Ethnobotanical knowledge of Khandadevi and Gokulganga Rural Municipality of

Ramechhap District of Nepal Suman Prakash Pradhan, Ram Prasad Chaudhary, Sagar Sigdel and Bishnu Prasad Pandey

Research and the highest ICF was found in the gastro- intestinal disorders ailment category (0.50). Abstract Conclusions: For the first time, we revealed the Background: This study was focused on the ethnobotanical application of plant species from ethnobotany of different ethnic communities residing Majhuwa and Chuchure villages of Ramechhap in Majhuwa and Chuchure villages of Khandadevi District. This study showed that Majhuwa and and Gokulganga Rural Municipality of Ramechhap Chuchure villages are rich in medicinally important District of Bagmati Province of the Federal plant species and different ethnic communities have Democratic Republic of Nepal. enormous knowledge of ethnobotanical uses of plants. Moreover, illegal collection, trade, and Methods: The ethnobotanical study was carried out marketing have threatened the abundance and by using semi-structured questionnaires in which distribution of some high-value medicinal plants. It is participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural of utmost importance to conserve floral diversity appraisal (RRA) tools were used to acquire through the local peoples’ participation. knowledge from local people regarding ethnobotanical uses of plants of their surroundings. The quantitative data were analyzed by the relative Correspondence frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV), and 1 informant consensus factor (ICF). Suman Prakash Pradhan , Ram Prasad 2 3 Chaudhary , Sagar Sigdel , Bishnu Prasad 1, Results: A total of 139 plant species belonging to 74 Pandey * families were found to have ethnobotanical 1 significance. Among these species, herbs accounted Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, for 41% followed by trees (29%), shrubs (14%), Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal 2 climbers (9%), grasses (3%), epiphytes (1%), ferns Research Centre for Applied Science and (1%), fungi (1%), and lichens (1%). Out of which, 136 Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, species were of medicinal importance and used to Kathmandu, Nepal 3 treat different ailments followed by other uses such Department of Environmental Science and as fodder, veterinary, religious, pesticide, timber, etc. Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, The new uses of Lespisorus mehrae, Plumbago Kavre, Nepal zeylanica, Pterocarpus santalinus, Rhus parviflora, * and Roscoea auriculata were found. The highest Corresponding Author: [email protected] RFC was found to be 0.82 for Ageratina adenophora, Curcuma domestica, Acorus calamus, Centella Ethnobotany Research & Applications asiatica, Avena sativa, and Allium sativum. The 20:07 (2020) highest UV was found in Zingiber officinale (1.30),

Manuscript received: 20/04/2020 – Revised manuscript received: 03/06/2020 - Published: 22/06/2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.20.07.1-32 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2

Key Words: Ramechhap, Medicinal Plants, Ghimire & Bastakoti 2009, Joshi et al. 2011, Kunwar Ethnobotanical knowledge, UV, RFC, ICF et al. 2006, Mahato & Chaudhary 2005, Manandhar 2002, Panthi & Chaudhary 2003, Rokaya et al. 2010, Background Uprety et al. 2010). The use of plant species as a medicine for treating various ailments is as old as human civilization. Traditional knowledge systems are the sources of Herbal based medicines have been the basis for the valuable aspects of modern development, especially cure of various diseases and physiological for the sustainable use of forests, ecosystem conditions in traditional methods practiced such as management, and poverty reduction (Pei et al. Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha (Kumar et al. 2006). 2009). Medicinal plants are recognized as important Schultes & Reis (1995) defined ethnobotany as the sources of novel biomolecules (Heinrich et al. 1998) study of the relationship that exists between people which can be used in treating multiple illnesses of primitive societies and their plant environment. (Campbell et al. 2002, Cragg & Newman 2003). The Since ancient times, people in developing countries bioactive molecules and phytochemicals from plants gathered plant resources to fulfill different can be used directly as a healing agent and also fundamental needs and derive a significant part of formulate drugs to cure various diseases (Andrade- their subsistence income (Schippmann et al. 2002). Cetto 2009, Bhat et al. 2013, Idu 2009, Malla et al. Indigenous knowledge systems associated with 2015, Verma & Singh 2008). Various scientific plant used patterns have contributed significantly to evidence supports that numerous plant species are modern science and also play an important role in well known for their therapeutic potential (Ghorbani species conservation (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005, et al. 2006, Shanmugasundaram et al. 2011). Kunwar and Bussmann 2008, Leduc et al. 2006, However, traditional knowledge on the utilization of Martinez et al. 2006). The need for conserving medicinal plants is under threat with current biological diversity and the associated indigenous modernization (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). knowledge has been emphasized since the Rio Therefore, there is an urgent need for Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 1992). comprehensive studies for documentation and Hence, research and documentation of traditional conservation of threatened species, which are knowledge through the ethnobotanical approach are vulnerable in condition and might be wiped out in the important for the conservation and sustainable use near future (Shrestha et al. 2014, Shrestha et al. of highly valuable plant species (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2016). 2005). Ramechhap District, a part of Bagmati Province of Nepal is rich in biodiversity and considered as the Nepal has a population of 202,646 according to the natural storehouse of medicinal plants which are national census of 2011 (CBS 2011), and falls within distributed heterogeneously in the different the territory of indigenous Tamangs communities geographical belts (Chaudhary 1998, Kunwar et al. associated with Newars, Chhetri, Thamis, Sherpas, 2006). The country is blessed with the genetic Sunuwars, and Yolmos farming families who live in diversity of flora and fauna because of complex the rural countryside and utilize plant materials for topography and varied climatic conditions (Rajbanshi livelihood (CBS 2009). To our knowledge, one & Thapa 2019). Although the country comprises only scientific documentation on the ethnobotanical study 0.09% of the global land area, Nepal shares of Ramechhap District has been reported by Sigdel significant global biodiversity (Bhuju et al. 2007, et al. 2013, and since then no such studies were MOFE 2018). Among the 28,000 species of carried out in this region. Our objective was to medicinal plants recognized all over the world (IUCN explore the plant used patterns in Majhuwa and 2015), 750 to 1850 species of the precious medicinal Chuchure villages of Khandadevi and Gokulganga plants are reported to be found in Nepal (Manandhar Rural Municipalities (RM) of Ramechhap District. 2002). Approximately half of the population of these These two villages were selected, based on plant species are considered as useful and of diversities of ethnic communities, rich floral diversity, ethnobotanical significance (Kunwar & Bussmann and altitudinal gradients covering all the climatic 2008, Uprety et al. 2010), and around 25-50% are zones of Ramechhap District. Specifically, we aimed expected to have medicinal properties (Bhattarai et to answer the following questions: al. 2010, Shrestha & Shrestha 1999). The different ethnic communities residing in different geographical (i) What is the status of ethnobotanical knowledge belts of Nepal depend on wild plants to fulfill their within different communities of the Ramechhap basic needs and have their own pool of ethno- District? medicinal knowledge about the plants available in (ii) What conservation practices were undertaken their surroundings (Acharya & Acharya 2009, by the indigenous people and local communities Bhattarai & Ghimire 2006, Bhattarai et al. 2009,

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(IPLCs) for the protection of indigenous Quantitative ethnobotanical data analysis knowledge, skills, practices, and innovations? Relative frequency of citations (RFC) The relative frequency of citations (RFC) was used Materials and Methods to evaluate the relative importance of plant species Study area cited by informants and calculated as previous The study areas were located at the Ramechhap investigators (Shaheen et al. 2017) by the following District of Bagmati Province of the Federal formula. Democratic Republic of Nepal. The geography and climate of Ramechhap district broadly range from RFC= tropical to nival. The two villages of two different Rural Municipalities (RM) of Ramechhap District were selected for the ethnobotanical study; Majhuwa Where, FC is the number of informants reporting the village of Khandadevi RM (27º24'05"N to 27º29'15"N use of a particular species and N is the total number and 85º55'05"E to 85º58'05"E) and Chuchure village of informants. of Gokulganga RM (27º29'52"N to 27º40'20"N and 86º09'02"E to 86º23'12"E) (Figure 1). These two Informant consensus factor (ICF) rural municipalities of Ramechhap falls under the The homogeneity of the information in agreement in distinct altitudinal zones and comprises varied ethnic using plants with medicinal values was determined communities. The Khandadevi RM ranges in the by informant consensus factor (ICF) which was altitudinal gradient of 300 meters above sea level calculated using the following formula (Heinrich & (masl) to 2000 masl which comprises the area of Gibbons 2001). 150.7 Km2, a population of 31,383, and major ethnic groups of Newar, Chhetri, Kami, and Brahman. The ICF= Gokulganga RM ranges in the altitudinal gradient of 2000 masl to 4500 masl which comprises the area of 198 Km2, a population of 20, 074, and major ethnic Where, Nur is the number of use reports mentioned groups of Sherpa, Chhetri, Newar, and Kami (CBS, by the informant for given particular species and Nt 2011) (Figure 2). So, we aimed to cover the uses of is the number of species used by the majority of diverse plant species from all altitudinal zones and people. In each case, if a plant was mentioned by an varied ethnic communities of Ramechhap. informant as ‘used’ then we considered it as one ‘use-report’ (Amiguet et al. 2005, Gazzaneo et al. Ethnobotanical study 2005). The ethnobotanical studies were carried out during June-August of 2018 by using semi-structured Use value (UV) interviews with 56 respondents. In Khandadevi RM, The use value (UV) was calculated as previous the interviews were carried out with 25 respondents investigators (Rokaya et al. 2010) for individual plant (16 males and 9 females/ 7 were under the age of species to measure the importance of individual 30, 12 between the age of 30-60, 6 of the age above plant species by using the following formula. 60 including 7 traditional healers). Similarly, in Gokulganga RM, the interviews were carried out with UV=∑ 31 respondents (15 males and 16 females/ 8 were under the age of 30, 19 between the age of 30-60, 4 of the age above 60, including 15 traditional healers). Where, Ʋ is the number of use reports mentioned by The interviews were carried out in the Nepali the respondent and n is the total number of language. The rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and respondents. participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools were used for peoples’ participation and acquire ethnobotanical Prior informed consent knowledge from them (Martin 2010). The plant Before the study began, we shared the purpose and species were collected, and herbarium specimens objectives of our study with the local people, were prepared by pressing and drying in the field authorities, and relevant stakeholders of Khandadevi using a natural drying technique (Forman & Bridson RM and Gokulganga RM. Preliminary informed 1989) with slight modifications. All the plant species consent about the documentation and dissemination were scientifically identified at Tribhuvan University of local knowledge of ethnobotanical uses of plant species was taken from all participants who were Central Herbarium (TUCH), Central Department of Botany, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. All the voucher involved in PRA and RRA participatory interviews specimens were housed and preserved at the and discussions. As per the respondents’ request, their name and the doses of plant extract preparation Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal. for medication were kept confidential.

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Figure 1. Map of Nepal showing Ramechhap District

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Figure 2. Khandadevi and Gokulganga Rural Municipality with elevation gradients

Results and Discussions local communities. Besides their medicinal uses, the Diversity of uses timber trade of high-value plant species such as A total of 139 plant species (66 from Khandadevi RM, Acacia catetchu, Pinus roxburghii, Pterocarpus 38 from Gokulganga RM, and 35 commons to both santalinus, Santalum album, Shorea robusta, places) belonging to 74 families were found to have Syzygium cumini, and Tamarindus indica was also in ethnobotanical significance based on semi- practice in Khandadevi RM. structured interviews with 56 informants. Out of 139 plant species reported, 136 were of medicinal Leaves were the most used plant parts (18%) importance and used to treat different ailments such followed by root (17%), fruit (14%), whole plant as gastro-intestinal disorders, cardiovascular (13%), bark (10%), stem (6%), flowers (5%), and disorder, ear, nose and throat (ENT) problems, rhizome (3%) (Figure 4) which was comparable with dermal infection, urinary tract infections, pulmonary the previous literature in plant materials used pattern disorders, wounds, boils, and cuts. The other uses in Nepal (Bano et al. 2014, Malla et al. 2015). In included religious, traditional rituals, making pickles, Ramechhap, plant materials were used in the form of essential oil extraction, washing and dyeing, edible, decoction, paste, juice, powder, soup, and extracted timber, fodder, pesticides, and veterinary (Figure 3). oil as in the other parts of Nepal (Ghimire et al. 2018). Our results resembled with the reported literature on However, the juice was the most preferred method of the plant used pattern in other parts of Nepal (Aryal preparation because of easy availability of the plant et al. 2018, Bhattarai 2018, Ghimire et al. 2018, materials in their surroundings. In general, fresh Rokaya et al. 2010, Shrestha & Dhillion 2003), and plant parts were collected in different seasons at signified that local peoples have immense different stages of maturity, dried in shade, and knowledge in using plants mainly as medicine. The stored in a dry place for further use. Oral intake and new uses of Lespisorus mehrae, Plumbago dermal application followed by nasal and smoking zeylanica, Pterocarpus santalinus, Rhus parviflora, were the other common practices observed in and Roscoea auriculata were found (Table 1). In Ramechhap, were also reported practice in the comparison, Gokulganga RM was blessed with the Dolakha District (Shrestha & Dhillion 2003) and the high-value medicinal plant species, and some of Humla District (Rokaya et al. 2010) of Nepal. The them were used to export in the domestic and overall enumerations of plant species with international market, contributing to the livelihoods of ethnobotanical significance are presented in Table 1.

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Figure 3. Major uses

Figure 4. Plant parts used

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Table 1. Plant species of Ramechhap District with ethnobotanical uses

Family Scientific name / Vernacular RFC UV Part Uses Similar use Voucher specimen name / Life used references number form Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Asuro (S) 0.39 0.61 L Medicine; leave juice was used to treat asthma, skin (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM13-S4) disease, cough and cold, fever, and blood pressure. Other uses; green manure, fodder, and fencing. Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Bonjho (H) 0.82 1.00 Wh Medicine; juice or paste was used to treat cough and (Aryal et al. 2018, (RKM27-H17) cold, fever, asthma, chest pain, diarrhea, and dysentery. Kunwar et al. Pesticides; rhizome was used as pesticides. 2006) Alliaceae Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Banlasun (H) 0.26 0.42 Bl Medicine; the bulb was used to treat cough and cold, (Ghimire et al. (RGC2-H7) diarrhea, and headache in the form of juice or direct 2001, Rokaya et consumption. Edible; young leaves were used as a al. 2010) vegetable. Amaranthaceae Chenopodium album L. Bethu (H) 0.28 0.46 Wh Medicine; the juice was used to treat back pain, (Dixit & (RKM23-H11) bleeding, and body pain. Fodder; the plant was used as Vakshasya 2019, fodder. Edible; leaves were edible. Additives; ghee and Singh 2015) honey. Achyranthes aspera L. Apamarga 0.28 0.42 Wh Medicine; the juice of the root was used to treat (Baral & Kurmi (RKM11-H4) (H) diarrhea, stomach problems, and dysentery. Veterinary; 2006, Kunwar et to treat the problem regarding expelling the placenta of al. 2009) animals after delivery of different domestic animals. Religious; worshiping to the God Shiva in Newari Culture. Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L. Lasun (H) 0.82 1.23 Bd Medicine; the juice was used to treat gastritis, furuncles, (Singh et al. 2011) (RKM60-H39) altitude sickness, and sexual desire. Edible; young leaves were used as a vegetable. Spices; to make spices and different flavors. Additives; honey and ginger. Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Aanp (T) 0.26 0.32 F, L & Medicine; leaves juice was used to treat diarrhea, (Juárez-Vázquez (RKM2-T1) B dysentery, cough, and cold. The paste of the bark was et al. 2013, Singh used to treat syphilis and wounds. Gums were used to et al. 2019) treat scabies and warts. Ripe fruits were diuretic, diaphoretic, and used for hemorrhages of intestines and lungs. Edible; fruits were edible. Other uses; woods were used to prepare furniture.

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Rhus parviflora Roxb. Pithauli/ 0.33 0.59 F & B Medicine; bark paste was used to treat muscular (Burlakoti & (RKM69-S15) Satibayar (S) swelling and decoction was taken for dysentery. Edible; Kunwar 2008) ripe fruits were edible. Tobacco; leaves were used in smoking. Manure; leaves were used to make compost. Culture; leaves were an important ingredient in wedding ceremony of ‘Newari’ culture. Religious; leaves and fruits were used in different Hindu worshiping. Apiaceae Centella asiatica (L.) Ghodtabre 0.82 1.19 Wh Medicine; the leave juice was used to treat fever, (Bhattarai 2018) Urban (H) diarrhea, dysentery, urinary troubles, cut, wounds, (HKM34-H25) throat, and skin diseases. Cuminum cyminum L. Kalo Jeera 0.26 0.48 Wh Medicine; juice was used to treat fever, body aches, and (Nasab & (RKM47-H34) (H) indigestion. Khosravi 2014) Apocynaceae Calotropis gigantea (L.) Aank (H) 0.39 0.61 L, B & Medicine; juice of leaves was used to treat cuts, wound, (Kunwar et al. Dryand. Fl boils, fever, and body pain. Bark juice was used to treat 2009) (RKM1-H1) diarrhea and dysentery. Flower powder was used to treat cough and cold. Additives; milk. Chonemorpha fragrans Gothale Phul 0.28 0.73 L Medicine; gum from leaves was used to treat skin (Malla et al. 2015) (Moon) Alston (T) disease, cuts, and wounds. Fodder; young leaves were (RKM39-T11) used as fodder. Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Sarpaganda 0.64 1.00 R & L Medicine; juice of root and leaves were used to treat (Rahman et al. Benth. ex Kurz (S) dysentery, fever, and stomach problem. 2010) (RKM78-S17) Asparagaceae Agave cantala (Haw.) Kettuke (H) 0.41 0.69 R & L Medicine; root and leave juice was used to treat urinary (Pathak 2010) Roxb. ex Salm-Dyck tract problems. Other uses; cultivated as natural hedges (RKM51-H35) to control soil erosion and the leaves were used to make ropes.

Asparagus racemosus Ban Kurilo 0.64 0.75 Rh/R Medicine; the root was tonic, appetite-inducing, laxative, (Aryal et al. 2018, Willd. (H) and antiseptic. The root juice was used to treat typhoid, Kunwar et al. (RKM16-H8) loss of appetite, dysentery, stomach problems, and 2009) burning sensation during urination. Veterinary; root powder was used to increase milk and to treat the mulching disorder. Edible; tender shoot was used as a vegetable.

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Asphodelaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Ghiu Kumari 0.39 0.69 L & Fl Medicine; leave gel was used to treat blood pressure, (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM35-H26) (H) diabetes, gastritis, indigestion, insomnia, anxiety, constipation, cardiovascular disease, burn, skin disease, pulmonary diseases, and joint pains. Edible; flowers were edible and used to make pickles. Asteraceae Ageratina adenophora Banmara 0.82 1.26 L Medicine; leaves powder was used to treat wounds and (Aryal et al. 2018) (Spreng.) King & H. Rob. Kalo (H) cuts. (RKM17-S9) Ageratum conyzoides L. Gandhe (H) 0.39 0.61 R, B Medicine; paste or juice was used to treat wounds, (Aryal et al. 2018) (RKM36-H27) & L ruptures, cuts, and remove thorns in the feet. Artemisia indica Willd. Titepati (H) 0.80 1.15 L & St Medicine; juice of leaves and stem was used to treat (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM89-H56) diarrhea, dysentery, headaches, body pain, anorexia, stomach problem, cough and cold, fever, gastritis, and worms. Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. Gai Tihare 0.23 0.48 Sh & Medicine; root and shoot juice helps to activate the (Thapa 2012) ex D. Don) DC. (H) R nervous system and used to treat joints problems, (RGC14-H) indigestion, and gastritis. Ligularia amplexicaulis Nagre Jhar 0.28 0.42 S, L & Medicine; paste of the plant was used to treat rheumatic (Manandhar 1995) DC. (H) Fl pain and sprain. Oil; essential oils were extracted. (RGC35-H42) Tagetes erecta L. Sayapatri 0.73 0.98 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat fever, cough and (Dhami 2008) (RKM79-H51) (H) cold, rheumatic pain, eye problems, and skin problems. Religious; the plant has ornamental value and flower heads were offered to God. Cultural; flowers were used in ‘Dashain’ and ‘Tihar’ festival. Berberidaceae Berberis aristata DC. Chutro (S) 0.80 1.11 R, Sh Medicine; root juice was used to treat fever, diarrhea, (Aryal et al. 2018, (RGC11-S6) & F and jaundice. Aesthetic; root and stem barks were Rokaya et al. sources of dye. Edible; ripe fruits were edible. 2010) Mahonia napaulensis Jamaneman 0.58 1.00 Sh Medicine; bark juice was used to treat diabetes, blood (Manandhar 1993, DC. dro (S) pressure, jaundice, and eye problems. Dye; bark was Shrestha & (RGC20-S10) used to make a color. Edible; ripe fruits were edible. Dhillion 2003) Betulaceae Alnus nepalensis D. Don Uttis (T) 0.73 1.17 B Medicine; paste of the bark was used to treat broken (Baral & Kurmi (RKM93-T39) body parts and burn skin. Timber; wood was widely used 2006, Rokaya et as timber for short term purposes. Other uses; plants al. 2010) were used to control landslide and other soil erosion.

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Betula utilis D.Don Bhujapaat 0.39 0.65 B, Wh Medicine; paste of the bark was used to treat wounds, (Manandhar 2002) (RGC6-H15) (H) burns, and cuts. Juice of bark was used to treat fever, cough and cold, internal bleeding, diarrhea, bronchitis, and jaundice. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder and shoots for construction. Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Totalo (T) 0.33 0.59 F Medicine; bark juice was used to treat fever, diarrhea, (Kunwar et al. Benth. ex Kurz and jaundice. Seed paste was used to treat would and 2009) (RKM86-T36) cuts. Religious; fruits and seeds were used to offer goddesses. Brassicaceae Brassica campestris L. Tori (H) 0.75 1.15 Wh Medicine; root juice was used to treat bronchitis. Oil was (Tamang & Singh (RKM91-H57) used to relieve earaches and body pain. Oil; edible oil 2014) was obtained from seeds. Edible; leaves were used as vegetables. Preservatives; oil was used as a preservative for dry food and pickles. Other uses; husks were used as fertilizer in the cultivation of different plants. Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Bhuikatahar 0.39 0.53 F & L Medicine; leaves and fruit juice were used to treat (Baral & Kurmi Merr. (H) indigestion, dehydration, fever, blood pressure, and 2006) (RKM26-H14) mental problem. Edible; fruits were consumed directly. Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Ganja (S) 0.62 1.05 Fl Medicine; leaves juice was used to treat stomach (Rana et al. 2015) (RGC15-H24) problems, diarrhea, inflammation, cough, and cold. Flowers were used as a nervous stimulant. Edible; seeds were roasted to make pickles. Caprifoliaceae Nardostachys grandiflora Jatamansi 0.75 1.11 R/ Rh Medicine; rhizome juice and paste were used to treat (Ghimire et al. DC. (H) diarrhea, fever, dysentery, and stomach problem. Other 2001, Lama et al. (RGC21-H31) uses; dried leaves were used as incense. 2001) Caryophyllaceae Drymaria diandra Blume Abhijalo (H) 0.30 0.50 Wh Medicine; the juice of the plant was used to treat (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM3-H2) headaches, sinusitis, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, and stomach problem. Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica Barra (T) 0.39 0.69 F Medicine; fruits were considered as digestive, tonic, and (Baral & Kurmi (Gaertn.) Roxb. laxative. Powder of fruits was used to treat gastritis, 2006) (RKM19-T16) fever, bronchitis, and respiratory problems. Edible; fruits were edible. Other uses; woods were used as timber and fuelwood.

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Terminalia chebula Retz. Harro (T) 0.51 0.75 F & Medicine; fruits were purgative, tonic, and stomachic. (Rahman et al. (RKM42-T12) Hw Powder of fruit was used to treat indigestion, loss of 2010) appetite, and throat, liver, tooth, and eye problems. Edible; fruits were edible. Other uses; heartwoods were used as timber and fuelwood. Convolulaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Akash Beli 0.64 0.86 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat jaundice and ash (Shaheen et al. (RKM6-CH1) (CH) of plant were used to treat cuts and wound. 2017) Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum Pattharchatt 0.57 0.92 L Medicine; the leave juice was used to treat (Baral & Kurmi (Lam.) Oken a (H) inflammation, snake bite, stomach problem, joint pain, 2006, Malla et al. (RKM66-H46) constipation, dysentery, and stone. But poisonous to 2015) some animals. Cucurbitaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) Gol Kakri 0.57 1.00 R & F Medicine; root and fruit juice were used to treat (Shrestha et al. Voigt (CH) dysentery, body pain, and syphilis. Edible; fruit can be 2016) (RKM38-CH3) consumed directly. Herpetospermum Bankarela 0.17 0.23 R Medicine; root juice or paste was used to treat bleeding, (Lama et al. 2001, pedunculosum (Ser.) (CH) fever, cough, headache, urinary infection, and snake Manandhar 2002) C.B. Clarke bite. (RGC4-CH2) Momordica charantia L. Karela (CH) 0.46 0.69 F Medicine; fruit juice was used to treat indigestion, boost (Dhami 2008) (RKM48-CH7) appetite, fever, skin diseases, and diabetes. Edible; fruits were used as a vegetable. Trichosanthes Indreni 0.41 0.63 R Medicine; root juice was used to treat asthma, stomach (Bhattarai & tricuspidata Lour. Lahara (CH) problem, fever, cough, and cold. Khadka 2016) (RGC19-CH6) Cupressaceae Juniperus recurva Buch.- Dhupi (T) 0.69 1.05 L, B & Medicine; fruits were eaten directly to treat fever and (Rokaya et al. Ham. ex D. Don F bark paste were used to treat wounds. Religious; leaves 2010) (RGC13-T9) were used to make incense. Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta Gaertn.f. Saal (T) 0.39 0.57 L & Medicine; the resin was used to treat fever, dysentery, (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM76-T32) Hw blood regulation, pneumonia, and skin disease. Timber; heartwoods were used as timber. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Religious; leaves were important ingredients for different Hindu worships. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus sphaericus Rudrakchya 0.39 0.61 F Medicine; seeds were used to treat skin disease, blood (Bhattarai 2017) (Gaertn.) K. Schum.* (T) pressure, and heart diseases. Religious; seeds were (RKM75-T31) used for worshiping God Shiva in the Hindu religion.

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Equisetaceae Equisetum diffusum D. Kurkure Jhar 0.21 0.38 R Medicine; root juice was used to treat jaundice, fever, (Manandhar 1998) Don (H) eye problem, and cough, and cold. (RGC28-H36) Ericaceae Gaultheria fragrantissima Dhasingare 0.51 0.78 L & Medicine: leaves and barks paste were used to treat (Baral & Kurmi Wall. (S) Sh body pain, joints pain, cough, and cold. Other uses; 2006) (RGC12-S7) essential oils were extracted from leave and seed. Rhododendron Sunpaati (S) 0.39 0.69 L Medicine; juice and paste of leaves were used to treat (Kumar et al. anthopogon D. Don fever, cough, and cold, joints pain, body pain, 2009) (RGC44-S19) headaches, and vein pain. Veterinary; plant odor was considered as the anti-poisonous agent for animals. Essential oil; leaves were used to extract essential oil and perfumes. Religious; leaves were used to make incense sticks. Rhododendron Laligurans 0.64 1.07 Fl Medicine and Edible; flowers were consumed directly (Joshi & Joshi arboretum Sm. (T) or in the form of juice and paste to treat throat problems, 2009) (RGC30-T23) diarrhea, and dysentery, wound, and bleeding. Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas L. Sajiwan (S) 0.39 0.59 R & Medicine; root juice was used to treat inflammation, (Dhami 2008) (RKM77-S16) Sd boils, wound, tooth problems, poisonous, cough, fever, and asthma. Oil; seeds were used to extract oil. Other uses; plants were cultivated to control soil erosion. Phyllanthus emblica L. Amala (T) 0.28 0.42 F & L Medicine; Juice of bark, leaves, and fruits were used to (Baral & Kurmi (RKM7-T2) treat gastritis, dysentery, and constipation. Fodder; 2006) leaves were used as fodder. Edible; fruits were edible. Fabaceae Acacia catetchu (L.f.) Khayar (T) 0.46 0.76 Hw & Medicine; the decoction of heartwood was used to treat (Singh et al. 2012) Willd. L chest pain, asthma, cough and cold, skin diseases, and (RKM53-T18) fever. Timber; heartwood was strong and used as timber, poles, and other household purposes. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Bharla Rato 0.17 0.30 R & Medicine; root juice was used to treat bleeding, (Singh 2016) Arn. (C) Fl dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, and toxicity. (RKM24-C1) Bauhinia variegata (L.) Koiralo (T) 0.46 0.73 B & Fl Medicine; bark and flower juice were used to treat (Joshi & Joshi Benth. dysentery, constipation, bleeding, diabetes, diarrhea, 2000) (RKM55-T21) and indigestion. Edible; flowers and young seeds were used as vegetables and pickles. Other uses; heartwood was used in the construction of houses and other furniture.

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Cassia fistula L. Raj Brikchya 0.33 0.57 F & B Medicine; bark of the stem was boiled and consumed to (Tamang et al. (RKM70-T28) (T) treat throat problems, cough, and cold. Fruits were 2017) consumed directly to treat urinary tract infections, diarrhea, and constipation. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Sisso (T) 0.39 0.61 B & R Medicine; root or bark juice was used to treat fever, (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM83-T34) diarrhea, and dysentery. Other uses; heartwood was widely used in construction and as fuelwood. Macrotyloma uniflrorum Gahat (H) 0.26 0.51 Lg Medicine; legume was consumed to treat diabetes and (Malla et al. 2014) (Lam.) Verdc.* kidney stone. Edible; legume was used as a vegetable. (RKM32-H23) Mimosa pudica L. Lajjawoti 0.46 0.55 R Medicine; root juice was used to treat joints pain, (Uprety et al. (RKM58-H38) Jhar (H) stomach problems, and body cooling. 2011) Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. Areri Kanda 0.32 0.50 Wh Medicine; paste of the bark was used to treat skin (Baral & Kurmi (RKM12-H5) (H) problems, wound healing, and strain. The decoction of 2006, Manandhar leaves was used to treat fever and urinary disorder. 2002) Fodder; young leaves were used as fodder. Pterocarpus santalinus Raktachand 0.39 0.57 Hw Medicine; paste and powder of bark and heartwood (Saikia et al. L.f.* an (T) were used to treat stomach problems, skin disease, 2006) (RKM71-T29) fever, and mental aberrations. Religious; leaves and heartwood were used for worshiping Gods. Timber; heartwood was used as timber and has high economic value. Quercus lanata Sm. Banjh (T) 0.30 0.46 St, B, Medicine; bark paste was used to treat body pain. (Rokaya et al. (RGC3-T4) L & Fodder; leaves were lopped for fodder. Other uses; 2010) Hw heartwoods were used to make different agricultural equipment, especially the plowing machine. Tamarindus indica L. Titri (T) 0.28 0.36 R, B Medicine; bark and root juice were used to treat (Joshi et al. 2011) (RKM90-T38) & F diarrhea, constipation, inflammation, indigestion, and rheumatic pain. Edible; fruits were edible and used as pickles. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Timber; heartwood was used as timber. Trigonella foenum- Methi (H) 0.57 0.88 Sd & Medicine; seeds were used to boost appetite. Edible; (Baral & Kurmi graecum L.* L leaves were used as vegetables. 2006) (RKM62-H40) Gentianaceae Swertia chirayita (Roxb. Chiraito (H) 0.75 1.03 Wh Medicine; juice or tea of plant was used to treat fever, (Bhattarai 2018) ex Fleming) H. Karst. body pain, and anxiety. Additives; milk and honey. (RGC10-H20)

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Lamiaceae Dracocephalum Chinchine 0.69 0.92 L Medicine; leave juice was used to treat cough and cold, (Baral & Kurmi heterophyllum Benth. Jhar (H) indigestion, sinusitis, burn, and fever. The paste of 2006) (RGC9-H19) leaves was used for curing snakebites. Ocimum basilicum L. Babari (H) 0.75 1.00 Wh Medicine; leaves juice was used to treat fever, cough (Baral & Kurmi (RKM15-H6) and cold, headache, stomach problems, and jaundice. 2006) Edible; leaves were used as pickles. Pesticide; the whole plant was used as a pesticide. Pogostemon Rudilo (H) 0.64 0.88 L Medicine; leaves paste and juice were considered as (Dhami 2008) benghalensis (Burm.f.) antidandruff and antifungal and used to treat skin Kuntze disease, warts and, wounds, cough, cold, and fever. (RKM74-H49) Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Tulasi (H) 0.64 0.96 Wh Medicine; leave juice was used to treat fever, cough and (Acharya & (RKM92-H58) cold, typhoid, skin disease, anorexia, bronchitis, Pokhrel 2006) dysentery, diarrhea, and toothache. Religious; plant was used in worshiping Gods in the Hindu religion. Lauraceae Cinnamomum Malagiri (T) 0.46 0.67 Sd Medicine; paste of seed was used to treat muscular (Manandhar 2002) glaucescens (Nees) swelling. Oil; seeds were used to extract oils. Hand.-Mazz. (RGC32-T24) Cinnamomum tamala Tejpatta (T) 0.75 1.13 L Medicine; leaves and bark were consumed directly to (Ranjitkar & (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & treat cough and cold, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach Rajbhandary C.H.Eberm. problems. Essential Oils; leaves were used to extract 2008) (RKM87-T37) oils. Edible; bark and leaves were edible and used in daily meals. Lindera neesiana (Wall. Siltimur (S) 0.46 0.67 F Medicine; fruits were directly consumed to treat (Rokaya et al. ex Nees) Kurz. diarrhea, indigestion, cough and cold, and blood 2010) (RGC43-S18) pressure. Veterinary; fruits were used to treat different ailments of domestic animals. Persea odoratissima Kharani (T) 0.57 0.76 B & L Medicine; bark juice and paste were used to treat (Bhattarai 2017) (Nees) Kostermans wounds, allergy, and dislocated bones. Pesticide; (RGC26-T17) leaves powder was used to kill rodents. Fodder; fresh and young leaves were used as fodder.

Lycopodeceae Lycopodium clavatum L. Nagbeli 0.33 0.42 Fl & Medicine; paste and juice of plant were used to treat (Rana et al. 2015) (RGC34-CH10) Lahara (CH) R fever, headache, wound, and skin disease.

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Lythraceae Punica granatum L.* Anar (S) 0.39 0.55 F & B Medicine; bark paste was used to treat inflammation. (Ghimire et al. (RKM10-S3) Powder of rind of fruits was used to treat diarrhea and 2001) dysentery. Bark act as an antifungal agent and used in wound healing. Edible; fruits were edible and can be consumed directly. Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Ghanti Phul 0.28 0.53 Fl Medicine; root and flower juice were used to cool down (Baral & Kurmi (RKM33-S9) (S) the body and treat blood pressure, urinary problems, and 2006) excess bleeding. Religious; plants were cultivated for ornamental purposes and religious use. Melanthiaceae Paris polyphylla Sm. Satuwa (H) 0.60 0.84 R Medicine; root paste was used to treat burn, cut, wound, (Bhattarai 2018) (RGC42-H50) diarrhea, dysentery, and poison. Veterinary; the root was used to treat different ailments of domestic animals. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Neem (T) 0.46 0.53 L & Medicine; bark juice was used to treat fever, body pain, (Joshi & Joshi A.Juss.* Sh pneumonia, dysentery, cough and cold, tooth problems, 2000) (RKM63-T25) and urinary complaint. Cipadessa baccifera Paileti (S) 0.33 0.50 R, Sh Medicine; root juice was used to treat cough and cold, (Malla & Chhetri (Roth) Miq. & B indigestion, and stomach problem. Edible; ripe fruits 2009, Rao et al. (RKM64-S14) were edible. Other uses; twigs were used as 2011) toothbrushes. Menispermaceae Tinospora sinensis Gurjo (CH) 0.62 0.86 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat urinary tract (Malla et al. 2015) (Lour.) Merr. infection and diabetes. Other uses; the stem was used (RKM41-CH5) to make herbal tea. Stephania glandulifera Gundru 0.28 0.61 Tu Medicine; root juice was used to treat constipation, (Bhattarai & Miers Gano (CH) bleeding, skin disease, gastritis, diarrhea, and Khadka 2016) (RKM40-CH4) indigestion. Veterinary; tuberous roots were given to cattle to treat diarrhea. Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Bar (T) 0.44 0.69 R & L Medicine; infusion of the bark and root juice was used (Rahman et al. (RKM18-T5) to treat diarrhea, dysentery, and hair problems. 2010) Religious; leaves and branches were important ingredients for different religious and cultural functions. Fodder; young leaves were used as fodder. Other uses; heartwood was used as timber and fuelwood. Ficus benjamina L. Swami (T) 0.39 0.61 Hw & Medicine; leaves paste and latex were used to treat (Kunwar & (RKM85-T35) L boils, cuts, and wounds. Religious; leaves were Bussmann 2006) important ingredients in the different events of the Hindu religion. Timber; heartwood was used as timber.

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Ficus religiosa L. Pipal (T) 0.46 0.73 L, Rn Medicine; infusion of bark and leaves juice were used to (Singh & Hamal (RKM67-T27) & Hw treat strain, muscle crack, broke, skin disease, and 2013) headache. Religious; important plant for Hindu and Buddhist cultures. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Other use; heartwood was used as timber and fuelwood. Ficus semicordata Buch.- Khanyu (T) 0.46 0.75 Wh Medicine; root juice was used to treat leprosy and fever. (Kunwar & Ham. ex Sm. Fruit act as a laxative. Fodder; leaves were used as Bussmann 2006) (RKM52-T16) fodder. Edible; fruits ae edible and can be consumed directly. Other uses; bark was used to make rope and woods were used as fuelwood. Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Kera (ST) 0.39 0.61 R, F Medicine; root juice was used to treat diarrhea, joints (Thapa 2012) (RKM50-ST1) & Fl pain, body heating, and excess bleeding. Edible; flowers were used as pickles and fruits were edible. Myricacea Myrica esculenta Buch.- Kaphal (T) 0.57 0.80 B & F Medicine; bark paste was used to treat broken body (Joshi & Joshi Ham. ex D.Don parts and decoction of the bark was used to treat 2009) (RGC25-T14) dysentery. Edible; ripe fruits were edible and can be consumed directly. Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Amba (T) 0.28 0.42 L, F & Medicine; bark and leaves juice were used to treat (Raut et al. 2018; (RKM8-T3) B gastritis, fever, dysentery, and constipation. Fodder; Rokaya et al. young leaves were used as fodder. Edible; fruits were 2014) edible. Syzygium cumini Jamuna (T) 0.46 0.73 F, B Medicine; bark and leaves juice were used to treat (Baral & Kurmi (L.) Skeels & Hw diarrhea and diabetes. Edible; fruits were edible and can 2006) (RKM43-T13) be consumed directly. Fodder; young leaves were used as fodder. Other uses; heartwood was used as construction material, furniture, and fuelwood. Syzygium operculatum Kyamuno (T) 0.39 0.61 B, L & Medicine; smoke of leaves and barks powder were used (Thapa 2012) (Roxb.) Nied. Hw to treat headaches and sinusitis. Other uses; (RKM57-T22) Heartwood was used as timber and fuelwood. Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Bhui Amala 0.46 0.80 R & F Medicine; root and flower paste were used to treat (Kichu et al. 2015) K. Presl (Fn/H) jaundice, boils, and skin problems. (RKM25-H_FN12) Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis jalapa L. Lankasani 0.35 0.69 Fl, R Medicine; root juice was purgative and poultices which (Bhattarai & (RKM59-S13) Phul (S) & L was used to treat diarrhea and menstrual disorder. Khadka 2016)

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Ophiocordycipitaceae Ophiocordyceps sinensis Yarshagumb 0.46 0.67 Wh Medicine; the whole plant was consumed directly to (Devkota 2006) (Berk.) Sung et al. a (Fu) boost up body strength. Additives; milk and honey. (RGC46-FU1) Other uses; commercial values. Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza hatagirea Panch Aunle 0.62 0.88 R/ Rh Medicine; root powder and paste were used to treat (Shrestha et al. (D.Don) Soó (H) wounds, snake bite, and burn. Edible; young leaves 2016) (RGC40-H45) were used as a vegetable. Dendrobium densiflorum Jeewanti (E) 0.28 0.50 Wh Medicine; paste of pulps was used to treat skin disease. (Subedi et al. Lindl. Other uses; flowers were considered ornamental. 2013) (RGC23-E2) Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Chari Amilo 0.69 1.00 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat wounds, eye (Manandhar 2002) (RKM28-H18) (H) problems, stomach problems, joints pain, dysentery, fever, and diarrhea. Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana L. Satyanasi 0.57 0.88 R Medicine; root juice or milky juice was used to treat skin (Singh et al. 2012) (RKM84-H53) (H) disease, jaundice, cough, and cold. Parmeliaceae Parmelia nepaulensis Jhyau Seto 0.57 1.11 Th Medicine; thallus powder was used to treat wounds and Tayl. (L) cuts. (RGC24-L1) Pedaliaceae Sesamum orientale L. Til Kalo (H) 0.39 0.57 R & Medicine; juice and paste of seed and root were used to (Baral & Kurmi (RKM88-H55) Sd treat dysentery, bleeding, constipation, and skin dryness. 2006) Oil; seeds were used to extract oil. Edible; seeds were eaten in the form of pickles and also consumed directly. Pinaceae Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Khote Salla 0.69 1.11 Hw, Medicine; paste and juice of resin, seed, and bark were (Rajbhandari (RKM54-T20) (T) Rn, considered as antiseptic and tonic and used to treat 2001) Sd & indigestion, cough and cold, skin disease, asthma, and L tuberculosis. Timber; heartwood was used as timber and also used to make furniture and other construction materials. Other uses; powder of heartwood, seed, and leaves were used to make incense. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Gobre Salla 0.69 1.00 Hw & Timber; wood was used as timber. Medicine; resins (Joshi & Joshi Jacks. (T) L were used to treat cuts and wounds. Other uses; 2009, Rokaya et (RKM37-T10) powder of bark, leaves, and heartwood were used to al. 2010) make incense. Piperaceae Piper longum L. Pipla (H) 0.41 0.63 Wh Medicine; fruit juice was used to treat fever, cough, and (Malla et al. 2015) (RKM68-H47) cold. Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Nase Jhar 0.28 0.42 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat, fever, stomach (Kunwar & (RGC36-H43) (H) problems, cough, and cold. Adhikari 2005)

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Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Chitu/Chitrak 0.46 0.82 R Medicine; root juice and paste were used to treat skin (Xavier et al. (RKM30-H21) (H) disease, cold and cough, asthma, constipation, diarrhea, 2014) and dysentery. The milky juice of the root was used to treat scabies. Poaceae Avena sativa L.* Jaun (G) 0.82 0.50 Gr Medicine; spikes were laxative. Powder of grains was (Ahmad et al. (RGC22-H_G32) used to treat indigestion. Edible; grains were edible. 2011) Fodder; plants were used as fodder. Religious; grains were used in different Hindu worships. Cynodon dactylon Dubo Seto 0.57 0.88 Wh Medicine; plant juice was used to treat cut, wound, (Singh et al. 2012) (L.) Pers. (H) urinary, and bladder complaints. Religious; in (RKM31-H22) worshiping during various religious events. Cultural; at the wedding ceremony.

Dendrocalamus hamiltoni Baans (G) 0.46 0.69 Cl & L Medicine; water inside the stem helps in increasing (Aryal et al. 2018) Neer & Arn. ex Munro body strength and sexual desire. Edible; tender shoots (RKM14-G1) were used as a vegetable (Commonly called TAMA). Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Other uses; culms were used in construction and making baskets and mats.

Drepanostachyum Nigalo (G) 0.69 1.01 Wh Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Other uses; in the (Malla & Chhetri intermedium (Munro) preparation of weaving mats and baskets and walking 2009) Keng f. sticks. (RGC37-G2) Imperata cylindrica (L.) Siru (G) 0.46 0.75 R Medicine; root juice was used to treat worms, fever, and (Manandhar 2002, P.Beauv. diarrhea. Fodder; plants were gathered for fodder. Rokaya et al. (RKM81-G3) 2010) Thysanolaena maxima Amliso (GS) 0.58 0.67 R & Medicine; root juice was used to treat fever, (Maity et al. 2004) (Roxb.) O. Ktze. In constipation, body pain, and joints problems. Fodder; (RKM9-GS1) plants were gathered as fodder. Other uses; inflorescences were used as a broom. Zea mays L.* Makai (G) 0.64 0.94 Gn Medicine; grains were used to reduce sugar levels in (Malla & Chhetri (RKM61-G1) diabetes patients. Edible; grains were edible. Fodder; 2009) leaves were used as fodder. Other uses: husks were used to make household goods.

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Polygonaceae Rheum acuminatum Padamchal 0.57 0.75 R Medicine; root juice was used to treat fever, cough and (Bhattarai & Hook f. and Thomson ex (H) cold, and body pain. Edible; petioles can be consumed Khadka 2016) Hook. as pickles. Side effects; overconsumption may cause (RGC38-H43) gastritis and stomach problems. Additives; sugar and salt.

Rumex nepalensis Halhale (H) 0.57 0.80 L Medicine; boiled leaves juice was used to treat lung (Singh et al. 2012) Spreng. disease, cough and cold, sinusitis, headache, wound, (RGC16-H28) and body pain. Edible; tender leaves and shoots were used as vegetables.

Polypodiaceae Lepisorus mehrae Bispech (E) 0.73 1.03 Rh Medicine; rhizome powder was used to treat back pain, (Uprety et al. Fraser-Jenk. stomach problems, and fever. Pesticide; rhizome 2010) (RGC7-E1) powder was used as a pesticide. Veterinary; rhizome powder was used to treat diarrhea in animals and wound on their mouth.

Pteridaceae Cheilanthes dalhousiae Rani Sinka 0.64 0.86 Rh Medicine; rhizome powder was used to treat gastritis (Rana et al. 2015) Hook. (Fn/H) and stomach problems. (RKM72-H_FN48) Ranunculaceae Anemone vitifolia Buch.- Homachar 0.62 0.86 Wh Medicine; the paste of plant was used to treat stomach (Malla et al. 2015) Ham. ex DC. (H) problems, headache, mental disorder, diarrhea, (RGC18-H30) vomiting, and constipation. Edible; shoot can be consumed as vegetable and spices. Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Bismar (H) 0.69 1.03 R Medicine; root paste and powder were used to treat (Baral & Kurmi Ser. fever, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach problem, and 2006, Joshi & (RGC8-H16) indigestion. Pesticide; roots powder was mixed with Joshi 2001) food to kill rodents and wild animals. Clematis buchananiana Pinase 0.60 0.92 Wh Medicine; root powder was used to treat sinusitis. (Bhattarai 2018) DC. Lahara (CH) (RGC41-CH11) Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bayar (S) 0.30 0.55 F & R Medicine; root and fruit juice and paste were used to (Ahmad et al. (RKM20-S5) treat fever, indigestion, and measles. Edible; pulp fruits 2018) can be consumed directly.

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Rosaceae Prunus cerasoides D. Painyu (T) 0.75 1.00 Sh & Medicine; bark paste was used to treat the broken body (Manandhar 2002, Don B parts. Edible; fresh fruits were edible. Religious; shoots Rokaya et al. (RKM65-T26) were important ingredients for ‘Bratabandha’ in Hindu 2010) culture. Fodder; fresh leaves were used as fodder. Rubus ellipticus Sm. Ainselu (S) 0.53 0.75 Bd, R Medicine; root juice and paste were used to treat (Manandhar 1992) (RKM5-S1) and F wounds, cuts, snake bite, fever, indigestion, diarrhea, and pneumonia. Edible; Fruit can be consumed directly. Rubiaceae Leptodermis lanceolate Bhuichampa 0.33 0.53 Wh Medicine; paste of the plant was used to treat broken (Manandhar 2002) Wall. (H) body parts. Plant juice was used to treat cuts and (RGC5-H13) wounds. Additives; Snails. Rubia manjith Roxb. Ex Majitho (CH) 0.46 0.75 Wh Dye; the whole plant was used in making dye. Medicine; (Shrestha et al. Fleming paste and juice of root and stem were used to treat 2016) (RGC31-CH9) diarrhea, dysentery, wound, jaundice, broken bones, diabetes, cough and cold, and skin diseases. Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Bel (T) 0.23 0.42 F Medicine; root juice was used to treat diarrhea, (Singh 2015) (L.) Corrêa dysentery, gastritis, typhoid, jaundice, and body heating. (RKM21-T7) Edible; pulps of ripe fruits were edible and can be consumed directly. Religious; leaves were used for worshiping the God Shiva. Fodder; leaves were used as fodder. Other uses; the juice of fruits was traded commercially. Citrus aurantiifolia Kagati (S) 0.71 1.11 F Medicine; fruit juice was used to treat indigestion, blood (Joshi et al. 2010) (Cristm.) Swingle* pressure, and wounds. (RKM45-S12) Murraya koenigii (L.) Kari patta (T) 0.46 0.69 R, B Medicine; bark paste was used to treat bites of (Kunwar et al. Spreng.* & L poisonous animals, dysentery, skin diseases, vomiting, 2009) (RKM49-T15) diarrhea, and inflammations. Edible; leaves were used as a flavor. Ripe fruits can be consumed directly.

Santalaceae Santalum album L.* Shrikhanda 0.42 0.50 Hw & Medicine; paste of heartwood was used to treat skin (Ignacimuthu et al. (RKM80-T33) (T) L problems, joint pain, and body cooling purposes. 2008) Religious; heartwood and leaves were important ingredients for different Hindu cultural events. Timber; heartwood was high valued timber.

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Sapindaceae Sapindus mukorossi Riththa (T) 0.57 0.88 F & Medicine; lather of fruit was used to treat burn and hair (Kunwar et al. Gaertn. Hw problems. Timber; heartwoods were used as timber and 2013) (RKM73-T30) fuelwood. Other uses; lather of fruit was used to make soup. Saxifragaceae Astilbe rivularis Buch.- Thulo Okhati 0.64 0.96 R Medicine; root juice was used as a pain killer and to treat (Shrestha et al. Ham. ex D. Don (H) muscular swelling. 2016) (RGC45-H54) Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Pakhanbhed 0.75 1.07 R Medicine; root juice was used as a painkiller and to treat (Tamang et al. Sternb. (H) cut, diarrhea, kidney stone, dysentery, and fever. Side 2017) (RGC39-H44) effects; excessive use of juice causes body heating. Additives; honey and milk. Scrophulariacea Neopicrorhiza Kutki (H) 0.69 0.94 Wh Medicine; rhizome paste was used to treat stomach (Ghimire et al. scrophulariiflora (Pennell) problems, fever, and headache. Additives; milk and 2001, Manandhar D.Y.Hong honey. 2002) (RGC29-H37) Smilacaceae Smilax aspera L. Kukur Daina 0.44 0.71 Sh & Medicine; root paste was used to treat syphilis and skin (Rana et al. 2015) (RKM56-CH8) (CH) R disease. Religious; shoot was kept in the upper side of doors of house believing that it provides positive vibration in the house. Solanaceae Capsicum microcarpum Jire Khursani 0.75 1.15 F Medicine; green pods and pickles were consumed DC. (S) directly which helps to treat indigestion and stomach (RKM44-S11) problems. Symplocaceae Symplocos pyrifolia Wall. Kholme (T) 0.21 0.30 Sd Edible oil; seeds were used to prepare the oil. (Shrestha & (RGC27-T19) Medicine; seed paste was used to treat skin diseases. Dhillion 2003) Theaceae Schima wallichii Chilaune (T) 0.46 0.76 B & Medicine; bark paste was used to treat cuts, wounds, (Hossan et al. (DC.) Korth. Hw and swollen areas. Veterinary; park powder was used 2017) (RKM29-T8) to treat different animals’ ailments. Timber; heartwood was used as timber. Urticaceae Girardinia diversifolia Allo (S) 0.21 0.23 L Medicine; leaves juice was used to treat constipation, (Malla et al. 2015) (Link) Friis headaches, and joints pain. Edible; young leaves were (RGC1-S2) used as a vegetable. Other uses; leaves were commercially used in making clothes. Urtica dioica L. Sisnu (H) 0.75 1.11 L & R Medicine; root and leaves powder and paste were used (Shrestha et al. (RKM82-H52) to treat chest pain, gastritis, cuts, and wounds. Edible; 2016) young leaves were used as a vegetable.

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Zingiberaceae Curcuma angustifolia Kalo Haledo 0.57 0.88 R Medicine; powder of rhizome was used to treat cough (Panthi & Singh Roxb. (H) and cold, wounds, and throat. 2013) (RKM46-H33) Curcuma domestica Besar (H) 0.82 1.15 Rh Medicine; boiled powder of rhizome was used to treat (Bhattarai & Valet. throat, cough and cold, fever, chest pain, and body pain. Khadka 2016) (RKM22-H10) Spice; rhizome powder was used as a spice and coloring agent in vegetables. Additives; salt and water. Globba racemosa Smith Harkato (H) 0.46 0.69 R Medicine; paste and juice of root were used to treat (Rao et al. 2011) (RGC17-H29) stomach problems, urinary infections, and body pain. Roscoea auriculata K. Musali Kalo 0.46 0.61 R Medicine; juice and powder of root were act as a tonic. Schum. (H) Juice of root was used to treat urinary problems, fever, (RGC33-H41) and to increase body strength. Edible; the root was edible. Additives; milk and sugar. Zingiber officinale* Aduwa (H) 0.67 1.30 Rh Medicine; juice of rhizome was used to treat throat, (Rokaya et al. Roscoe cough and cold, fever, and body pain. Edible; rhizome 2010) (RKM4-H3) can be consumed directly or in the form of tea. *; Cultivated plants C; Climber, CH; Climber herb, G; Grass, H; Herb, S; Shrub, ST; Shrub like tree, T; Tree, Fn; Fern, Fu; Fungi, Li; Lichen, Wh; Whole Plant, L; Leaves, F; Fruits, Fl; Flower, B; Bark, Bd; Bud, St; Stem, Rh; Rhizome, Rn; Resin, R; Root, Th; Thallus, Gn; Grain, Sd; Seed, Hw; Heartwood, Rn; Resin, Lg; Legume, Sh; Shoot

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Major life forms Astilbe rivularis, Bergenia ciliata, Lepisorus mehrae, Herbs were the most used life form (41%) followed Nardostachys grandiflora, and Rheum acuminatum by trees (29%), shrubs (14%), climbers (9%), in seasonal basis from different high altitudinal belts grasses (3%), epiphytes (1%), ferns (1%), fungi of Gokulganga RM and near Umakunda RM. (1%), and lichens (1%) (Figure 5), a similar pattern Similarly, people from Khandadevi RM collected was reported in other parts of Nepal (Bhattarai et al. herbs like Achyranthes aspera, Acorus calamus, 2010, Ghimire et al. 2018, Kunwar et al. 2015, Ageratina adenophora, Aloe vera, Curcuma Rokaya et al. 2010, Uprety et al. 2010). In angustifolia, Cuscuta reflexa, and Tinospora sinensis Khandadevi and Gokulganga RM, herbs were readily for different medicinal application. Furthermore, available, easy to collect, and have the most potent specific parts of trees and shrubs were used for its application in the treatment of various ailments application. For example, leaves of Murraya koenigii compared to trees and shrubs. Many traditional were used as a flavor and to treat dysentery, skin healers preferred herbs for the primary treatment of diseases, vomiting, diarrhea, and inflammations. gastro-intestinal problems, cuts and wounds, cough Whereas, leaves of shrub Justicia adhatoda were and cold, ENT problems, and urinary problems. used in making the green manure. On the other Many people from Gokulganga RM collected herbs hand, the bark of Alnus nepalensis was used to treat from high altitudinal areas which are considered rich muscular crack and the root of Ziziphus jujuba was in floral diversity and medicinal herbs. For example, used to treat fever, indigestion, and measles. the local people collected herbs like Aconitum forex,

Figure 5. Major life forms

Relative frequency of citation (RFC), Use value The use value (UV) is the number of use reports (UV) and Informant consensus factor (ICF) mentioned by the respondent. The higher use values The relative frequency of citation (RFC) is the of plant species reflect the higher abundance of that informants reporting the use of a particular plant particular plant in a given area and thus are more species for different purposes because of their easy familiar and likely to be collected than the rarely availability and effectiveness with minimum side encountered plants (Giday et al. 2003, Kunwar et al. effects (Kayani et al. 2015, Vitalini et al. 2013). The 2019). The highest UV was observed for Zingiber highest RFC was found to be 0.82 for Ageratina officinale (1.30) and least for Girardinia diversifolia, adenophora, Curcuma domestica, Acorus calamus, and Herpetospermum pedunculosum (0.23) (Table Centella asiatica, Avena sativa, and Allium sativum 1). Our interviews included people of diverse ethnic and least was observed in Bauhinia vahlii and and age groups. Khandadevi RM has Tamang, Herpetospermum pedunculosum (0.17) (Table 2). Newar, Chhetri, and Brahmin as the main ethnic

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 24 groups whereas, Sherpa, Newar, and Chhetri are the areas, low RFC and UV plant species should not be main ethnic group of Gokulganga RM. However, the neglected, as it also carries the information to the knowledge of different ethnic groups regarding the future generation. Moreover, conservation initiatives utilization of plants for particular purposes did not at the community level are required for the protection vary to a large extent. Although plants with high RFC of threatened species. and UV were the most preferred species in study

Table 2. Informant consensus factor (ICF) calculation for different ailment categories

Ailment categories Use reports Number of taxa Informants consensus factor (ICF) Circulatory System and 36 33 0.08 Cardiovascular Disorders Cough and Cold 59 29 0.49 Cuts and Wounds 47 32 0.32 Dental 5 5 0.00 Dermatological Disorders 39 33 0.15 Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) 14 12 0.15 Problems Fever 52 51 0.01 Gastro-intestinal Disorders 140 70 0.50 Genito-urinary Ailment 19 18 0.05 Ophthalmological 5 5 0.00 Respiratory System Problems 21 18 0.15 Skeleto-muscular Disorders 59 48 0.18 Others 43 43 0.00

The informant consensus factor (ICF) is the on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for homogeneity of the informants’ agreement in using livelihoods. Mostly, wild-collected plant materials plants with medicinal values to treat particular were sold to the traders at low prices. Lack of ailment category (Madikizela et al. 2012, Ragupathy processing skills and facility center at the community et al. 2008). The highest ICF was found for gastro- level were the major bottleneck, and actual collectors intestinal disorder (0.50), followed by cough and cold were less benefited from it. Although government of (0.49), dermatological disorders (0.33), cuts and Nepal has set up the legal route for collection and wounds (0.32), skeleton-muscular disorders (0.18), trade of some specified plant species, illegal and least for the dental and ophthalmological collection, and trade were still rampant in the region disorders (0.00). These results were comparable as in other parts of Nepal (Cameron 2009, with published ethnobotanical uses of plant species Chaudhary et al. 2015). As per the information in the Humla District of Western Nepal (Rokaya et al. obtained from local people, some species of 2010). This indicates that the maximum number of medicinal plant such as Aconitum ferox, Paris participants utilized a significant number of plant polyphylla, Swertia chirayita, Roscoea auriculata, species to cure gastrointestinal disorders and only a Bergenia ciliata, Nardostachys grandiflora, few participants used plant species to cure dental Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Tinospora cordifolia, and ophthalmological disorders (Table 2). This is the Fritillaria cirrhosa, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia common scenario in the rural communities of Nepal chebula, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis that were (Shrestha et al. 2016). Future research and traded legally and illegally in large amount because development on highly prioritized plant species such of their high monitory values. Although the local as ethnopharmacological studies (in-vitro and in- people get benefitted by trading medicinal plants, the vivo) are required for the scientific validation and unsustainable harvesting and collection were authentication of their uses. Such scientific causing greater harvesting pressure and habitat background will enable in the long run for the destruction of important plant species. development of herbal based industry and also help for conservation and sustainable management for Our study revealed that the harvesting practices of the different plant species. important plant species in these regions were unsustainable because of poor harvesting Trade, agriculture, and livelihood techniques, wasteful mechanism, and destructive Almost all medicinal plant species available in Nepal nature as in other parts of Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010, are collected from the wild (Ghimire et al. 2018, Shrestha et al. 2016). For example, in order to obtain Kunwar et al. 2015, Luitel et al. 2014). A large the roots, they uprooted the whole plant. Similarly, to number of people residing in our study areas relied obtain the bark of the trees, they scratched all the

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 25 barks which ultimately leads to the death of the tree, from one generation to another mostly by oral means and to obtain leaves, all the branches of the trees and without any systematic documentation. This and shrubs were cut down. In addition to the form of knowledge transfer about the traditional uses haphazard collection, the plants were destroyed by of plants was at risk of extinction (Bussmann & deforestation, habitat encroachment, shifting Sharon 2006). In order to protect plant species and cultivation, haphazard animal husbandry, and indigenous knowledge, the documentation, uncontrolled forest fires were common practices in identification, proper harvesting techniques, many forests of Nepal (Camm et al. 2002, cultivation of the high-value plant species, Chaudhary 1998) and in Ramechhap District as well. participatory management practice, and awareness The most important species were facing the programs play vital roles (Sharma et al. 2004). We problems of the greatest harvesting pressure (De observed only a few involvements of young people Albuquerque et al. 2007). In the context of our study in these conservation practices. Out of 15 area, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Fritillaria cirrhosa, and respondents (under the age of 30), only a few Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora of high land areas respondents were aware of the knowledge regarding were in the risk of gradual disappearance due to the efficient utilization of plants. The respondents of haphazard animal husbandries, forest fires, and the age group of over 30 were rich in the knowledge illegal collections and trades. On the other hand, of sustainable use of plants for different purposes. different herbs, shrubs, and trees of the low land This signified that the ethnobotanical knowledge of areas were collected illegally and traded for different these areas was at the risk of extinction as the purposes which exacerbated the floral diversity. younger generation of the indigenous communities was not interested in the traditional medicinal system The good agricultural practices must be formulated of healing. Moreover, they engaged themselves in to regulate the production, ensure quality, and some other occupations where they could make facilitate the standardization of edible crops and more money. So, it is of utmost importance to medicinal plants (Chan et al. 2012). In the context of conserve this knowledge by encouraging the our study areas, agriculture was the main occupation participation of young people for the betterment of of the people. The agricultural pattern was still the biodiversity conservation and sustainability of the traditional, and the farmers were planting three major future generation. crops around the year namely Oryza sativa, Hordeum vulgare, and Solanum tuberosum in three People of Khandadevi and Gokulganga RM were different seasons. In addition, they were cultivating involved in the cultivation of different plant species the intercrops like Glycine max, Brassica with great ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal camprestris, Zea mays, beans, and other seasonal significance, as a source of income generation. For vegetables. This form of agricultural practice was example, in Gokulganga RM, people were cultivating adequate to feed the two-third of households living in Avena sativa for food, but they also used to treat these areas for at least 8 months, matching with the indigestion. On the same note, in Khandadevi RM, results from previous findings (Aryal et al. 2018). In people were cultivating Pterocarpus santalinus for the context of the Khandadevi RM, people were income generation as well as for religious activities cultivating the cereal crops along with high-value and to treat stomach disorders and fever. This plants such as Aloe vera, Pterocarpus santalinus, signified that the cultivated plant species did not only Elaeocarpus sphaericus, Ziziphus budhensis, provide economic benefits to the people, they also Mangifera indica, Musa paradisiaca, etc. of high have medicinal, cultural, and religious importance in monitory and market values. However, the local sustainable livelihood. For the very first time, we people also provided information about the drought documented important plant species under problems since the last decade and shift in cultivation with their ethnobotanical significance agriculture calendar in the Khandadevi RM where (Table 1). the rainfall was extremely low as compared to other parts of the Ramechhap District. This made people Knowledge on plant toxicity to import food grains from external markets to The indigenous peoples of different belts of Nepal overcome the problems of food scarcity in the low have extensive knowledge of the potential toxicity of land areas of Ramechhap. the plant species, and they can easily distinguish the toxic and non-toxic plants (Rokaya et al. 2010). In the The ethnic communities have great knowledge on context of Ramechhap, people have immense the utilization of plant species and their parts for the knowledge of plant toxicity. Taking into accounts regulation and enhancement of daily livelihood that, the local peoples were aware that Paris practices (Acharya & Acharya 2009). We observed polyphylla, Aconitum forex, and Cannabis sativa the ethno-medicinal knowledge of the different ethnic have great medicinal values in proper consumption, communities of our study areas has been transmitted but excessive intake causes intoxication, nausea,

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 26 and nervous disorder. Excessive consumption of regenerating power of those important plant species Aloe vera causes miscarriage in pregnant women. ultimately which were leading to the loss of those Likewise, the disproportionate consumption of tender important floras (Chen et al. 2016). So, there are leaves of Anemone vitifolia causes nausea and needs of awareness on sustainable collection, vomiting. The local peoples of both places of the conservation, and large-scale cultivation of the study areas were aware of the toxicity of plant medicinal plants which might also help in improving species that made them to prefer varied harvesting the socio-economic condition of the inhabitants as and utilization techniques for different plant species. well as reduces the pressure of dependency on the natural resource bases (Malla & Chhetri 2009, Pei et Local level conservation initiatives al. 2009, Sigdel et al. 2013). Indigenous people and their knowledge about nature and biodiversity have assumed key importance in Conclusions modern conservation practice. This traditional knowledge is, therefore, of great relevance not only This study provides strong evidence that the local to the culture of local societies but also to scientists people of Khandadevi RM and Gokulganga RM of and planners striving to improve local livelihoods (Pei Ramechhap District were blessed with the immense et al. 2009, Rist et al. 2008). The Gaurishankar knowledge of ethnobotanical uses of plants of their Conservation Area Project (GCAP) in Chuchure surroundings. The present study revealed that there village is one of the national level conservation was an abundance of enormous knowledge on initiation undertaken by the National Trust for Nature ethnobotanical uses of plant species within different Conservation (NTNC), and have initiated many ethnic communities that were not fully explored yet. conservation approaches with the livelihood uplifting The majority of people relied on plant-based activities such as cultivation and trade of high-profile medication for common health problems. However, plants and tourism (NTNC 2010). This conservation an ethnobotanical knowledge among the young initiation by NTNC was being very effective in generation was being declined due to the lack of controlling illegal trade of both wild flora and fauna, communication and systematic transmission. The management and optimum use of natural bases, present status of knowledge regarding ethnobotany forest management, and in reducing habitat among old aged people of different ethnic destruction and encroachment. The different communities was more remarkable compared to the community, religious, and private forestry practices young generation. The effective herbal medicine in Majhuwa village of Khandadevi RM were being practice was found in Gokulganga RM as compared superlative for improvement of the biological to Khandadevi RM. In the context of the conservation diversity and livelihood uplifting. approaches initiated by indigenous people and the local community (IPLCs) to conserve their Availability of medicinal plants knowledge, skills, and innovation, local level The majority of people residing in rural areas of conservation practices played a significant role. Nepal depends on traditional practices of herbal Traditional harvesting techniques of crops, precise remedies with the available local resources (Thorsen herbal medicine practices, local food production, and & Pouliot 2015) and is especially important for knowledge sharing were important efforts mountain people due to lack of modern health care undertaken by the local communities but those facilities (Kunwar & Bussmann 2008). Medicinal practices were still unsustainable. So, more plants are distributed heterogeneously and available conservation initiatives should be carried out to easily to some extent in many localities of Nepal. conserve available natural resources at an optimal During our study, we found that the greatest level. The local people were aware of the rapid numbers of traditional healers were from the mislaying of the floral and faunal diversity by Gokulganga RM which falls under the high-altitude haphazard harvesting and illegal trades. Indigenous area of Ramechhap which signified that people from people were conserving the plant species for mountain areas still relied on herbal medicinal supplementary uses such as religious and cultural practice and have the greatest expertise in this field. aspects, timber production, food, and esthetic In the Khandadevi RM, the majority of the medicinal purposes, besides the medicinal uses. Indigenous plant species that were distributed near peoples’ people and local communities contributed foremost residents were available without any difficulties but for the conservation from the local level to the that was not always the case of Gokulganga RM. The national level. It is of utmost importance to enhance high-profile medicinal plants that have been utilizing the local knowledge, skills, innovations, and by the people from Gokulganga RM were collected practices of these areas which played a significant mostly from the high altitudinal areas of above 3000 role in the conservation of biological diversity and masl. The unsustainable collection and trade of traditional knowledge in a scientifically precise medicinal plants reduced the availability and manner.

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Recommendations Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal, More extensive and additional exploration can be Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal for providing made in the field of ethnobotany of Ramechhap permission to carry out an ethnobotanical study in District. The traditional knowledge, skills, and the study areas. We are grateful to the participants motivations of the ethnic communities should be of indigenous people and local communities of conserved and utilized for the conservation of Khandadevi and Gokulganga RM for their valuable biological diversity and enhance the livelihoods of presence and knowledge sharing. We would also like the people. The assessment of important plant to thank Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium species for different phytochemicals and biochemical (TUCH); especially Prof. Dr. Suresh Kumar Ghimire activities can be made for scientific studies of the and Mr. Mukti Ram Paudyal for plants identification pharmacological, biological, and chemical and authorization. mechanisms of actions. It opens up the possibility in the future to study these medicinal plant resources Literature cited for the identification of bioactive components as well Acharya E, Pokhrel B. 2006. Ethno-medicinal plants as the development of herbal based high-value used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang, Nepal. Our products for the upliftment of livelihoods of the local Nature 4(1):96-103. communities. Acharya R, Acharya KP. 2009. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tharu community of Declarations Parroha VDC, Rupandehi district, Nepal. Scientific List of abbreviations: ENT: Ear, Nose, and Throat, World 7(7):80-84. GCAP: Gaurishankar Conservation Area Project, Ahmad I, Ibrar M, Ali N. 2011. Ethnobotanical study IFC: Informant Consensus Factor, IPLCs: of Tehsil Kabal, Swat District, KPK, Pakistan. Journal Indigenous Peoples’ and the Local Community, of Botany 2011:1-9. masl: meter above sea level, NTFPs: Non Timber Forest Products, NTNC: National Trust for Nature Ahmad M, Zafar M, Shahzadi N, Yaseen G, Murphey Conservation, PRA: Participatory Rural Appraisal, TM, Sultana S. 2018. Ethnobotanical importance of RFC: Relative Frequency of Citation, RM: Rural medicinal plants traded in Herbal markets of Municipality, RRA: Rapid Rural Appraisal, and UV: Rawalpindi-Pakistan. Journal of Herbal Medicine Use Value. 11:78-89. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Permission letter was taken from Department of Amiguet VT, Arnason JT, Maquin P, Cal V, Vindas National Park and Wildlife Conservation, PS, Poveda L. 2005. A consensus ethnobotany of Babarmahal, Kathmandu prior to data collections. the Q’eqchi’Maya of southern Belize. Economic Oral agreements were obtained from the local Botany 59(1):29-42. informants and all field data were collected through Andrade-Cetto A. 2009. Ethnobotanical study of the their oral consents. medicinal plants from Tlanchinol, Hidalgo, México. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 122(1):163-171. Availability of data and materials: The voucher specimens were deposited at Department of Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, Chettri N, Chemical Science and Engineering, School of Chaudhary P, Ning W, Kotru R. 2018. Diversity and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, use of wild and non-cultivated edible plants in the Kavre, Nepal. Data will be available from Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and corresponding author in especial request. Ethnomedicine 14(1):10. Competing interest: Authors declared there is no Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, any interest of conflicts between them. Zafar M, Khan MA, Khan MPZ, Ashraf, MA. 2014. Funding: Not applicable. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in Authors’ contribution: SPP, RPC, and BPP the skardu valley at high altitude of Karakoram- conceptualized the work. SPP and SS did the Himalayan range, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnobiology preliminary work, semi-structured interviews, plant and Ethnomedicine 10(1):43. collection, and data generation. SPP, BPP, and RPC did the data analysis, verification, and authorization. Baral SR, Kurmi PP. 2006. Compendium of SPP, RPC, and BPP wrote, revised, and edited the Medicinal Plants in Nepal. Mass Printing Press manuscript. Kathmandu, Nepal.

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