FROM PENAL SETTLEMENT TO CAPITAL TOWN: HUMAN ECOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE RISE AND GROWTH OF

KAILASH

From Penal Settlement to capital town, unabated population pressure in Port Blair and its vicinity has affected the island's ecology and environment. However, a unique human ecology is progressing along with several environmental intricacies like potable water scarcity, insanitation and marine pollution. This study attempts to review the process of urbanisation in the Andamans on the one hand and the factors in human ecology of the capital town on the other. Dr. Kailash is a Lecturer, Unit for Urban Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Deonar, Bombay.

From the beginning of social existence on earth, man has abused the physical environment — whether it was the establishment of settlements or beginning of agricultural practices, mining and manufacturing industries or construction of dams, reservoirs, roads and large buildings and so on, it all happened against the established norms of ecosystem. In the Andamans, some of these activities took place since the beginning of the Penal Settlement in 1858 when there was large- scale depletion of forest land for the expansion of the settlement. This practice still continues over large areas in different islands. The growing population pressure from the Indian mainland is damaging the physical environment. The gradual expansion of urban phenomena from one island to another is taking place simul­ taneously. Thus, a unique cultural set up has evolved in the capital, Port Blair. The human adaptation and the controls over the adverse ecological conditions remained the focus of the study made by Lal 1962; Sen 1954,1957,1959 and 1962; and Sinha 1952. The objective of this paper is to analyse the geographical and environmental factors in the human ecology of Port Blair town.

Inception of the Penal Settlement The hidden strategic importance of the Andamans was discovered when convicts had to be encamped in the settlement. Located in the neighbourhood of South-East Asian countries, these islands have a commanding position over the region. The Britishers successfully wiped out the possible challenge of colonisation of these islands by other West European Countries. The British rule in the Andamans was extended to the in 1869 by a treaty with Denmark (Local Gazetteer, 1908:50). The first attempt to establish a settlement was made by the well-known marine surveyor Captain Archibald Blair in September 1789, but was abandoned in 1796 because of climatic and health reasons. During the Governor Generalship of Lord Cornwallis, Archibald Blair was sent in 1788 for a site survey for the location of a settlement in Andamans. He found 'Mask Island' (Chatham) to be suitable for the settlement. The chief considerations for site selection were the protection of the ships from climatic disturbances as well as its navigational potentiality throughout 426 Kailash the year. Drinking water facility in Chatham was another issue in favour of the settlement location. On October 17,1789, Blair built a wharf and fitted it with ranger guns for purposes of safety. In 1792, this settlement was shifted to the North-East Harbour or 'New Harbour' (Port Cornwallis) near Smith Island in North Andaman. The abandoned site at Chatham was named 'Old Harbour'. Under Colonel Alexander Kyd, the settlement at 'New Harbour' flourished but the unhealthy climate caused a high death rate. This settlement was abolished in 1796. At the time of desertion it had 270 'convicts' and 550 'free settlers' (mostly Bengalees). The growing discontent among the Indian masses against the British rule, the popular movement for freedom, the Sepoy Mutiny in Oudh and United Province (Uttar Pradesh) in 1857 compelled the Britishers to consider establishing the Penal Settlement in Andamans so that convicts and mutineers may be shifted there. The 'Andaman Commission' headed by Dr. F.J. Mouat, with Dr. C.R. Playfair and Lt. J.H. Heathcote as members, was constituted in 1857 to find an appropriate location for the settlement. After careful observation of Old Harbour, the commission returned to Calcutta and in January, 1858 suggested the original site of first settlement and named it 'Port Blair' in honour of the distinguished hydrographer Lt. Archibald Blair. The superintendent of the New Settlement, Dr. J.P. Walkar along with four English officers and 200 convicts arrived at Port Blair on February 1,1858 and reestablished the settlement in March. The settlement was called 'Penal Settlement' (Majumdar, 1975). Captain E.H. Man took possession of the Andaman Island in the name of the Honourable East Company.

Spatial Expansion and Growth of Penal Settlement In the beginning, only Chatham was cleared of its dense forests. A 'free colony' was constructed in the middle of the island. Initially, it was occupied by the European officers and Indian convicts but later, it was converted for hospital patients, conva­ lescents and convicts employed in a saw mill located in the eastern part of the island. The shed was temporary so many of the officers, especially from the administrative block were shifted to Ross Island (0.70 sq.km). Residents of the headquarters included a majority of the civil and military officers, the European troops, detach­ ments of native infantry and police and convicts. Haddo and Atlanta Point were also cleared in the first phase. The second phase of territorial expansion started during General Sir Robert Napier's inspection (1863) of the settlement. Construction of the settlement started in Viper Island and the small clearings at Aberdeen, Mithakhari, Hope Town and Mount Harriet were completed by the convicts. The inhabitants in Viper Island settlement were hospital patients, convalescents and chain-gang prisoners in several separate buildings (Man, 1883). About 8,000 convicts had been sent to these settlements. Construction of a short distance road from Homfrays Ghat to Tyler's Ghat through Port Mouat was undertaken. A small piece of 149 acre cultivated land and 3,294 convicts in 1865, increased to 724 acres cleared land, 353 acres cultivated land and 6,965 convicts in 1867. At the end of General Man's administration in 1887, about 3,000 acres (2,814 acres mentioned in Local Gazet­ teer, 1908) had been cleared, out of which 876 acres were brought under cultivation. The number of convicts in the settlement totalled 8,373. From Penal Settlement to Capital Town 427

In 1870, Lord Mayo, the then Governor-General of India, chalked out several programmes to improve the general condition of the settlement. The expansion of agricultural pursuits was necessary for the self-sufficiency of the settlement. This was not possible until a good number of agricultural workers, cultivators and labourers were available. Consequently, the convicts' families were encouraged to settle on cleared land. For the first time the 'Local Born' or 'free population' came into prominence. There were 3,000 'Local Boms' in 1921. The area of the settlement was further expanded with the clearance of more land for cultivation and hut construction.

The most important period in the history of Penal Settlement was the administration of Colonel Sir Richard Tempsle (1894-1903) and Colonel Douglas (1903-1920) when the '' was built near Atlanta Point. Adjoining this was the Associ­ ated Jail. At the end of 1894-95, 22,306 acres of land were cleared, out of which 10,140 acres of land were under cultivation including 4,425 acres for government plantation of tea, coffee, hemp, cocoa, coconuts, vegetables, limes, arrowroot, Indian rubber, tapioca, indigo and vanilla. The remaining 5,715 acres were held by the free population and convict cultivators. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the Penal Settlement centred round the harbour of Port Blair, the South Andaman and the islets attached there and covered 762 sq.km. of area. Of this are, 527 sq.km. (9.16 per cent) may be said to be in actual occupation. The unoccupied area was mainly dense forest. The occupied area was partly cleared for cultivation, grazing and habitation and partly afforested. A large part of the unoccupied area was infested (is still infested) by the hostile Jarwas, but they are gradually retreating northward following increasing forest operations, over the entire official area of the Penal Settlement (Local Gazetteer, 1908). The Penal Settlement was divided into stations where convicts were placed after detention in the Cellular Jail, and villages, where free residents resided.

According to the 1931 census, the process of forest clearance and land reclamation brought about 12,000 acres of land under agriculture out of a total of 45,000 acres (more than 182 sq.km.). The total agricultural population (7,000) was settled in free colonies (Bonington, 1932). Of the 11,359 earners recorded in the Andamans (Port Blair), 2622 (23 per cent) were earning their livelihood by agriculture and pasture. It is however, noticeable that above 50 per cent of the total population was dependent on agriculture for their means of livelihood since most of the agriculturists were married and, on an average, their families comprised of five persons.

Ethnic Composition The original population in Andamans were the aboriginals. Port Blair has assimilated the multifaceted character and culture of the people from the Indian sub-continent and the South-East Asian countries. Convicts, rebels and prisoners from most of the states in our country made up the Andaman population. The 1931 census has recorded the details of convicts of mainland sent to Port Blair (Bonington, 1932). Before the outsiders (non-tribals) arrived in Port Blair, the entire area was inhabitated by the Negritos. Their number was about 5,000. Inter-group clashes were prevalent because of territorial interference. They opposed not only the clearings of forest and 428 Kailash encroachment thereon, but organised several attacks on the convicts and the Britishers engaged in the clearing. In course of clearings and construction, they came into contact with the British officers and became friendly with them. The 'Andaman Home' in 1863 and 'Andaman Orphanage' in 1870 were started with great expectation to civilise them. But both were futile. The Andamanese learnt many evil practices from their convict attendants and also suffered from many diseases which resulted in high mortality. Table 1 OCCUPIED TERRITORY UNDER PENAL SETTLEMENT IN EARLY 20TH CENTURY

Source: Local Gazetteer, 1908. Till 1947, the 'local population' consisted of the locals who were descendents of convict parents, settled in and around Port Blair. The most homogeneous commu­ nities in Port Blair are the Bhantus1, Mapillas2, Karens3 and Burmans4. They have From Penal Settlement to Capital Town 429 preserved their ethnic identity successfully because they migrated in considerable numbers.

Human Adaptation

The extreme climatic conditions wiped out any human effort to change the physical landscape. Heavy rainfall (3,700 mm in 1901) with severe cyclonic storms for over half of the year (April to October), a high level of humidity (90 per cent) and an average temperature of 29°C throughout the year were favourable for the growth of dense evergreen vegetation. The undulating character of local geomorphology has been the another negation for human occupation.

At the time of establishment of the Penal Settlement the entire islands including Chatham and Ross were covered by thick evergreen forest. In clearing the jungles, the convicts and free settlers faced unimaginable difficulties. Several hundred convicts who were performing the clearing works lost their lives either by epidemics or the rigours of a hostile nature when they tried to escape from the British confinement in the deep forest. They also faced several attacks by the aboriginal communities. The Local Gazetteer (1908: 108) has presented the vivid picture of general health in the Penal Settlement. In 1900, the average daily sickness was 629 out of 11,594 as average daily strength and 468 deaths were recorded in and out of hospital. The average death rate per mile was 41.25.

Eventually, the convicts got success over the hostile nature by evolving several alternatives to sustain their lives. The temporary huts made of leaves and woods were replaced by the construction of permanent sheds of hard wood and tiles. The method of building construction was decided after long observation of the micro-climatic conditions, that is, the trends of heavy rainfall, wind direction and drainage system. Till the end of 1950, the roofs of houses used to be made from GIC sheets; now it is replaced by aluminum sheets in the traditional type of the house construction. The old pattern of house construction is being replaced by the modern flat, made by bricks and cement. Since the local terrain is undulating, the profile of housing follow the irregular lengths and heights along with zig-zag roads.

With the adjustment and adaptation to local ecology and environment over years, many of the ex-convicts and free settlers have refused to go back to their homes on the mainland. This happened with the Bhantus, Mapillas, Karens and Burmese too. Most of them returned to Andamans from their homelands. It reveals that they not only adjusted with the local environment but also evolved a source of livelihood based on local resources. Before and after the Penal Settlement was abolished, these people were asked to occupy as much cleared land as they wanted. The climate and soil were conducive to rich and easy cultivation (Sinha, 1952). They registered themselves as 'rice cultivators'. Coconut, rubber, tea, coffee, other plantation crops, sugarcane, pulses and vegetables were also cultivated success­ fully (Sen, 1957). Besides cultivation, sea-fishing became a part of their economic life as it was available in plenty along the coastal areas. Fish replaced dal as the chief source of protein for North Indian convicts. Bengalees and South Indian convicts and prisoners accepted it happily. 430 Kailash

The refugees who came here before 1950 found suitable places for settlement (villages abandoned by the ex-convicts who repatriated after the abolition of Penal Settlement) and also occupied vast agricultural areas. These settlements (villages) are located around Port Blair. These are prominently known as the 'new settlers' which included the Bengalees, South Indians and people from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and even a few refugees from West Pakistan and, recently, Sri Lankan Tamils. The colonisers other than Bengalees and South Indians, encountered several difficulties in adopting to the island's environment. Since the Bengalees (mostly Hindus from the then East Pakistan) came from a humid climate, they did not face difficulties in adapting themselves socially. A homogeneous community came up culturally and ethnically (Sen, 1962). For easy adjustment they were offered special benefits through several schemes including the provision of cash to buy the basic require­ ments of life (Census of India, 1961).

Process of Urbanisation and the Evolution of Port Blair From Chatham to Ross to Haddo, Delaneypur, Phoenix Bay, Aberdeen area, Atlanta Point to South Point areas were covered under the settlement. Gradually the entire area has been connected by metalled roads. Cellular Jail, Aberdeen Jetty and Junglighat Jetty are linked with well developed radial roads. In the first phase, the administrative buildings and commercial establishments came into being. The great semi-circular road, now called the Andaman Trunk Road (ATR) reduced the distance between the coastal areas and peripheral rural localities in remote places in a later phase. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the Penal Settlement was divided into districts, divisions and sub-divisions linked with the main and feeder roads.

It is notable that different population groups (convicts) settled in villages near Port Blair before 1950. These settlements never became the part of the developing urban landscape of Port Blair. Government offices, bungalows, jetties and few factories regulated the urban services to the local inhabitants. The present modern school was housed in a good building with spacious grounds where the students could play games. In North Point there was a wireless system, which was the main centre to transmit the messages to and from India and Burma. In Phoenix Bay, the Marine Department was established for the promotion of inter-island shipping. At a distance of about 2 km. from the Marine Department, there is Chatham Island where Capt. Blair first settled. Now it is the headquarters of the Forest Department. Asia's largest saw mill and workshops are also located here. There is a deep and long jetty (in Chatham) which had regular sailings of Maharaja ship and other cargo steamers. The West India Match Company (WIMCO), located in Haddo, is served by this jetty. In other words, the basic structure of a capital cum urban centre was formed by the British administration before the nineteen forties. During the Japanese occupation (1942-45)5 the situation deteriorated. About 4,000 people out of a total Andaman population of 21,000 were either killed or died of starvation. More than 500 people were tortured against different charges (Census of India 1951).

For the first time in 1951, Port Blair municipal area with a total population of 7,789 was recorded as 'census town'. According to the 1991 census, the total population of Port Blair is 74,785. From Penal Settlement to Capital Town 431

Table 2 GROWTH OF POPULATION AND AREA OF PORT BLAIR

Source: Census of India 1951-91. Today, Port Blair is one of the fast growing towns in India. It is a centre of trade and transport and labour investment in different sectors with more and more semi-urban villages being included in the town during different census enumerations.

The Human Ecology of Port Blair Far from the Indian mainland, a typical human ecological set up has been evolved by the islands in which physical environment dominates over human activities. In the early phase of Penal Settlement everything was guided by nature. People successfully controlled the hostility of nature through a selective approach and now the advance human ecology is in progress (Pandit, 1989). The process of urbanisation brought a significant change in the cultural configuration of islands. Port Blair is the only urban centre with a monopoly of transport linkages from the mainland. Inter-islands water transport systems is being regulated and controlled from Port Blair, while the surface transport is well developed in South Andaman. Thus, the inter- and intra-island transport network help people to interact with each other. Perhaps the most important part of cultural ecology of Port Blair is its cultural unity in ethnic diversity. It is because of the demographic plurality of the islands. Since the starting of the Penal Settlement to the late seventies, Port Blair faced regular migration from different parts of the Indian sub-continent. The latest migrants are the tribals of Chotanagpur region, known as the Ranchi tribals. However, the original inhabitants of the town - Negritos - are no more in existence. Of course Port Blair had the representation of 271 tribals (0.55 per cent of the total urban population) in 1981, but they belonged from Mongoloid stock of Nicobaree population (Census of India, 1981). People came here with their own customs, language and religion, but in the process, the prevalent culture of Port Blair was adopted by them. Hindi has became the link language not only in Port Blair but also in other islands. There is no bar of ethnicity in marriage and other social gatherings (Pal, 1991). Religion never became the hurdle in the way of social and religious harmony. As a result a cross cultural character has been developed into a formidable base for a unique social set up. 432 Kailash

On the economic front, Port Blair still faces the colonial style of development. Although the per capita income in Port Blair is higher than the national average, the development pursuits are far behind any other state capital of India. The commercial supply system of the mainland regulates the island economy. Irregularity in sailing sometimes causes food scarcity and shortage of consumer goods in the markets. So people tend to store food. Kerosene oil, milk powder, onion, potato and sugar are always in shortage. New comers in the town are usually advised to keep a sufficient quantity of oil and other domestic items. These are the factors why some people compare Port Blair's economic life with the 'hunting and gathering' economy of Jarwa and Onge. The people do have similarities with the tribal system of food collection and storage for the near future. Even for vegetables and fruits, people are dependent on the mainland. Towners have no choices but to buy stale food items during late and irregular sailings. Severe adulteration is another feature of controlled public distribution system.

The utilisation of natural resources has not been given much importance in these islands so far (Nair, 1986: Saldanha, 1989). With the lack of alternative arrange­ ments, people face a shortage of drinking water every year. Appropriate technology suitable in local conditions should be developed to avert such crisis in future (Kailash, 1993). As a capital town, Port Blair has a geographical role. Situated in the middle of Bay Archipelago, it acts as facilitator of developmental activities. It has monopolised the administrative controls over other islands through sub-administrative centres lo­ cated in different islands. In the beginning a few manufacturing units of timber Industries were started, but there has been little headway in industrial development after Independence. Urban land use follows the local terrain. For example, all the administrative offices and old residential areas were located originally in higher places. However the later constructions did not follow such restrictions. The commercial zone requires trans­ port accessibility. The spatial expansion in the east and north-east is controlled by the sea coast the thus limited area is available for the development of housing and other purposes. The phenomenon of huge migration in the islands has affected the urban environ­ ment also. The town suffers from congestion and over crowding at some specific locations. People from other islands are frequent visitors of these places. Urban amenities like drinking water and sanitation facilities are deteriorating gradually. Further flow of population should be checked effectively by decentralising the local administration and offices of public importance.

Conclusion At the time of establishment of Penal Settlement, the entire Andamans was occupied by the indigenous people (Negrito tribes). Outsiders (the English and convicts) pushed them ruthlessly into the interior of the forest and started a colonial settlement. The process of Jarwas' retreat still continues. The recent attacks of Jarwas on settlers around Port Blair show that they are still against outsiders and want to protect the territory meant for them (Jarwa infested areas). Since Port Blair is From Penal Settlement to Capital Town 433 surrounded by the sea from three sides, only Jarwa territory is open for the expansion of the town. After about 50 years of the end of rule of the Penal Settlement, widespread changes have occurred in the island life and society. A typical human ecology, based on island ecological set up, colonial development and secular lifestyle, has developed in this island capital. It seems that the people have successfully drawn a 'line of control' between natural and man-made environment. However, if the present rate of forest clearance continues, the islands will be deserted very soon. The experience of climatic change is a warning to the islanders and Port Blair will face the direct hits since its vicinity has already been cleared. A significant change in the cultural ecology of Port Blair town is perceived over the years. From 'colonial dependency', the capital has achieved its own identity and prestige by inveterating the unit in ethnic plurality. Port Blair is the only capital town in India where almost the entire population has migrated from outside and represents almost each state of the Indian subcontinent. The crosscultural character of people has assimilated the metropolitan merits, essential for regional development. The growing population pressure, because of continuous migration from the main­ land, poses a threat. Priority for development issues along with growth impulses may become the appropriate strategy of development. Emphasis should be given to the developmental activities based on local resources (Nair, 1989; Rao, 1989). The infrastructure sector (like power, water and transport) is equally important for urban and industrial development.

NOTES 1. Bhantu meaning 'Bhag-tu' or 'Run away' were the criminal tribe of Nu-Khera to the north of Jalesar in the Kheri district of the United Province. They had an ethnological connection with the Sansias, Haburas, Kanjars, Karwal Nata and Jats. A large gang of Bhantus in 1926 voluntarily came to the Andamans from Indian jails and formed free Bhantu settlements near Port Blair. In Janglighat their population is very nominal, whereas in Caddlegunj, Bhantu are in quite a substantial number.

2. Better known as Maplahs, the rebellious Muslims against Britishers and later Hindus, they were transported at the Penal Settlement in 1921. Some Mappilla families came again in 1926 (volun­ tarily) from Malabar district (their original home land) of Kerala and have settled permanently. In 1931 census, their total number was 185.

3. Karen, a Christian community of Bassein of Burma, migrated to the Andamans in 1925 on the promise of a grant of land and employment in the forest. Later they became agriculturists in Middle Andaman near Stewart Sound. Initially their population was 263 (1931). The number rose 384 in 1951 and to 1378 in 1991.

4. Burmese convicts from Burma deported in 1907-1908 and again in the year 1923. They settled in Mamyo, Wrightmyo and Templemyo villages in Port Blair. According to 1931 census, they were 400. Occupationally, Burmese are rice cultivators and food gatherers from the forest.

5. During the Second World War, Japanese forces occupied the island territory. In March 1942, they entered Port Blair and captured the local administration and military establishments. In the beginning their relations with the local population were very amicable. Later the local peoples were charged with espionage against the Japanese forces. Thousands of them were killed by the formers.' Another reason for Japanese region of terror was the shortage of food, drinking water and medicines for them following the trade blockade by the allied forces. Hundreds of civilians died because of 434 Kailash

hunger. The Japanese had the only option and that was to reduce the number civilians by ruthless killing and drowning in the nearby sea.

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