people who lacked the skills required by industry. And Tourism. They have now been replaced by Vocational industry in turn was suffering from a skills shortage. This GCSEs and Vocational A levels. activity29 class in the comprehensive

question What problems of comprehensive schools are illustrated by this cartoon? 209 Chapter 4

The new vocationalism – evaluation improved their status. Vocational GCSEs and Vocational Jobs not training are needed A number of critics argued that A levels may continue this improvement. youth unemployment was due to a lack of jobs, not to a lack of skills. In other words, the problem was with the economy, Raising standards not with young people and their education (Finn, 1987). The first major aim of Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Quality and relevance of training According to Phil Cohen government was to make education more responsive to the (1984), many trainees spent most of their time ‘running needs of industry. The second major aim was to raise errands’ and ‘being useful’. Few received any real standards throughout Britain’s schools and colleges. occupational training, most were a source of cheap labour. Where Labour had been influenced by social democratic Not all youth training fitted this description. The better ideas, Conservative governments were influenced by schemes and employers offered effective training in skills neoliberal/New Right perspectives (see pages 168-170). In that were in demand in the labour market. line with neoliberal/New Right ideas, the aim was to create A second-best option Middle-class students usually avoided an education market-place in which the providers – Youth Training, seeing it as a second-best option to staying schools and colleges – competed, and the consumers – on at school or college. In practice, YT students tended to be parents and students – made choices. This would drive up young people from working-class backgrounds who couldn’t standards since the consumers would choose successful get a job. It has been argued that YT was training for the less schools and colleges, leaving unsuccessful institutions to able which channelled them into low status, low paid go out of business. occupations (Lee et al., 1990). To put these ideas into practice, the Conservatives gave Status of vocational qualifications Traditionally, vocational schools more freedom and self-government in some areas qualifications have been seen as inferior to GCSEs and and increased government control in other areas. This can A levels. The introduction of NVQs and GNVQs may have be seen clearly from the Education Reform Act.

activity30 youth training Item A Training at the bank Each year about 20 young people, many with no qualifications, are recruited from the inner-city area to train under the Bank of England’s clerical youth training scheme. 18-year-old Elton Thomas is in his second year, and came in without any qualifications. However, he’s working towards achieving an NVQ this summer. ‘I use computers a lot at the moment. I spend a lot of time on the phone chasing statements and invoices. I’ve worked in four different offices and gained a variety of experience. It’s great working here. I really like wearing a suit to work and looking sharp. I’m in the bank’s football team. We play other banks and companies and win a few and lose a few!’ Source: Employment Department Group and BBC Radio One, 1991

Item B Cheap labour Well, the thing is, my son’s education was all right until he left school and he’d got no job to go to. So he went to these Trainees at the Bank of England job creation schemes, which is the biggest con there ever was. All it was was cheap labour, I mean, I saw all this because the firm I worked for actually got kids in and they were working as hard, if not harder, than the men that earned the money, but they never got paid for it. He was a damn good worker, keen to learn, but as soon as the training question period was over, they got rid of him and started a new one, because it was cheap labour. The quality of youth training depends on who’s providing the Source: McKenzie, 2001 training. Briefly discuss with reference to Items A and B. Education and methods 210

The Education Reform Act in England and Wales exactly what to teach. From the age The 1988 Education Reform Act is the most important and of 5 to 16, all pupils in state schools must study three core far reaching educational legislation since the 1944 subjects – English, maths and science – and seven Education Act. It established a national curriculum for all foundation subjects. Pupils were tested in the core subjects state schools in England and Wales and a national system by Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs – now renamed of testing and assessment. It reduced the role of local National Tests) at the ages of 7, 11 and 14. SATs results education authorities by giving greater control to provided parents with information on which to judge the individual schools and their governing bodies. It performance of schools. established city technology colleges and grant League tables In 1992, all state secondary schools were maintained schools, both independent of local authority required to publish the results of their SATs, GCSEs and control. A levels. In 1997, primary schools had to publish their SATs Competition and choice Part of the thinking behind the results. Local and national ‘league tables’ of schools were Education Reform Act can be seen from a government based on these results. They provided parents with circular entitled Our Children’s Education: The Updated information on which to base their choice of school. They Parent’s Charter (Department of Education, 1994). It tells were also intended to encourage competition between parents that, ‘Your choice of school directly affects that schools by spurring headteachers and staff to improve their school’s budget; every extra pupil means extra money for position in the league. the school’. And ‘the right to choose will encourage schools to aim for the highest possible standards’. From this Evaluation of Conservative policy point of view, parental choice means that schools will Choice Do parents have a real choice of schools? Popular compete in order to attract pupils (and money) and in the schools are likely to be full, or to have only limited places. process standards of education will rise. Where places are available, it is the articulate middle-class Diversity and choice Will parents have a real choice? parents with their social and cultural capital who tend to Aren’t all comprehensives much of a muchness? In an obtain them. And in this situation, schools have more attempt to offer real choice, the Education Reform Act choice than parents – they are likely to choose middle- encouraged diversity. It introduced two new types of class pupils to maintain their position in the league tables. school. As a result, what choice exists is not equal – it operates on ● Grant maintained schools are created when sufficient class lines and favours the middle class (Ball, 2003; Smith parents vote to withdraw the school from local authority & Noble, 1995). control. They are financed directly by central League tables Parents often look closely at examination government. They are self-governing with governors results when assessing and choosing schools. But a simple and headteachers taking decisions about the league table which ranks schools in terms of results can be employment of staff, the curriculum, the provision of very misleading. There is evidence that some of the best goods and services and the way pupils are selected for schools in Britain do poorly on this kind of league table. entry. The idea was to free schools to specialise – for These schools, often in run-down inner-city areas, are example, in particular subjects or particular types of achieving extremely good results given the social pupils such as the ‘more academically able’. In this background of their pupils. They may be doing a far better way, the choice for parents was seen to be widened. job than schools well above them in the league table (see ● City technology colleges for 11 to 18-year-olds are Activity 32). financed by central government and private sector Selection There is some evidence of selection on academic sponsorship. Located mainly in inner-city areas, they and/or social grounds in popular schools. They may be teach the National Curriculum while concentrating on reluctant to accept pupils with special needs, low maths, science and technology. academic ability or so-called behaviour problems, seeing them as a threat to their standing in the league tables. In In the 1990s, the Conservatives introduced two further the early 1990s, around one-third of grant maintained types of schools – schools specialising in either languages schools selected pupils on the basis of interviews with or technology. They were called colleges to indicate their parents and/or pupils and reports from previous schools prestige and importance. (Bush et al., 1993). By 1996, there were 1,100 grant maintained schools, Critics have seen this as a means of ‘back door including 660 secondary schools, accounting for one in selection’. They see a return of the grammar school in the five of all secondary students. There were 15 city guise of the grant maintained secondary school. And there technology colleges, 30 language colleges and 151 new will be no need for a selection process like the 11-plus. technology colleges (Chitty, 2002). The government will have provided the evidence with SATs The National Curriculum The Education Reform Act at age 11. introduced the National Curriculum. For the first time in Marketing schools Increased competition has led to the history of state education, the government told teachers schools using a variety of marketing strategies to present 211 Chapter 4 activity31 the education market-place

question How does this cartoon illustrate the aims of the Education Reform Act? themselves in an attractive and positive light. These Modernisation and comprehensives Tony Blair rejected include glossy brochures, mission statements, open what he called the ‘one-size-fits-all’ idea of comprehensive evenings and adverts in the local press. The resources education. He saw the existing comprehensive system as devoted to marketing mean that less money is available to providing the same type of school for everyone. Past Labour spend on things which directly benefit pupils – for governments had seen this uniformity and standardisation as example, teachers and textbooks (Gewirtz et al., 1995). a way of providing equal opportunities for all. Labour now However, this emphasis on marketing has its benefits. rejected this view, arguing that schools should reflect the Schools now give more attention to academic standards, to diversity of young people – their particular aptitudes and pastoral care, to discipline, and the state of their buildings. talents, and their varying abilities. In the words of one researcher, schools have had to Comprehensives should be ‘modernised’. And part of this ‘address their academic weaknesses and capitalise on their process involved more specialist schools. strengths’ (Coffey, 2001). Specialist schools In May 1997, Labour inherited 196 specialist schools from the Conservatives. By late 2002, they had almost 1000 in place. By 2003, sports, arts, 6.5 Labour educational policy, 1997-2008 business and enterprise, engineering, maths and During the election campaign of 1997, Tony Blair computing, music, and humanities colleges had been proclaimed that Labour’s top three priorities were added to the Conservatives’ specialist schools. By 2007, ‘education, education, education’. Labour was elected in there were over 2,500 specialist schools – over 75% of all May 1997 with surprisingly little in the way of new secondary schools in England (www.standards.dfes.gov.uk policies for education. Some of their policies were /specialistschools, 2007). influenced by neoliberal/New Right perspectives, others by The idea of specialist schools is to provide centres of social democratic ideas. excellence and expertise in particular subject areas. They are intended to raise standards of teaching and learning in these Diversity and choice subjects. They can select up to 10% of their pupils, choosing In many ways the Labour government continued the those who have an aptitude for their specialist subject. Conservatives’ policies of diversity and choice which were Diversity within schools The diversity of aptitude and based on neoliberal/New Right thinking. ability must also be reflected within schools. Tony Blair Education and methods 212 rejected mixed-ability groups, arguing that ability grouping test’ rather than improving understanding and developing a is the best way of making sure that all pupils progress as far wide range of talents (Thrupp & Hursh, 2006). and fast as they can. In his view, this was essential for the modernisation of comprehensive schools. Equality of opportunity Evaluation Many of the criticisms of Conservative policy also apply to Labour’s policy of diversity and choice – see Part of Labour’s education policy was based on social pages 209 and 210-211. Choice usually means limited democratic views, with an emphasis on equality of places and selection at the more popular schools. In this opportunity. situation, the middle class with their cultural and social Within three months of their election, in 1997 the new capital have the advantage. Labour government published a policy document entitled Standards have risen in many specialist schools. This may Excellence in Schools (DfEE, 1997). It stated that they be due to specialisation, but standards have often risen in intended ‘to overcome economic and social disadvantage subjects outside the school’s specialist area. Rising and to make equality of opportunity a reality’. This standards may be due to the additional government involved finding new ways of motivating young people in funding given to specialist schools and/or to a growing deprived inner-city areas and doing something about middle-class intake (Select Committee on Education and ‘underachieving schools’. New types of schools and new Skills, 2005). programmes were developed for this purpose. Sure Start This programme is aimed mainly at pre-school children and their families in disadvantaged areas of Competition and league tables England. It assumes that the early years are vital to a child’s Labour accepted the neoliberal/New Right view that future and looks to improve their health, education and job competition between schools would raise standards. And prospects. It provides home visits, play centres and they accepted school league tables as a means for parents financial help for childcare. The first Sure Start local to assess a school’s performance. In 2006, an additional programmes were set up in 1999. By 2003, there were table based on social factors was introduced. This measure over 500 programmes involving around 300,000 children. indicates what pupils might be expected to achieve given Evaluation Sure Start is difficult to evaluate because each their social background. It means that schools in low- local programme is different and only short-term results are income areas with average exam results might score highly available. Its effects may only become apparent in early because their results are better than expected in view of the adulthood. The National Evaluation of Sure Start (2005) background of their students (Crace, 2006). examined 150 local programmes and found that, after three Evaluation Despite alternative league tables, parents tend years, they had little impact on parents and children. to accept the original measure – exam results. This However, it is too early to assess their effect on children’s encourages schools to prioritise results and ‘teach to the education in the school system (Anning, 2006). activity32 an alternative league table

This league table refers to the top 20 local education authorities 1 Wirral (31) 11 Bolton (42) in England. The figures in brackets are taken from the ‘official’ 2 Camden (57) 12 Hackney (102) league table based on exam results from secondary schools. 3 Barnet (3) 13 W. Sussex (2) The ‘unofficial’ placings from 1 to 20 are based on ‘value-added scores’. These scores look at pupils’ attainment levels when they 4 Kingston (1) 14 E. Sussex (17) first arrive at secondary school then see how much schools 5 Sutton (9) 15 Dorset (12) improve on these levels – that is, how much value is added. 6 Bromley (4) 16 Wigan (30) The results show that schools can – and do – make an 7 Liverpool (98) 17 Harrow (7) enormous difference. There are local authorities with a high proportion of very poor children who do badly in both tables. 8 Tower Hamlets (105) 18 Cheshire (18) But the most significant finding is the number of inner-city 9 Lambeth (100) 19 Redbridge (23) authorities, languishing in the lower regions of the Department 10 Bucks (5) 20 Herts (10) for Education table, who do exceedingly well in the new table. Source: The Observer, 20.3.1994

question Why is a league table based on value-added scores important? 213 Chapter 4 activity33 diversity and choice Item A Specialist schools ‘Specialist schools and colleges will have a key contribution to make in raising standards and delivering excellence in schools. They will help thousands of young people to learn new skills and progress into employment, further training and higher education, according to their individual abilities, aptitudes and ambitions.’ Former Education Minister Estelle Morris quoted in Chitty, 2002

Item B Diversity and inequality In a class-divided and competitive society, specialisms are not equal: they rapidly become ranked in a hierarchy of status. questions A divided secondary system, with its hierarchy of schools firmly established, will continue to work to the advantage of the powerful, the 1 How does the cartoon illustrate Labour’s influential and the articulate; while large numbers of children find policy of diversity and choice? themselves in less favoured institutions which attract the sort of criticisms 2 With some reference to Item B, discuss once levelled at the secondary modern schools. how diversity can lead to inequality of Source: Chitty, 1997 educational opportunity.

Education Action Zones (EAZs) These zones were located variety of work-related courses. in deprived urban areas with low levels of educational Evaluation Education Action Zones ploughed money and attainment. By April 2003 there were 72 EAZs, each run by energy into disadvantaged areas, they encouraged an Action Forum made up of parents, representatives from innovation, and brought together expertise from local and local schools and businesses and from local and national national government. An Ofsted report found some government. Each zone was given £1 million to spend. improvement at Key Stage 1 in EAZ areas, but no change at Teachers and schools were encouraged to be flexible and Key Stage 3 or GCSE (McKnight et al., 2005). Like similar innovative – for example, running Saturday classes and a experiments in the 1960s, such as Educational Priority Education and methods 214

Areas, EAZs may fail to make up for the economic and social disadvantages of pupils from low-income, inner-city key terms areas (Kirton, 1998). Sure Start Programmes designed to give pre-school children Excellence in Cities (EiC) This programme steadily in low-income areas a head start in the school system. replaced Education Action Zones. It aimed to raise Education Action Zones (EAZs) Programmes designed to standards in low-income inner-city areas by providing: raise teaching standards and attainment levels in schools in ● Resources to stretch the most able pupils deprived inner-city areas ● Learning mentors to support and work with pupils Excellence in Cities (EiC) Replaced EAZs. Same aims, but ● City learning centres with high quality ICT facilities more targeted programmes. ● Encouragement for schools to specialise and network Academies A new type of school designed to raise standards with neighbouring schools in low-income urban areas by replacing poorly performing ● Learning support units within schools for pupils at risk secondary schools. Academies are financed by central government and sponsors – individuals, businesses, faiths, of exclusion. charities and city education authorities. Evaluation An Ofsted report (2005) praised Excellence in Cities for raising standards at Key Stage 3 and 4. In EiC areas, the percentage of pupils achieving five or more A*-C grades at GCSE increased by around 11 percentage points Further and higher education (FE and HE) Labour has from 39.8% in 2001 to 50.6% in 2005. This compares to attempted to reduce inequality of educational opportunity around 5 percentage points in non-EiC schools – from by increasing 1) the number of students and 2) the 52.2% in 2001 to 57.5% in 2005 proportion of working-class students in FE and HE. It has (www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/sie/eic). The EiC programme succeeded in increasing numbers. For example, the ended in April 2006. All EiC funding is now paid to number of full-time students in higher education in the UK schools as part of their overall School Development Grant. increased from 748,000 in 1990/91 to 1,456,000 in 2004/05 (Social Trends, 2007). Academies The aim of academies is to raise achievement in deprived areas by replacing poorly performing However, Labour has failed to increase the proportion of secondary schools or by providing new school places working-class students in FE and HE. In fact, the opposite where they are needed. They are sponsored by individuals, has happened. It is the middle classes who have gained businesses, faiths, charities and city education authorities. most from the expansion of places. For example, in Britain Sponsors contribute around £2 million and central in 2001, 72% of young people from professional government around £25 million for each new academy. backgrounds were in HE compared with 55% in 1991 – a The first three academies were opened in 2002, by 2006 gain of 24 percentage points. At the other end of the scale, there were 46, with a total of 200 planned for 2010 15% of young people from unskilled manual backgrounds (National Audit Office, 2007). were in HE in 2001, compared with 6% in 1991 – a gain of only 9 percentage points (Galindo – Rueda et al., 2004). Evaluation In terms of GCSE results, academies are doing This trend has since continued. well. In most cases, they have achieved better results than the schools they replaced, they have improved at a faster Loans and tuition fees The widening class gap in higher rate than other secondary schools, and in terms of value education may have something to do with the replacement added measures they are doing better than the average for of grants by student loans and the introduction of tuition all secondary schools. However, their performance in 16- fees in 1998. A survey of nearly 2000 prospective higher 19 educations is well below the national average (National education students found that fear of debt was greatest Audit Office, 2007). among students from low-income backgrounds. And Critics claim that the improvement at GCSE is largely due students who were afraid of debt were four times less likely to extra money pumped in by central government and to to go on to higher education (Callender & Jackson, 2004). academies taking fewer pupils with special needs or behavioural problems (Tomlinson, 2005). Vocational education and training Aims Labour’s policies for vocational education have methods13 focused on two main areas. ● First, to provide the training needed for a high measurement wage/high skill economy, so that the UK can compete successfully in world markets. question ● Second, to reduce unemployment, particularly for young people (Strathdee, 2003). Why is it difficult to measure the effects of education New qualifications GNVQs were replaced by Vocational policy? Refer to Sure Start and academies in your answer. GCSEs and Vocational A levels. Part of the reason for this change was to raise the status of vocational qualifications 215 Chapter 4 activity34 grants not fees

National Union of Students demonstrate against tuition fees and the student loans scheme. question Would you support this demonstration? Refer to the conclusion on page 216 in your answer.

to the level of academic qualifications. offered education and training for young people between National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) were the ages of 18 and 24 who had been out of work for more extended. They now ranged from an Initial Award – gained than six months. It was later extended to older people. after a 26 week introductory training period – to a Level 5 The New Deal provided personal advisors who offered award which is equivalent to a degree. The aim of NVQs is direction and support to the unemployed, guiding them to raise skill levels in a wide range of jobs. through the various options – academic courses, Evaluation NVQs have yet to prove themselves. Surveys vocational training, self-employment, or voluntary work. suggest that about two-thirds of employers see little value Evaluation The New Deal got off to a good start. Two in these qualifications. The government may have years into the scheme, Tony Blair claimed that it had overestimated the demand for highly-skilled workers. In the helped more than 250,000 young people find jobs. And it 1990s, the fastest growing job was care assistant in helped others move into higher education. Critics hospitals and nursing homes, not a particularly high-skilled question this optimistic view. Some argue that youth job (Strathdee, 2003). unemployment was falling steadily when the New Deal The New Deal Labour introduced the New Deal in 1998. It was introduced and further reductions were simply a Education and methods 216 continuation of this trend. Others see the New Deal as same – the middle class gains! Whether it’s the tripartite moderately successful, resulting in a fall in youth system, the comprehensive system or specialist schools, the unemployment of around 17,000 a year (Van Reenen, attainment gap between the middle and working classes 2004). shows little change. And in higher education, the gap has Globalisation and equal opportunity widened. A longitudinal study has followed the lives of two groups of British children, one born in 1958 and the other Prime Minister Gordon Brown sees the various aspects of in 1970 (Ferri et al., 2003). It shows that the chances of a Labour’s education policy working together (Brown, 2008). young middle-class person gaining a degree have grown at In his words, ‘The challenge this century is the global skills a higher rate than those of a young working-class person. race and that is why we need to push ahead faster with our And this is despite the rapid expansion in university places reforms to extend education opportunities for all’. It is from the 1980s onwards. crucial for Britain to be able to compete successfully in the Many sociologists believe that changes in the educational global economy. This means developing the talents of and system are unlikely to reduce the attainment gap between teaching high level skills to all young people. the middle and working classes. They argue that a According to Gordon Brown, ‘A precondition for reduction in inequality in the wider society is necessary to unleashing talent is to eradicate failure across our education reduce inequality of educational opportunity and close the system’. Academies have a major part to play as ‘a means class attainment gap. of advancing opportunity for all’ and as ‘engines in disadvantaged areas for social mobility and social justice’. Universities will be encouraged to sponsor academies methods14 and to become directly involved with secondary education. longitudinal studies This is the next step in widening access to higher education for working-class students. These policies will contribute to the twin goals of social justice and success in question the global skills race (Brown, 2008). Why are longitudinal studies important for studying the Conclusion effects of government education policy? Government policies come and go, but one thing stays the

summary

1. The 1870 Education Act provided the first state-run schools. 9. The National Curriculum, introduced in 1988, was assessed 2. The 1944 Education Act set up the tripartite system of by SATs in its core subjects. The results of these tests secondary education – grammar, technical and secondary provided parents with information to judge the performance modern schools. of schools. 3. The tripartite system provided schools of unequal status and 10. Labour’s education policy was influenced by both unequal quality. Middle-class pupils tended to go to high- neoliberal/New Right and social democratic perspectives. status grammar schools, working-class pupils to low-status 11. Labour continued the Conservatives’ policy of diversity and secondary modern schools. choice in a competitive educational market-place. Standard 4. The comprehensive system was designed to provide equality comprehensives were steadily replaced by specialist schools. of opportunity by replacing the tripartite system with a single 12. Labour introduced a range of measures designed to raise type of school for all young people. standards in low-income, inner-city areas. These included 5. Class differences in attainment remained, partly because Sure Start, Education Action Zones, Excellence in Cities and pupils were placed in streams or sets with a disproportionate academies. number of middle-class pupils in higher ability groups and working-class pupils in lower ability groups. 13. The number of places in higher education was rapidly expanded by Labour. The middle class gained most from this 6. Conservative governments from 1979 to 1997 introduced expansion. work-related training schemes and vocational qualifications. 7. The Education Reform Act of 1988 aimed to provide 14. The New Deal offered education and training for young competition between schools, a variety of schools, and choice for people who had been out of work for over six months. parents. In theory, standards would rise as parents chose 15. It is difficult to measure the effects of Labour’s education successful schools, while failing schools would go out of business. policy. In some cases, it is too early to make a judgement. In 8. Choice usually meant limited places and selection at the other cases, the evidence can be interpreted in different ways. more popular schools. In this situation, the middle class with One thing is clear – class differences in educational their cultural and social capital have the advantage. attainment have remained largely unchanged.