PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT and SAFER USE ACTION PLAN(PERSUAP)
By the USAID Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (USAID-KAVES) Project
Revised March 2014
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Fintrac Inc. under contract reference AID-623-C-13-00002
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USAID-KAVES PERSUAP 3
KENYA AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAIN ENTERPRISES PROJECT (KAVES)
PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT and SAFER USE
ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP)
Revised March 20134
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States government.
Photos by Fintrac Inc. and Real IPM. Prepared by Fintrac Inc.
INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION, AMENDMENTPESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP) FOR USAID/KENYA’S KENYA AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAIN ENTERPRISES (KAVES) PROJECT
CONTRACT NO. AID-623-C-13-00002
PROJECT NAME: Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (KAVES) Project
REGION/COUNTRY: East Africa/Kenya
PROGRAM AREA: 4.5 Agriculture, Feed the Future
ORIGINATING OFFICE Agriculture Business and Environment Office
CURRENT DATE (as of revisions): March 2014
IEE AMENDMENT: Yes
PREPARED BY: Fintrac Inc.
IMPLEMENTATION START: January 16, 2013
LOP AMOUNT: $39,810,558
IMPLEMENTATION END: January 15th 2018
Filename & date of original IEE: Kenya_FY09_EconGrowth_IEE_01xx09.doc
The purpose of this IEE amendment is to approve the 2013 Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) and Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP) developed under the KAVES project and which will be used during project implementation.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION RECOMMENDED: (Place X where applicable)
Categorical Exclusion: ____ Negative Determination: _X _
Positive Determination: ____ Deferral: ____
ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS: (Place X where applicable)
CONDITIONS: _X_ PVO/NGO: ____
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 5
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2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 6
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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Scope: The purpose of this Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) Amendment is to review activities under the Kenya KAVES which is a $39.8 million USAID-funded program that integrates Dairy, Horticultural and maize production value chains. The PERSUAP also reviews activities approved in the original IEE. Overall recommendations made in previous PERSUAP studies in both horticulture (USAID-KHCP, 2011), dairy (USAID KDSCP, 2008), and maize (USAID-KMDP, 2003) still hold true and an intensification of efforts in those areas is required.
Purpose: In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this PERSUAP:
• Establishes the set of pesticides for which support is authorized in USAID/KAVES Agriculture Sector activities. • Establishes requirements attendant to support for these pesticides to assure that pesticide use/support (1) embodies the principles of safer pesticide use and, (2) per USAID policy, is within an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework.
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.
The set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safer use are established through the first sections of the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which culminates with an assessment of the 12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).
KAVES will implement risk reduction and mitigation measures specified in this PERSUAP under the Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP). The SUAP provides a succinct, definitive stand-alone statement of compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
This PERSUAP has been reviewed and revised in March 2014 to reflect the approval of several pesticide active ingredients (AIs) that were originally flagged as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs), but are not RUPs for the intended uses described herein and/or at the AI concentrations in the Kenyan-approved products specified in this revised PERSUAP. The list of candidate pesticides in Section 4.8 of the original draft of the PERSUAP served as a “menu” for approved pesticides; however, only approved ingredients were selected from this list. In this revised PERSUAP, all pesticides in Table 3 in Section 4.8 have been assessed and have either been accepted or rejected for procurement or use under the Kenya KAVES project.
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 7
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Approved pesticides: Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the below-listed pesticides (specific Kenya- registered products containing these active ingredients) are permitted for use/support in USAID/Kenya agriculture sector projects for use on the following value chains:
Scope of staple and major food crops Maize Potatoes Beans Pulses (Cow Peas, Green Grams, Chick Peas, Pigeon Peas) Sorghum Horticultural Crops Tomatoes Onions French Beans Peas Dairy Cows
(Toxicological summaries and EPA registration status are presented in Table B-1 in Annex B and in the remainder of Annex B.)
Approved Pesticides and Specific Products Registered in Kenya that may be Used for the KAVES Project
Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 Herbicides 1 Glyphosate Grass and broad Wheat, barley, CLEAR UP 480 SL Soluble concentrate; (USEPA Acute leaved weeds maize, CLINIC 480 SL Soluble Concentrate; Toxicity Category sugarcane, GLYPHONUT II and III coffee, tea, 41% IPA Salt SL Soluble Concentrate; isopropylamine french beans, GUGUSATE 410 SL Soluble Liquid; salt formulations baby corn, HERBISTOP 480 SL; HIGHSTOP 480 SC only) tomatoes, Suspension cabbage, chillies Concentrate; KICK OUT 480SL Soluble Liquid; WEEDAL 480 SL Soluble Concentrate; WEEDCHEM 480SL Soluble
1 PCPB. 2013. Pest Control Products Registered for Use in Kenya, 7th Edition. Refer to this reference to find specific PCPB- approved uses (crops and pests) for each product.
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 8
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 Concentrate; WEEDLESS 480 SL Soluble Liquid; WOUNDOUT 480 SL Soluble Concentrate 2 Linuron Grass and broad Maize, beans, FARMURON 50 WP Wettable Powder; leaved weeds carrots, potatoes HOTLINE 450 SC Suspension concentrate; LINUREX 50WP Wettable Powder 3 Metribuzin Grass and broad Maize, AMBAR 480 SC Suspension Concentrate; leaved weeds sugarcane, SENCOR 480 SC Suspension Concentrate; carrots, potatoes SENCOR 70 WP Wettable Powder; TATA MOTO WP Wettable Powder 70% 4 Pendimethalin Grass and broad Maize, barley, STOMP 455 CS Capsule Suspension; leaved weeds wheat, STOMP 500 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; vegetables TATA PANIDA EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50%; TWIGAMETHALIN EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 500 g/L Fungicides 5 Azoxystrobin Rust, blotch, scald, Barley, wheat, AMISTAR 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; mildew, powdery peas, beans, AMITIV 250SC Suspension Concentrate; mildew, Ascochyta French beans MILESTONE 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; ORTIVA SC Suspension Concentrate; OTHELLO 25 WDG Water Dispersible Granules; RUSTOP 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; TWIGA-AZ 250 SC 6 Captan Seed decay and Seed treatment CAPTAN 80 WP Wettable Powder (seed seed-borne disease treatment only); MERPAN 83 WP Wettable Powder; ROYALCAP 500 FS Flowable concentrate for seed treatment 7 Carbendazim Botrytis, Beans, peas BENDAZIM 500 SC Suspension anthracnose, Concentrate; sclerotinia, angular CHARIOT 500 SC Suspension Concentrate; leaf spot, root rot, PEARL 80 DF Dry Flowable; grey mold, scab RODAZIM SC Suspension Concentrate 500 g/L 8 Difenoconazole Angular leaf spot, Beans, peas DIVIDEND 030 FS Flowable Concentrate for aschochyta seed treatment; SCORE 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 9 Dimethomorph + Late blight Tomatoes, ACROBAT MZ Wettable Powder Mancozeb potatoes Dimethomorph 90g/Kg + Mancozeb 600g/Kg
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 9
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 10 Famoxadone+ Late blight Tomatoes, Note: PCPB list indicates “Famoxadime” Cymoxanil potatoes which is an incorrect spelling of “Famoxadone” EQUATION PRO Famoxadone 225g/Kg + Cymoxanil 300g/L 11 Fluazinam Early and late Potatoes, NANDO 500 SC Suspension concentrate; blight tomatoes, beans 12 Folpet Late blight Tomatoes FOLPAN 50WP Wettable Powder 13 Mancozeb Late + early blight, Potatoes, AGRITHANE WP 800 g/kg; BIOTHANE grey mold, tomatoes, 80WP anthracnose, onions, lettuce, Wettable Powder; CADILAC 80WP; botrytis, leaf roll, cucurbits DITHANE DG, RAINSHIELD 705 g/kg; downy mildew, DITHANE M-45 neck rot Wettable Powder; EMTHANE-45 WP Wettable Powder; FARMCOZEB 75WG Water dispersible granules; FARMCOZEB 80 WP Wettable Powder; INDOFIL M45 WP Wettable Powder; IVORY 80 WP Wettable Powder; MANCO 455 SC Suspension; MANCOBEX 80WP Wettable Powder; MILTHANE SUPER 800 g/kg; MOSTHANE 80 WP Wettable Powder; OSHOTHANE 80 WP Wettable Powder; OSHOTHANE PLUS WDG Water Dispersible Granules; PENNCOZEB 80 WP Wettable Powder (or VONDOZEB); SANCOZEB 80 WP Wettable Powder; STARGEM 80WP Wettable Powder; TATA MASTER 64%; TRIDEX 80 WP Wettable Powder; UTHANE WP Wettable Powder 80%; VONDOZEB 75 DG Dispersible granules (or wettable granules) 14 Mandipropamid Late blight Tomato, potato REVUS 250SC Suspension concentrate 15 Metalaxyl+ Blight, Aschochyta, Tomatoes, EMALAXYL 68 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb downy mildew, potatoes, peas, Metalaxyl 40g/Kg Mancozeb 640g/Kg; black leaf spot, cabbages, ENVY 72 WP anthracnose pepper Wettable Powder Metalaxyl 80g/Kg + Mancozeb 640 g/kg; MANCOLAX WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb 640g/Kg+ Metalaxyl 80g/Kg; MILOR MZ WP Wettable
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 10
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 Powder Mancozeb 640g/Kg + Metalaxyl 80 g/kg; RIDOMIL GOLD MZ 68 WG Water Dispersible Granules Metalaxyl-M 40g/Kg + Mancozeb 640g/Kg; TWIGALAXYL 72% WP Mancozeb 640g/Kg+ Metalaxyl 80g/Kg; VICTORY 72 WP Wettable Powder Metalaxyl 80g/Kg Mancozeb 640g/Kg 16 Mancozeb + Early and Late Potatoes, AGROMAX MZ720 WP Wettable Powder Cymoxanil blight, tomatoes, Mancozeb 64% + Cymoxanil 8%; FORTRESS anthracnose, cucurbits, beans GOLD 72 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb downy mildew, rust 640g/Kg + Cymoxanil 80g/Kg; GLOBE 76 WP Wettable Powder; Mancozeb 700g/kg + Cymoxanil 60g/kg; ZETANIL 76 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb 700g/kg + Cymoxanil 60g/kg 17 Triadimefon Powdery mildew, Beans, BAYLETON WP 25 Wettable Powder rust, leaf spot vegetables, mango 18 Trifloxystrobin Powdery mildew, Vegetables FLINT 50 WG Water Dispersible Granules leaf spot, rust 19 Tebuconazole Rust, early blight, Tomatoes, DUCASSE 250 EW Emulsion oil in Water; anthracnose, beans, maize EAZOLE 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; angular leaf spot, FEZAN 250 EW Emulsion Oil in Water; head smut and FOLICUR 250 EW Emulsion oil in Water; common smut FOLICUR 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; ORIUS 25 EW Emulsion oil in Water; RAXIL FS 025 Flowable concentrate for seed treatment; TEBICON 25 EW; TOPAZ 25EW Emulsion Oil in water; WARRIOR 25 EW Emulsion Oil in water; 20 Thiophanate- Powdery mildew Mango, beans TOPSIN M Liquid Suspension Concentrate methyl 500 g/L Insecticides 21 Azadirachtin Thrips, aphids, Beans, tomatoes, ACHOOK 0.15% EC Emulsifiable nematodes, vegetables Concentrate; FORTUNE AZA 1,000 ppm; whiteflies, diamond NEEMARK EC 0.03%; NEEMRAJ SUPER – back moth, 3000 0.3%; NIMBECIDINE Emulsifiable bollworm, Concentrate 0.03%; OZONEEM 1% EC
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 11
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 leafminer Emulsifiable Concentrate 22 Buprofezin Whiteflies, Mealy Tomatoes, APPLAUD 40% SC Suspension Concentrate bugs Citrus, Passion fruit 23 Carbaryl Aphids; broad- Tomatoes, HYCARB 85 WP Wettable powder; spectrum horticultural SEVIN 85 S Wettable powder (For crops Agricultural Use) 24 Clofentezine Spider mites Beans APOLLO 50 SC Suspension Concentrate 25 Deltamethrin Aphids, thrips, Tomatoes, ATOM 2.5EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; (low % composi- whiteflies, French beans, DECIS 0.5 ULV Ultra Low volume; DECIS 2.5 tion only) bollworm, maize peas, vegetables EC (Emulsifiable Concentrate); FARM – X stalk borer, 2.5EC; KATRIN EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 25 g/L; KESHET 2.5 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; 26 S-Indoxacarb Diamond back Tomatoes, AVAUNT 150 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; moth, bollworm, brassicas, peas AVAUNT 150 SL Soluble Concentrate caterpillars 27 Lufenuron Thrips, caterpillars, Beans, kales, LEGACY 5% EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; diamond back cabbages MATCH 50 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate moth 28 Pymetrozine Aphids, whitefly Kales, beans CHESS 50 WG Water Dispersible Granules 29 Spinosad Larger Grain Borer, Stored products, SPINTOR 0.125% Dust; TRACER 480 SC weevils and other vegetables Soluble Concentrate stored products pests; thrips, leaf miner, Diamond- back moth and caterpillars on vegetables 30 Thiacloprid Aphids, whiteflies, Tomatoes, CALYPSO SC 480 Suspension Concentrate thrips chillies Acaracide for Dairy Cows 31 Deltamethrin Ticks, fleas, mites, Cattle DELETE EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50 g/L; tsetse fly DELTAB Tablets 25%; DELTAGUARD POUR ON 1% w/w; EX-KUPE 5 SC Suspension Concentrate 50 g/L; NOTIX 5 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50 g/L; VECTOCID 5% EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; ZEROFLY
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 12
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)1 LIVESTOCK FENCE Insecticide Treated Net 4 g/kg 32 Pyrethrins Ticks Cattle PYTIX 4 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 40 g/L Fungicide/Insecticide 33 Sulphur Powdery mildew, Vegetables COSAVET DF Dry Flowable 80%; spider mites DEVISULPHUR WP Wettable Powder 800 g/kg; FLOSUL PLUS 800 g/L; KUMULUS DF Dry Flowable 80%; MICROTHIOL SPECIAL DISPERSS 80 WG Water Dispersible Granules; Insecticide for seed treatment only 34 Imidacloprid Insecticide for seed wheat, barley, FORTUNE Flowable Concentrate for seed treatment to maize and treatment, 350 g/L; GAUCHO FS 350 control early French beans Flowable Concentrate for seed treatment seedling insect pests. 35 Thiamethoxam Insecticide for seed Barley, wheat, CRUISER 350 FS Flowable Concentrate for treatment maize, beans seed treatment Biopesticides 36 Trichodermaspp Root/soil diseases Beans ECO-T Wettable Powder Trichoderma harzianum Strain k.d. (Hyphomycetes fungus); TRIANUM –P 11.5 WP Wettable Powder Trichoderma harzianum Rifai strain KRL-AG2 (T-22); TRICHOTECH Trichoderma asperullum 37 Beauveria Whitefly, thrips Beans BEAUVITECH WP Wettable Powder; BIO- bassiana POWER 1.15WP Wettable Powder Strain GHA; BOTANIGARD ES Emulsifiable suspension strain GHA 11.3% 38 Bacillus Lepidopterous Vegetables BIOLEP WP Wettable Powder var. Kurstaki; thuringiensis larvae BIO-T-PLUS var. Kurstaki; THURICIDE H.P. Wettable Powder var. Kurstaki 39 Paecilomyces Root knot Tomatoes, beans BIO-NEMATON 1.15% WP Wettable lilacinus nematode Powder; MYTECH WP Wettable Powder 1 x 1010 cfu/g; 40 Pseudomonas Botrytis, septoria, Tomatoes BIOCURE B 1.75 WP fluorscens sclerotinia
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 13
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Pesticides Rejected in this PERSUAP
No. Pesticide Reason(s) for Rejection
Herbicides
1 Glufosinate-ammonium No products registered in Kenya for value chains
2 Paraquat USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I
3 S-Metolachlor S-Metolachlor is not USEPA registered
Highly toxic; other options available and approved in this 4 2,4-D Dimethylamine salts PERSUAP
Fungicides
5 Benalaxyl + mancozeb Benalaxyl not USEPA registered
6 Chlorothalonil USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I
7 Copper hydroxide Most products USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I
Epiconazole not USEPA registered; chlorothalonil USEPA Acute 8 Epoxiconazole+ chlorothalonil Toxicity Category I
9 Fosetyl-aluminum USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I
10 Propineb Not USEPA registered
Insecticides
11 Abamectin RUP
12 Acetamiprid Other options available and approved in this PERSUAP
13 Alphacypermethrin RUP for crop use
14 Beta-cyfluthrin RUP
15 Bifenthrin Many RUPs
16 Chlorpyrifos RUP
17 Cypermethrin RUP
18 Chlopyriphos + Betacyfluthrin RUP
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 14
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No. Pesticide Reason(s) for Rejection
19 Diazinon RUP
20 Dicofol USEPA cancelled all registrations
Highly toxic; other options available and approved in this 21 Dimethoate PERSUAP
22 Propargite + tetradifon RUP
23 Fenitrothion + Esfenvalerate Esfenvalerate not USEPA registered
24 Emamectin benzoate Not USEPA registered
25 Lambda-cyhalothrin RUP
26 Methoxyfenozide No products registered in Kenya for value chains
27 Zeta-cypermethrin RUP
28 Malathion + Permethrin Permethrin RUP
29 Aluminium phosphide RUP
30 Malathion Other options available and approved in this PERSUAP
2% Actellic Dust not registered for use in Kenya; Spinosad 31 Pirimiphos-methyl SPINTOR 0.125% Dust more safe option than Actellic products that are registered in Kenya
Acaracides for Dairy Cow
32 Alpha-cypermethrin Not USEPA registered for use on livestock
33 Amitraz RUP
34 Chlorfenvinphos Not USEPA registered
35 Cypermethrin RUP
USEPA Registration is for pet collar use only. Products registered 36 Flumethrin in Kenya are for pour-on application
Fungicide/Insecticide
37 Thiamethoxam + Metalaxyl-M No products of this mixture registered in Kenya
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No. Pesticide Reason(s) for Rejection
Biopesticides
38 Ampelomyces quisqualis Not USEPA registered
39 Bacillus subtilis No products registered in Kenya for value chains
40 Metarhizium anisiopliae No products registered in Kenya for value chains
41 Verticillium lecanii Not USEPA registered
Biological pest control agents (Parasitoids/antagonists/herbivores) registered in Kenya and exempted from EPA registration (as per guidelines on Pesticides and Pest Control Organisms Exempt from Registration Requirementshttp://www.epa.gov/opprd001/registrationmanual/chapter1.html#pest) are:
Organism Type Target Situation Coccidoxenoides perminutus Natural enemy Mealybug Roses Eretmocerus eremicus Natural enemy Whitefly Greenhouses Amblyseius carlifornicus Natural enemy Spider mites Vegetables Amblyseius cucumeris Natural enemy Thrips Greenhouses Encarsia formosa Natural enemy Whitefly Vegetables Phytoseiulus persimilis Natural enemy Spider mites Beans, roses Amblyseius swirskii Natural enemy Whitefly Roses
Other relevant requirements:
1. Accepted Pesticide Active Ingredients (AI): Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID funds during KAVES training, promotion or use on demonstration activities and financed for procurement and use. These pesticides are enumerated in Table 1 above. Alterations to the list of approved pesticides will require an amendment of the PERSUAP and IEE.
2. Incorporation of IPM: Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for IPs to develop these plans). The PERSUAP may be updated to include new IPM tactics and confirm registration of pesticides.
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 16
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3. Training: Appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safer pesticide use and safety precautions (during handling, application, and storage etc.) and pesticide first aid; KAVES supervisors, field officers, pesticide suppliers and dealers and pesticide users (farmers) will also be trained on their roles and responsibilities before, during and after use of pesticides. USAID-KAVES will build information on IPM and Safe Pesticide Use into all relevant trainings for implementers and beneficiaries that train on promotion or use of pesticides with project assistance. Training of farmers will incorporate IPM.
4. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use and maintenance of appropriate PPE, as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices including demonstration activities. Women and children must be discouraged from participating in actual application of pesticides
5. Protection of the Ecosystem: Measures will be taken to minimize risks to non-target species and ecosystems (water table and fresh water fish, aquatic invertebrates, birds, mammals and beneficial insects, etc.), by proper site selection, application methods and timing as well as observance of requisite buffer zones from surface water bodies where applicable. In areas with sandy soil and high water tables, pesticides with low ground water contamination potential will be utilized (Pages 57-60 of the main document). Mitigation measures provided in the Safe Use Plan must be implemented.
6. Application methods:USAID-KAVES staff will support the use of community dips where they are available because it is user friendly, safe to use and minimizes pesticide usage through individual spraying at household level
7. Disposal of empty pesticide containers: USAID-KAVES must ensure that the farmers are trained on proper disposal of pesticide containers and discouraged from re use of the containers in accordance with national regulations on disposal of pesticide waste. Mechanisms for consistent handling, treatment and disposal must be implemented and disseminated to all IPs Waste disposal training must include dip wash and dip waste disposal.
8. Field Visits and Consultations: Contracting and Agreement Officer Representatives (COR/AORs) in USAID/Kenya’s Agriculture and Business and Environment Office and the Mission Environment Officer will undertake field visits and consultations with implementing partners to jointly assess the environmental impacts of ongoing activities, and the effectiveness of associated mitigation measures and monitoring plans
9. Monitoring and Reporting: USAID-KAVES will prepare, implement and report on the Environmental Monitoring and Mitigation Plan (EMMP) quarterly. Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring and where possible use of professional field pest monitoring, spraying and record-keeping services potentially offered by Agro vets.
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 17
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B. MANDATORY INCLUSION OF ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE REQUIREMENTS IN SOLICITATIONS, AWARDS, BUDGETS AND WORKPLANS
1. Appropriate environmental compliance language shall be included in solicitations and awards for this activity with an appropriate level of funding and staffing to satisfy the environmental compliance requirements set forth in this IEE Amendment.
The implementing partner will incorporate conditions set forth in this PERSUAP into their work plans.
Clearance:
Mission Director ______Date. ______Karen L. Freeman
Concurrence:
Africa Bureau Environment Officer ______Date. ______Brian Hirsch
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 18
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ADDITIONAL CLEARANCE:
USAID-KAVES Contracting Officer’s Representative (COR)
______Date ______Harrigan Mukhongo
FTF Coordinator
______Date ______Millie Gadbois
Mission Environment Officer
______Date ______Wilkister Magangi
Regional Environmental Advisor
______Date ______David Kinyua
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 19
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Clearance;
Mi.,ion Dimtor~ · ~ USAID Kenya ~ren L Freeman
Concurrence:
Bureau Environment Officer _ ____,JJ?"",7t_ _~ _ _ l_1/_,______Date Africa Bureau Brian Hirsch
ADDITIONAL CLEARANCE:
FTF Coordinator USAID Kenya
Mission Environment Officer______J_ ._~...::=--\-~_,\,_-t___ _ Date - -=3_,_\\.;._g-:...\ ~_G _l4....;__ USAID Kenya Wilkister Magangi
Date
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KENYA AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAIN ENTEPRISES PROJECT (USAID-KAVES) PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND SAFER USEACTION PLAN (PERSUAP)
TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ...... 7 List of Acronyms ...... 23 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 25 1.1 Purpose and scope ...... 25
1.2 Regulatory Requirements, the PERSUAP concept, and Analytical Approach ...... 25 1.3 Development of the PERSUAP ...... 28 SECTION 2: PROJECTS COVERED BY THIS PERSUAP ...... 29 Project Goals, Objectives, and Expected Results ...... 30 SECTION 3. ENVIRONMENTAL and AGRICULTURAL CONTEXT ...... 31 3.1 Priority geographic places or areas of projects intervention ...... 31 3.2 Country Environmental Profile ...... 31 3.3 Agriculture in Kenya (Excluding Pest Management) ...... 35 SECTION 4: PER, PART 1: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS, PESTICIDES AVAILABLE, AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY ...... 38 4.1 Identification of Target Agricultural Activities ...... 38 4.2 Pest Management Needs for Target Crops and Dairy ...... 43 4.3 Current pest control practices; Current state of IPM awareness andpractice ...... 45 4.4 Current pesticide use/availability ...... 46 4.5 Available PPE and Application Equipment ...... 47
4.6 Pesticide Knowledge and Awareness ...... 48 4.7 Extension Services ...... 49
4.8 List of Candidate Pesticides ...... 50 SECTION 5: PER, PART 2: THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS ...... 59 Factor A: U.S. EPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides ...... 59 Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides ...... 61 Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use is Part of an IPM Program ...... 63
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 20 Prepared by Fintrac Inc.
Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of Application and Safety Equipment ...... 63 Factor E: Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards ...... 65 Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticides for the Proposed Use ...... 66 Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide use with Target and Non-Target Ecosystems ...... 66 Factor H: The Conditions under which the Pesticide is to be Used, Including Climate, Flora, Fauna, Geography, Hydrology, and Soils ...... 67 Factor I: The Availability and Effectiveness of other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods ...... 68 Factor J: The Requesting Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide ...... 69 Factor K: The Provisions Made for Training of Users and Applicators ...... 69 Factor L: The Provisions Made for Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of the Pesticides ...... 70 SECTION 6: SAFER USE ACTION PLAN ...... 78 6.1 Introduction ...... 78 6.2 IPM Approach ...... 78 6.3 Summary of Compliance Requirements ...... 87 SECTION 7. REFERENCES ...... 96 ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND DAIRY; AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS ...... 98 ANNEX B: PESTICIDE PROFILES: TOXICOLOGY, USES, PROTECTIVE MEASURES ...... 128 B.1 Orientation: Pesticide toxicity and risk ...... 128 B.2 Summary Toxicology Profiles of Pesticides Assessed by this PERSUAP...... 129 B3 Acaricide Profiles (for use in Dairy) ...... 134 B.4 Insecticide Profiles ...... 135
B.5 Fungicide Profiles ...... 142 B.6 Herbicide Profiles ...... 152
B.7 Protective Measures ...... 159
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ANNEX C: MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF PESTICIDE SAFER USE TRAINING ...... 160 C.1 Integrated Pest Management ...... 160 C.2 Protective clothing and equipment ...... 163
C.3 Proper Spray Technique: Protecting against herbicide spray drift ...... 164 C.4 Pesticide Transport ...... 165
C.5 First aid ...... 165 C.6 Pesticide storage ...... 166
C.7 Proper pesticide container disposal ...... 167 ANNEX D: People Contacted, Interviewed, List and Credentials of PERSUAP Preparers .. ……168
D.1: People Contacted and Interviewed ...... 168 D.2: List and Credentials of PERSUAP Preparers ...... 168
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List of Acronyms
AAK Agrochemicals Association of Kenya AI Artificial Insemination ASAL Arid and Semi Arid Lands ATC Agricultural Training Centre COLEACP Europe-Africa-Caribbean-Pacific Liaison Committee DVS Director of Veterinary Services EA Environmental Assessment ECF East Coast Fever FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database FPEAK Fresh Produce Exporters Association of Kenya FRAC Fungicides Resistance Action Committee GAP Good Agricultural Practices GDP Gross Domestic Product GUP General Use Pesticides HCDA Horticultural Crops Development Authority HRAC Herbicides Resistance Action Committee ICM Integrated Crop Management ICT Information and Communication Technology IFM Integrated Farm Management ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IPs Implementing Partners IPM Integrated Pest Management IRAC Insecticides Resistance Action Committee KAGRC Kenya Animal Genetics Resource Centre KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KAVES Kenya Agricultural Value Chains Enterprise Project KBS Kenya Bureau of Standards KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services KDB Kenya Dairy Board KDSCP Kenya Dairy Sector Competitiveness Programme KMDP Kenya Maize Development Programme KHCP Kenya Horticulture Competitiveness Programme LEAF Linking Environment and Farming MoA Ministry of Agriculture MLN Maize Lethal Necrotic MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets MRL Maximum Residue Limit MT Metric Tons NALEP National Agriculture and Livestock Extension Program NEMA National Environmental Management Authority
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OP Organophosphate PERSUAP Pesticides Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan PCPB Pest Control Products Board PHI Pre Harvest Interval PIC Prior Informed Consent PIP Pesticides Initiative Programme POP Persistent Organic Pollutants PPE Personal Protection Equipment REI Re Entry Interval RUP Restricted Use Pesticides SMS Short Message Service SP Synthetic Pyrethroids USAID United States Agency for International Development USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency WHO World Health Organization
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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and scope This PERSUAP is prepared in accordance with USAID-KAVES contract clause H.20 Environmental Compliance. All projects funded by USAID must conform to USAID Environmental Procedures (22 CFR 216). Under 22 CFR 216, USAID-KAVES is required • To integrate environmental safeguards and protocols within all its activities, • To ensure that any potential negative environmental impacts resulting from project implementation are identified and mitigated.
The coverage of the PERSUAP includes • Identification of approved pesticides for use in the KAVES project, their characterization and any specific conditions of use • Identification of suitable good agricultural practices and safe use practices that reduce the risk of human and environmental harm from the use of pesticides • Description and characterization of a suitable integrated pest management framework for the management of the pest and disease issues in the respective crop and dairy sectors
These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP. The set of authorized pesticides and requirements for safer use are established through the first sections of the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER), which culminates with an assessment of the 12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b). The SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (SUAP, Section 6) provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
1.2 Regulatory Requirements, the PERSUAP concept, and Analytical Approach
Regulatory Requirements Attendant to USAID-funded Support for Pesticides
All USAID funded activities are subject to pre-implementation environmental review, starting with a screening process that determines the level of environmental scrutiny that is required. Activities considered as having moderate or unknown risks are subjected to an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE). USAID’s pre-implementation environmental review procedures are defined by 22 CFR 216, a US federal regulation. Pesticides are any agent used to kill or control any pest, including insects, rodents or birds, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. The term pesticide applies to herbicides, fungicides, micro- biocides, rodenticides and various other substances used to control pests. Pesticides are by design poisons, and their use entails a degree of risk to humans, birds, fish, bees, and other living things, as well as to the environment.
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If USAID funds are to be used to procure, directly fund or support the use of pesticides, 22 CFR 216.3(b) requires that 12 factors be analyzed as the basis for approving the use of any pesticides, and as the basis for establishing the requirements attendant to that use to control risks to human health and the environment. (See box)2 It is important to note that USAID defines pesticide “use” broadly to include direct or indirect use including the handling, transport, storage, mixing, loading, application and disposal of pesticides and their containers, as well as recommending pesticides for use via extension or other agricultural assistance.
USAID Policy: Integrated Pest Management
In addition, since the early 1990s USAID has been committed to the philosophy and practice of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as official policy. There is not a single standard international definition for IPM, but there is wide agreement on its basic elements. Under IPM: • “First line” defenses against pest damage are a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties. • Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism. • Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and non-target organisms, and the environment. IPM is strongly promoted as part of Regulation 216.3 Factor C.
The PERSUAP
The PERSUAP focuses on the particular circumstances of the program in question, the risk management choices available, and how a risk management action plan would be implemented in the field. A PERSUAP consists of two parts, a “PER” and a “SUAP.” The Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) section performs the systems analysis of a country’s pesticide system from import to ultimate disposal. It addresses the 12 informational elements required in the Agency’s Pesticide Procedures. The Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP) puts the conclusions and recommendations reached in the PER into a plan of action, including assignment of responsibility to appropriate parties connected with the pesticide program.
2 Specifically, Reg. 216.3(b)(1)(i) stipulates: “When a project includes assistance for procurement or use, or both, of pesticides registered for the same or similar uses by USEPA without restriction, the IEE for the project shall include a separate section evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticide use to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental impact. Factors to be considered in such an evaluation shall include, but not be limited to the following” (see page 13).
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The aim of a PERSUAP is to: • Describe the circumstances of the program • Assess the hazards posed by the pesticides proposed for use • Outline the risk management choices available • Recommend how a risk management plan can be carried out in the field
The PERSUAP shall address the following areas per 22 CFR 216.3 (b) (1) (i) (a through l): • The USEPA registration status of the requested pesticides; • The basis for the selection of the requested pesticides; • The extent to which the proposed pesticide use is part of an integrated pest management program; • The proposed method or methods for application, including availability of appropriate application and safety equipment; • Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use and measures available to minimize such hazards; • The effectiveness of the requested pesticide for the proposed use; • Compatibility of the proposed pesticide with target and non-target ecosystems; • The conditions under which the pesticide is to be used, including climate, flora, fauna, geography, hydrology, and soils; • The availability and effectiveness of the other pesticides or non-chemical control methods; • The requesting country's ability to regulate or control the distribution, storage, use, and disposal of the requested pesticide; • The provisions made for training of users and applicators; and • The provisions made for monitoring the use and effectiveness of the pesticide. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its AOR/COR.
Local, context-specific analysis
The assessment of “pesticide and pest management local context” that begins the PER is a key feature of the PERSUAP approach. Why is it needed? This provides essential input to the 12- factor analysis. The purpose of the 12-factor analysis is to select appropriate pesticides and safer use measures. This requires taking into consideration the context in which the products will be used, the particular elements of the program, and the different capacities of the partners and stakeholders involved. A PERSUAP is typically based on existing policies, procedures, and laws of the host country, with an overlay of US standards and laws. In Kenya, the Pest Control Products Board (PCPB) is the state agency legally mandated under CAP 346 of the Laws of Kenya to regulate the importation and exportation, manufacture, distribution and use of pest control products. Pesticides are registered for use after undergoing a rigorous examination process. The board has field inspectors who carry out the monitoring and enforcement function. The board has intensified its efforts by means of hiring additional
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inspectors (now numbering 12) and regularly updates the list of approved pesticides. Challenges remain as the board is still understaffed and this hampers the monitoring and enforcement function with cases of banned or illegal products still being used. 1.3 Development of the PERSUAP
An initial meeting was carried out including the USAID-KAVES technical team and Real IPM consultants to refine the brief for preparation of the PERSUAP. Afterwards the assessment team carried out a largely desk based study cross-checking various reference sites to get up to date information on the three sectors and main issues relevant to the PERSUAP. The team cross checked information acquired through this exercise by means of phone interviews and meetings with relevant contacts in several agencies including MoA, PCPB, AAK, FPEAK, HCDA, KARI, and KEPHIS
Experts in specific fields were also consulted and interviewed on their opinions, particularly with regards to issues in the Dairy sub-sector (expert from ILRI consulted) and the horticultural sub- sector (top managers with various horticultural production farms were consulted).
Field visits were also carried out in parts of Naivasha, Mwea, Eldoret, Nakuru, and Thika to sample some of the small holder practices with regards to transportation, storage, use, and disposal of crop protection products. Interviews were also carried out with field based sales people who go out to the field and sale products from different manufacturers to know which products move fast.
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SECTION 2: PROJECTS COVERED BY THIS PERSUAP
Working along the agricultural value chain over a five-year period USAID-KAVES targets 500,000 smallholder farmers and other actors along the value chain. The overall goal of the project is increased competitiveness of selected value chains that will in return increase incomes, mitigate food security and improve nutrition for rural farmers for specific target areas in Kenya as shown below. Figure 1: Target areas for the USAID/Kenya Feed the Future Initiative
The USAID-KAVES is designed to increase smallholder productivity and profitability, form strategic partnerships with local companies and organizations, introduce new farming systems, create valuable market linkages, develop alternative business models that will enable commodity buyers to source locally, expand private sector provision of services, build public- private sector partnerships to implement standards that raise product quality and contribute to improved nutrition and public health.
USAID-KAVES will partner the local private sector, (predominantly smallholder farmers) to develop fully functioning, competitive value chains in selected production zones in order to increase the productivity of smallholders and incomes of smallholders and other entities up and down the value chain including agro-processors, input suppliers, transporters, exporters, small businesspeople, retailers, and others involved in rural wealth creation.
To achieve its objectives, the USAID-KAVES project shall be: a) market-driven; b) flexible and responsive to targets of opportunity; and c) results-oriented
An underlying principle of USAID-KAVES is the engagement with the private sector in a meaningful, comprehensive way to meet the global food security challenge. The resulting strategic alliances with the private sector are a necessary condition for addressing project objectives.
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This project will approach rural economic development from the perspective of target markets, where there is the greatest potential for collaboration between buyers and sellers in the market chain. Target clients are entrepreneurial small and medium producers or businesses up and down the value chain with an interest in developing efficient supply chains.
As the USAID-KAVES project is part of a wider USAID Program incorporating and co-joining the USAID-KHCP and Feed the Future Projects reference is therefore made to previous PERSUAPs that have been carried out for USAIDs KHDP, KHCP, and KDSCP projects which have been carried out in the same sectors (maize, Horticulture, and Dairy). Particular account is taken of current circumstances, practices, information, good agricultural practices (GAPs) recommendations, changes to legislative or other such requirements are incorporated for purposes of continuity.
PROJECT GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND EXPECTED RESULTS Project Goal: To increase the productivity and incomes of smallholders and other actors along the value chain, thereby enhancing food security and improving nutrition.
Project Objectives: 1. Increase the competitiveness of selected agricultural value chains to increase incomes, mitigate food insecurity, improve nutrition, and increase the incomes of the rural poor; 2. Foster innovation and adaptive technologies and techniques that improve nutritional outcomes for rural households, sustainably reduce chronic under-nutrition, and increase household consumption of nutrition-dense foods; and 3. Increase the capacity of local organizations to sustainably undertake value chain work.
USAID-KAVES will include the following four components:
1. Improved Competitiveness and Trade (relates to Objective 1 and comprises approximately 30 percent of total effort). 2. Increased Farm Household Productivity and Market Access (relates to Objective 1 and comprises approximately 40 percent of total effort). 3. Improved Nutrition-Related Behaviors and Improved Access to Diverse and Quality Food (relates to Objective 2 and comprises 15 percent of total effort). 4. Building Sustainable Local Organizations (relates to Objective 3 and comprises approximately 15 percent of total effort).
USAID-KAVES will: • Select value chains to increase rural incomes through increased productivity at the farm and up and down the value chain • Leverage resources, such as credit and investment, to finance value chain improvements • Identify innovative adaptive technologies to improve nutrition in rural households • Raise the capacity of local institutions to undertake value chain work
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Results in the targeted regions and along the value chains include: • Increased smallholder incomes in selected value chains • Increased smallholder productivity in selected value chains • Increased yield in selected value chains • Increased value and volume in selected value chains • Increased volume of processed commodities for selected value chains • Reduced costs of production in selected value chains • Increased quantity of production marketed through collection centers or aggregators in selected value chains • Increased number of value chain businesses (input suppliers, processors, transporters, post-harvest collection centers, etc. leveraged by USAID-KAVES) • Increased number of local organizations strengthened to undertake value chain activities • Increased number of mothers, caregivers, and community leaders reached with interventions involving complementary feeding practices • Improved drinking water supply and sanitation facilities
SECTION 3. ENVIRONMENTAL and AGRICULTURAL CONTEXT
3.1 Priority geographic places or areas of projects intervention
The USAID-KAVES project will be implemented in two key areas – 16 counties in the High Rainfall (HR1) region of western Kenya and 6 counties in the Semi-Arid Area (SA2) region of eastern Kenya as shown in figure 1 above. The two areas are characterized by high poverty levels, nutritional challenges as well as the potential to raise agricultural productivity.
3.2 Country Environmental Profile
Deforestation: Output from forestry also has declined because of resource degradation. Overexploitation over the past three decades has reduced the country’s timber resources by one-half. At present only 2 percent of the land remains forested, and an estimated 50 square kilometres of forest are lost each year. This loss of forest aggravates erosion, the silting of dams and flooding, and the loss of biodiversity. Among the endangered forests are Kakamega Forest, Mau Forest, and Karura Forest. In response to ecological disruption, activists have pressed with some success for policies that encourage sustainable resource use. The Forest Department at the moment lacks adequate funding and other resources for effective management of the forest resources. Hence, most of the natural forests are currently facing a lot of threat from human activity that include illegal encroachment, excisions, charcoal burning, poaching of timber, and other forest products and forest fires originating from adjacent farmlands. If this trend persists it is expected that the total area under national forest will decline substantially to give way to agricultural activities. Over-exploitation and lack of proper management is also rampant in most of the forests falling under the local authorities in trust lands, some of which are faced with threat of extinction. A few of the small parcels of natural
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 31 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. forests especially at the coast (Kaya forests) have been preserved by the local communities for religious and other ceremonial purposes who exert a lot of traditional control over their use. Other problems facing the conservation and management of indigenous forests involve the following: Forest excisions for human settlement and agriculture as a result of high population pressure, lack of proper management plans for most of the forest reserves, lack of involvement of adjacent communities and other stakeholders in conservation and management, lack of information on the location, size and structure of privately owned natural forests. Bio-based energy resources are scarce and since most people (80 percent) depend on fuelwood and charcoal, sufficient and sustainable supply of energy resources poses a real challenge for the country in light of the growing population and the slow development of other energy resources. Desertification: Kenyans are increasingly threatened by desertification. Dry lands account for 88 percent of Kenya's total land surface, while forest cover continues to decrease rapidly, due mainly to clearance for settlement, extraction for timber, for commercial use and domestic use as well as removal for charcoal and fuel wood. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources indicates that the phenomenon has intensified and spread in recent years, putting a severe strain on agriculture in the country. A combination of factors, ranging from population growth to frequent droughts which plagued the country between 1970 and 2000, have accelerated the rate of soil degradation in Kenya and reduced the per-capita food production in the country. Rapid population growth is intensifying the existing problems of imbalance between human numbers and available arable land - deforestation, inappropriate land use and farming practices which are among the major problems leading to food crises and desertification in Kenya. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) offers local communities a very wide range of opportunities. There are many invisible, marginalized communities in the drylands of Kenya that use their traditional knowledge in managing drought and exploiting natural resources. The communities of the Samburu, Turkana, Kajiado, and Marsabit districts in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands, have exclusive user rights to territory within a five kilometers radius of their homesteads. This has the effect of limiting resource use, and thus promoting sustainable use. They also take the main herd to a far away grazing area, with most of the young people accompanying them. This is called Fora among the Rendille and Gabra of Marsabit, Lale among the Samburu, and Endukuya Oinkishu among the Maasai of Masailand. The Rendille and Gabra communities also eliminate younger livestock, especially lambs, by killing them whenever drought threatens. This helps save the dwindling water sources and pastures. Communities in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid lands should be encouraged to implement the UNCCD by identifying and using their decision-making processes and structures. Forestry: The total indigenous forest cover in gazetted forest areas was estimated to be 1.06 million ha (excluding the mangrove forests along the coastline), while the area of indigenous closed canopy forest outside the gazetted forests was estimated to be 180,000 ha (0.18 million ha). Besides the gazetted forests, the country has a total of about 37.6 million ha of natural woody vegetation consisting of 2.1 million ha of woodlands, 24.8 million ha of bush-lands and 10.7 million ha of wooded grasslands. Most of the closed canopy forests are concentrated in the high and medium potential zones of Kenya where, incidentally, the human population and agricultural production are also concentrated; hence there is potential conflict between closed
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 32 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. canopy forest and agriculture. Within the arid and semi-arid zones, closed forests are fewer and are found concentrated mainly on isolated mountain ranges and along river courses, both permanent and seasonal, with the rest of this zone being composed of woodlands, bush-lands and wooded grasslands. Land degradation: Land degradation, and soil erosion in particular, poses one of the most serious threats to sustained food production and Kenya's development in general. Significant negative yield effects of soil erosion have been observed in several studies. Compounded by erratic rainfall, occasional droughts and floods, the environmental factors play a key role in the performance of the agricultural sector. Fertilizers and other inputs cannot fully compensate yield losses caused by soil erosion, the soil degradation may thus be irreversible. Hence, there is great need to support soil and water conservation, and to intensify the efforts to arrest further land degradation. Besides the environmental constraints, low output prices, costly input prices and delayed payments discourage farmers to invest in their land or in modern technology. Water and sanitation: Access to safe water and sanitation is a universal need and a basic human right. An insufficient access to water is not only bad for health, but also contributes to a poor food security and a lagging social development. In Kenya, the 1996-97 El Nino rains cost Kenya an estimated loss of between $850 million and 1.7 billion. The subsequent drought in 1998-2000 was even worse. Half the livestock in many vulnerable districts perished. Inadequate water storage for hydropower resulted in losses for the industrial sector estimated at Ksh110.4 billion (almost US$14 billion). Agriculture losses were in excess of Ksh 13.14 billion. Every year, news comes of human sufferings brought by floods in Budalangi, Kano and the Coast. In other periods, livestock are dying and people starving from a shortage of water. Kenya still depends on rain fed agriculture, as so far less than 5 percent of arable land is under irrigation. Unfortunately, and to compound the resource problems, loss of water catchments has been steadily destroying the resource base on which the whole country depends. Kenya is classified as a chronically water scarce country. Resulting from factors both within and outside the water sector, Kenya is facing a number of serious challenges to its water resources and their management including Kenya's rapid population growth increases the demand for water for domestic use, food security and industry, increasing water scarcity and climate variability whereby drought is a recurring phenomenon and its impact on water resources is usually devastating. Floods also lead to disasters particularly in low-lying areas. Environmental water degradation and climatic variation have had a range of serious impacts which include degradation of water catchment areas, drying up of rivers, receding of lake levels, heavy siltation in dams and pans meant for hydropower generation and water supply, degradation of water quality, increased water use conflicts due to competition for scarce water resources, damaged roads, railway lines, bridges, buildings and water intakes. In regards to sanitation and proper sewerage systems, The Ministry of Water Resources Management and Development has adopted a new national water policy, commenced the implementation of the new Water Act 2002 and formulated two new strategies for water supply and sewerage services. The health and economic benefits of improved water supply and sanitation to households and individuals (and especially to children) are well documented. Of
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 33 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. special importance to the poor are the time-saving convenience and dignity that improve water supply and sanitation represent. Those without access are the poorest and least powerful. It is also well established that investments in water resources management and the delivery of water services are central to poverty reduction. While the country scores best in the urban water sector, more than half the Kenyan population in the rural sector has no access to good water. Compared to rural water supply, the situation is better for sanitation. Sewerage coverage is fairly low in urban areas and nonexistent in rural areas. The sanitary facilities used in the rural area consist mainly of un-improved pit latrines. The efficiency of water delivery in Kenya‘s capital city Nairobi is only 50 percent. This has negative effects for the supply of water for domestic and economic uses and for water-based sanitation. The new water policy demands that provision of water services from the state go to autonomous water services providers, who will be licensed and regulated by statutory boards. Wetlands and Biodiversity: In Kenya, wetlands include a variety of habitats including the coral reefs, marine inshore waters, mangroves, the deltas, creeks, lake shores, rivers, marshes, ponds, dams and mountain bogs. Wetlands are important for ecological process as well as for their rich biodiversity. Unique and rare plant and animal species can be found in different wetland areas over the world. The values of wetlands range from aesthetic to economic, cultural and social benefits. Wetlands find uses in fishing, tourism, hydrology, and food crop production. Wetlands may also produce other important natural resources such as fuel wood, timber, thatch grass, latex, tannins and alcohol. All of Kenya's large towns like Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa, Nakuru, Kakamega, Nyeri, Garissa, and several others obtain their water supply from wetlands. All the rural areas of Kenya also rely on wetlands for water supply and as a source of a wide range of food. Rapid human population growth, industrialization and urbanization have largely contributed to loss and unwise use of wetlands. Reclaiming wetlands for agriculture has resulted in reduction and loss of habitats and subsequent loss of many useful plants and animals dependent on those wetlands. There is urgent need for elaborate public education and awareness on conservation and wise use of wetlands. Capacity building through training of wetland users, managers, planners and scientists is important for sustainable management of the resources. Integrated planning of wetlands using ecosystem through a participatory and multi-disciplinary approach developing the correct policies, institutional, legal and administrative frameworks and being able to enforce relevant laws and regulations is important for sustainable management of natural resources. Coastal and Marine:The Kenyan coast runs for approximately 550 kilometers from the Tanzanian to Somalia borders. It is made up of unique natural landscape and a wide range of biodiversity resources of special conservation concern at local, national, regional and global levels. The major characteristics of the coastal and marine wetlands include the coral reefs which compromise of about 140 species of hard and soft corals. The reef is an invaluable habitat for hundreds species of fish, crustacean and molluscs which use it for foraging, breeding and sheltering purposes. The coral gardens are particularly important for the live and colorful coral species. Areas with prominent reefs are Mombasa, Diani Chale, Kisite, Watamu, Malindi, Lamu, and Kiunga along the coast. Other important biodiversity resources within the inshore waters,
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though they may also be found in the open sea include the cetaceans (Whales and dolphins), sea turtles and dugongs. Some of these species especially the turtles and dugongs are threatened animals. Cliffs and Creeks are common features of the natural landscape along the coast. Creeks are often found at the entrance of the medium sized rivers to the sea that is Mtwapa, Nyali, Ramisi, and Mida. The riverine vegetation that aligns the edges of the creeks makes them important breeding and feeding areas for fish and molluscs. They are also important habitats for hundreds of species of birds and occasionally mammals and reptiles. Some of the creeks like the Ramisi and Mida are actually recorded as Important Bird Areas in Kenya. Sand beaches provide nesting sites for the sea turtles some of which are endangered species. Mangroves are salt-tolerant evergreen forest located at the transitional zone between dry land and Open Ocean. Several species of molluscs, crabs, fish, and prawns depend directly on the mangrove ecosystem. A wide range of fish species use the mangroves as spawning sites and also as a crucial habitat for the young fish. Other animals such as insects, birds (migrant and resident) may feed, rest or inhabit the mangroves. Whereas the marine and coastal wetlands in Kenya are recognized to be important natural resources for sustainable development, there is urgent need to address constraints and challenges such as marine pollution from urban centers
3.3 Agriculture in Kenya (Excluding Pest Management)
Overview Agriculture remains the mainstay of Kenya’s economy. The sector contributes 26 percent of GDP, 60 percent to foreign exchange and supports 75 percent of the Kenyan population both directly and indirectly. The sector generates employment across the gender divide and offers the country not just a source of economic livelihood and revenue but most importantly feeds families and combats malnutrition.
Kenya’s population is growing by approximately one million people per year. Combined with stagnant agricultural productivity and limited arable land, this demographic growth poses critical challenges to food security. Two to four million people receive food aid annually. Only about 20 percent of Kenyan land is arable, yet maximum yields have not been reached in these areas, leaving considerable potential for increases in productivity. Most farmers work without basic agricultural inputs or updated technology and lack adequate financial or extension services.
Persistent crises, such as drought, in Kenya’s arid lands exacerbate the vulnerability of basic livelihoods. In response, the U.S. Government has brought together humanitarian and development assistance to build resilience and expand economic opportunities in the arid lands through disaster risk and conflict reduction, natural resource management, and strengthening of livestock and other sectors.
With the largest dairy herd in east and southern Africa, Kenya has the potential to meet local demand for dairy and target regional markets. As one of the largest African exporters of fresh produce to Europe, Kenya’s horticulture industry can expand local and regional markets.
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Markets, in turn, can significantly grow through reforms that address policy constraints, irrigation, roads, agricultural inputs, extension, and market access promotion.3
Kenya’s Vision 2030 places high value on the contribution of Agriculture toward making Kenya a newly industrializing, middle income nation by the year 2030 as one of the components of the Economic pillar in Vision 2030. Emphasis has been placed on reform of agricultural policy and legislation, local manufacture of fertilizers and supply chain improvement for the same, irrigation projects in ASAL areas to benefit smallholder farmers and creation of disease free zones for livestock.
Smallholder farmers produce the bulk of Kenya’s Maize and food crops, Horticultural and Dairy produce. This is despite a myriad of challenges facing them including: • High input cost • Limited access to extension services and information • Unreliable weather • Limited access to direct markets • Low produce prices due to weak farmer bargaining power and market cartels • Poor rural infrastructure and communications • Low literacy levels
For this to be attained smallholder farmers must be supported to increase productivity by tackling the challenges that face them. Some broad solutions to these challenges include: • Capacity building for smallholder farmers • Increased funding both by government allocation to agriculture and from other sources • Farmer aggregation for better bargaining power both in terms of input sourcing and produce marketing • Value addition intensification • Adoption of modern farming practices, technologies and increased utilization of nutrition and crop protection inputs • Reduced reliance on rain fed agriculture and increased support for uptake of irrigation technologies
In 2010 Kenya passed a new constitution and within it are devolved governance structures with county governments enjoying greater autonomy and control over county issues and resources. This provides a grand opportunity for the project to engage with government at a closer level to smallholder farmers. The fortunes of county governments in terms of wealth creation and revenue generation are dependent upon support for smallholder farmers and the KAVES project has a chance at meaningful value chain improvement at the county level.
According to the KNBS Economic Survey of 2012 a comparative survey of the agriculture sector in the 2010 to 2011 period indicates that the sector recorded a lower growth of 1.5 per cent in
3 Feed the Future Kenya Country Review 2013 http://www.feedthefuture.gov/country/kenya
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2011 compared to 6.4 per cent in 2010. All major crops registered declines in production in the year under review except for rice, cotton, pyrethrum and sisal. The slower growth in 2011 was primarily due to:
• Erratic weather conditions • High cost of agricultural production (rising farm inputs prices)
Table 1: Agricultural production indicators 2010 and 2011(KNBS Economic Survey 2012) Key indicators of agricultural production Commodity 2010 2011 % change Fresh horticultural produce (‘000 Tones) 228.3 227.1 -0.5 Maize (Million bags) 35.8 34.4 -3.9 Milk delivered to processors (million litres) 515.7 549.0 6.5
The above trend will have to be reversed in order for the Agricultural sector to contribute as envisioned towards attainment of Vision 2030.
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SECTION 4: PER, PART 1: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS, PESTICIDES AVAILABLE, AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
4.1 Identification of Target Agricultural Activities
USAID-KAVES has selected three broad areas in Kenya for the implementation of the project: • Maize and other staple food crops • Horticultural crops • Dairy cattle
Small holder farmers provide the bulk of produce in these three areas and they face a number of challenges including: • High input costs and inconsistencies in supply of inputs • Limited access to information and extension services • Over reliance on rain-fed agriculture • Limited access to direct markets • Low produce prices due to weak farmer bargaining power and market cartels with multiple intermediaries • Limited access to information and financial services • Infrastructural hindrances – transport, post-harvest handling, communication etc. • Limited financial capacity
There are opportunities for increased agricultural production which in turn would increase incomes and fight poverty as well as combat malnutrition. Increased productivity will necessitate among other interventions higher use of agro-inputs such as fertilizers, feeds, and pesticides as well as better management of crop and dairy production and post-production handling in order to minimize losses. Scope of staple and major food crops
• Maize • Potatoes • Beans • Pulses • Sorghum The major food crops grown in Kenya are maize and Irish potatoes. Other important food crops include dry beans, pulses, rice, and sorghum among others. Maize Maize is Kenya’s leading grain crop and a staple food for most Kenyan households. Maize is grown on both a large and small scale and national per capita consumption of about 98 kilograms (Irungu and Wesonga, 2013). Smallholder farmers plant either hybrid seed produced
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by seed merchants or seed saved from previous seasons planting. Seed sold by seed merchant seeds is usually treated by a combination of fungicides and insecticides while that saved by farmers is commonly not treated. 15-30 percent farmers use recycled seed. Production failures or bumper harvests are closely linked to harsh economic times or reduced inflation with resultant challenges or benefits for most households. At smallholder level maize is typically grown as a mono-crop within a mixed cropping environment. 75 percent of maize is grown by around 3.5 million subsistence farmers throughout the arable land in the Kenya. These farmers grow maize on land measuring two hectares and below. About a thousand large scale farmers grow 25 percent of maize produced in Kenya. Maize grown is mostly rain fed except in government owned irrigation schemes. The total land area under maize production in Kenya is between 1.4 to 1.6 million hectares annually. (Guantai, 2010) Maize is primarily grown to be used as human food, however part of the maize grown is ground processed to produce industrial products and animal feed. Industrial products from maize include corn oil, maize meal, maize syrup, alcohol and distillated spirits. (Guantai, 2010) Maize productivity has increased over time but in a cyclic manner with highs and dips (See Table 2). The dips can be attributed to a number of challenges including soil nutrient depletion, pests and diseases, reliance on rain fed agriculture, and postharvest handling losses. In the 2010-2011 periods maize production declined as a result of a combination of weather and input related features compounded by a relatively new disease viral disease MNLD which has affected major high potential maize growing areas. This is in addition to traditional challenges presented by the larger grain borer and aflatoxin contamination, head smut, maize stalk borer and maize streak virus. Table 2: Kenya Maize production trend – 2000 to 2012
Unit of Measure Market Year Production Growth Rate (Metric Tons)
2000 2160 1000 -4.00 %
2001 2792 1000 29.26 %
2002 2430 1000 -12.97 %
2003 2710 1000 11.52 %
2004 2140 1000 -21.03 %
2005 2670 1000 24.77 %
2006 3000 1000 12.36 %
2007 2930 1000 -2.33 %
2008 2367 1000 -19.22 %
2009 2439 1000 3.04 %
2010 3222 1000 32.10 %
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2011 3100 1000 -3.79 %
2012 3200 1000 3.23
Source: http://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?country=ke&commodity=corn&graph=production
One measure commonly implemented by farmers to reduce losses is timing of harvesting to coincide with the lowest moisture content achievable in the field while minimizing exposure to rainfall during the harvest period. Farmers also carry out dusting of shelled and dried maize in addition to scouting for pest damage during storage. Maize is at times intercropped with beans. Other food crops grown in mixed farming or crop rotation with maize include potatoes. Where maize does not do well due to weather sorghum and millets are the predominant grain crops. Crops such as sweet potatoes, cassava, arrow roots, soya bean, and other food crops have been promoted for diversification and opportunities exist in export markets for these crops as well. Potatoes Potatoes are grown in the highlands west and east of the Great Rift Valley and in Eastern part of Kenya and are the second most important food crop after maize. The main challenge in production of potatoes is unavailability of clean seed and prevalence of pests and diseases. This calls for effective Integrated Pest Managementespecially during the country’s rainy seasons mostly between March to May and September to November. Beans The common bean Phaseolus vulgaris is the most important legume crop in Kenya. The major growing areas for the common bean in Kenya are the central highlands and in the area west of the rift valley. Beans have a high content of protein, dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates (Platt, 1962.). Leaves, pods and green and dry grains of beans are consumed after cooking. Approximately 1 million hectares of beans are grown in Kenya. Major challenges in bean production in Kenya include soil fertility, input access, weeds, pests and diseases. The main diseases of beans are bean rust (83.5 percent), fusarium wilt and blights (25.4 percent).Important insect pests for beans are beanfly (79 percent), thrips (42 percent), nematodes (23.9 percent) and mites (39 percent). (E.O. Monda, 2003). Low usage of certified seed compunded by the high cost and scarcity of the same is an additional problem. Pulses (cow peas, green grams, chick peas, pigeon peas) Pulses production inKenya ismostly in arid and semi-aridareas with limitedrainfall.Thepulsesare leguminousfood cropsthatcan withstand droughtconditions becausethey extractwaterdeepinthe soilprofile which the basis for theirdrought tolerance. Pulses are important crops in the Kenya ASAL areas. They are valued fortheirnutritive seedsthathave high proteincontent.Theirseedsare eaten freshasgreen vegetables ordryseeds. Pulses such as green grams, chickpeas, and cow peas, grow best at altitudes of 0-1600 meters above the sea level and under warm climatic conditions. The soils should be well drained for
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 40 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. good production.These crops do not do well in water logged areas as this increases crop susceptibility to root and stem diseases. Land preparation requires a medium till before planting. They are grown as intercrops with crops such as cotton, sorghum and maize. Pulses are early maturing often producing before droughtsetsin. Sorghum Challenges in sorghum production include low use of certified seed, continued birds menace and low adoption rates of sorghum production by farmers. Recent efforts to encourage sorghum growing for beer production have led to increased production despite these challenges. Intensification of production will require greater attention to control of shoot fly and stalk borer. The use of treated seed will contribute heavily towards this. Horticulture The horticulture sub-sector is among the fastest growing agricultural sub sectors.The sub-sector employs approximately 4.5 million men and women directly and another 3.5 million benefit indirectly (FPEAK).5-10 percent of horticultural produce is exported and the rest is consumed locally. The potential to export more is hampered by a number of challenges including strict market conformity requirements (GLOBALGAP), Restrictions on Maximum Pesticide Residue (MRL), poor produce handling and inadequate infrastructure. In 2010 Kenya exported horticultural produce worth Ksh 6.8 billion versus horticultural imports of Ksh1.4 billion. Major horticultural crops grown include French beans, peas, tomatoes, carrots, onions, brassicas and bananas.Small holder farmers produce the bulk of these crops both for domestic and export markets though in the exports sector the recent tightening of MRL checks on these French beans and peas due to residue detections has seen a decline in exporter uptake of produce from small holders with up to 30 percent of small-holders already out of the market and the numbers increasing. Poor use of Pesticides is largely to blame with growers failing to observe PHI recommendation and undoubtedly REI requirements as well. Scope of horticultural crops includes
• Tomatoes • Onions • French beans • Peas
French beans French beans are grown almost exclusively for export markets. Production is concentrated in the central Kenya in the larger Kirinyaga, Kiambu, Murang’a, Nyeri counties, and parts of Eastern Kenya i.e. Embu, Meru, Machakos. In Rift Valley Naivasha, Narok, Elgeyo-Marakwet. Target production per hectare is 13 tons while most farmers produce averagely 6 tons. This low production is attributed to cultural practices such as weeding, irrigation, intercropping, crop rotation, crop nutrition and also the challenges resulting from pests and diseases which lower the yields.
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Peas Garden peas are produced for both local market and export while podded peas are produced mainly for export market. Production areas include Nyandarua, Molo, and Meru. Under optimal conditions yield per hectare is approximately 10 tons but due to production challenges which include prevalence of pest and diseases, frost bite, sub-optimal input application, and poor agronomic practices farmers get between 3and 5 tons. Tomatoes An important vegetable cash crop for the local market and is grown all year round in various parts of Kenya. Production is marked by high seasonality in supply and perishability. Greenhouse production has been a recent phenomenon with many farmers using this system for the production of hybrid varieties. Production in 2011 was recorded at 24.7 tons/ha down from 33.9tons/ha in 2010 (FAOSTAT). Onions Onions are an important vegetable yet Kenya is a net importer of Onions. Production potential is upwards of 30 tons/ha yet most open pollinated varieties yield 2-3 tons per hectare (Kibanyu, 2009). Hybrids are yielding 8-12 tons per hectare (FarmbizAfrica, 2013). Production is affected by a number of constraints, chief being prevalence of pest (onion thrips) and diseases, high post-harvest losses associated with pre-mature harvesting, sub-optimal use of inputs, poor weed management and over reliance on rainfed production (Kibanyu, 2009). Dairy Dairy farming is Kenya’s leading livestock sector activity.80 percentof milk produced and sold comes from small holder farmers with women performing half of all dairy related activities. Milk production stood at 4.2 billion litres in 2009 and potential exists to take this to 5.0 billion litres by 2014. Industry reviews indicate that productivity is high due to a high number of cows in milk as opposed to higher milk yields per cow. Smallholder’s farmers are estimated to have 3.5 million dairy cattle with average holdings of 0.2 to 3 hectares and 1-3 cows per farmer producing on average 5 litres per cow. These are fed using a combination of forage, cultivated fodder and crop by products. Disease prevention and control and delivery of veterinary services is currently weak, use of self-prescribed and administered drugs is a common practice due to cost implications and ignorance on part of the farmers. East Coast Fever (ECF) is a major disease challenge for dairy herds. The disease is spread by the tick species Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and is estimated to affect 49.8 percent of Kenya’s dairy herds. Preventive action against ECF by means of acaricide treatment costs between $2 - 20 per animal per year while curative ECF treatment costs between$10 and 40. Government services in disease control vaccines, diagnosis and surveillance are insufficient. Private practice is concentrated in areas where milk is commercially produced. There are major challenges in policy with ambiguity in dairy policies, minimal stakeholder consultation in formulating policy and legal framework, inconsistency between policies, legal framework and the prevailing situation
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Higher dairy productivity will require • Expansion of specialized dairy cattle populations • Intensification in terms of inputs and dairy cattle feeding • Value addition of milk and dairy products • Good market linkages for milk sales and input acquisition • Continued control of pests and diseases
4.2 Pest Management Needs for Target Crops and Dairy
Pest management needs for each target crop and dairy sub-sector were catalogued via desk research and interviews with specialists in the respective sub-sectors. The results are documented in the crop-and dairy specific compilation of Pests and Diseases of Target Crops and Dairy and Available and Recommended Control Methods tables of Annex A.
As documented therein, effective pest management is critical to achieving agricultural productivity objectives for each crop, and while non-chemical control methods have a critical role to play, there is a need for complementary chemical controls in many instances.
This section provides key information that serves as critical input to the 12-factor analysis (per 22 CFR 216.3(b)) undertaken in section 5. This includes the list of target crops covered and their pest management needs, and candidate pesticides to be assessed.
Just as critically, it includes critical information regarding local context (e.g. knowledge and awareness of pesticide safer use principles) that are critical to decisions regarding which pesticides can be safely used in the Kenyan context.
Crops Pest management in horticultural crops is currently characterized by the following challenges Dependence on pesticides among commercial producers with potential environmental pollution, pest and disease resistance, risks to safety of the applicator and food safety risks Pesticides are a necessity in crop production but they pose risk to environment and human ranging from low to high if not properly used. Most small scale commercial growers use pesticides without adequate appreciation of the risks to environment and people. This has resulted to environmental pollution and health concerns in applicators, farming families, neighbors and consumers. For export markets Kenya’shorticultural produce is facing restrictions in European markets due to MRL interceptions and restrictions on the use of locally registered pesticides that are not allowed for use in the EU due to health and environmental risks posed by their usage and handling. Low adoption of IPM by smallholder farmers due to lack of applicable control measures and limited access to information Most subsistence farmers do not put in place any tangible pest management interventions and this has led to reduced productivity and build-up of pests in the neighborhood. This situation
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could be due to inadequate information on the pests and pest control products, inability to access and/or afford pest control products or inability to analyze the consequences of their actions in the crop production value chain. On the other hand, farmers who practice pest management are faced with a complexity in pest management due to re-invasion and development of resistance to pesticides. IPM is a sustainable solution to challenges facing pest management but it is not fully appreciated or utilized particularly by small scale growers.This is mainly because the farmers have little or no knowledge on how to implement IPM practices on their holdings. Pest resistance to pesticides due to variable dosing, use of expired product and limited information on maximizing pesticide use Pesticide resistance is a growing concern worldwide. Many farmers do not understandhow pest resistance occurs or the essence of pesticide rotation which is the use of pesticides not more than the stipulated application times per crop or cropping season and alternating it with another under the guidance of FRAC, IRAC and HRAC. Pest resistance has led to pest build up resulting in reduced yields/farm productivity. Pesticide distributors driven by the desire to drive up their sales down to the retail outlets (Agro-vets), farmer advisors and farmers who do not have any knowledge on pesticide resistance management all add to the problem. If not addressed, pesticide resistance is likely to leave the farmers with limited pesticide options that are more expensive. Most small scale farmers cannot afford these options and this is likely to result to reduced farm yields.
Pesticide residues on harvested produce due to ignorance on PHI requirements Preharvest interval (PHI) is the minimum time allowed which must elapse from when a pesticide is applied on the crops and the harvest time. Before that time lapses the produce is not fit for human consumption as it contains pesticide residues and pose a possible risk to human safety. Many small scale farmers do not fully understand the importance of PHI and consequences of not adhering to the practice.
Common practices by farmers leading to pesticide residues include • Harvesting of crops before the required PHI has lapsed • Application of approved pesticides for use on non-approved crops in which case the PHI requirements for the pesticide on the crop are unknown and possibility of residues arises
Dairy Improved dairy herds are susceptible to various vector borne diseases such as ECF. Control is achieved either through vaccinations of herds against the disease agent and control of ticks by means of acaricides. The spread of ECF inhigh productive areas has increased following farmer inaction in accessing private veterinary services due to over reliance on government services which are in decline. Intestinal Helminthes worms and other tick borne diseases also pose a challenge to continued productivity. Use of improved breeds
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Smallholder dairy farmers use a mix of pure line dairy breeds – Friesian, Aryshire, Jersey and Guernsey as well as mixed improved breeds (mainly Aryshires and Friesians) with high milk yielding capacity as the main quality. Local breeds such as the Zebu and dual purpose breeds such as the Sahiwal are also kept though not primarily for milk production. In order to maintain the desired genetic traits within dairy herds is Artificial Insemination (AI) using proven genetic material. Many smallholder farmers are unable to afford AI services and instead rely on servicing their cows using the best available local bulls. The outcome of this depends on the quality of the bulls. Vaccinations Vaccination services are available primarily from private service providers and smallholder farmers with access to both financial and logistical services. Those reliant on the DVS may encounter difficulty as provision of vaccination services is dependent on availability of funding and vaccination material. Note that vaccines and other veterinary pharmaceuticals that are not proposed for pesticidal uses are outside of the scope of this PERSUAP and cannot be approved nor rejected in this PERSUAP. However, these products must be used in accordance with applicable local and national regulations. Chemical treatments With the guidance and regulatory oversight from the DVS there are a number of pesticides used for the control of ticks and Tse tse flies which are the vectors of diseases such as ECF and Trypanasomiasis respectively. Widespread resistance has reduced the number of chemical groups to two currently – pyrethroids and amidines. Apart from chemical treatments to dairy cows, chemicals are also used for sanitising milk cans and cleaning up at processing plants. These are mostly detergents and disinfectants. Waste water from cleaning operations needs to be properly handled to avoid contamination of surface and ground water. Extension and surveillance Limited extension services are provided by the government through the DVS and farmers have to rely on private veterinary services for general extension and also for service provision in case of animal sicknesses requiring attention. Farmers do not have a lot of information.
4.3 Current pest control practices; Current state of IPM awareness andpractice
Amongst smallholder farmers current awareness and practice of IPM can be categorized in three: • There is significant awareness of IPM both in terms of what is involved and in the actual use of various IPM measures among farmers growing commercially for export markets • There is significant awareness of IPM in terms of what is involved but limited use of IPM measures among farmers growing commercially for local markets • There is limited awareness of IPM in terms of what it means, what is involved and use of various IPM measures among farmers growing crops for subsistence
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There is a mixture of all three groups in the project areas and this means the project cannot afford to make assumptions on the adaption of IPM among target groups.IPs must clarify the position of any targeted groups and work to build up from that position. In recent years the use of IPM practices as a means to reduce reliance on pesticides has been promoted through various initiatives involving government agencies, donor bodies and NGOs, research organizations such as ICIPE and private companies. This has largely been driven by the export markets for fresh produce as well as increasing cases of pest and disease resistance to various pesticides. A key outcome of the promotion of IPM is the push for reduced reliance on pesticides. Examples of IPM practices and measures that are being promoted and used include the following: Crops • Use of improved seed and planting materials resistant or tolerant to various problems • Seed treatment with preventive products to minimize initial infection by pests or diseases • Regular monitoring or scouting of crops to facilitate smaller area treatment for pests and diseases as well as guide on when spraying should take place • Use of various cultural and physical controls such as field hygiene and traps • Conservation and deliberate use of biological controls • Use of organic treatment measures for various pests and diseases • Extension and surveillance • Use of pesticides in combination with other control measures and not as a standalone control
Dairy • Use of improved breeds • Vaccinations programmes to prevent infection • Extension and surveillance • Timely chemical treatments Success levels on awareness and uptake of IPM practices differ depending on the level of support to smallholder farmers, farmers’ willingness to adapt a wider range of protection practices and the available range of practical alternatives to pesticides. For the segment of small scale farmers who practice farming for subsistence and do not make use of IPM practices beyond basic traditional practices there is need to support them in taking up modern farming and IPM practices to help in improving their household incomes.
4.4 Current pesticide use/availability
Pesticide use tends to be common among farmers who grow crops or keep dairycattle for commercial purposes whether targeting export or local markets. Farmers tend to use the same pesticides for similar problems across all crops, the overriding factor being the pest or disease at hand. There are however, there are regional preferences in pesticide brands used due to previous experience, product sales support, cost and reliable supply among other issues. Cases
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have been cited of farmers using product distributed for use of control of certain pest or disease epidemics on non-target crops or different situations. Pesticides are available in various quantities and there is a widespread practice by manufacturers targeting small scale farmers of packaging pesticides in small plastic or paper packs weighing between 100gms/mls and1kg/ltr depending on the dosage rates. These package sizes are generally suitable for small scale farmers considering the size of land under production and cost of the inputs. Farmers can afford the smaller packs as opposed to the bulkier packaging. Small- scale farmers normally buy small quantities from Agro vets for direct use on their farms, most probably at the same time the farmer is purchasing other items from a shopping centre.
Figure 2: Pesticide packaging
4.5 Available PPE and Application Equipment
PPE and spray application equipment/machinery is now more available though especially in urban centres and areas with a high level of agricultural activity. The main outlets are agro vets shops though not among all agro vets. Items such as overalls, gumboots, gloves and basic respirators are found in supermarkets as well. The use of PPE is not strongly promoted in public forums therefore farmers have to be deliberate in searching for PPE. Spray application equipment is available depending on the type of equipment. Knapsack (15 to 20 litercapacity) and hand held (5 to 10 litercapacity) sprayers are readily available. Higher capacity spray application equipment is also available though in fewer outlets targeting medium to large scale farmers. The cost of appropriate application and safety equipment remains high, more so for replacement parts such as nozzles, filters and respirators which are also hard to find. For the basic knapsack sprayers with the increasing variety of product types the prices are very competitive. However the quality of some of these sprayers is wanting with frequent breakdown. Small scale farmers usually do their own spray applications but where possible having a contracted spray operator for a group of farmers is a better method as the farmers can share
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resources while minimising personal risk. This is practiced to some degree among farmers who have joined together in cooperative type societies. For dairy cattle many smallholder farmers use zero grazing systems or controlled grazing. As such communal dips are not in much use compared to knapsack sprayers for application of acaricides. Where communal dips are available they are an easy to use system for application of treatments to herds. Within a controlled system with specifically trained persons manning the dips these would be a more user friendly system. They aren’t likely to cause any user injury when used as recommended. The use of communal dips is usually encouraged in order minimise pesticide usage through individual spraying at household level. In addition to minimising pesticide use, safer use is assured as some of the people who do spraying if it was instead carried out at household level could be women and children.
4.6 Pesticide Knowledge and Awareness
As with the knowledge and awareness of IPM the same is true for pesticides among small scale farmers.
• There is significant awareness of pesticides usefulness, associated risks, safety requirements and application related issues among farmers growing commercially for local and export markets • There is limited awareness of pesticides usefulness, associated risks, safety requirements and application related issues among farmers growing crops for subsistence
Farmers generally rely on advice from extension agents or agro vets on the pesticides to use. There is a cross cutting ignorance of the deeper risks from poor handling of pesticides and pesticide wastes. Specific issues such as waste disposal, handling of pesticide use emergencies, product selection, transportation and storage requirements are appreciated by most farmers but not well implemented.
Figure 3: Used pesticide containers carelessly disposed
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Farmers are generally aware that pesticides are dangerous but have little appreciation about the different toxicity levels of different pesticides. This combined with the fact that the quantities of pesticide used are small means small scale farmers may overlook the impact of poor pesticide waste disposal practices on the environment. Pesticide wastes include used pesticide containers/packages, rinsate from used containers and measuring cylinders, washings of application equipment, accidental spills, worn out PPE, and spray application equipment.
4.7 Extension Services
Extension services to monitor pest and disease occurrence and spread are provided by a number of providers, both public and private. Farmers receive guidance and recommendations on crop protection measures depending on the sub-sector and market outlet for the produce (local versus export). Public extension services are provided mainly from the Ministry of Agriculture, taking on board both Crop and Animal production directly from the ministry through various programmes such as NALEP and through state agencies affiliated to the ministry such as KARI, HCDA, and KEPHIS. Private extension services are provided mainly by buyers of product from the farmers and often such services serve only farmers who have contractual arrangements with the buyers. There are other organizations that also provide guidance to farmers on broader pesticide use including safety aspects. These include FPEAK, AAK, KDB, and KFC. For dairy farmers extension services are provided by DVS staff, private veterinary services and milk processing firm’s extension staff. The coverage of extension services largely depends on the concentration of dairy farmers in any given area with higher coverage in areas with higher numbers of farmers and dairy cows. Studies on extension services indicate farmers still do not receive adequate information and on a timely manner (Provision of Extension Information Services to Smallholder Dairy Farmers inWareng District, Kenya, William Kiprop Too Arusei, 2012) For crops, the MoA is the major provider of extension services especially where it comes to crops that are sold on the local market such as cereals, vegetables and other staples. KARI and KEPHIS also provide extension services upon request from farmers. For horticultural crops HCDA is also involved in providing extension support. Where horticultural produce is sold to exporting companies these companies provide extension services and come up with approved pesticide lists that take into account market requirements and restrictions on use of Pesticides. Produce for export is subject to MRL limits and checks and monitoring of MRL levels is carried out by KEPHIS as well as by relevant agencies in importing countries. Pesticide recommendations are therefore made to ensure produce does not exceed the stated MRLs. Overall, extension services are still far below what is required in terms of numbers of extension personnel and ease of access to these services by farmers. Smallholder farmers still struggle as information is not readily available, farmers tend to make adhoc decisions on what to apply and there is ready access to non-recommended products Within the supply chain of pesticides products in Kenya we have a regulatory framework to guide the use of pesticides that is tasked to PCPB. Other stakeholders whose contribution is key are Ministry of Agriculture through agriculture extension officers and theDVS,
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• AAK • HCDA • KEPHIS • Private sector (agrochemical companies, distributors, training and consultancy firms), • GAP audit organizations and • Industry associations such as FPEAK, KFC, KFU among others
All these stakeholders have a role to play in ensuring farmers are aware of required practices and checks on use of pesticides and while they are active in this regards more needs to be done especially in rural areas. Much of the information currently reaching the small scale farmers comes from agro vet dealers and it could be skewed /biased towards commercial interests.
4.8 List of Candidate Pesticides
The compilation of candidate pesticides takes into account products that are registered for use in Kenya, in common usage among farmers and available from agro vets as a baseline. The resulting candidate list is as follows. NOTE that the list of pesticides recommended for approval under this PERSUAP is a subset of this list, consisting of the candidate pesticides NOT eliminated by the PER analysis that follows. The approved pesticides are presented in Section 5 the Pesticide Evaluation Report.
Table 3: Pesticides Currently Used in USAID Project Implementation Areas
Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) Dominex, Alphacypermethrin Acaricide 2 II, III Acaricide for veterinary use on ticks. Sypertix Grenade, DeleteNorotraz, 2 II,III Acaricide - ticks, lice, and mange in Amitraz Acaricide Taktic, Mostraz, livestock, sheep & goats Triatix Stelladone, Farm animals against ectoparasites Chlorfenvinphos Acaricide 1b II Supona (ticks) Broad spectrum acaricide and Ectomin, insecticide for ticks, tse tse fly, lice, Cypermethrin Acaricide 2 II, III Cypertix mites, fleas, flies used on pigs poultry and sheep, goats, cattle Insecticide/acaricide to control ticks, fleas, mites on cattle by both dipping and stock spray in areas as Deltamethrin Acaricide Delete, Deltab 2 II defined by the Director of Veterinary Services; control of tsetse flies in high tsetse challenge areas. Acaricide for the control of ticks on Flumethrin Acaricide Bayticol NL III livestock as a “Pour On’ in
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) prescribed areas as determined from time to time by the Director of Veterinary Services. Flower DS, Insecticide for control of aphids & Pyrethrins Acaricide 2 III Pesthrin white flies on vegetables. Insecticide for the control of thrips Bacillus Biopestici Biolep, Dipel 3 III & African bollworm on French thuringiensis de beans. Biopestici Biological fungicide for the control Bacillus subtilis Real Bacillus U III de of Powdery Mildew Fungicide for the control of root Rootgard, Eco T, Biopestici disease causing organisms and to Trichoderma spp Trianum, U - de enhance plant growth on French Trichotech beans. Biological insecticide for control of Biopestici Bio-power, Beauveria bassiana U III thrips and whiteflies on french de Beauvitech beans A biological nematicide for the control of root knot, cyst and Paecilomyces Biopestici burrowing nematodes in Roses; and Bio-nematon U IV lilacinus de for the control of root knot nematodes in tomatoes and French beans. Biological fungicide for the control Pseudomonas Biopestici Bio-cure U IV of Botrytis, Septoria leafspot & fluorscens de Sclerotonia in Tomatoes. Ampelomyces Biopestici A biological fungicide for the quisqualis de control of powdery mildew and Bio-Dewcon U - downy mildew in Roses; and powdery mildew on snow peas and courgettes. Verticillium lecanii Biopestici Biological insecticide for the control de of Aphids on Roses and French Biocatch U n/a beans, aphids and whiteflies on Tomatoes. Fungicide with systematic and Benalaxyl + contact action for the control of late Fungicide Galben, Fantic 3+U III mancozeb blight and other secondary diseases on potatoes. Fungicide for control of powdery Azoxystrobin Fungicide Ortiva, Twiga AZ U III mildew & Ascochyta in peas; rust & bean anthracnose in french beans. Royalnex, Fungicide for seed treatment in Captan Fungicide U III/IV Royalcap, maize for the control of seed decay
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) Captan and external seed-borne diseases. Fungicide for the control of botrytis, anthracnose, sclerotinia, Angular Rodazim, SAAF, leaf spot & root rot on French Carbendazim Fungicide Bendazim, U IV beans; botrytis & Aschochyta on Murtano super snow peas; Anthracnose, grey mold, fruit rot & scab in mangoes, citrus and pawpaw A contact fungicide for control of bean rust, angular leaf spot, Chlorothalonil Fungicide Mistress, Daconil U II anthracnose & botrytis on French beans; Aschochytes and botrytis on snow peas. Fungicide to control early & late Champflo, blight on Tomatoes; Rust, Copper hydroxide Fungicide 2 III Funguran anthracnose & angular leaf spot on French beans Fungicide for use against angular Difenoconazole Fungicide Score 2 III leaf spot on French beans and Ascochyta leaf spot on snow peas. Fungicide for systemic and contact Dimethomorph + Fungicide Acrobat MZ 3+U III+IV control of late blight in potatoes & Mancozeb tomatoes. An agricultural fungicide for the Epoxiconazole+ Fungicide Twiga Eponil 2 III control of rust, anthracnose and chlorothalonil angular leaf spot on French beans A broad spectrum & penetrating fungicide against early and late blights on potatoes; late blight on tomatoes. Downy mildew on snow Famoxadone + Fungicide Equation Pro U+2 III peas/ sugar snaps, onions and Cymoxanil ornamentals; powdery mildew on cucurbits, bean rust, bean anthracnose and angular leaf spot on French beans Broad spectrum for control of early Nando 500 SC, Fluazinam Fungicide - II and late blight in potatoes Omega 500 ,tomatoes Fungicide for the Control of late Folpet Fungicide Folpan U II blight on Tomatoes. Fungicide for the control of downy Alialm, Valette, Fosetyl aluminium Fungicide U III mildew on Onions, Lettuce & Aliette Squash. Mancozeb Fungicide Milthane super, U IV blight in potatoes, late & early
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) Dithane, blight and grey mould in tomatoes, Mancoflo, anthracnose and leaf spot in Indofil, tobacco, scab in apple & pear, Oshothane botrytis, leaf spot, downy mildew, neck rot in onions; Alternaria and Ccerconspora leaf spots on carrots, leaf spot & stem blight in celery; downy mildew in lettuce, flowers, ornamentals, cucurbits. Mancozeb Mistress, Fungicide for the control of early & Fungicide U+2 IV +cymoxanil Agromax late blight in potatoes and tomatoes A broad spectrum fungicide for the control of fungal diseases on vegetables, fruit crops.Potatoes, tomatoes to control late and early Propineb Fungicide Antracol 3 III blights; on vegetables to control anthracnose, downy mildew, leaf rust. On Fruit crops to control Scab, rust, anthracnose; on Grapes to control Downymildew Product for the control of late blight Mandipropamid Fungicide Revus U IV in tomatoes and potatoes A systemic fungicide of the Oomycyte fungi used on fruits, Metalaxyl + Master, Ridomil, Fungicide 2+U III+IV potatoes and vegetables for early Mancozeb Envy and late blight.. Also good for control of soil borne diseases Microthiol, Miticide/fungicide for the control of Cosavet, mites and powdery mildew in Sulphur Fungicide 3 III Wetsulf, Thiovit French beans, cucumber & Jet tomatoes, Fungicide for the control of ring Tebuconazole Fungicide Orius, Tebicon 2 II spot on brassicas and for the control of rust in French beans. Fungicide for use in French beans, Thiophanate Rice, cereals, citrus, mangoes / Fungicide Topsin M U III/IV methyl pawpaws, avocado, banana, grapes; for the control of powdery mildew. Systemic fungicide for use on Triadimefon Fungicide Bayleton 2 II Vegetables:- powdery mildew, rusts Fungicide for use in the control of Consist max, powdery mildew on,grapes, pigeon Trifloxystrobin Fungicide U III Flint pea and French beans; rust on French beans; and leaf spot on
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) French beans. Herbicide for the control of grass and broad-leaved weeds in crop Glufosinate- land and shrubs in non-crop land. Herbicide Basta 2 III ammonium Plantation Crops:- Coffee, Fruit trees, tea, bananas, sisal, passion fruits. Roundup, Systemic & contact non selective Touchdown, herbicide used on a wide range of Glyphosate Herbicide 3 III Twigasate, annual, biennial, perennial broad Weedal leafed weeds, grasses, sedges Herbicide for the control of Farmuron, numerous annual broad-leaved and Linuron Herbicide 3 III Linurex grass weeds in maize, beans, carrots, potatoes. Selective Herbicide for control of Sencor, Ambar, Metribuzin Herbicide 2 III grass and broad leaved weeds in Tata Moto sugar-cane, maize. Herbicide for use on, bananas, Gramoxone, citrus, mango plantations, cereals, Paraquat Herbicide 2 1 Partner, Herbikill row crops, and maize - minimum cultivation Pre-emergence herbicide for use in maize, wheat,peas, beans, potatoes, Stomp, Tata leeks, onions, peppers, cabbages, Pendimethalin Herbicide Panida, 2 III cauliflower, broccoli - for the control Twigamethalin of many annual grasses and broad- leaf Herbicide for the control of grasses Metolachlor-S Herbicide Dual Gold 3 III in maize A pre-emergence and post 2,4-D Hy,2,4-D, emergence herbicide for the control Dimethylamine Herbicide Profarm, 2 III of annual and perennial broad salts Sanaphen leaved weeds in Maize fields. A seed dressing fungicide Thiamethoxam* + I/F Apron Star NL - /insecticide for use on french beans Metalaxyl M and snow peas. Insecticide/Miticide for the control Dynamec, of mites, leaf miners on Abamectin Insecticide Vapcomic, 1b IV ornamentals/ flowers; French beans Romectin and snowpeas An insecticide for the control of Twiga Ace, Titan, Acetamiprid Insecticide 2 II,III aphids, whiteflies, leafminer and Golan thrips on French beans and squash
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) beetles, aphids, whiteflies and thrips in Cucurbits; Russian wheat aphid and other cereal aphids Insecticide for the control of thrips and cutworms on onions; aphids, whiteflies, thrips, caterpillars, leaf Alphacypermethrin Insecticide Tata alpha 2 II miners on tomatoes; thrips, aphids, whiteflies & squash vine borer on squash; aphids, whiteflies and aphids on French beans Insecticide/Nematicide for the control of aphids, thrips, whiteflies Achook, Fortune, Azadirachtin Insecticide U III and leaf miner on French Neemraj beans,Cucurbits,snowpeas,Spidermit es on tomatoes Used to control maize stalk borer. Beta-cyfluthrin Insecticide Bulldock 2 II Scouting for the pests weekly 2-7 weeks after emergence Insecticide for the control of aphids, Seizer, Biferan, caterpillars, leaf miners, spidermites, Bifenthrin Insecticide 2 II Bridge thrips & whiteflies on Frenchbeans and snowpeas Insecticide for use in the control of whiteflies in citrus, tomatoes and Buprofezin Insecticide Applaud 3 III ornamentals, and mealy bugs in passion fruits. Insecticide for the control of Aphids Carbaryl Insecticide Hycarb, Sevin, 2 I,II,III on Tomatoes Broad Spectrum insecticide on white Chlorpyrifos Insecticide Dursban 2 II flies, aphids, termiticide An acaricide for residual control of mites in ornamentals/ flowers and Clofentezine Acaricide Apollo 3 III strawberries; spider mite eggs on French beans. Used on a broad range of insect pests in a variety of crops: Cotton, Cypermethrin Insecticide Agrocythrin 2 II, III Coffee, lettuce, tomatoes, soya beans, potatoes, celery, cabbage, deciduous fruits Broad spectrum insecticide for control of aphids in barley; aphids, Chlopyriphos + Insecticide Bulldock Star 2+1b II whiteflies & caterpillars in tomato, Betacyfluthrin beans, eggplant & kales; thrips in tomato, beans, eggplant & kales,
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) bollworms, aphids Insecticide for use in cotton, coffee, vegetables, fruit trees, ornamentals, Deltamethrin Insecticide Atom, Decis 2 I-III cereals; for maize stalk borer control. An agricultural insecticide for the control of thrips, aphids, whiteflies and caterpillars on Roses and French Diazinon Insecticide Diazol 2 II, III beans; Diamond back moth and aphids on kales; thrips, aphids, spidermites and caterpillars on tomatoes and pepper A specific miticide for the control of red spider mites, citrus red mite and other species of mites on a wide Dicofol Insecticide Mitigan 2 III variety of crops including, citrus, apples, pears, peaches, plums, mangoes, grapes For crops – cotton, chillies, Ogor, Rogor groundnuts, Mustard, wheat, Dimethoate Insecticide Oshothoate, 2 II vegetables (potatoes, brinjals, Okra, Twigathoate cabbage, onions, fruits (bananas, citrus, Mango) Propargite Acaricide for control of mites in Insecticide Dictator Plus 3+U III +tetradifon Roses, Carnations, Tomatoes. Fenitrothion + Insecticide for the control of insect Insecticide Sumuthion 2+2 II Esfenvelate pests in coffee. Insecticide/ miticide for control of Emamectin Diamond back moth on cabbages; Insecticide Escort 2 II benzoate thrips, spider mites and caterpillars on French beans, An insecticide for control of aphids, Warrant, thrips, whiteflies, leaf miner on Imidacloprid Insecticide 3 II Confidor Tomatoes; bean flower thrips on French beans; Insecticide for control of Diamond Indoxacarb Insecticide Avaunt 2 II back moth in cabbage, African bollworm in Tomatoes Tata Umeme 2.5EC, Trigger An insecticide for the control of Lambda – 5%EC, Swift 5EC, Insecticide 2 II aphids, thrips, caterpillars and cyhalothrin Pentagon 5%EC, whiteflies, on vegetables. Voltage 5EC,Karate Zeon,
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) Halothrin 2.5EC Insecticide for the control of Lufenuron Insecticide Match 3 - diamond back moth on kales Insecticide for the control of Methoxyfenozide Insecticide Runner, U IV Diamond-back moth, sawfly and Spodoptera spp. in Brassicas Insecticide for the control of aphids and whiteflies on Roses; cabbage Pymetrozine Insecticide Chess NL III aphids on Kales & beans aphid on French beans Insecticide for the control of thrips, leaf miner, Diamond-back moth and Spinosad Insecticide Tracer 3 III caterpillars on cut flowers and vegetables Insecticide for the control of Aphids, Whiteflies on Roses and Thrips on Thiacloprid Insecticide Calypso 2 II Carnations, Aphids, Thrips and Whiteflies on Tomato, Chillies, Eggplant, Karella Systemic broad spectrum insecticide for control of thrips, aphids and Thiamethoxam Insecticide Medal 3 II- whiteflies in French beans and Roses by foliar application and drenching Insecticide for the control of Zetacypermethrin Insecticide Fury 1b - whiteflies, aphids and thrips on French beans Malathion+ Used on stored grain product insect Insecticide Skana Super 3+2 II,III Permethrin pests of maize Used on stored grain product insect Fyfanon Insecticide Blue Cross 3 III pests of maize Used on a wide range of stored products for control of eggs/larvae, pupae, and adult of a wide range of Aluminium Quickphos, Insecticide 1b I pests such as Angoumous grain phosphide Celphos moth, been weevil, Lesser grain borer, maize weevil, stored product mites. Used on a wide range of cropsfor Fedothion, control of aphids, mites, scales, Malathion Insecticide Magic, Fyfanon, 3 III, IV borers, worms, thrips, leaf minor, Marathon beetles etc in vegetables and flowers. Actellic 50 EC, Used on stored grain product insect Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide 2+2 II Actellic super pests of maize, rice, wheat, and
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Pesticide WHO Product EPA Reported use/Indicated use on (active Usage Class examples Class label ingredient) (2009) grain sorghum. Note: The list of pesticide product examples (Trade names) is not exhaustive or the endorsement of any particular product over others. Reference to the up to date PCPB Registered products list should be made for final identification of current products and their registered uses.
Organism Type Target Situation
Coccidoxenoides perminutus Natural enemy Mealybug Roses Eretmocerus eremicus Natural enemy Whitefly Greenhouses Amblyseius carlifornicus Natural enemy Spider mites Vegetables Amblyseius cucumeris Natural enemy Thrips Greenhouses Encarsia Formosa Natural enemy Whitefly Vegetables Phytoseiulus persimilis Natural enemy Spider mites Beans, roses Amblyseius swirskii Natural enemy Whitefly Roses
Because biological pest control agents, (Parasitoids / antagonists/herbivores) registered in Kenya are exempted from EPA registration, the above macrobials are not subjected to the PERSUAP and are recommended for use. (as per guidelines on Pesticides and Pest Control Organisms Exempt from Registration Requirementshttp://www.epa.gov/opprd001/registrationmanual/chapter1.html#pest)
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SECTION 5: PER, PART 2: THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS This section takes as key inputs the information compiled in Section 4 and undertakes the analysis of the 12 factors required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) to assess the candidate pesticides for use/support with USAID funds, and to determine the specific conditions attendant to their use. Each pesticide endorsed for use under the draft KAVES PERSUAP was re-evaluated against these criteria over the course of the 12-factor analysis presented in this PER.
Factor A: U.S. EPA Registration Status of the Proposed Pesticides
USAID programs are limited to procuring, using and/or supporting the use of pesticides containing active ingredients products registered by the U.S.EPA for the same or similar uses. Emphasis is placed on “similar use” because a few of the crops and their pest species found overseas are not present in the U.S. Therefore, pesticides may not be registered for the “exact” use anticipated by the USAID project. In addition to US EPA registration, pesticides procured or supported with USAID funds must be legal (registered) in the host country. In order for products to be used and sold in Kenya, it is a requirement by law that they should be registered by the PCPB. The registrant presents dossier to PCPB which after study and scrutiny permits efficacy trials on the proposed products. Trials are carried out by independent authorized organizations in confidence. Based on the correlation between the dossier and the trial results, the product is discussed by the registration committee and may be approved (given temporary registration) and further recommended for registration for full registration by the board.
All the products reviewed and proposed here-in are registered for use currently. Given that these products are registered for use in Kenya, it implies that there safety and efficacy have been fully tested and recommended. PCPB requires that registered pesticides are properly handled to avoid hazards to people, animals, crops and the environment. As pesticide registration is an ongoing process it is advisable that advisors and users always refer to the latest information from PCPB on registered product.
Table B-1 (Annex B) provides the EPA registration status and toxicity data of all pesticides that are approved in this PERSUAP, including whether a pesticides has restricted-use (RUP) formulations. Under Factor A analysis, any pesticides that are NOT EPA-registered are disallowed, as indicated by the list below. The exception is biopesticides where the parent organism is registered by EPA but the specific strains used in Africa may or may not be indigenous to the U.S and thus may not be registered in the U.S. by EPA. Biopesticides are undergoing new developments and registrations in many parts of the world as safer alternatives to synthetic pesticides. The following table summarizes the pesticides in Table 3 that are rejected in this PERSUAP due to a lack of USEPA registration, RUP status, Kenyan registration, or other toxicity concerns. A list
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 59 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. of approved pesticides (specific products registered in Kenya) is presented later in this Section, following the Factor L discussion.
List of Pesticides Currently Used in USAID Projects and Reasons for Rejection in this PERSUAP
Accept/Reject for Reason for Rejection or Notes on Acceptance Pesticide active ingredient(s) this PERSUAP Restriction(s) Acaracides for Dairy Cow Alpha-cypermethrin Reject Not USEPA registered for use on livestock Amitraz Reject RUP Chlorfenvinphos Reject Not USEPA registered Cypermethrin Reject RUP USEPA Registration is for pet collar use only. Flumethrin Reject Products registered in Kenya are for pour-on application Biopesticides Ampelomyces quisqualis Reject Not USEPA registered Bacillus subtilis Reject No products registered in Kenya for value chains Metarhizium anisiopliae Reject No products registered in Kenya for value chains Verticillium lecanii Reject Not USEPA registered Fungicides Benalaxyl + mancozeb Reject Benalaxyl not USEPA registered Chlorothalonil Reject USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I Copper hydroxide Reject Most products USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I Epiconazole not USEPA registered; chlorothalonil Epoxiconazole+ chlorothalonil Reject USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I Fosetyl-aluminium Reject USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I Propineb Reject Not USEPA registered Herbicides Glufosinate-ammonium Reject No products registered in Kenya for value chains Paraquat Reject USEPA Acute Toxicity Category I S-Metolachlor Reject S-Metolachlor is not USEPA registered Highly toxic; other options available and approved 2,4-D Dimethylamine salts Reject in this PERSUAP Fungicide/Insecticide Thiamethoxam + Metalaxyl-M Reject No products of this mixture registered in Kenya Insecticides Abamectin Reject RUP Other options available and approved in this Acetamiprid Reject PERSUAP Alphacypermethrin Reject RUP for crop use Beta-cyfluthrin Reject RUP Bifenthrin Reject Many RUPs
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Accept/Reject for Reason for Rejection or Notes on Acceptance Pesticide active ingredient(s) this PERSUAP Restriction(s) Chlorpyrifos Reject RUP Cypermethrin Reject RUP Chlopyriphos + Betacyfluthrin Reject RUP Diazinon Reject RUP Dicofol Reject USEPA cancelled all registrations Highly toxic; other options available and approved Dimethoate Reject in this PERSUAP Propargite + tetradifon Reject RUP Fenitrothion + Esfenvalerate Reject Esfenvalerate Not USEPA registered Emamectin benzoate Reject Not USEPA registered Lambda-cyhalothrin Reject RUP Methoxyfenozide Reject No products registered in Kenya for value chains Zeta-cypermethrin Reject RUP Malathion + Permethrin Reject Permethrin RUP Aluminium phosphide Reject RUP Other options available and approved in this Malathion Reject PERSUAP 2% Actellic Dust not registered for use in Kenya; Pirimiphos-methyl Reject Spinosad SPINTOR 0.125% Dust more safe option than Actellic products that are registered in Kenya
Factor B: Basis for Selection of Pesticides
To the candidate list, the following criteria were applied to develop a final list of approved pesticides. These criteria are applied over the remaining factors of this PER analysis.
EPA Registration Status (discussed under Factor A, above). Pesticides must have active registration in the US for the same or similar crops and pests.
Kenyan registration – Recommended products should be only products that are duly registered by PCPB for use in Kenya.
Human and environmental safety: The issue of human and environmental safety is also important and in this regards the selection criteria has considered products that have least negative human and environmental impact. Pesticide selection based on toxicity/safety must also be appropriate to the Kenyan context. Currently, this context is characterized by: • Presence of national legislation on pesticides as well as an active regulatory authority (PCPB) • Availability of extension services both public and private to farmers
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• Advanced information science that allows better access to information and assistance on pesticide use including emergency measures e.g. the availability of SMS services from PCPB and KEPHIS • Moderate availability of a range of PPE • Mixed literacy levels among small scale farmers • Widespread availability of pesticides in farmer friendly packs • Mixed appreciation and application of IPM at farmer level combined with increasing availability of registered biological control products • Mixed understanding (between poor and good) of pesticide use risks and management of these risks
Resistance management: Pesticides selected must comply with resistance management guidelines. This requires alternation between different chemical groups as per the resistance management code. Only low rate brands of pesticides considered as highly toxic or hazardous shall be used Availability and cost– Availability of specific pesticides differs from area to area. Costs of individual pesticides are also different and depending on the economic strength of the farmer it is important to have a representative choice. It is therefore necessary to have a range of pesticides on the recommendation in order to cater for this factor and allow flexibility Additional considerations for EPA Acute Toxicity Category I or II products Need. The pesticide must serve as a known pest management need for target crops/activities. Environmental Assessment or User Hazard Analysis: Where IPs recommends the use of EPA Acute Toxicity Category I products the specific products should be subjected to a full environmental assessment. No pesticides that are EPA Acute Toxicity Category I are approved in this PERSUAP. The mode of use: Where possible this should limit exposure of the pesticide to humans, non- target organisms and the environment e.g. seed treatment versus crop application, soil drench versus aerial spray Spray applicator training and experience: Where the pesticide application is to be done by trained and approved spray applicators with relevant experience the use of EPA Acute Toxicity Category II products may be considered. Due to the above combination of factors and bearing in mind the criteria for selection of pesticides for inclusion in this PERSUAP products recommended for use should have further checks and balances included on a case by case basis by IPs as follows. • For commercial small scale farmers servicing the commercial export and local markets products registered by EPA and PCPB are recommended for use. This includes EPA Acute Toxicity Category II products but should be subjected to specific produce market restrictions.
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• For subsistence small scale farmers’ growing for own consumption with little or no surplus sales of produce products registered by EPA as General Use Products of Class III onwards and PCPB with WHO class III onwards are recommended for use. This does not include RUP products and should also not include EPA Acute Toxicity Category I products. • For dairy farmers products that have EPA and PCPB registration are recommended for use. EPA registered products with RUP status are eliminated from consideration. • While bearing in mind resistance management principles products selected should as much as possible be EPA class III onwards
Factor C: Extent to Which the Proposed Pesticide Use is Part of an IPM Program
An IPM system integrates a range of practices for economic pest control. These measures include establishing acceptable pest levels (thresholds), preventive cultural practices, mechanical controls, scouting or crop monitoring and responsible pesticide use. Small scale farmers at times unknowingly practice IPM through measures like hand weeding and mixed cropping. For pests and diseases affecting the targeted crops and dairy recommended control measures follow an IPM approach and pesticide use is recommended within this framework whereby the selected pesticides are used appropriately on preventive or curative basis and in conjunction with other measures – physical, cultural and biological – which have been described in general as well as with crop/pest specific examples. Section 6.2 Outlines the IPM Approach. For crops and dairy identified under this PERSUAP preliminary IPM-based crop- and pest- specific pest management plans (PMPs) are outlined. These are intended to serve as a draft which will be refined by agriculture sector implementing partners (IPs). Support for formal agricultural education will fully incorporate IPM as the basis for effective pest management. Implementing Partners will often have far less than full control over the actions of beneficiaries in the field. In these situations, IPs will promote and support PMP-based pest management to the greatest practicable extent. Factor D: Proposed Method or Methods of Application, Including the Availability of Application and Safety Equipment
The most common method of pesticide application used by the small scale farmers in both crop and dairy production is the 15 to 20 litre knapsack sprayer and on a smaller scale the 5 to 10 litre hand held sprayers. Farmers usually do their own applications but where possible having a contracted spray operator for a group of farmers is a better method as the farmers can share resources while minimising personal risk. For dairy cattle communal dips are not in much use as many smallholder farmers use zero grazing systems or controlled grazing. Farmers therefore also use knapsack sprayers for application of acaricides. Where communal dips are available they are an easy to use system for application of treatments to herds. These are readily available and are user friendly. They aren’t likely to cause any user injury when used as recommended. The use of communal dips is usually encouraged in order minimise pesticide usage through individual spraying at household level. In
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addition to minimising pesticide use, safer use is assured as some of the people who do spraying at household level could be women and children. PPE is now more available though especially in urban centres though not among all agro vets. Farmers therefore have to be deliberate in searching for PPE. The cost of appropriate application and safety equipment depends on the make/source of the same. However replacement parts such as nozzles, filters and respirators are often expensive and not easily available. Additionally • Whenever USAID/KAVES agricultural projects provide, support or recommend pesticides for use, they will ensure that appropriate personal protective equipment is available and, to the degree possible, require its use. • Projects that are directly using, procuring or supplying pesticides will also assure that quality application equipment is available and local capacity for its maintenance. Appropriate PPE will be dependent on the specific pesticide and label guidance. However as a minimum standard the following items should be considered as basic PPE that anyone should use when handling pesticides • Overalls • Impermeable gloves made of neoprene or nitrile • Gumboots • Respirator/face mask • Hat • Goggles Note that even when seeds are procured pre-treated, it will still be necessary for farmers to handle pesticide-treated seed during transfer operations and planting. Appropriate training and strong polystyrene gloves will be provided to mitigate health and environmental risks. Training shall specifically cover: • Covering all sown seeds with soil. If broadcast onto the soil, rather than placed in furrows and covered with soil, would constitute a significant hazard to birds and other wild animals that may feed on the treated seed. Therefore all the seeds must be covered during sowing. • Not touching eyes, lips or skin or eating or smoking while in the act of sowing the treated seed. • After sowing, washing gloves and hands from a pail of water brought to the field for this purpose • Upon reaching home, changing out of their clothes which should be washed separately from the normal laundry. If IPs directly undertakes or support beneficiaries undertake seed treatment, seed treatment drums must be provided, careful training given in appropriate technique and the treated seeds must be color-dyed.
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Factor E: Any acute and long-term toxicological hazards, either human or environmental, associated with the proposed use, and measures available to minimize such hazards Pesticides are poisons, but the toxicity and hazards of different compounds vary greatly. The Pesticides effects are either acute from a single exposure or chronic, from repeated exposures or absorption of smaller amounts of the toxins.These negative impacts would be minimized by emphasizing and ensuring usage of the pesticides in accordance with usage recommendations provided on the product label as well as good agricultural practice guidelines.The toxicological profiles of selected pesticides have been outlined in Table B-1 in Annex B.Extended pesticide- by-pesticide discussion of toxicology is also provided in this annex, along with measures to mitigate any identified toxicological hazards, such as training of applicators, use of protective clothing, and proper storage. Human impact– Acute and long term toxicological hazards of the selected pesticides to humans range from mild effects such as skin irritation to more toxic impacts such as disruption of internal functions and cancer Environmental impact– Acute and long term toxicological hazards of the selected pesticides to the environment ranges between low and high toxicity to bees, fish and birds too low to high bioaccumulation potential Available measures to minimize such hazards include provision of • Precautionary information, • Suitable structures and systems for safe transport, storage and waste disposal • Emergency handling equipment and facilities. This is supplemented by training and awareness on safe use of pesticides. The availability of these measures is not however not uniform but where a registered pesticide is used the product label outlines the anticipated hazards for both humans and the environment and measures required to prevent or handle any incidences. Product labels specify emergency contacts for referral in case of an emergency, first aid measures that can be given to affected persons and also give restrictions and guidance on storage, use and disposal to minimize hazards arising from the use of pesticides. For situations in which they have direct control over pesticide use, IPs will be required to implement/observe core risk mitigation measures identified in the summary section of each extended pesticide profiles. In situations in which their control is less complete, IPs will be required to take all practicable measures to support and promote implementation of these measures. This toxicological information in Annex B (supplemented by additional information in the Annex B pesticide profiles allows screening of the candidate pesticides against additional criteria enumerated under Factor B. Beyond the candidate pesticides already eliminated due to EPA registration/RUP status, the following pesticides are restricted by this additional toxicology screening:
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• Neonicotinoids (acetamipridandclothianidin)may not be used during crop flowering on crops pollinated by honeybees and are subject other use restrictions Note that the toxicity profiles in Annex B also provide a key reference for development of crop- and pest-specific pest management plans.
Factor F: Effectiveness of the Requested Pesticides for the Proposed Use
The mandate to test for a product’s efficacy is part of PCPB’s product registration process. Local efficacy trials are conducted by specific institutions accredited by the PCPB to do so and based on these assessments product effectiveness is guaranteed so long as the products are used in accordance with label. The selected products are therefore known to be effective. However for their efficacy to be attained usage must take in to consideration label instructions, resistance management guidelines and good agricultural practice. Part of this will require a check on previous chemical use in the different areas so that usage recommendations take this into account. IPs must put into place specific plans to promote pesticide rotation and record keeping providing reference for pesticide selection decision making. The use of the proposed pesticides is also within an IPM programme where pesticides are not the only control method. If the pesticides are used in line with IPM guidelines then their effectiveness should not be compromised. Pest management needs are documented on a crop- by-crop basis in Annex A. For each crop, the tables in Annex A identify pest-specific suggested chemical controls (pesticides)
Factor G: Compatibility of the Proposed Pesticide use with Target and Non-Target Ecosystems
When pesticides are used with respect to the recommended rates and application methods, no adverse environmental hazards are likely to occur. Most pesticides contain active ingredients that are limited to specific targets/ pests and they have unique mode of action. The key determinant of compatibility for the proposed pesticides is their usage in terms of when, where and how the pesticide is used.
For each candidate pesticide, Table B-1 in annex B provides toxicology information for a range of non-target organisms: mammals (for which human toxicity results are proxies), birds, fish, aquatic invertebrates, beneficial arthropods, honeybees, earthworms, mollusks, crustaceans, and phytoplankton. (The US EPA registration process requires that toxicity of a pesticide against each of these classes of organisms be assessed by a standardized test.) Additional information is provided in the pesticide profiles that follow the table.
In addition to its toxicity to the class of non-target organism in question, the persistence of a pesticide in the environment and its mobility (e.g. potential to enter groundwater) strongly affect how significant adverse effects on non-target organisms may be. Annex B also provides this persistence and mobility information.
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Taken together, this information makes clear that some of the pesticides recommended for approval under this PERSUAP are highly toxic or very highly toxic to and do represent threats to: • Aquatic organisms. • Birds • Bees The individual pesticide profiles in Annex B specify basic precautions and limitations on use that, if observed, should reasonably minimize threats to aquatic organisms and birds.
Regarding threats to bees, honeybees are important pollinators of a number of crops, and as such play a key role in agricultural productivity. Bees cannot only be poisoned on contact with contaminated crops, but also can carry contaminated pollen and nectar to the hive, potentially killing off the whole colony. Risk is reduced by spraying crops pollinated by bees in the early evening when bees are in their hives and warning beekeepers of spray events so that they may protect/relocate hives. However, this does not address the suspected role of neonicotinoid insecticides (acetamiprid and clothianidin/thiamethoxam) as contributing causal agents of honeybee colony collapse disorder (CCD) in Europe and N. America. Although acute toxicity of neonicotinoids to bees is not necessarily high, neonicotinoids are systemic (taken up by the plant) and appear in nectar and pollen, and it is via this route that a chronic toxicity mechanism may operate. Clothianidin is the most highly implicated However, this PERSUAP will be amended to restrict their use if asynchronous small-scale applications are shown to present significant risk of CCD and/or if their US EPA registration status changes. Neonicotinoid use must be monitored for honeybee impacts; spraying must take place in the early evening when bees are in their hives, and notice given to local beekeepers so that hives may be moved/protected. They may not be used on honey-bee pollinate crops when these crops are flowering. All of the seed treatment pesticides, including the neonicotinoids, are safer in the environment when covered by soil. Therefore, proper planting techniques must be emphasized and monitored.
Factor H: The Conditions under which the Pesticide is to be Used, Including Climate, Flora, Fauna, Geography, Hydrology, and Soils Part of product efficacy trials done prior to registration include ecotoxicological studies to review impact on flora, fauna and the environment. Results from these studies and necessary precautions required or usage guidelines are then indicated the product label including specific conditions under which the pesticide may or may not be used. Pollution of soil or water is however not discounted during all stages of pesticide use and IPs should ensure that good agricultural practice guidelines are in place to mitigate surface and ground water contamination. Examples of guidelines include:
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• Information on safe transportation and storage of pesticides, emergency spillage handling procedures through training and informative posters • Preferential use of less hazardous products from the proposed products. • Careful adjustment of pesticide application to plant needs (avoid over-application) and timing for maximum benefit • Proper use of the pesticides according to the instructions on the label – especially for dosage, PPE, time of spray • Encourage use of approved disposal facilities for unused chemicals and chemical containers • Public information and education on safe use of pesticides • Reduce pesticide use in recharge areas for water wells. • Encourage alternative pest control methods. When USAID projects are purchasing pesticides on the local market, the risk of spills during import transport cannot be controlled. However, the following measures should minimize the risk of surface and groundwater contamination: (1) pesticide-specific use (application) restrictions is enumerated in the pesticide profiles of Annex B; (2) required use of safer transport practices when IPs themselves are transporting pesticides, and (3) training in and enforcement of proper clean-up and container disposal practices.
Factor I: The Availability and Effectiveness of other Pesticides or Non-Chemical Control Methods As noted, the “pests and control methods” tables presented in Annex A for each target crop serve as rough drafts for the crop- and pest-specific pest management plans to be developed by implementing partners (IPs). In these tables, many non-pesticide remedies are recommended as control measures; indeed for some crop pests, only non-chemical controls are recommended. However, as also established, effective pest management across the target crops, particularly at larger and more intensive production scales, is likely to require some chemical controls. As noted, pesticide use/support will be governed by crop and pest-specific pest management plans. A major purpose of these plans is precisely to assure a well-considered mix of non-chemical and chemical controls. Among the proposed pesticides there are alternative choices for control of the same pests and diseases. Some of the alternatives have similar chemistry while others have different modes of action in order to enhance resistance management. The range of non-chemical control methods are as summarised below Cultural methods – The ones commonly used by farmers include hand weeding, crop rotation and mixed cropping. These methods help reduce adverse effects caused by continual conventional pesticide application as well as reduce production costs incurred by farmers. Physical methods –Traps and barriers are common physical options for control of pests. A recent development among small holder farmers in Kenya is the use of closed greenhouses which provide a physical barrier against pest access. So long as the farmer can keep the pest out of the greenhouse then pest attack and damage is limited.
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Effectiveness of cultural and physical control methods is dependent on their timely and continued use by the farmer Biological controls – Biopesticides –These are microbial biological agents that can also be used to control pests and diseases in place of the conventional pesticides. They are effective as well as safe for the user and environment when used as recommended. In Kenya, biopesticides must also be registered by PCPB. Currently, a significant number of such biopesticides are registered though not widely available Biological controls – Insect biological controls are available both from a number of manufacturers and also naturally occurring. For those that are sold by manufacturers the products must be registered by PCPB. Naturally occurring insect biological controls do not require registration. With conservation of favourable habitat and judicious use of pesticides biological controls provide effective control within an IPM programme. Biopesticides and insect bio controls must be used in conjunction with other control measures for maximum effectiveness since they do not provide knock down control of pests and diseases.
Factor J: The Requesting Country’s Ability to Regulate or Control the Distribution, Storage, Use and Disposal of the Requested Pesticide The Pest Control Products Board (PCPB) is the government’s statutory organization that addresses all matters pertaining to pesticides in Kenya. PCPB was established in 1984 following enactment of the pest control products act cap 346 of the laws of Kenya. The act specifically regulates exportation, importation, manufacture and distribution of products used for the control of pests (pesticides) and of the organic functions of plants and animals, and other connected purposes in Kenya. The thirteen-member board comprises of government officials and private sector stakeholders whose roles in the Kenyan society are related to environment management, agriculture and livestock production. The PCPB is presently operating under four regulations which are registration, licensing of premise, labeling and packaging, and the importation and exportation regulations. PCPB carries out its functions through inspectors who are authorized to check on manufacturers, distributors, sellers and users of pesticides to ensure compliance with the regulations. While the number of inspectors is not optimal the service is crucial in supporting efforts towards compliance. PCPB currently has 12 inspectors countrywide with plans to recruit additional inspectors
Factor K: The Provisions Made for Training of Users and Applicators Pesticide users and applicators need education on pesticide legislation, operator and public safety, environmental safety, protection of drinking water, pesticide transport, storage and application among other topics. Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) extension officers are the closest resource persons to farmers and these officers undertake training to boost their capacity to support farmers. AAK is forefront at promoting safe use through subsidized training programmes using internationally developed modules and materials such as those shown in Figure 4 below. PCPB also supports general training and awareness for users of chemicals with a
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possible oversight role in the future for training providers providing safe use of pesticides training (PCPB Strategic Plan 2011-2015).
Figure 4: Crop Life International Safe Use of Pesticides Posters
Pesticide Manufacturers and distributors and various agricultural oriented consultancy firms also have training programmes which tackle safe pesticide use and storage. Commercial growers carry out training for their own staff and smallholder farmers within cooperatives or organized groups also benefit from training provided by AAK or pesticide manufacturers and distributors as well as trainings organized through donor funded initiatives such as COLEACP PIP. At individual smallholder farmer level training is provided from government extension agents in form of community meetings (barazas), during field days and at ATCs. Individual smallholder farmers need to make a conscious effort to attend such trainings. Implementing partners must review on a case by case basis the precise needs in different areas and as per the recipient audience and tailor training interventions and plans based on their reviews. Suggested training topics are outlined in Annex C. Training should be supported as much as possible with the use of self-teaching aids such as posters and charts that recipients can refer to in future. Training should also be practical to aid in retention of key messages. Projects are encouraged to consider a training-of-trainers approach.
Factor L: The Provisions Made for Monitoring the Use and Effectiveness of the Pesticides
The PCPB stipulates registered uses for products which are usually contained on the products label. Any other use outside the registered uses is not authorized until the product has been considered for label extension. The use of a pest control product in a manner that is inconsistent with directions on approved labels is prohibited and an offence punishable by imprisonment for a term of up to two years. The Board’s inspectors have powers to monitor and enter any
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premises or place in which it is suspected that a pest control product is or has been manufactured, stored, sold or used in contravention of the board’s guidelines. The inspectors also monitor pesticide use and any pesticide exhibiting deleterious impacts in the field can be deregistered.
At Ministry level both Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Livestock Development have extension agents who carry out follow-up farmer visits and community meetings (barazas) to monitor adoption of appropriate farming skills, pest and disease incidences and pesticide use among others. There are therefore opportunities for farmers to provide feedback on experiences with particular products though the communication chain may not be effective in getting feedback to the right people at manufacturer or regulatory level. Farmer oriented monitoring and reporting measures are however lacking and this may need additional support such as providing monitoring and reporting templates and guidance on their use.
Pesticide poisoning controls All approved pesticide labels have clear instructions in English and Kiswahili on steps to take in the event of accidental exposure to pesticides. Additionally it is a requirement that the pesticide label indicates the toll free telephone number for the pesticides emergency centre (the National Pesticides Poison Centre) which is continuously monitored. Inclusion of information on first aid measures for pesticide use emergencies is a crucial part of training programmes in order to familiarise all users on what to do in the case of an emergency. All advisors on pesticide use need to be aware of emergency measures to be taken in case of an incidence of poisoning. Where pesticides are regularly used information in the form of posters or other visual guidelines is helpful in assisting those who may try to provide help. As required of implementing partners, Fintrac Inc USAID/KAVESteam will report initially and every 6 months thereafter on compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP; the Safer Use Action Plan (next section) constitutes a tracking reporting form that dictates the content of such reporting.
As part of this reporting, implementing partners directly supporting farm-level pesticide use or extension will be required to report on instances observed of pesticide resistance. USAID M&E field visits will examine pesticide compliance.
Pesticide Active Ingredients and Specific Products Registered in Kenya that are approved in this PERSUAP
Synthesizing across the PER analysis only the below-listed pesticides (specific products registered in Kenya) of the larger candidate list are recommended for approval. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, these pesticides and ONLY these pesticides are allowed for use/support in USAID/KAVES Programme. Such use/support is allowed only in compliance with the safer use conditions summarized in the Safer Use Action Plan and detailed in the “Safer Use Action Plan and Compliance Tracker”.
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Approved Pesticides and Specific Products Registered in Kenya that may be Used for the KAVES Project
Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 Herbicides 1 Glyphosate Grass and broad Wheat, barley, CLEAR UP 480 SL Soluble concentrate; (USEPA Acute leaved weeds maize, CLINIC 480 SL Soluble Concentrate; Toxicity Category sugarcane, GLYPHONUT II and III coffee, tea, 41% IPA Salt SL Soluble Concentrate; isopropylamine french beans, GUGUSATE 410 SL Soluble Liquid; salt formulations baby corn, HERBISTOP 480 SL; HIGHSTOP 480 SC only) tomatoes, Suspension cabbage, chillies Concentrate; KICK OUT 480SL Soluble Liquid; WEEDAL 480 SL Soluble Concentrate; WEEDCHEM 480SL Soluble Concentrate; WEEDLESS 480 SL Soluble Liquid; WOUNDOUT 480 SL Soluble Concentrate 2 Linuron Grass and broad Maize, beans, FARMURON 50 WP Wettable Powder; leaved weeds carrots, potatoes HOTLINE 450 SC Suspension concentrate; LINUREX 50WP Wettable Powder 3 Metribuzin Grass and broad Maize, AMBAR 480 SC Suspension Concentrate; leaved weeds sugarcane, SENCOR 480 SC Suspension Concentrate; carrots, potatoes SENCOR 70 WP Wettable Powder; TATA MOTO WP Wettable Powder 70% 4 Pendimethalin Grass and broad Maize, barley, STOMP 455 CS Capsule Suspension; leaved weeds wheat, STOMP 500 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; vegetables TATA PANIDA EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50%; TWIGAMETHALIN EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 500 g/L Fungicides 5 Azoxystrobin Rust, blotch, scald, Barley, wheat, AMISTAR 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; mildew, powdery peas, beans, AMITIV 250SC Suspension Concentrate; mildew, Ascochyta French beans MILESTONE 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; ORTIVA SC Suspension Concentrate; OTHELLO 25 WDG Water Dispersible Granules; RUSTOP 250 SC Suspension Concentrate; TWIGA-AZ 250 SC
4 PCPB. 2013. Pest Control Products Registeed for Use in Kenya, 7th Edition. Refer to this reference to find specific PCPB-approved uses (crops and pests) for each product.
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 6 Captan Seed decay and Seed treatment CAPTAN 80 WP Wettable Powder (seed seed-borne disease treatment only); MERPAN 83 WP Wettable Powder; ROYALCAP 500 FS Flowable concentrate for seed treatment 7 Carbendazim Botrytis, Beans, peas BENDAZIM 500 SC Suspension anthracnose, Concentrate; sclerotinia, angular CHARIOT 500 SC Suspension Concentrate; leaf spot, root rot, PEARL 80 DF Dry Flowable; grey mold, scab RODAZIM SC Suspension Concentrate 500 g/L 8 Difenoconazole Angular leaf spot, Beans, peas DIVIDEND 030 FS Flowable Concentrate for aschochyta seed treatment; SCORE 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 9 Dimethomorph + Late blight Tomatoes, ACROBAT MZ Wettable Powder Mancozeb potatoes Dimethomorph 90g/Kg + Mancozeb 600g/Kg 10 Famoxadone+ Late blight Tomatoes, Note: PCPB list indicates “Famoxadime” Cymoxanil potatoes which is an incorrect spelling of “Famoxadone” EQUATION PRO Famoxadone 225g/Kg + Cymoxanil 300g/L 11 Fluazinam Early and late Potatoes, NANDO 500 SC Suspension concentrate; blight tomatoes, beans 12 Folpet Late blight Tomatoes FOLPAN 50WP Wettable Powder 13 Mancozeb Late + early blight, Potatoes, AGRITHANE WP 800 g/kg; BIOTHANE grey mold, tomatoes, 80WP anthracnose, onions, lettuce, Wettable Powder; CADILAC 80WP; botrytis, leaf roll, cucurbits DITHANE DG, RAINSHIELD 705 g/kg; downy mildew, DITHANE M-45 neck rot Wettable Powder; EMTHANE-45 WP Wettable Powder; FARMCOZEB 75WG Water dispersible granules; FARMCOZEB 80 WP Wettable Powder; INDOFIL M45 WP Wettable Powder; IVORY 80 WP Wettable Powder; MANCO 455 SC Suspension; MANCOBEX 80WP Wettable Powder; MILTHANE SUPER 800 g/kg; MOSTHANE 80 WP Wettable Powder; OSHOTHANE 80 WP Wettable Powder; OSHOTHANE PLUS WDG Water Dispersible Granules; PENNCOZEB 80
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 WP Wettable Powder (or VONDOZEB); SANCOZEB 80 WP Wettable Powder; STARGEM 80WP Wettable Powder; TATA MASTER 64%; TRIDEX 80 WP Wettable Powder; UTHANE WP Wettable Powder 80%; VONDOZEB 75 DG Dispersible granules (or wettable granules) 14 Mandipropamid Late blight Tomato, potato REVUS 250SC Suspension concentrate 15 Metalaxyl+ Blight, Aschochyta, Tomatoes, EMALAXYL 68 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb downy mildew, potatoes, peas, Metalaxyl 40g/Kg Mancozeb 640g/Kg; black leaf spot, cabbages, ENVY 72 WP anthracnose pepper Wettable Powder Metalaxyl 80g/Kg + Mancozeb 640 g/kg; MANCOLAX WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb 640g/Kg+ Metalaxyl 80g/Kg; MILOR MZ WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb 640g/Kg + Metalaxyl 80 g/kg; RIDOMIL GOLD MZ 68 WG Water Dispersible Granules Metalaxyl-M 40g/Kg + Mancozeb 640g/Kg; TWIGALAXYL 72% WP Mancozeb 640g/Kg+ Metalaxyl 80g/Kg; VICTORY 72 WP Wettable Powder Metalaxyl 80g/Kg Mancozeb 640g/Kg 16 Mancozeb + Early and Late Potatoes, AGROMAX MZ720 WP Wettable Powder Cymoxanil blight, tomatoes, Mancozeb 64% + Cymoxanil 8%; FORTRESS anthracnose, cucurbits, beans GOLD 72 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb downy mildew, rust 640g/Kg + Cymoxanil 80g/Kg; GLOBE 76 WP Wettable Powder; Mancozeb 700g/kg + Cymoxanil 60g/kg; ZETANIL 76 WP Wettable Powder Mancozeb 700g/kg + Cymoxanil 60g/kg 17 Triadimefon Powdery mildew, Beans, BAYLETON WP 25 Wettable Powder rust, leaf spot vegetables, mango 18 Trifloxystrobin Powdery mildew, Vegetables FLINT 50 WG Water Dispersible Granules leaf spot, rust 19 Tebuconazole Rust, early blight, Tomatoes, DUCASSE 250 EW Emulsion oil in Water; anthracnose, beans, maize EAZOLE 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; angular leaf spot, FEZAN 250 EW Emulsion Oil in Water; head smut and FOLICUR 250 EW Emulsion oil in Water;
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 common smut FOLICUR 250 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; ORIUS 25 EW Emulsion oil in Water; RAXIL FS 025 Flowable concentrate for seed treatment; TEBICON 25 EW; TOPAZ 25EW Emulsion Oil in water; WARRIOR 25 EW Emulsion Oil in water; 20 Thiophanate- Powdery mildew Mango, beans TOPSIN M Liquid Suspension Concentrate methyl 500 g/L Insecticides 21 Azadirachtin Thrips, aphids, Beans, tomatoes, ACHOOK 0.15% EC Emulsifiable nematodes, vegetables Concentrate; FORTUNE AZA 1,000 ppm; whiteflies, diamond NEEMARK EC 0.03%; NEEMRAJ SUPER – back moth, 3000 0.3%; NIMBECIDINE Emulsifiable bollworm, Concentrate 0.03%; OZONEEM 1% EC leafminer Emulsifiable Concentrate 22 Buprofezin Whiteflies, Mealy Tomatoes, APPLAUD 40% SC Suspension Concentrate bugs Citrus, Passion fruit 23 Carbaryl Aphids; broad- Tomatoes, HYCARB 85 WP Wettable powder; spectrum horticultural SEVIN 85 S Wettable powder (For crops Agricultural Use) 24 Clofentezine Spider mites Beans APOLLO 50 SC Suspension Concentrate 25 Deltamethrin (low Aphids, thrips, Tomatoes, ATOM 2.5EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; % composi-tion whiteflies, French beans, DECIS 0.5 ULV Ultra Low volume; DECIS 2.5 only) bollworm, maize peas, vegetables EC (Emulsifiable Concentrate); FARM – X stalk borer, 2.5EC; KATRIN EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 25 g/L; KESHET 2.5 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; 26 S-Indoxacarb Diamond back Tomatoes, AVAUNT 150 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; moth, bollworm, brassicas, peas AVAUNT 150 SL Soluble Concentrate caterpillars 27 Lufenuron Thrips, caterpillars, Beans, kales, LEGACY 5% EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; diamond back cabbages MATCH 50 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate moth 28 Pymetrozine Aphids, whitefly Kales, beans CHESS 50 WG Water Dispersible Granules 29 Spinosad Larger Grain Borer, Stored products, SPINTOR 0.125% Dust; TRACER 480 SC weevils and other vegetables Soluble Concentrate stored products pests; thrips, leaf
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 miner, Diamond- back moth and caterpillars on vegetables 30 Thiacloprid Aphids, whiteflies, Tomatoes, CALYPSO SC 480 Suspension Concentrate thrips chillies Acaracide for Dairy Cows 31 Deltamethrin Ticks, fleas, mites, Cattle DELETE EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50 g/L; tsetse fly DELTAB Tablets 25%; DELTAGUARD POUR ON 1% w/w; EX-KUPE 5 SC Suspension Concentrate 50 g/L; NOTIX 5 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 50 g/L; VECTOCID 5% EC Emulsifiable Concentrate; ZEROFLY LIVESTOCK FENCE Insecticide Treated Net 4 g/kg 32 Pyrethrins Ticks Cattle PYTIX 4 EC Emulsifiable Concentrate 40 g/L Fungicide/Insecticide 33 Sulphur Powdery mildew, Vegetables COSAVET DF Dry Flowable 80%; spider mites DEVISULPHUR WP Wettable Powder 800 g/kg; FLOSUL PLUS 800 g/L; KUMULUS DF Dry Flowable 80%; MICROTHIOL SPECIAL DISPERSS 80 WG Water Dispersible Granules; Insecticide for seed treatment only 34 Imidacloprid Insecticide for seed wheat, barley, FORTUNE Flowable Concentrate for seed treatment to maize and treatment, 350 g/L; GAUCHO FS 350 control early French beans Flowable Concentrate for seed treatment seedling insect pests. 35 Thiamethoxam Insecticide for seed Barley, wheat, CRUISER 350 FS Flowable Concentrate for treatment maize, beans seed treatment Biopesticides 36 Trichodermaspp Root/soil diseases Beans ECO-T Wettable Powder Trichoderma harzianum Strain k.d. (Hyphomycetes fungus); TRIANUM –P 11.5 WP Wettable Powder Trichoderma harzianum Rifai strain KRL-AG2 (T-22); TRICHOTECH Trichoderma asperullum
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Approved Uses No. Pesticide Target(s) Kenya-Registered Products1 (PCPB)4 37 Beauveria Whitefly, thrips Beans BEAUVITECH WP Wettable Powder; BIO- bassiana POWER 1.15WP Wettable Powder Strain GHA; BOTANIGARD ES Emulsifiable suspension strain GHA 11.3% 38 Bacillus Lepidopterous Vegetables BIOLEP WP Wettable Powder var. Kurstaki; thuringiensis larvae BIO-T-PLUS var. Kurstaki; THURICIDE H.P. Wettable Powder var. Kurstaki 39 Paecilomyces Root knot Tomatoes, beans BIO-NEMATON 1.15% WP Wettable lilacinus nematode Powder; MYTECH WP Wettable Powder 1 x 1010 cfu/g; 40 Pseudomonas Botrytis, septoria, Tomatoes BIOCURE B 1.75 WP fluorscens sclerotinia
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SECTION 6: SAFER USE ACTION PLAN
6.1 Introduction
The safer use action plan is a firm recommendation on the implementation of the project and derives from the pesticides evaluation report. • Summarized list of allowed pesticides • Summary of the safer use conditions required in the use of allowed pesticides • Mandatory template for assigning responsibilities and timeframes for implementing requirements and tracking compliance/adherence Each project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP template to its AOR/COR by October 31, 201 and provide an annual update.
With respect to pesticides, the Safer Use Action Plan satisfies the requirement for an environmental mitigation and monitoring plan (EMMP). The project EMMP should simply incorporate the SUAP by reference.
6.2 IPM Approach
The safer use action plan is best attained within an integrated pest management (IPM) context as sustainable pest and disease control for the crop and dairy sectors requires a deliberate IPM approach. Smallholder farmers will require greatest support in cost effective implementation of IPM but overall effectiveness of project activities requires all stakeholders to be engaged in the process. Area and crop specific recommendations will be required based on review of specific challenges and conditions, farmer knowledge and skills, available services amongst others. IPM programmes deployed or promoted should avoid a top down approach and foster an all inclusive approach that will encourage farmers to proactively look for solutions to pests and diseases, promote ownership by the farmers and reduce reliance on pesticides. Key components to be considered in sustained IPM programmes are • Identification and understanding of key pests and diseases • Cost effective monitoring tools and guidelines • Provision of extension services • Proactive use of cultural and physical control • Conservation of habitats for biological controls • Judicious use of recommended pesticides • Integrated disease management and implementation of dairy specific recommendations • Record keeping • Promotion of IPM as a standard approach to pest and disease control
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Identification and understanding of key pests and diseases Identification of the appearance, damage signs and symptoms of various stages of the pest or disease are a crucial first step in implementing an IPM programme. Accurate identification is an important component of an early warning system and can be supported in the following ways • Distribution of simple identification charts that illustrate key pests and diseases, their stages and damage caused • Training on identification and provision of field based diagnostic kits to extension agents and agro vets • Periodic farmer training based on anticipated pests and diseases e.g. ahead of the rainy season farmers can be trained on diseases likely to occur in that period and conditions favouring them
Cost effective monitoring tools and guidelines Regular crop surveillance is necessary in order to guide management decision making. For extension agents this is best done at county levels working with known and anticipated pests and disease outbreaks in order to identify patterns and warn farmers to implement required pesticide control measures. Increased use of early warning surveillance systems would also be useful for purposes of faster control of pests and diseases. At the individual farmer level regular surveillance means looking at all aspects of performance of their crops or dairy herds, keeping records of the same and reporting any problems that they do not understand to extension agents or agro vets. Pest and disease outbreaks tend to start in localized manner and effective monitoring and information sharing can help stop spread at an early stage. Small holder farmers need simple to understand monitoring guidelines and tools and a network for sharing information in order to benefit other farmers as well as escalate actions where new or hard to control pests and diseases are encountered. Provision of extension services Public and private sector extension service providers need additional capacity building on handling new pest and disease challenges, developments in IPM especially with regards to biological controls as well as coordination of efforts for common approach to pest and disease challenges. Extension forums should be demand driven for continuity and this has been demonstrated through the partnerships that have come up through extension programmes like NALEP. County governments should establish county extension offices in order to streamline services at county level. Developments in ICT with mobile phone based information services coming up provide an opportunity for additional avenues of farmer access to information and advice. Both state agencies and private service providers can use this technology to disseminate information. Concerned agencies should be supported in the promotion of such technology. At present KEPHIS has a maize variety selection SMS service on 5354 that enables farmers get information on the right maize variety for their areas; PCPB has a products identification SMS service on 4346 that enables one to view approved pesticides for different pests and diseases.
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Agro vets continue to play a key role as a key contact with smallholder farmers both for purchase of pesticides and to some extent for advice on identification of pest and disease problems the farmers have. They should be targeted for capacity building in technical knowledge on pest and disease control, integrated into efforts to spread IPM and sustainable agriculture messages as well as monitored and coordinated in their provision of services. Proactive use of cultural and physical controls Farmers must be encouraged to deliberately practice various cultural and physical control measures proactively in order to create unfavorable conditions for pests and diseases as well as suppress what is present. Proactive use of cultural and physical makes the environment less attractive for pests and diseases, affects their survival, dispersal, growth and reproduction. Specific cultural and physical controls will apply to different pests and diseases but in general the following are applicable for the crops covered under this PERSUAP. • Field hygiene and weeding – removal of crop debris from previous crops and composting the same before using for manure or destruction of infected materials through burning or burying at appropriate site • Careful selection of planting materials – this is especially where farmer saved seed is used or vegetative propagation practices. The best material should be selected and not what is inferior. Treated seed treatment and where possible resistant cultivars and varieties should be encouraged • Crop rotations with crops of different families as opposed to mono cropping. Rotations should be recommended bearing in mind farmers would only plant crops that make economic sense. • Irrigation management to avoid waterlogged soils which promote soil diseases such as fusarium • Split application of fertilizer. This manages availability of nitrogen in the crop and reduces multiplication of sap sucking pests. Fertilizer application should always be guided by soil analysis for crops • Mulching which not only assists in moisture conservation but also helps disrupt the lifecycles of certain pests and increases levels of organic matter in the soil • Adjustment of planting density and pruning to improve air circulation. Good air circulation helps to reduce disease infections • Management of alternate pest and disease hosts – certain pests and diseases have alternate hosts which harbour them in the absence • Use of repellent and trap crops (push pull strategy). Trap crops preferred by the pest grown on field margin reduce infestation of the main crop. This strategy is often combined with intercropping the main crop with a pest repellent crop such as garlic in order to push the pest away from the crop • Timing of planting – early planting or delayed planting can be used as a means to ‘escape’ onset of particular diseases or pests. • Cultivation or tillage methods such as double digging can be used to bury immature stages or some pests and prevent their emergence
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• Stale seed bed weeds control technique in order to reduce the weed seed bank especially before planting small seeded crops like onions and carrots which are more vulnerable to weed competition and harder to hand weed
Specific physical and cultural controls for dairy include • Herd hygiene management especially where zero grazing is practiced • Quarantine of infected animals to prevent spread of diseases • Use of disinfected tools and equipment
Conservation of habitats for biological controls Smallholder farmers are not very aware of biological control and how they work and often mistake them for pests. Awareness and training interventions are required to change perceptions and to get smallholder farmers to participate in conservation of biological control habitats. Often this will mean leaving undisturbed plant areas on the boundaries of their farms and encouraging flowering plants which are preferred by beneficial insects. Judicious use of recommended pesticides When pesticide use is necessary a number of factors need to be taken to account: • Selection of compatible pesticides – those that are safest for both humans and the environment • Use of precise application methods and recommended application rates that avoid run- off, wastage and environmental pollution Rotation among different chemical groups to avoid build-up of resistance as per resistance management guidelines
Integrated Disease Management measures for dairy • Hygiene to reduced intestinal worms infections and mastitis and spread among herds • Improved feed management in order to boost both immunity and productivity • Quarantine of sick or suspected cows for observation and to prevent spread of infection • Population control to avoid overcrowding herds which in turn makes it easier to spread infection • Timely immunization of calves against ECF (costs approximately $11 giving life- long immunity and supplemented by regular treatment for ticks (once a month) • Rehabilitation of communal dips. Less than 50% are operational yet if efficiently managed they would reduce self-administration of acaricides, reducing human and environmental exposure
Dairy recommendations The 2012 Veterinary policy makes various recommendations to improve pest and disease control. Management of animal diseases is recommended on a “public, private and shared good” approach, the revamping of extension services on a regulatory, coordination and financing framework.
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• State and country veterinary services should be promoted as providers of primary animal health care services including disease and vector control, husbandry and extension, processing, marketing and animal welfare. • The Kenya Animal Genetics Resource Centre (KAGRC) set up in 2011 as a centre of excellence in AI and animal genetics should be supported in provision of these services. • Harmonization of regulations for movement of animals and animal products within and across national boundaries and strict enforcement of the same • Rehabilitation, improvement and equipping of current laboratory facilities and setting up satellite laboratories in dairy productive areas • Streamlining policies to discourage emergence of monopolistic and oligopolistic tendencies and to make veterinary services and inputs affordable to farmers. • Revival of early warning unit of epidemiology, surveillance and economics • ECF vaccination programmes should be intensified to reduce costs on farmers • Based on successes of the NALEP programme common interest group extension concept should be encouraged with extension lined to other products and services in the dairy value chain. • Improved implementation of integrated disease management measures
Record keeping Keeping efficient records of all farm operations is important for efficient review of current practices and improvement of the same; it also helps in measuring progress and where further assistance is required good records are useful. Simple to fill record templates should be provided to assist farmers monitor their actions and for periodic check by extension agents. IPM Checklists – Good agricultural practices that emphasize prevention of occurrence of pests and diseases must be given emphasis. Farmers will need to be assisted to develop crop surveillance and monitoring skills with simple self-assessment and guidance checklists developed and provided to farmers. Promotion of IPM To facilitate a full generational shift school and community based IPM programmes should be encouraged and supported. This can be done via agriculture clubs in schools and community based IPM sensitization initiatives with farmer group forums, community based groups, public forums and through religious groups IPM training: Farmers and farmer advisors should be equipped with IPM information to help shape up pest management and tune their attitude and perceptions about IPM. Core messages on topics such as management of pest resistance to pesticides and importance of pre-harvest intervals should be harmonized to enable multiple training providers spread the same message consistently.
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Specific IPM Crop protection measures
Use of treated seed/planting material Horticultural crops commonly propagated using treated seed sourced from Agro vets include French beans, kales, onions and tomatoes.Bananas are propagated from suckers, there is no prior treatment and these are prone to spread pests and diseases. The increase in number of tissue culture sucker providers has provided a source of clean planting material. Passion fruit and mango planting material is sourced from nurseries and seed treatment is not carried out for the planting materials.
In the case of Irish potatoes the seed potatoes may be treated depending on the source. Smallholder farmers tend to set aside their own farmer saved seed and this is not treated with a seed treatment prior to planting. Smallholder maize farmers fall within two categories – those using farmer saved seed and those who buy commercial seed. By law commercial seed is treated with a pesticide and this affords a level of protection during early stages of crop development. Majority of smallholder farmers growing maize for commercial purposes buy treated seed. Varieties such as GAF 4 and KSTP are recommended for use for control of certain pests such as the parasitic weed Striga.
Farmers are however prone to use sub-standard commercial seed often due to inadequate supply of recommended cultivars for specific areas and cheaper sub-standard seed from unscrupulous dealers who may go as far as re-packaging poor quality seed under reputable names; selling expired seed etc. As the input market is liberalized and farmers have choice of source of seed it is hard to control the quality of the seed that they get.
Smallholder farmers who grow maize largely for subsistence and may opt to sell surplus produce only are less likely to buy treated seed. They predominantly use their own farmer saved seed. This is especially true of farmers with holdings of less than 2 acres. This exposes them to pests and diseases that may attack their maize seedlings and compromises plant populations and therefore productivity.
The use of already treated seed/planting materials should be promoted as widely as possible with preference for commercially treated material. Some projects may have to include training on seed treatment especially where farmers use their own farmer saved seed.
Extension and Crop surveillance Extension services are mainly provided by MoA extension staff. They are often overstretched and farmers are left to their own devices with over-reliance on fellow farmers and agrovets for pest and disease identification and troubleshooting. MoA extension services are more available in areas where production is concentrated while farmers on the fringes have to make deliberate efforts to access the same. An example pointed out during the survey was the lack of
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information/knowledge by extension agents during the MLN outbreak in 2012. Widespread losses were taking place before the problem was accurately diagnosed and even then recommendations on action to take were not clear until KARI researchers intervened.
Crop surveillance or scouting as it is commonly referred to is not a common practice for all crops. Farmers rely on historical knowledge of developments during the cropping season and surveillance when carried out is more to monitor the growth of the crop and not as much to check for possible pests and diseases. Farmers however tend to be on the lookout for major invasive pests such as army worms or locusts but this surveillance is not carried out on the crop; rather it is information sharing and general area surveillance. Surveillance activities also tend to be focused around the planting and pre-harvesting stages, to check on establishment and in readiness for harvest. Unless there are particular mid-season changes e.g. in weather patterns there is likely to be little or no surveillance in that period.
Horticultural crops are high value and farmers therefore tend to pay extra attention to these including surveillance for purposes of crop protection. Farmers monitor problems that arise and seek out solutions from Agro vets or extension agents where available. Smallholder farmers producing French beans are often contracted by exporting companies and as such there are higher levels of crop surveillance with formal scouting systems and scouting done on a weekly basis in most cases. Exporting firms have field based agronomists who aid with identification and suggestion of solutions.
Use of pesticides Commercial smallholder farmers use pesticides as required though this is mainly on a curative basis Herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides for weed control due to labour constraints in major maize belts. In fringe areas herbicides are not commonly used. Fungicides are rarely used (some examples) and insecticides are used for a specific range of pests that small holder farmers consider to be of economic importance such as boll worm and stalk borer. Farmers are also pesticides in case of invasion by army worms or locusts.
Pesticides are commonly used in horticultural crops and usage practices differ depending on the commercialization of production. Smallholder farmers growing crops for sale will use pesticides as and when required, those growing for own consumption are less likely to use pesticides. Most farmers rely on guidance to identify pests and diseases and subsequently for advice on selection of pesticides.
For mango the use of pesticides is not common as mangoes are left to grow wild and fruit harvested when in season. Smallholder farmers who have adapted commercial production of mango such as those supplying juice processors have adapted the use of pesticides for pest and disease control in order to boost productivity. The same is true of passion fruit.
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Mango and passion fruit transplants from nurseries will also have been sprayed against nursery occurring pests and diseases but there will be differences in types of pesticides used. Nursery operators also make use of physical barriers such as green houses, screen nets to protect them from flying pests which might infect them with viral infection. Nursery soil testing before use for presence of any soil pathogens and fungicide sprays to protect to protect against pest invasion are also practiced.
Use of biological, cultural and physical controls Smallholder farmers growing horticultural crops for export are by virtue of market requirements as outlined in GAP standards such as GLOBAL GAP required to utilize a wide range of crop protection measures including the use of cultural and physical controls such as field hygiene, crop rotation, use of barriers and traps. More recently changes to MRL enforcement have meant farmers growing for export have few pesticide use options especially nearer the harvesting period due to PHI requirements.
Domestic market bound horticultural crops are not subjected to the same market requirements and the use of biological, cultural and physical controls is dependent on the smallholder farmers growing practices. Where farmers grow for both domestic and export the tendency is to extend the same practices to other crops. For the rest cultural and physical control measures that have been practiced over time are used.
Farmers are also increasingly practicing organic production, mainly those on the outskirts of major towns who supply organic produce for town outlets. These farmers’ use various organic pests and disease control measures such as the use of repellant crops e.g. garlic and hot pepper, pull and push system, intercropping, use of resistant or tolerant varieties and biopesticides
Commercial smallholder farmers use limited biological, cultural and physical pest controls. They rely on chemicals as and when necessary. Subsistence smallholder farmers use a number of cultural practices such as the use of wood ash for the control of pests such as aphids and mealy bugs. Often such practices have been passed on across generations and while farmers appreciate what the effect of the practice are they do not understand the precise means by which the practice works.
Postharvest treatments Postharvest treatments for horticultural crops depend on the individual crops, training on appropritate treatments should be provided where necessary
Irish potatoes are not traditionally treated postharvest by smallholder farmers though the options for this are available.
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Bananas are not normally given any postharvest chemical treatment however ripening treatments either by use of ripening chambers and encouraging production of ethylene by incorporating passion fruit or those that use catalytic generators to produce ethylene are increasingly being utilized to attain uniform ripening for market.
Passion fruit and mango are not subjected to post harvest treatment as well with fruits sold off immediately for fresh market consumption or for processing by juice manufacturers.
Kales, tomatoes, and onions are also not subjected to post harvest treatment apart from onions being sun dried to improve shelf life for storage purposes.
The most common postharvest treatment at smallholder farmer level for maize is field drying. Depending on the disposal options the grain may thereafter be sold or stored on farm. Stored grain is often treated for weevil control using wood ash or storage pesticides such as Actellic super.
Specific Dairy Pest control measures
Use of improved breeds Smallholder dairy farmers use a mix of pure line dairy breeds – Friesian, Aryshire, Jersey and Guernsey as well as mixed improved breeds (mainly Aryshires and Friesians) with high milk yielding capacity as the main quality. Local breeds such as the Zebu and dual purpose breeds such as the Sahiwal are not kept for milk production as a primary goal.
A key activity in maintaining the desired genetic traits within dairy herds is Artificial Insemination (AI) using proven genetic material. Many smallholder farmers are unable to afford AI services and instead rely on servicing their cows using the best available local bulls. The outcome of this depends on the quality of the bulls. Vaccinations Vaccination services are available primarily from private service providers and smallholder farmers with access to both financial and logistical services. Those reliant on the DVS may encounter difficulty as provision of vaccination services is dependent on availability of funding and vaccination material.
Chemical treatments With the guidance and regulatory oversight from the DVS there are a number of pesticides used for the control of ticks and Tse tse flies which are the vectors of diseases such as ECF and Trypanasomiasis respectively. Widespread resistance has reduced the number of chemical groups to two currently – pyrethroids and amidines.
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Extension and surveillance Limited extension services are provided by the government through the DVS and farmers have to rely on private veterinary services for general extension and also for service provision in case of animal sicknesses requiring attention. Farmers do not have a lot of information.
Equipment and plant chemical use Apart from chemical treatments to dairy cows, chemicals are also used for sanitising milk cans and cleaning up at processing plants. These are mostly detergents and disinfectants. Waste water from cleaning operations needs to be properly handled to avoid contamination of surface and ground water.
6.2 Summary of Compliance Requirements
Mitigation Measures and restrictions specified in the PER can be summarized as follows:
a) Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP may be supported with USAID funds in USAID/KAVES programme project activities. These pesticides are enumerated in Section 5, above.
• Pesticide “SUPPORT” means procurement, use, recommending for use, or otherwise facilitating the use of a pesticide. b) Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observes enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for IPs to develop these plans.) c) Relevant/Appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in integrated pest management,safer pesticide use & pesticide first aid; d) To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use, maintenance of appropriate PPE and pesticides application equipment—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage,use and disposal practices; e) Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related recordkeeping and monitoring. f) Project must deepen engagement with other stake holders – at research, public and private sector levels g) Promote routine testing of acaricide concentration in dips to ensure that dips are maintained in proper concentration.
The PER and the annexes provide substantial resources to support compliance with these requirements, as detailed in the table below.
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IPM/Safer Use Key Resources Provided Requirement
Pesticide recommendations ANNEX A: sets out crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest chemical and and use must be governed non-chemical management methods recommended by this by a set of crop- and pest- PERSUAP. The pests and control methods table for each crop is specific IPM-based pest intended to serve as a rough draft for a crop-specific pest management plans. management plan.
(IPs are responsible for ANNEX B provides toxicology information for each approved developing these plans.) active ingredient, including human acute toxicities and chronic health issues, water pollution potential, as well as potential ecotoxicities to important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds and several aquatic organisms. This information is summarized in table B-1, and extended profiles of most pesticides, including specified safer use requirements follow. Appropriate project staff & ANNEX C. Mandatory Elements of Pesticide Safer Use beneficiaries must be Training provides significant discussion of safer use training trained in safer pesticide elements. use & pesticide first aid; ANNEX B Describes appropriate protective equipment on a To the greatest degree pesticide-by-pesticide basis. practicable, projects must require use & maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, and disposal practices
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Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker*
Must be submitted to AOR/COR by May 2, 2014 and annually updated thereafter.
BASIC INFORMATION SUBMISSION DATES:
Prime Contractor Fintrac, Inc. Initial submission May 2, 2014
Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Annual Update #1 Project Enterprises (KAVES) Project
Pesticide Compliance Lead & Contact Annual Update #2 Information :
Summary of Pest Management Needs on Annual Update #3
Project
Note: Pesticide “support” = use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; enable the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, etc.
Required Compliance Initial Compliance Status Actions planned to achieve & Status of compliance actions (Mitigation) Measure (if not known, so indicate) maintain compliance (w/ deadlines & responsible party)
SUPPORT ONLY THE PESTICIDES AUTHORIZED BY THE KAVES-USAID PERSUAP
Immediately
Inventory of Pesticides being • PCPB and USEPA list of Develop list of pesticides to be Completed as of issuance of supported registered pesticides used in Kenya under the KAVES PERSUAP. List of authorized, program. approved pesticides in Section 5.
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Distribute copies of the list of KAVES/COP to distribute copies by allowed AIs with matching 2 May 2014. commercial product names to all project field extension staff &advice regarding the (1 July, 2014) deadline for compliance (below)
As soon as possible but not later than 1 July 2014
Assure that USAID-funded List of authorized, approved pesticide support is limited to pesticides in Section 5. ONLY PESTICIDES APPROVED BY PERSUAP.
Continue verification throughout life-of-project
Integrated pest management support and application must be governed by a set of locally adapted; crop-and-pest management plans observing enumerated use restrictions of specific CPP’s.
By 2 May 2014
Starting from the information • Crop protocols from 2 May 2014 in PERSUAP Annex A and different sources drawing on PERSUAP Annex B, • Resistant management adopt/develop crop IPM- 2 May 2014 charts (IRAC,FRAC) based pest management plans (PMPs). For chemical controls, PMPs must include the use restrictions specified in the Annex B pesticide profiles. (E.g. no use near surface waters.)
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Translate PMPs into crop- 1 June 2014 specific field reference guides or posters for farmers to anticipate and manage pests.
By 1 June 2014
Provide first-time training to 1 June 2014 appropriate project staff, partners and beneficiaries in PMPs; ! June 2015 Provide refresher training annually.
From 1 June 2014
Require and enforce PMP implementation in situations where the project has direct control over pesticide use
Require and enforce that field extension under direct project control be PMP-based.
Where project control over extension or agricultural practice on the ground is less than complete, promote and support to PMPs to the greatest practicable extent.
Ongoing over Life of Project (LOP)
Modify PMPs over LOP based
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on local experience on the ground.
Relevant project staff and beneficiaries must be trained in safer pesticide use and pesticide first aid.
Develop a Training Plan for Develop training plan by 1 June Pesticide Safe Practices and 2014 IPM for project staff and beneficiaries, including at least annual refresher training.*
Develop or source curricula conforming to required training elements specified in Annex C.
Implement training plan, First time training by 1 June 2015. providing first-time training to all relevant staff and beneficiaries within 6 months. Conduct refresher by 1 June 2015
To the greatest degree practicable, project must require the use, maintenance of appropriate PPE and Pesticide application Equipment – as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices.
If carbamate or Govt regulation in place organophosphate-class Ongoing in commercial pesticides are used extensively, farms follow procedures for baseline testing for cholinesterase inhibition, and establish a periodic cholinesterase monitoring schedule when necessary.
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Implement/observe core risk mitigation measures (PPE and other precautions) identified in the summary section of each extended pesticide profile.
Where control is less complete, take all practicable measures to support and promote implementation of these measures.
Whenever providing, supporting or recommending pesticides for use, assure that appropriate personal protective equipment is available and, to the degree possible, require its use.
Whenever directly using, procuring or supplying pesticides, assure that quality application equipment is available and local capacity for its use care and maintaince is available.
To the greatest degree practicalble, enforce good disposal and clean-up practice
For directly supported pesticide transport, assure that
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minimum practices specified in Annex C are met.
Projects must be systematic in their pesticide related record-keeping and monitoring.
Pesticide efficacy in demonstration plots must be evaluated
Any evidence of pesticide resistance development must be tracked and reported.
Deepening reach of stakeholder agencies and organizations
Collaborate with MoA, PCPB, Kephis, KARI, HCDA, AAK, KFC, and FPEAK, KDB among other key stakeholders to support farmers in the grassroots in accessing information on safe use of pesticides within their scope.
Engagement with pesticide input suppliers – Distributors,Agro vets,Pesticides sales people
Public Awareness campaigns to sensitize the public on safe use of pesticides
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Promote the Provision of relevant community support services at county level
• Spray application equipment maintenance and parts replacement services
• Waste disposal and pollution control services
• Poison handling services
• Crop protection and pesticide handling information centers
Flow-down requirements
Prime contractors must write pesticide compliance requirements as set out above into each grant or sub-contract that will involve support for pesticide use.
* This table is not conclusive and the IP will have to include more specific mitigation measures, e.g bee colony impact trackers, etc
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7. REFERENCES
Publications 1. CABI (2005) crop protection compendium – www.cabi.org 2. Rodger Vargas/ Eric Jang, United States Dept. of Agriculture and Research services. 3. KARI (1984) horticultural crops protection handbook. 4. The Veterinary Policy (Draft) 2012 5. Smallholder Farmers Involvement in Commercial Horticulture, Kenya’s perspective. Kenya Development Learning Centre (KDLC) November 2010 6. Smallholder Dairy Production in High Altitude Nyandarua Milkshed in Kenya: Status, Challenges and Opportunities. J.M. K. Muia, J.N. Kariuki, P.N. Mbugua, C. K. Gachwiri, L.B. Lukibisi, W.O Ayako and W.V. Ngunjiri. 2011 7. MoA Food Security Assessment Report, MoA Department of Crops Management March 2013. 8. W.O.Nyakundi,g.Magoma,Ochoraanda.B.Nyende.a surveyofpesticideuseandapplication patternsamong farmers. 9. Grace J.A Ohayo-Mitoko(1997) Occupational Pesticide Exposure among Kenyan agricultural workers 10. Maize Lethal Necrosis (MLN) Disease in Kenya and Tanzania. Facts and Actions. KARI/CIMMYT Publication 2012 11. Kenya Facts and Figures. KNBS, 2012 12. Kenya National Dairy Master Plan. Volume I and II. 2010 13. University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Dry Beans, UC ANR Publication 3446 Insects and Mites, L. D. Godfrey, Entomology, UC Davis, R. F. Long, UC Cooperative Extension, Yolo Countyhttp://biocontrol.ucr.edu/wft.html 14. Productivity trends and performance of dairy farming in KenyaAuthor(s): Stella Wambugu, Lilian Kirimi and Joseph Opiyo 15. THE WHO RECOMMENDED CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES BY HAZARD and GUIDELINES TO CLASSIFICATION 2009, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety 16. Karembu, Margaret Gathoni, Pesticide use and misuse by small scale farmers in Kiambu, Kenya. 2012 17. Pesticide Control Product Board (Kenya). Pest Control Products Registered for Use in Kenya, 7th Edition. 2013
Websites 1. www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/pests/ 2. www.horticultureworld.net 3. www.infonet.biovision.org/crops 4. www.nhm.nic.in/horticulture/IPM for mango
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5. www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/blight-diseases-mango 6. www.infonet-biovision.org 7. www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/Issue/pn71/pn71p10.pdf 8. www.daff.qld.gov.au/documents/PlantIndustries_FruitAndVegetables/trips-beansFS-web.pdf 9. www.greenhouse.cornell.edu/pests/pdfs/insects/WF.pdf 10. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/label/actai.htm - State of California registered products 5/23/13 11. http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/rup/ - RUP Report 12. http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/index.html 13. http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/registrationmanual/chapter1.html#pest 14. http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/iupac/ 15. http://npic.orst.edu/npicfact.htm
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ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND DAIRY; AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS
This annex details the primary pests of all target crops on a crop-by-crop basis, available non- chemical control methods, and recommended chemical controls, where these are necessary. As such, this Annex contains both information compiled as INPUT to the PER analysis (pests of target crops), and OUTPUTS of that analysis (available non-chemical controls, recommended chemical controls.) The pest-control method matrices provided for each target crop are intended to serve as the basis for the crop and pest-specific management plans required by the SUAP.
MAIZE
Maize is Kenya’s leading grain crop and a staple food for most Kenyan households. It is also a subject of intense political debate. Approximately 28 percent of Kenyans spend a quarter of their annual income on buying maize. Maize is grown on both a large and small scale and national per capita consumption of about 98 kilograms (Irungu and Wesonga, 2013). Smallholder farmers plant either hybrid seed produced by seed merchants or seed saved from previous seasons planting. Seed sold by seed merchant seeds is usually treated by a combination of fungicides and insecticides while that saved by farmers is commonly not treated. 15-30 percent farmers use recycled seed. Production failures or bumper harvests are closely linked to harsh economic times or reduced inflation with resultant challenges or benefits for most households. At smallholder level maize is typically grown as a mono-crop within a mixed cropping environment. Delayed weed removal is a primary cause of maize yield loss in smallholder agriculture. Herbicides can save labor and time to increase the net benefits to farmers and often are less expensive than hiring local labor. But herbicides are not commonly used by small scale farmers in Kenya even though they are available in the local agro vets, thus weeding is done by hand. 75 percent of maize is grown by around 3.5 million subsistence farmers throughout the arable land in the Kenya. These farmers grow maize on land measuring two hectares and below. About a thousand large scale farmers grow 25 percent of maize produced in Kenya. Maize grown is mostly rain fed except in government owned irrigation schemes. The total land area under maize production in Kenya is between 1.4 to 1.6 million hectares annually (Guantai, 2010). Maize is primarily grown to be used as human food, however part of the maize grown is ground processed to produce industrial products and animal feed. Industrial products from maize include corn oil, maize meal, maize syrup, alcohol and distillated spirits. (Guantai, 2010)
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Maize productivity has increased over time but in a cyclic manner with highs and dips (See Table 1). The dips can be attributed to a number of challenges including soil nutrient depletion, pests and diseases, reliance on rain fed agriculture, and postharvest handling losses. In the 2010-2011 periods maize production declined as a result of a combination of weather and input related features compounded by a relatively new disease viral disease MNLD which has affected major high potential maize growing areas. This is in addition to traditional challenges presented by the larger grain borer and aflatoxin contamination, head smut, maize stalk borer and maize streak virus. One measure commonly implemented by farmers to reduce losses is timing of harvesting to coincide with the lowest moisture content achievable in the field while minimizing exposure to rainfall during the harvest period. Farmers also carry out dusting of shelled and dried maize in addition to scouting for pest damage during storage. Maize is at times intercropped with beans. Other food crops grown in mixed farming or crop rotation with maize include potatoes. Where maize does not do well due to weather sorghum and millets are the predominant grain crops. Crops such as sweet potatoes, cassava, arrow roots, soya bean and other food crops have been promoted for diversification and opportunities exist in export markets for these crops as well. Other challenges to maize production include; 1. Weeds with the most important being striga weed which is a production challenge to most parts of Nyanza and Western regions of Kenya. 2. Pests which include stalk borers, weevils, termites, ear worms, army worms termites 3. Diseases which include Maize Lethal Necrotic (MLN) Disease, maize streak virus among others.
Pests & Diseases of Maize and Control Measures
Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests
Termites • Plough field to destroy the termites' nest, runways, and Azadirachtin, Pseudacanthoter tunnels and to expose them to predators, such as ants, Carbaryl mes birds, chicken • Applying a mulch of dried grass after planting as a ‘trap Macrotermes, crop’, Microtermes • Smoking termite nests Odontotermes • Flooding of termite nests • Dig out queen • Remove plant residues and other debris especially moist and decaying woods. • Avoid leaving the crop in the field after harvest on stooks, stacks or windrows
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Aphids • Conservation of lady birds, aphidius and other naturally Azadirachtin, Schizaphis occurring biological controls such as preatory bugs, Thiamethoxam graminum carabid beetles, soldier beetles, predatory gall midges, (seed treatment lacewings and hoverflies only), • Practice crop rotation and grow crops in mixed cropping Deltamethrin • Use trap crops African • Conserve natural enemies’ e.g. Parasitic wasps and Thiamethoxam armyworm predatory ants, ear wigs and spiders (seed treatment Spodoptera • Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and only) stubble and prevent carry-over populations. exempta Maize Stalk • Using treated seed Azadirachtin borer • Early planting, fertility management, insecticide at first Busseola fusca sign of feeding injury • Conserve natural enemies’ e.g. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants, ear wigs and spiders • Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and stubble and prevent carry-over populations. • Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stem borers (e.g. cassava and grain legumes). • Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as desmodium and molasses grass and attractive trap plants such as Napier grass and Sudan grass - “Push and pull technology” • Spot spray infected plant and its neighbors only (not the whole field) African • Using insecticide treated seed Azadirachtin Sugarcane borer • Early planting, fertility management, insecticide at first Eldanas accharina sign of feeding injury • Conserve natural enemies’ e.g. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants, ear wigs and spiders • Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and stubble and prevent carry-over populations. • Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stem borers (e.g. cassava and grain legumes). • Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as desmodium and molasses grass and attractive trap plants such as Napier grass and Sudan grass - “Push and pull technology” • Spot spray infected plant and its neighbors only (not the whole field) Spotted stalk • Using insecticide treated seed Azadirachtin borer (Swinhoe) • Early planting, fertility management, insecticide at first Chilo partellus sign of feeding injury • Conserve natural enemies’ e.g. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants, ear wigs and spiders • Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed stubble and prevent carry-over populations. • Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stem borers (e.g. cassava and grain legumes). • Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as desmodium and molasses grass and attractive trap plants such as Napier grass and Sudan grass - “Push and pull technology” • Spot spray infected plant and its neighbors only (not the whole field) Ear borer • Early planting Deltamethrin Mussidia • pheromone traps nigrivenella,Helio • Encourage naturally occurring enemies e.g. birds, pathogens and other parasites such as the coverpa armigera beetle Teretrius (formerly Teretriosoma) nigrescens Weevils • Early harvesting Spinosad Sitophilus • Storage of maize with husk zeamais, S. oryzae • Drying to achieve a low moisture content and storage in cool conditions Larger grain • Conserve the Spinosad borer beetleTeretrius (formerly Teretriosoma) nigrescens, which Prostephanus is a specific predator of the larger grain borer Hygiene of the storage area truncatus • Store only clean produce • Harvest timely Diseases Maize streak • Use of tolerant, resistant varieties. Using pesticides virus • Plant early in the season. recommended • Eradicate grass weeds. for aphids, • Control vectors that transmit the disease. whiteflies and • Intercrop thrips (Azadirachtin) Maize Lethal • Control of vectors Using pesticides Necrotic (MLN) • Crop rotation recommended Disease • Proper nutrition ( adequate fertilizer application) for aphids, Combination of Maize • Planting early at the onset of main planting season whiteflies and chlorotic mottle virus • Planting new crop up wind of old field thrips (MCMV) and any of the cereal viruses in • Using clean certified seeds (Azadirachtin) the Potyviridae group, • Control of weeds and alternate hosts for vectors e.g Sugarcane mosaic • Field hygiene including quarantine measures virus (SCMV), Maize • Removal and destruction of infected plants dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV), or Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV)
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Purple • Weed regularly None listed witchweed • Rotate maize with trap crops. E.g. sunflower, pulses and Striga cotton stimulate the germination of striga seeds, but also inhibit post-germination growth of the weed hermontheca • Intercrop maize with Desmodium or other legumes
(Desmodium progressively reduces the number of striga seeds in the soil “push and pull technology”) • Use resistant/tolerant varieties (IR4, GAF4, KSTP) • Adequate fertilizer application ( proper plant nutrition)
PEAS
Is a cool temperature crop which originated in south-west ASIA. Peas are cultivated for the fresh green seeds, tender green pods and dried seeds. Foliage and dry seeds are used for food and feed; they are cooked whole, split or ground into flour, and boiled or roasted. Peas are grown both for local (shelled peas) and export (peas in pods). Peas can grow on a wide range of soils but thrive best on a well-drained soil with an optimum pH of 6 to 7.7 and a high content of soil organic matter.
Some varieties of green peas (garden peas): • "Green Feast" • "Earlicrop" - a short, early maturing variety that does not require staking • "Onward" - a climbing variety suitable for wet season production • "Alderman" - a late maturing variety that requires staking. Snow peas or sugar peas varieties grown in Kenya include • Mammoth melting sugar • Dwarf grey sugar • Oregon sugar pod • Toledo Some of the challenges experienced with peas farming in Kenya include pests and disease problems and also MRLs with export markets.
Pests and diseases and control methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Common Blossom • Biological control using predatory mites Amblyseius Lufenuron, Thrips cucumeris Oudemans and Amblyseius swirskii Athias- Azadirachtin,
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Frankliniella schultzei Henriot Pymetrozine Trybom Aphids • Conservation of lady birds, aphidius and other Azadirachtin, Schizaphis graminum naturally occurring biological controls such as Pymetrozine, preatory bugs, carabid beetles, soldier beetles, Deltamethrin predatory gall midges, lacewings and hoverflies • Practice crop rotation • Grow crops in mixed cropping • Use trap crops Spider Mites • Use of cultural practices such as wetting of foliage Azadirachtin, Tetranychus urticae and suppression of dust Clofentezine,
Root knot Nematodes • Crop rotation and land fallows Trichoderma Melaidogyne incognita
African bollworm • Conserve natural enemies. S-Indoxacarb Helicoverpa armigera • Inspect the crop regularly. • Hand pick and kill caterpillars. • Spray with insecticides. Diseases Leaf spot • Maintenance of field hygiene Triademefon, Aschocyta spp • Practice of crop rotation with non-host crops. Mancozeb + • Plow under infected crop residues Cymoxanil, • Eliminate volunteer bean plants. Trifloxystrobin, • Select planting dates and schedule irrigation to Azoxystrobin avoid long periods of leaf wetness when temperatures are warm. • Disinfect poles in production of pole beans. • Avoid over application of nitrogen and ensure adequate potassium fertilization. Fusarium wilt • Crop rotation Trichoderma Fusarium oxysporum f. • Avoiding spread of pathogens from infected field to sp. pisi uninfected ones through machinery, irrigation equipment and water and contaminated seeds Powdery mildew • Crop rotation Difenoconazole, Erysiphe pisi • Growing resistant varieties Azoxystrobin, • Spraying with fungicides. Triadimefon • Field hygiene • Use certified disease-free seeds.. • Plough under crop residues after harvest Downey mildew • Crop rotation Metalaxyl + Peronospora viciae • Resistant varieties Mancozeb • Spray with fungicides • Field hygiene • Plant treated seeds
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Antracnose • Crop rotation Carbendazim Collectotrichum pisi • Field hygiene • Spray with fungicides
PASSION FRUIT
Passion fruit is a perennial climbing vine indigenous to South America. There are more than 55 species within the genus and of these two are commercially grown – purple passion fruit (passiflora edulis L.) and yellow passion fruit (passiflora f. Flavicarpa). Passion fruits are usually eaten raw and are popular in fresh fruit salads. Many of yellow skinned passion fruits are grown for juice production. Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) has released three cultivars of yellow passion fruits for juicing which are: - KPF 4, KPF 11 and KPF 12. These cultivars are propagated through seed directly. Purple passion fruit are commonly propagated through grafting to a yellow rootstock which are more resistant to soil pests/diseases and drought tolerant. Yellow passion fruits are grown in moist tropical conditions while purple grow better in subtropical areas. Under good management a vine of passion fruit produces about 100 kgs per year and this makes it to be a high value crop.
Passion fruit farming has a major challenge of pests and diseases. Common pests and diseases include: • Pests: Thrips, Aphids, Stink bugs, Broad mites, Root Knot nematodes • Diseases: Septoria spot (Septoria passiflorae), Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora nicotianae var. parastica), Passion fruit woodiness potyvirus (PWV), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae), Brown spot (Alternaria passiflorae) Pests & Diseases of passion fruits& Control Methods
Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Broad mites • Weeds within and around fields should be destroyed. The Azadirachtin Polyphagotarsone mite attacks weeds such as volunteer crop plants and mus latus weeds, pigweed (Amaranthus spp.), black jack (Bidens spp.), jimson weed (Datura spp.) among others. • Minimize movement of people and animals from infected areas to the farm or from infected plants to clean plants within the farm. • Spray with approved miticides
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Root Knot • Practice crop rotation with cassava, cereals, maize, baby Trichoderma, nematodes corn, sweet corn, sweet potato, onions, cabbages / kale, Paecilomyces Meloidogyne garlic or fodder grasses e.g. Sudan grass lilacinus, incognita, M. • Use of tolerant root stocks javanica and M. • Maintain high organic matter in the soil by applying manure arenaria • Drench Trichoderma • Use trap crops. • Plough the fields to expose nematodes to sun which kills them. Leafminer flies • Ploughing to expose pupae to desiccation Azadirachtin, Liriomyza spp • Use of neem extracts Thiamethoxam • Conserve natural enemies (seed treatment • Spray with insecticides only) Green • Remove old crops and sprouting stumps because they Azadirachtin, stinkbugNezara provide refuge for the bugs. Thiamethoxam viridula • In a small orchard bugs can handpicked and destroyed. (seed treatment • Watering and irrigation only), • Growing strong smelling plants such as garlic and onion Deltamethrin • Encouraging of parasites, usually wasps and flies such as tachinid fly, Trichopoda pennipes parasitizes adults and nymphs; and a wasp, Trissolcus basalis, parasitizes eggs • Spraying with insecticides Brown • Remove old crops and sprouting stumps because they Azadirachtin, stinkbugBoerias provide refuge for the bugs. Thiamethoxam maculate • In a small orchard bugs can handpicked and destroyed. (seed treatment • Watering and irrigation only), • Growing strong smelling plants such as garlic and onion Deltamethrin • Spraying with insecticides Giant Coreid • Handpicking and destroying of bugs in small orchard Azadirachtin, bug • Watering and irrigation Thiamethoxam Anoplocnemis • Destroying of old crops or sprouting stumps (seed treatment • Spraying with soapy solution curvipe only), • Spraying with insecticides Deltamethrin Spider mites • Overhead irrigation Azadirachtin, Tetranychus spp • Conserving natural enemies • Weeding • Controlled movement from infected field into clean fields. • Young crop upwind of old crop. • Spray with miticides Diseases Brown spot • Field sanitation- collection and disposal of fallen diseased Difenoconazole, Alternaria fruits, leaves and vines. Sulfur, Mancozeb
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed passiflorae • Pruning vines to reduce density and thereby reducing + Cymoxanil, humidity within the crop and facilitating air circulation, Metalaxyl + light and spray penetration. Mancozeb, • During humid weather, reduce spray intervals to ensure Azoxystrobin new growth is adequately protected. • Growing yellow passion fruits and its hybrids as they are more tolerant • Good field orientation such that rows face the direction where wind is coming from to enhance air flow in the field. • Crop rotation. • Weeding. Phytophthora • Good field sanitation Mancozeb + blight • Pruning and keeping a grass sward under the vines Cymoxanil, Phytophthora • Graft to resistant rootstocks Metalaxyl + • Crop rotation Mancozeb nicotianae Septoria • Field sanitation- collection and disposal of fallen diseased Pseudomonas SpotSeptoria fruits, leaves and vines. flourscens, passiflorae • Pruning vines to reduce density and thereby reducing Metalaxyl + humidity within the crop and facilitating air circulation, Mancozeb, light and spray penetration. Mancozeb • During humid weather, reduce spray intervals to ensure new growth is adequately protected. • Growing yellow passion fruits and its hybrids as they are more tolerant • Field sanitation through collection and disposal of fallen diseased fruits, leaves and vines • Pruning vines to reduce density and humidity within the crop Passion fruit • Use virus-free planting material Thiamethoxam woodiness • Disinfect pruning tools (as seed potyvirus (PWV) • Use resistant hybrids or rootstocks of yellow passion fruit treatment only), • Remove diseased vines from the fields Aphis gossypii Pymetrozine • Do proper weeding and Myzus • Avoid planting bananas and cucurbits near passion fruit persicae fields Fusarium wilt • Snapping of affected parts or remove the affected plant Trichoderma Fusarium manually oxysporum f.sp. • Avoid cutting tissue and using the knife on healthy populations passiflorae • Keep the base of the plant clear of grass and weeds • Grafting to wilt-resistant yellow passion fruit rootstocks
MANGO
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Mango is a deep rooted evergreen tree which if grown in deep fertile soils can reach 20 – 30 metres in height. Grafted trees can only attain half this height. For purposes of management, dwarf mango trees are much easier to manage than large trees, making it possible to implement the various management practices such as spraying and pruning which are aimed at optimizing yield and quality. Mango is propagated through seed or grafting.
Mango has two distinct races; Indian race (mono-embryonic) - bright coloured and regular shaped fruits. They are intolerant to humidity and susceptible anthracnose and powdery mildew. SouthEast Asian race (poly-embryonic) - pale green fruit of elongated kidney shape. Are tolerant to humidity and resistant to powdery mildew. Mango cultivars can be categorized as early, midseason or late season. According to where the mangoes are grown, the seasons may move i.e. from early to mid season.
Kenya and Uganda varieties. Early cultivars - November to mid Ngowe, Haden, Dodo, Kensington, Zill, Apple, Carabao, January Gesine, Arumanis Mid season - Mid January to mid Tommy Atkins, Vandyke, Boribo, Irwin, Batawi, Golek, February Alphonso, Madoe, Peach, Heart, Chino, Sabine, Sabre, Smith, Late season - Late February to April Kent, Keitt, Sensation, Parwin, Zillate
Common pests and diseases include: • Pests: Mealy bugs, Fruit flies, Whiteflies, Mango seed weevil, Thrips • Diseases: Anthracnose, Powdery mildew
Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Mealy • Pruning of heavily affected parts Azadirachtin, bugRastrococcus • Cleaning of farm implements Thiamethoxam invadens • Control of weeds and ants (as seed • Encouraging natural enemies treatment only), • Spraying with biopesticides Deltamethrin • Use of insecticides Mango Fruit • Field sanitation by collecting and destroying fallen fruits Azadirachtin, flies • Harvesting fruits in early stages of maturity Thiamethoxam Ceratitis cosyra • Use of methods such as mass trapping, fruit fly traps and (as seed (Walker) fruit bagging treatment only), • Conservation of parasitic wasps, rove beetles, weaver ants, Deltamethrin spiders, birds and bats • Ploughing and hoeing to expose and destroy the pupae
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed • Managing other fruits around the farm so as not to habour fruit flies • Using pheromones to attract the males ( male lures) Whiteflies • Managing weeds Azadirachtin, Aleurodes sp and • Pruning heavily infested branches. Thiamethoxam Bemisia sp • Use of yellow mass sticky traps (as seed • Conserve natural enemies such as the dusty lacewing, treatment only), parasitic wasps etc Deltamethrin • Using trap plants • Spraying with insectides Mango seed • Orchard sanitation and quarantine measures Thiamethoxam weevil • Use of sticky bands (as seed Sternochetus • Application of biocontrols treatment only) mangiferae (Fabricius) Aphids • Controlled nitrogen fertilizer application Azadirachtin, Toxoptera odinae • Spray with a strong stream of water to knock them off. Spinosad • Conservation of lady birds, aphidius and other naturally occurring biological controls such as predatory bugs, carabid beetles, soldier beetles, predatory gall midges, lacewings and hoverflies • Weed management. • Insecticidal soap Diseases Mango • Practice of sanitation -remove infected fallen plant debris Metalaxyl + anthracnoseColl (fruits, twigs, leave) from the ground and dispose them Mancozeb, etotrichum • Keeping weeds under control at all times. Difenoconazole, gloeosporiodes • Pruning the plant parts of fruit trees that show severe Mancozeb + symptoms of disease infection. Cymoxanil, • Cleaning farm tools. Wash plough, harrows, shovels, trowels and pruning gears after use. Mancozeb, • Fruits stricken with anthracnose can be plunged into a hot Captan, water bath (3- 5 min. at 55°C), in order to kill off Carbendazim the fungus. • Spray with fungicides Powdery • Good air circulation and ventilation of the orchards Sulfur, mildewOidium • Spray penetration and sunlight Thiophanate- mangiferae • Nitrogen fertilizers used with caution to avoid excessive methyl, berthet vegetative growth Triadimefon • Pruning • Using Biopesticide sprays • Using fungicides
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BANANAS
There are many banana varieties, that can classified in two distinct groups according to the way they are consumed: those suitable for cooking and those suitable for ripening. Ripened bananas are more popular of the two; a fact attributed to the hectic Kenyan life, their affordability and the fact that a ripe banana is ready to eat.
Bananas grow well in a wide range of climate from sea level upto 1800m in humid conditions. Minimum rainfall of 1000mm per year is required especially at the flowering time. Irrigation is therefore essential in low rainfall growing areas. Bananas should be grown on well drained fertile soils, as they cannot withstand water logging. Thorough land preparation should be done during the dry season. Sowing should be carried out at the beginning of the long rains for rain fed crop in Kenya. Plant by digging holes measuring 1M× 1M× 1M and separate the top and subsoils, then mix the top soil with 40kg [2medium buckets] of well rotted manure per planting hole, 200g DAP fertilizer, 15 grams / 3 teaspoonfuls of nematicide.
Some common pests and diseases include: • Pests: Banana weevil borer, Burrowing nematodes, Banana silvering thrips, Fruit flies (Bactrocera invadens and Ceratitis rosa), The banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) • Diseases: Fusarium wilt, Yellow and black sigatoka, Anthracnose, The cigar end rot disease (Trachysphaera fructigena), The bunchy top disease Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Banana weevil • Use non-infested planting material Azadirachtin, borer • Maintain the fields clean and destroy the feeding places of Thiamethoxam Cosmopolites adult weevils (as seed sordidus • Chop off rhizomes/corm and pseudo-stems to hasten treatment only), decomposition to deny weevils breeding sites Carbaryl • Trapping and collection of the adults for destruction Burrowing • Remove infested plants Trichoderma, nematodes • Plant resistant cultivars Paecilomyces Radopholus • Use nematode free planting material lilacinus, Carbaryl similis Banana silvering • Use blue sticky traps Thiamethoxam thrips • Bagging of bunch (as seed Hercinothrips • Conserve natural enemies – Amblyseius spp treatment only), bicinctus • Weeding Deltamethrin Diseases Fusarium wilt • Field sanitation and application of cultural methods Carbendazim, (Panama • Grow resistant varieties Use of sticky bands Trichoderma, Disease) • Application of biocontrols Pseudomonas Fusarium • Weeding fluorscens oxysporum f.sp. • Crop rotation cubense
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Pest Available Control Measures Recommended Pesticides, when needed Yellow sigatoka • Removal of affected leaves Mancozeb, Mycosphaerella • Good drainage Azoxystrobin musicola (Mulder) • Sufficient spacing • Planting resistant varieties Black • Removal of affected leaves , Mancozeb, sigatokaMycosph • Good drainage Azoxystrobin aerella fijiensis • Sufficient spacing (Morelet) • Planting resistant varieties Anthracnose • Practice good field sanitation. Mancozeb, Colletotrichum • Minimize bruising during fruit handling Mancozeb + musae • Hot water treatment of the fruit for 5 min at 50°C Cymoxanil, • Proper sanitation of handling facilities Azoxystrobin
Cigar end rot • Hand removal of the pistils 8-10days after bunch Mancozeb Trachysphaera formation and spraying the bunch with a fungicide fructigena • Deleafing banana plants and pruning shade trees to reduce humidity and limit the exposure to the pathogen
ONIONS
Onion is a biennial vegetable grown in temperate zones as an annual crop. In the tropics the varieties that do well are in effect annuals as they can produce seed within the first year of growing. Optimum temperatures for plant development are between 13 and 24°C, although the range for seedling growth is narrow, between 20o c and 25°C. High temperatures favour bulbing and curing.
In the tropics only short day or day neutral onion varieties will form bulbs. These thrive in warm to hot climates of 15-30°C. If the temperature greatly exceeds that required for bulbing, maturity is hastened and bulbs do not grow to maximum size, consequently lowering the yields.
They are grown on fertile, well-drained and non-crusting soils at a preferred optimum pH range of 6.0 to 6.8, although alkaline soils are also suitable. Onions can be direct drilled and thinned, or planted in seedbeds and the seedlings transplanted or grown in seedling trays and the plugs planted out.
At the bulbing stage, they need a substantial amount of water, but excessive moisture must be avoided during the growing season as this encourages pests and diseases. Application of fresh manure to the crops should also be avoided as this causes the plants to develop thick necks and too much leaf at the expense of bulb formation.
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Onion is propagated by seed. Proper seed selection is recommended to minimize problems of splits and doubles. In the tropics, the seed is usually sown in a nursery under a mulch cover. After the seed emerges, the mulch is removed. About 6-8 weeks after sowing, when the seedling has a base as thick as a pencil and is approximately 15 cm tall, the seedlings are transplanted to the field.
In most commercial areas, beds 0.9 to 1.0 m wide are common, and 2 to 6 rows are seeded or planted on the bed. If two rows, they may be two-line (twin) rows with plants staggered to achieve proper spacing and high population density. The ultimate yield of onion is determined by the number of leaves that are formed prior to bulbing. Over-fertilization, uneven watering, and temperature fluctuations also influence bulb formation.
Onions are rich in nutrients such as calcium, iron and vitamin B among others. They are used for salads (bunching onion or sliced full-grown bulbs), pickling (e.g. silverskin onions), cooking (such as in soups) and frying (for example, with meat). Onions are particularly suited to smallholder farming in most countries.
Harvesting takes place 90-150 days after sowing. Onions are ready for harvest when the leaves collapse. Alternatively the leaves can be bent over and left to dry for 10-12 days. The crop is pulled out by hand and kept for some days in the field with the bulbs covered by the leaves (windrowing). The leaves are then cut off and the mature bulbs are bagged or packed in crates if they are to be stored.
Freshly harvested onions are dormant and will not sprout for a variable period of time (this depends on the variety). Storage will extend the dormant period. Sprouting will increase in storage temperatures above 4.4°C. It will decrease again as temperatures exceed 25°C. Onions production is adversely affected by pests and diseases.
Weed Management: For weed control, prepare the beds for planting, allow weeds to emerge and spray them with Linuron. Allow 7 to 10 days for the weeds to die before planting with minimal soil disturbance. Pendamethalin can also be applied as pre-emegence (soon after planting) or as post emergence when the garlic has 5 true leaves and in bulb onions from flag leaf to nine true leaf stage and at least 45 days before harvest. Mulching after planting will conserve moisture, suppress weeds and reduce the incidence of some diseases.
Pests and Diseases. A variety of diseases and disorders affect onions. Most of the diseases are caused by fungi or bacteria, whereas disorders may be caused by adverse weather, soil conditions and nutritional imbalances. The most important onion pests and diseases include anthracnose, bacterial soft rot, botrytis, leaf blight, bowny mildew, leafminers, onion fly, onion rust , purple blotch , thrips, fusarium and white bulb rot.
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Pests and Diseases and Control Methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Onion Thrips • Thrips infestations are more severe during the dry Azadirachtin, Thrips tabaci season, therefore keep plants well irrigated. Lufenuron, Lindeman • Maintain field sanitation- weeding Spinosad • Remove heavily affected plants. • Use blue sticky traps • Spray with biopesticides • Use chemical sprays . • Avoid planting successive onion crops. Practice rotation Azadirachtin, Onion fly(Delia with crops not related to onions. Thiamethoxam antiqua) • Avoid planting in soils that are high in undecomposed (as seed organic matter. treatment only), • Keep onion fields well separated. Carbaryl • Remove and destroy infested plants by burning them. • Avoid plant injury during field operation and remove damaged plants from the field during planting. Diseases Damping off • Use varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt Mancozeb, • Nitrate fertilizers tend to reduce disease severity as Captan, compared to ammonium fertilizers. Trichoderma • Crop rotation with cereals (3-5 year). • Use certified disease-free seeds. • Plant in fields with no previous record of wilt • Uproot wilted plants, burn plant residues after harvesting. • Fumigate the soil before planting White bulb • Plant tolerant and resistant varieties. Mancozeb, rotSclerotium • Practice long crop rotation (8-10 years) with cereals. metalaxyl + cepivorum • Use healthy seeds. Mancozeb, • Destroy wild onions and leeks. Thiabendazole • Manure from animals fed on diseased plant material should not be used on onion fields. Downy • Use healthy seeds Mancozeb, mildewPeronospora • Use resistant varieties Metaxyl + destructor • Crop Rotation Mancozeb, • Wider spacing of plants Fosetyl aluminium Purple • Increased spacing between plants Mancozeb, blotchAlternaria • Seed treatment Metalaxyl + porri • Crop rotation Mancozeb • Removal of crop debris • Use of varieties with waxy foliage • Increased ploughing between seasons
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• Avoid high humidity under storage
Bacterial soft rots • Where possible avoid overhead irrigation Mancozeb may Erwinia carotovora • Allow onion tops to mature well before harvesting be an option subsp. carotovora • Take care to avoid bruising during harvesting and packing • Store bulbs in well-ventilated area to avoid moisture accumulation on surface of bulbs • Store onions at 0o C and relative humidity of 65-70% Fusarium Basal rot • Crop rotation with non-related crops Trichoderma Fusarium • Avoid root injury oxysporum f. sp. • Careful harvest of the bulbs and proper cure before cepae storage • Store bulbs at 0o C and relative humidity of 65-75% Onion Rust • Crop rotation Trifloxystrobin, Puccinia porri • Removal of weed hosts Triademefon
TOMATOES
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), belongs to the family Solanaceae. Tomatoes are fairly adaptable, but grow well in warm conditions with optimum temperatures of 15°C -25 °C. High humidity and temperatures reduce fruit set and yields. Very low temperatures delay colour formation and ripening and temperatures above 30°C inhibit fruit set, lycopene development and flavour.
Tomatoes thrive best in low-medium rainfall with supplementary irrigation during the off- season. Wet conditions increase disease attacks and affect fruit ripening. Tomatoes grow well in a wide range of soil types, which are high in organic matter, well-drained and a pH range of 5 - 7.5.
Pests and Diseases. The major constraints to tomato production are pests and diseases. Pests and disease infestation can occur at every stage of the crop (nursery, transplantation, field, fruiting, harvesting and after harvest) and proper management is required for each stage.
Major diseases are bacterial wilt, early and late blight, tomato spotted wilt virus, leaf spot and powdery mildew, insect pests and other arthropods (spider mites, thrips, white flies, African bollworm), nematodes, blossom end-rot and poor crop management especially lack of crop rotation practice.
The major soil pests attacking tomato seedlings are cut worms, Agrotis spp and chafer grubs, Melolontha spp. Aphids, Aphis gossypii and thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman and Frankliniella
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occidentalis (Pergade) and whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci suck plant sap and cause leaf distortion and plant stunting. More importantly, thrips have been reported to transmit the tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) disease, while the whiteflies are known vectors of potato leaf roll virus which also infects tomato.
Severe infestation by the pests usually causes significant yield loss and may result in total crop loss. Appropriate and timely management makes all the difference between good production, poor production or total crop failure. Proper identification of the pest and disease is critical in a control strategy.
Kenya has developed tolerant/resistant varieties to diseases and pests such as bacterial wilt, fusarium wilt, Root knot nematodes, Tomato Mosaic Virus (TMV), verticillium wilt, early and late blight, red spider mites and Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV).
In general, the following practices can help reduce and/or control the incidence of pests and diseases in tomatoes: 1) Avoid sowing seeds densely at nursery stage; 2) maintain a mixed cropping system which helps maintain natural enemies; 3) mulching provides an attractive environment for ground living natural enemies; (4) spray with b.t and neem products; avoid using broad spectrum pesticides.
Pests and Diseases and Control Methods Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Root knot • Crop rotation to avoid building up and spread of the Azadirachtin, nematodes diseases (crops to be grown at intervals of 3-4 yrs). Trichoderma, Meloidogyne • Use resistant/tolerant seed varieties. Paecelomyces spp - • Up root and burn the diseased plant. lilacinus Meloidogyne • Chemical fumigation. incognita, M. • Proper farm sanitation javanica and • Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest M. hapla and diseases. Aphids • Use insecticidal soaps Azadirachtin, Aphis gossypii, • Conserve natural enemies Thiacloprid Myzus persicae • Avoid use of broad spectrum pesticides Tomato Fruit • Avoid planting tomato near corn or cotton to prevent Azadirachtin, worm heavy pest infestations. Bacillus Helicoverpa • Parasitic wasps, especially Trichograma spp., are important thuringiensis, natural enemies. zea S-Indoxacarb, • Scout crop to assess the level of attack by fruit borers Carbaryl (Detection of eggs and small caterpillars before they enter into the fruit is very important). Corrective action should be
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed taken before the borers get into the fruit (prefer the green fruit). • Spray selective biopesticides such as Bt, baculo-virus or neem extracts CutwormsAgr • Eliminate weeds early at least 2 weeks before transplanting. Azadirachtin, otisSpp • Plough and harrow to expose cutworms to natural enemies Thiamethoxam and desiccation. (as seed • Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and ants are treatment only), important in natural control of cutworms. Carbaryl • Dig near damaged seedlings and destroy cutworms • Make barriers to protect the transplanted seedlings. Barriers can be made by wrapping paper, aluminium foil, and thin cardboard or similar materials around the base of transplant stem. Leaf • Use neem kernel extract against them(bio pesticide ) Bacillus hopperGraph • Destroy their breeding grounds especially around the farm. thuringiensis, ocephala spp • Use insecticide as soon as symptoms are observed. Azadirachtin, Lufenuron Spider mite • Use resistant cultivars. Azadirachtin, Tetranynchus • Use natural enemies such as the ladybird beetle Sulphur spp • Inspect the crop regularly to determine the presence and level of infestation of spider mites. A recommended monitoring method is to select randomly 20 tomato plants and assess the level of mite damage of three leaflets per plant using a leaf index ranking from 1 to 5 (1 is few yellow spots, 5 is leaf totally covered with spots, dry patches occur). Once the average damage level exceeds the first rank, control measures should start. • Avoid water stress in crops. • Scout for the pest and spot spray any infestation. • Spray with botanicals and insecticidal soaps. Russet mites • Natural enemies, predatory mites Azadirachtin, Aculops • Use of neem extracts Sulphur lycopersici • Proper irrigation during early stage of crops • Use of tolerant varieties Leaf miner • Conserve natural enemies. Azadirachtin, Liriomyza • Spray the crop with neem products. Thiamethoxam huidobrensis • Use parasitic wasps (as seed • Insecticidal soaps, treatment only) Thrips • Moisture control (adequate water placement by irrigation Azadirachtin, Ceratothripoid and mulching can be the first defense in controlling thrips). Lufenuron, esbrunneus • Conserve natural enemies (pirate bugs). Thiacloprid • Monitor the crop regularly and take corrective action if
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed infestation levels are high. Early detection is particularly important at the onset of flowering. • Practice spot spray the crop with botanicals e.g. garlic, rotenone, neem, pyrethrum and a mixture of garlic and pepper • Insecticidal soaps Tobbaco • Use of beneficial insects. Azadirachtin, whitefly • Use insecticidal soaps and botanicals. Thiacloprid, Bemisia tabaci • Ensure field sanitation. Buprofezin, • Use of sticky traps Thiamethoxam • Fenugreek and coriander are repellent to whiteflies, and (as seed provide refuge for natural enemies. • Tobacco, hot pepper. These botanicals were transformed treatment only), into plant extracts Carbaryl Diseases Late Blight – • Crop rotation Mancozeb, Phytophthora • Management of nutrients which enhance plant immunity. Metalaxyl + Infestans • Management of plant population in the field – correct plant Mancozeb, spacing. Sulphur, • Field orientation such that the rows are in line with wind Mandipropamid, direction and sun as this will reduce leaf wetness. Folpet, Fluazinam, • Avoiding overhead irrigation Tebuconazole, • Proper pruning to remove excess suckers. Famoxadone + • Field hygiene- removal of debris from the field, weeding Cymoxanil, • Drenching with immunity boosters. Dimethomorph + • Spray with biopesticides Mancozeb • Timely fungicide sprays Early Blight – • Crop rotation Mancozeb, Alternaria • Management of nutrients which enhance plant immunity. Metalaxyl + solani • Management of plant population in the field – correct plant Mancozeb, spacing. Sulphur, • Field orientation such that the rows are in line with wind Mandipropamid, direction and sun as this will reduce leaf wetness. Folpet, Fluazinam, • Regular crop scouting to take timely control measure. Tebuconazole, • Avoiding overhead irrigation Famoxadone • Proper pruning to remove excess suckers. +Cymoxanil, • Field hygiene- removal of debris from the field, weeding Dimethomorph + • Drenching with immunity boosters. Mancozeb • Spray with biopesticides • Timely fungicide sprays Powdery • Plant resistant/ tolerant varieties. Mancozeb, Sulfur, Mildew – • Regular crop scouting to take timely control measure. Leveillulata • Rouge severely infected plants and destroy them through burning or deep burying. urica
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed • Prune severely infected branches. • Effective crop rotation • Overhead irrigation reduces powdery mildew. • Use fungicide as soon as symptoms are observed • Spray with bio-pesticides. Bacterial Wilt • Cultural practices such as crop rotation, field hygiene and None listed Ralstonia irrigation solanacearum • Water management (Dispersal of bacteria can be caused by furrow irrigation or surface water. Use other alternative methods such drip or over head irrigation).Alternatively if furrow irrigation has to be used, ensure water flows from new to old fields to minimize infection; • Plant resistant/tolerant varieties. • Select fields with good drainage. • Crop rotation. • Sterilization of pruning equipment. • Boost plant immunity through drenching with biological products e.g. trichoderma Fusarium wilt • Use resistant/tolerant varieties (certified disease free seeds). Fusarium • Use Push and Pull practices and maintain proper farm Trichoderma oxysporum.sp. sanitation (removing all infected plants and destroying them). lycopersici • Crop rotation (maintain a 3-4 yr period) before planting again with solanacea crops. Tomatoes can be intercropped with brasiccas, cereals, legumes, onion, and fodder grasses. • Regularly scout for the disease and take preventative action early as well as spot spraying (spraying is determined by the percentage of affected area. This is an economically viable method to prevent the spread of the disease to other areas on the farm other than spraying the whole farm). • Do not use broad spectrum pesticides. • Remove crop debris from fields after harvest to minimize carry-over of pests and diseases. • Apply organic manure, mixing it well with the soil. • Avoid furrow and surface irrigation which helps transmit the disease. Alternatively if furrow irrigation has to be used, ensure water flows from new to old fields to minimize infection. Tomato • Manage vectors which transmit the disease. Thrips, whiteflies, Spotted virus • Crop rotation with different family crops. aphids • Infected crop debris should be disposed of well to avoid re- controlling infection. insecticides • Use of certified disease free seeds as well as tolerant (Azadirachtin, varieties. Lufenuron, • Conduct effective weed control in and around tomato or Thiacloprid)
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed pepper fields. • Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases. Damping off • Plant crop in well drained areas and avoid excess moisture Trichoderma, Phytophthora in the soil. Mandipropamid, infestans • Problem can also be avoided by not growing the crop Folpet, Fluazinam, during the rainy season. Tebuconazole, Pythium spp • Proper soil preparation and management to provide for Famoxadone + Rhizoctonia good soil drainage, structure, aeration, water-holding Cymoxanil, solani capacity and plant nutrition by including proper amounts of Dimethomorph + fertilizer and lime according to soil test report. Mancozeb • Proper soil treatment with fungicide to reduce the level of fungi that cause damping-off. • Use fungicide-treated seed with high germination rate. • Proper seeding rates to avoid thick plant stands, poor air movement and low light intensity. • Strict sanitation to avoid re-infesting treated soil with these fungi. Septoria leaf • Cultural control measures include rotating for at least 1-2 Mancozeb, spot years between tomato crops. Tebuconazole, Septoria • Control weeds susceptible toseptoria leaf spot that can Famoxadone + carry over the disease in rotation crops and finally to the Cymoxanil, lycopersici tomatoes again. Dimethomorph +
• Infected crop debris should be disposed of well to avoid re- Mancozeb, infection. Trifloxystrobin • Use of certified disease free seeds as well as tolerant varieties. • Spray fungicides. • Staking plants to improve air circulation and reduce contact between foliage and soil. • Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases. Bacterial • Cultural control methods such as using tolerant varieties None listed Canker – certified disease-free seeds, practicing crop rotation, proper Clavibacter disposal of infected plant material and managing watering by reducing overhead irrigation. michiganensis • Tools such as pruning knifes should be sanitized to reduce subsp. the spread of disease in the farm. michiganensi • Avoid overlapping crops to prevent transmission of pest and diseases. • Uproot the affected plants materials and bury or burn them to reduce the spread of the disease. Blossom end • Calcium application and irrigation management ( None listed rot • Avoid drought stress and wide fluctuations in soil moisture
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Blossom end by using mulches and/or irrigation. Mulching serves to rot is a maintain an even level of soil moisture physiological • Apply lime in calcium deficient soils. • Appropriate amounts of fertilizer high in superphosphate disorder that and low in nitrogen should be used (1-3-1 ratio). is caused by a • In the greenhouse, transplants should not be grown too lack of quickly nor should the plants be too old and subjected to calcium severe hardening before transplanting. (A steady growth uptake from rate as a seedling and as a field plant will discourage much the soil and of this problem). • transfer to Hoeing or cultivating should be performed not closer than one foot from the plants to reduce root pruning. the fruits • Transplant when the soil has warmed up. Tomatoes and during dry peppers planted unusually early, while the soil is still cold, weather. are likely to have the first fruits affected by blossom end rot.
PULSES (COW PEAS, GREEN GRAMS, CHICK PEAS, PIGEON PEAS)
Pulses production inKenya is mostly in arid and semi-aridareas with limited rainfall. The pulses are leguminousfood crops that can withstand drought conditions becausethey extract water deep in the soilprofile which the basis for their drought tolerance. Pulses are important crops in the Kenya ASAL areas. They are valued for their nutritive seeds that have high protein content. Their seeds are eaten fresh as green vegetables or dry seeds. Pulses such as green grams, chickpeas, cow peas, grow best at altitudes of 0-1600 meters above the sea level and under warm climatic conditions. The soils should be well drained for good production. These crops do not do well in water logged areas as this increases crop susceptibility to root and stem diseases. Land preparation requires a medium till before planting. They are grown as intercrops with crops such as cotton, sorghum and maize. Pulses are early maturing often producing before drought sets in. Pests and Diseases and Control Methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Leaf hoppers • Use of neem kernel extract against aphids should be Azadirachtin or enough to control jassids at the same time. JassidsJacobia • Spray pesticides sca lybica • Insecticidal soaps
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Red spider • Use resistant cultivars Sulphur mites • Use natural enemies Tetranychus • Use overhead irrigation but take note of other diseases spp. which might arise from such a method. • Spray with biopesticides Thrips • Conserve natural enemies. (pirate bugs) Azadirachtin, Megalurothrips • Monitor the crop regularly( scouting for pests Lufenuron, spp. and identification) Spinosad, Frankliniella • Early detection is particularly important at the onset of Thiamethoxam schultzei flowering. (as seed • Practice spot spray the crop with botanicals. (E.g. garlic, treatment only) rotenone, neem, pyrethrum and a mixture of garlic and pepper etc.) • Insecticidal soaps Aphids • Conserve natural enemies. Azadirachtin Aphis • Early planting to allow plants to grow strong before aphids craccivora appear. • Insecticidal soaps • Spray with pesticides as soon as the aphids are seen in the field Green shield • Handpick and destroy immature bugs and collect adults Azadirachtin bugs with insect nets and destroy them. • Use natural enemies (egg parasitoids, assassin bugs, ants and birds). • Spray with aromatic plants (e.g. gums, lantana, khaki weed etc.) • Use Neem-based pesticides which reportedly reduce feeding by green shield bugs. Pod borers • Apply biopesticides such as Bt or neem products. Azadirachtin, The African • Scout the crop regularly to detect eggs and young Lufenuron bollwormHeli caterpillars before they enter the pods and control them. coverpa • Conserve natural enemies. (Ants, parasitic wasps and pirate armigera bugs). • Use bird perches placed just above the crop canopy for birds to perch on as they observe, pick and feed on pod borers. Pod borers • Apply biopesticides such as Bt or neem products. Azadirachtin, The legume • Scout the crop regularly to detect eggs and young Lufenuron pod borer caterpillars before they enter the pods and control them. Maruca vitrata • Conserve natural enemies. (Ants, parasitic wasps and pirate = testulalis bugs). • Use bird perches placed just above the crop canopy for birds to perch on as they observe, pick and feed on pod borers.
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pod borers • Apply biopesticides such as Bt or neem products. Azadirachtin, The lima bean • Scout the crop regularly to detect eggs and young Lufenuron pod caterpillars before they enter the pods and control them. borerEtiella • Conserve natural enemies. (Ants, parasitic wasps and pirate zinckenella bugs). • Use bird perches placed just above the crop canopy for birds to perch on as they observe, pick and feed on pod borers. Cowpeaweevi Drygrainto13%moisture, Azadirachtin l/ Bruchids Use ventilated stores Callosbruchus • Use neem extracts maculatus Foliage • Postharvest tillage Azadirachtin beetles • Crop rotation with non-host plants Ootheca spp • Delay sowing • Practice post-harvest tillage • Apply neem Dry bean • Maintain hygiene of storage areas Azadirachtin weevil • Store grain in cool areas Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman) The bean • Maintain hygiene of storage areas Azadirachtin weevil • Store grain in cool areas Acanthoscelide s obtectus (Say) Root-knot • Crop rotation with cereals Trichoderma nematodes(M • Plant resistant varieties eloidogyne • Plant in fields with no previous record of nematode incognita, M. infestation. javanica) • Use trap crops • Amend soil with neem extracts. Diseases Fusarium Wilt • Use varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt. Trichoderma (Fusarium • Crop rotation with cereals. udum) • Use certified disease-free seeds. • Plant in fields with no previous record of Fusarium wilt. • Uproot wilted plants and burn plant residues after harvesting. • Improve on soil drainage.
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Cercospora • Plant resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb, leaf spot • Spray fungicide Metalaxyl + (Mycovellosiell • Plant in fields away from perennial varieties, which could be Mancozeb, a cajani) a source of inoculums (infection). Trifloxystrobin
Phytophthora • Plant resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb, blight • Spray fungicide Metalaxyl + (Phytophthora • Plant in fields with no previous record of blight. Mancozeb dreschsleri f.sp. • Avoid fields prone to waterlogging. cajani) • Use wide inter-row spacing. Powdery • Resistant/ tolerant variety. Sulphur, mildew • Spray fungicide Thiophanate- Erysiphe • Plant in fields away from perennial pigeon peas. methyl polygoni Sphaerotheca fuliginea, Leveillula taurica, Erysiphe cichoracearum Rust • Plant resistant varieties Mancozeb + Uredo cajani • Avoid planting of pigeon peas close to bean fields. Metalaxyl, • Use good spacing. Azoxystrobin
CASSAVA Common pest and diseases include • Pests: Cassava mealy bug, Larger grain borer, Cassava green spider mite, Red spider mite, Cassava scale, grass hoppers, white flies • Diseases: African Cassava Mosaic Disease, Cassava bacterial blight, Cassava Brown Streak Virus disease,
Pests and diseases and control methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Cassava • Avoid using infested planting materials Azadirachtin Mealy Bug • Plant early to avoid rainy season Phenacoccus • Use of soil amendments and mulch to avoid moisture manihoti stress • Use of manure Cassava scales • Applying of organic matter to improve soil fertility Azadirachtin Anonidomytilus • Selection of clean (Scale free planting material
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Cabbage and Kales
Brassicas constitute the majority of cultivated Cruciferae in eastern and southern Africa. The main brassicas grown in the region include: Cabbage, Kale (sukuma wiki) and Chinese cabbage (Cauliflower). Other brassicas grown in the region are broccoli, brussel sprouts, kohlrabi, savoy and turnip. These vegetables are grown mainly for the local market and are valuable as sources of vitamins and minerals, as well as a source of cash for small scale farmers in rural and peri- urban areas.
Production of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables is often constrained by damage caused by a range of pests (insects, diseases, and weeds).
Pests and Diseases and Control Methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed The Cabbage • Use natural enemies such as wasps and lady bird. Azadirachtin, Aphid • Use pesticides Pymetrozine, • Insecticidal soaps provide control. Spinosad • Spray with Biopesticides • Spot sprays of pyrethrum or neem can prevent build up of large populations Diamond • Use biological control of DBM using parasitoid wasp Azadirachtin, Bacillus back moth Diadegma semiclausum thuringiensis, (DBM) • Intercrop brassica crops with trap crops or repellent plants, Lufenuron, Plutella to reduce pest infestation. Tomato reportedly repels S-Indoxacarb, xylostella diamond black moth. Thiamethoxam (as • Use botanicals pesticide (neem-based) seed treatment only) • Use insecticides Cutworms • The cutworms is normally found be found near the damaged Lufenuron, (Agrotis spp) plant and can be killed physically or by insecticide Thiamethoxam (as seed treatment only) Thrips • Plough and harrow before transplanting. Azadirachtin, Thrips tabaci • Conservation of natural enemies, such as predatory bugs, Lufenuron, Frankliniella predatory mites and predatory thrips are important. Thiamethoxam (as spp • Blue sticky traps seed treatment only) • Spray with insecticides Whiteflies • Natural enemies such as ladybird beetles, predatory mites Azadirachtin, Bemisia and lacewings can play an important role in reducing Pymetrozine tabaci, whiteflies Trialeurodes • Use mineral oils and neem vaporariorum • Insecticidal soaps and Aleyrodes proletella Diseases Cercospora • Use certified disease-free Mancozeb, leafspotsCer • Practise proper weed management, particularly, cruciferous Tebuconazole cospora weeds such as mustard. brassicicola • Remove crop residues from the field after harvest. Bacterial • Practice crop rotation None listed soft • Remove and destroy diseased crop or left over stems in the rotErwinia field after the crop has been harvested. carotovora • Wash hands and harvesting knives var. • Beauveria bassiana for control of sucking pests carotovora Black rot • Use disease-free transplants materials None listed Xanthomonas • Growing cabbage on raised beds with mulch helps eliminate campestris pv. conditions that induce black rot. Campestris • Remove, burn, or deep plough all infected crop debris immediately after harvest • Crop rotation (establish crops in black rot-free soils that
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Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed have not grown crops from the family Cruciferae for at least 3 years.) Damping-off • Use certified disease-free seeds. Trichoderma, diseases • Practice proper irrigation, avoid planting in wet, cold soils Metalaxyl + (Pythium spp., • Plant on raised beds to reduce moisture content in the root Mancozeb Rhizoctonia zone. solani, • Practice crop rotation (seedbeds and production fields Fusarium should not have had crucifers for at least 3 years). spp.) • During cultivation, take care to avoid throwing soil into plant heads.
WEEDS CONTROL
Weeds Available Control Measure Recommended Herbicides, when needed Grass and • Timely planting Pendimethalin, broad leaf • Hand weeding/hoeing using a ‘jembe’ or hoe. Linuron, Metribuzin weeds • Burning • Thorough land preparation by hand weeding, pre- emergence herbicide application if previous crop was weedy, Perennial • Land cultivation, herbicide application, Linuron, Glyphosate weeds Cyperus rotundus Couch grass or • Introduce shade producing cover crops, within a crop Linuron, Metribuzin, Bermuda rotational system. Glyphosate grassCynodon • Harrow with a tooth harrow during the dry season in dactylon order to uproot the rhizomes and letting them dry completely on top of the soil Broad leaf • Cultural practices e.g. Mulching, weeding, Metribuzin, Linuron, weeds: e.g. • Stale bed technique Glyphosate Galinsoga spp, Euphobia spp, Commelina spp and Ageretum conyzoides
Dairy
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Dairy farming is Kenya’s leading livestock sector activity. 80 percent of milk produced and sold comes from small holder farmers with women performing half of all dairy related activities. Milk production stood at 4.2 billion litres in 2009 and potential exists to take this to 5.0 billion litres by 2014. Industry reviews indicate that productivity is high due to a high number of cows in milk as opposed to higher milk yields per cow.
Smallholder’s farmers are estimated to have 3.5 million dairy cattle with average holdings of 0.2 to 3 hectares and 1-3 cows per farmer producing on average 5 litres per cow. These are fed using a combination of forage, cultivated fodder and crop by products. Disease prevention and control and delivery of veterinary services is currently weak, use of self-prescribed and administered drugs is a common practice due to cost implications and ignorance on part of the farmers.
East Coast Fever (ECF) is a major disease challenge for dairy herds. The disease is spread by the tick species Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and is estimated to affect 49.8 percent of Kenya’s dairy herds. Preventive action against ECF by means of acaricide treatment costs between US$2 - 20 per animal per year while curative ECF treatment costs between US$10 - 40.
Pests and diseases and control methods
Pest Available Control Measure Recommended Pesticides, when needed Pests Ticks • Segregate new animals for monitoring and treatment of , Deltamethrin, Rhipicephalus ticks if infected before being allowed into the herd. Pyrethrins appendiculatus • Burning of paddocks with high tick pressure. • Spraying with Acaricides. • Practice sanitation. Deltamethrin Flies – tsetse • Keep manure around the farm and calf lying beds dry flies, horn flies, (destroy fly breeding grounds). face flies, • Maintain fly free zone in the milk room. house flies, • Use sticky traps around and in the farm ( sticky tapes, horse flies, papers or ribbons) biting flies Cattle lice • Segregate new animals as they are monitored and treated Deltamethrin for infection before allowing them to mix with the rest of the herd. • Spray with an insecticide. Mange mites • Segregation Deltamethrin • Treatment with Acaricides. Diseases East coast • Tick control Deltamethrin, fever • Antibiotics Pyrethrins (for
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ticks control)
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ANNEX B: PESTICIDE PROFILES: TOXICOLOGY, USES, PROTECTIVE MEASURES
B.1 Orientation: Pesticide toxicity and risk Pesticides of necessity are poisons, but the toxicity of different compounds varies greatly, as do the risks of using them in particular circumstances. Toxicity is the quality of being poisonous or harmful to animals or plants. A highly toxic substance causes severe symptoms of poisoning with small doses. A substance with a low toxicity generally requires large doses to produce mild symptoms. (Even common substances like coffee or salt become poisons if large amounts are consumed.) Doses can be received (absorbed) via oral ingestion, through dermal contact, or through inhalation. These different dose channels typically have different toxicities. Toxicity can be either acute or chronic. Acute toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause harmful effects which develop rapidly following absorption, i.e. a few hours or a day. Chronic toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause adverse health effects resulting from long-term exposure to a substance. There is a great range in the toxicity of pesticides to humans. The relative risk of harm from a pesticide is dependent upon the toxicity of the pesticide, the dose received and the length of time exposed. Dose can be influenced by the amount of pesticide used, concentration of the pesticide and how the pesticide and application equipment are handled. For example, a pesticide can be highly toxic as a concentrate, but pose little risk to the user if: • used in a very dilute formulation, • used in a formulation not readily absorbed through the skin or inhaled, • used by experienced applicators who are equipped to handle the pesticide safely. In contrast, a pesticide may have a relatively low toxicity but present a high risk because it is used in the concentrated form which may be readily absorbed or inhaled. Formulated pesticide products (which often include inert ingredients) are given an overall acute toxicity rating by US EPA which is shown on the label on the pesticide container with the appropriate signal word as follows: Category I: Danger Category II: Warning Category III: Caution Category IV: Typically no signal word The WHO toxicity classification system is similar (classes I-IV), but assigns toxicity classes to Pesticide Active Ingredients, not formulated products. As such, it is less precise. Pesticides registered in Kenya indicate the WHO toxicity classification by means of colour code on the label as follows • WHO Class 1a and 1b – Red • WHO Class 2 – Yellow
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• WHO Class 3 – Blue • WHO Class 4/U – Green
B.2 Summary Toxicology Profiles of Pesticides Assessed by this PERSUAP. The following table summarizes the toxicological profiles of AIs recommended for use by this PERSUAP, as well as their EPA registration status. After the tables are extended pesticide profiles, covering uses, toxicology and any additional specific protective measures for the subject pesticides.
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Table B-1: EPA Registration Status & Toxicological Profile of Selected Pesticides Resistance
5 Human EPA Status management Environmental impact toxicity code
Pesticide
7 Notes 6
(active ingredient) Class WHO
RUP? Acute
xicity/Haz Generic EPA Toxicity Category EPA IRAC Code FRAC Code Code HRAC Acute& Chronic toxicity Aquatic Bees Birds Bioacccumul ation potential To ard nature
Dairy Endocrine disruptor, neurotoxicant Deltamethrin II II some 3A HT I, H HT HT ST H Avoid drift to water and bee habitats I, H, Pyrethrins II III some 3A MHz VHT HT MHz L Mixed data on carcinogenicity ED, PC
Fungicides
Skin and eye irritant Azoxystrobin U III No 11 Hz I, H HT LT LT M Aquatic toxicity varies by species Captan U III/IV No M4 PC MT MT MT L Carcinogen, skin and eye irritant
Carbendazim U IV No 1 T H, RD VT LT LT L Reproductive/developmental effects
Skin and eye irritant Difenoconazole II III No 3 Hz I, H MT LT H
40/ Respiratory tract, skin and eye irritant Dimethomorph + Mancozeb U+U III+III No Hz I MT NT L M3 11/2 Respiratory tract, skin and eye irritant Famoxadone + Cymoxanil U+II III+III No H H VT H 7
5 The WHO acute toxicity classifications are properly calculated based on the concentration of the AI in the formulated product and the Lethal Dose (LD50) of the AI(s). The classifications given here are the generic classifications tabulated in “The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard” (2009).
6 Similarly to WHO classifications, USEPA Acute Toxicity Categories are formulation-dependent. The categories presented here are the generic categories from EPA pesticide documentation of acute toxicity studies.
7 All AIs in Table B-1 are not RUPs for the values chains/uses identified in this PERSUAP or at the concentrations in the Kenya-Registered products specied in the tables of approved AIs. However, some formulations and/or uses of these approved AIs confer RUP status per USEPA; hence, the designation of “some” in Table B-1.
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Resistance
5 Human EPA Status management Environmental impact toxicity code
Pesticide
7 Notes 6
(active ingredient) Class WHO
RUP? Acute
xicity/Haz Generic EPA Toxicity Category EPA IRAC Code FRAC Code Code HRAC Acute& Chronic toxicity Aquatic Bees Birds Bioacccumul ation potential To ard nature
Fluazinam NL II No 29 H I, RD VT MT H Skin and eye irritant
Folpet U II No M4 MHz I, H, PC VT MT L Carcinogen, skin and eye irritant Carcinogen,reproductive/development Mancozeb U IV No M3 LT I, H T LT L al effects, respiratory tract and eye irritant M3/ Mancozeb +cymoxanil U+II III+III No SHz H, RD VT L 27 Mandipropamid U IV No 40 I MT-VT NT L 4/M Metalaxyl + Mancozeb II+U III+III No LT I, H T L 3 I, H, Reproductive/developmental effects Tebuconazole II II No 3 SHz VT MT MT L RD Mutagen, reproductive/developmental Thiophanate-methyl U III No 1 I, RD LT-MT LT-MT LT-MT L effects, respiratory tract irritant Reproductive/developmental effects, Triadimefon II II No 3 I MT NT L skin irritant Reproductive/developmental effects, Trifloxystrobin U III No 11 SHz I, H VT M skin irritant Herbicides Skin and eye irritant Use only Category Glyphosate III I-II-III some G I, H I, H T PNT ST L II or III isopropylamine salts to reduce risks to eyes and skin Reproductive/developmental effects, Linuron III III No C2 LT I, H T MT L skin and eye irritant Metribuzin II II No C1 H I, H VT ST-MT
Pendimethalin II III No K1 I, H VT H respiratory tract, skin and eye irritant Insecticides/Fungicides Sulphur III III No M2 LT I, H VT L Respiratory tract, skin and eye irritant Insecticides Azadirachtin NL III No UN MHz I, H ST NT NT L
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Resistance
5 Human EPA Status management Environmental impact toxicity code
Pesticide
7 Notes 6
(active ingredient) Class WHO
RUP? Acute
xicity/Haz Generic EPA Toxicity Category EPA IRAC Code FRAC Code Code HRAC Acute& Chronic toxicity Aquatic Bees Birds Bioacccumul ation potential To ard nature
Buprofezin III III No 16 I ED, LC, Endocrine disruptor; Likely human Carbaryl II I-II-III No 1A MHz VT VHT PNT M RD carcinogen skin and eye irritant; was originally Clofentezine III III No 10A LT HT LT LT M listed as RUP, but no longer is RUP Endocrine disruptor, neurotoxicant Deltamethrin II II some 3A HT I, H HT HT ST M Avoid drift to water and bee habitats S-Indoxacarb II II No 22A Hz H HT MT M neurotoxicant, skin and eye irritant Lufenuron NL III No 15 MT I LT-HT LT LT M Respiratory tract irritant Carcinogen, respiratory tract irritant, Pymetrozine NL III No 9B H I, PC ST-MT NT NT L
Spinosad III III No 5 I I, H MT HT LT L-M
Thiacloprid II II No 4A MHz H, PC VT L
Insecticide for seed treatment only Aquatic effects vary; highest toxicity is Imidacloprid II II No I, H H VHT VHT MT L to aquatic invertebrates; use as seed treatment only Aquatic effects vary; highest toxicity is Thiamethoxam NL III No 4A Hz I, H VT VHT ST L to aquatic invertebrates; use as seed treatment only Biopesticides
Bacillus thuringiensis NL III No 11a NT MT-HT NT M
Beauveria bassiana NL III No UN ------
Paecilomyces lilacinus NL III No UN ------
Pseudomonas fluorscens NL III No UN ------
Max II Trichoderma spp NL No UN H I, H - - - - due to
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Resistance
5 Human EPA Status management Environmental impact toxicity code
Pesticide
7 Notes 6
(active ingredient) Class WHO
RUP? Acute
xicity/Haz Generic EPA Toxicity Category EPA IRAC Code FRAC Code Code HRAC Acute& Chronic toxicity Aquatic Bees Birds Bioacccumul ation potential To ard nature
inert
Key to abbreviations
WHO Acute Toxicity: Class 1a = Extremely Hazardous, Class Ib = Highly Hazardous; Class II = Moderately Hazardous; Class III = Slightly Hazardous, Class U = Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard in Normal Use EPA Acute Toxicity: Category I = Extremely Toxic, II = Highly Toxic, III = Moderately Toxic, IV = Slightly Toxic, N/C =– Not classified, – = no info Acute and Chronic Toxicity: KC = Known Carcinogen; LC = Likely carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive or Developmental Toxin; P = Potential Parkinson’s disease Risk Factor, I – Irritant, H – Harmful, Environmental impact: VHT = Very Highly Toxic; VT = Very Toxic; HT = Highly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; PNT = Practically Not Toxic; NAT = Not Acutely Toxic Hz = Hazardous; MHz = Moderately Hazardous; Bioaccumulation potential L = Low, M = Medium, H = High
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B3 Acaricide Profiles (for use in Dairy) These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures. Note: These profiles OMIT all candidate AIs rejected by this PERSUAP. Acaricides approved: Deltamethrin and Pyrethrins Deltamethrin Deltamethrin belongs to the chemical class of pyrethroids; having many uses ranging from uses and home pest control. Historically, it has been used in vector control for insects like tsetse fly and mosquito and the associated public health threats they cause. In addition, deltamethrin has been used for the control of ants, bedbugs, bird mites, carpet beetles, clothes moths, cockroaches, fleas, stored product insect pests and paralysis ticks. Deltamethrin can be formulated in insecticide products as aerosols, sprays, dusts, granules and wettable powders. Deltamethrin kills insects through dermal /direct contact and ingestion. It interferes with normal production and conduction of nerve signals in the nervous system. Pyrethroids act on nerve membranes by disrupting their normal nervous system function - delaying the closing of the activation gate for the sodium ion exchange. WHO class II moderately harzadous. The US EPA classified deltamethrin as not likely to be a human carcinogen by all routes of exposure. This also applies to reproductive, developmental, or teratogenic effects. No endocrine–disrupting effects on humans are reported. Chronic health effects include neurotoxicity and decreased motor skills. It is considered the most powerful pyrethroid hence the most toxic of the pyrethroids. The chemical also carries several ecological risks like causing algal blooms and reducing bee populations and their associated pollination services. Deltamethrin is “very highly toxic” to freshwater and marine/estuarine fish and invertebrate species. Chronic exposure studies indicate impairment of growth and reduced reproductive success for freshwater species. Deltamethrin is classified under toxicity class II. Human exposure to this chemical can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and the dermal routes of the eyes and skin contact. Each of these pathways can possibly lead to acute health effects including convulsions, ataxia, dermatitis, diarrhoea, tremors and vomiting. It is less toxic to mammals due to their higher body temperature, larger body size, and decreased sensitivity to the chemical. Deltamethrin degrades via hydrolysis, photolysis and microbial action to form substances that are less toxic and the substances degrades all the way to CO2. It is not susceptible to photo-oxidation, and is more persistent in soils with high clay content. Deltamethrin adsorbs to soil organic matter so strongly that biodegradation can be stalled. It is considered relatively immobile in soils with little potential to leach into ground water but some potential to bioaccumulate in fish. Deltamethrin only poses risks to those working in regions where the chemical is applied hence protecting various routes of exposure through use of PPE can prevent the acute health problems associated with it. Pyrethrins The pyrethrins are natural organic compounds normally derived from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium that have potent insecticidal activity it belongs to chemical class of botanicals. Pyrethrins are neurotoxins, attacking the nervous systems. They still appear to have an insect repellent effect.
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Pyrethrin compounds have been used primarily to control human lice, mosquitoes, cockroaches, beetles and flies. Some "pyrethrin dusts," used to control insects in horticultural crops, are only 0.3% to 0.5% pyrethrins, and are used at rates of up to 50 lb/A. Other pyrethrin compounds may be used in grain storage and in poultry pens and on dogs and cats to control lice and fleas. Oral LD50 values of pyrethrins in rats range from 200 mg/kg to greater than 2,600 mg/kg. No mutagent effects have been reported. USEPA has classified pyrethrins as having “Suggestive Evidence of Carcinogenicity, but Not Sufficient to Assess Human Carcinogenic Potential.” Pyrethrin is extremely toxic to aquatic life, such as bluegill and lake trout while it is slightly toxic to bird species, such as mallards. Toxicity increases with higher water temperatures and acidity. Studies indicate that products formulated with piperonyl butoxide are more acutely toxic to aquatic organisms than are pyrethrins alone. For all aquatic species tested, the formulated product was more acutely toxic to fish and invertebrates than were technical grade pyrethrins. Pyrethrins are highly toxic to honey bees and other beneficial non-target insects. They are non-persistent, being biodegradable, and break down on exposure to light or oxygen. Two pyrethroid synthetic insecticides, permethrin and cypermethrin, break down in plants to produce a variety of products. Pyrethrins have little residual effect. In stored grain, 50 percent or more of the applied pyrethrins disappear during the first three or four months of storage. At least 80 percent of what remains is removed by handling, processing, and cooking. Pyrethrins alone provide limited crop protection because they are not stable. As a result, they are often combined with small amounts of antioxidants to prolong their effectiveness. Pyrethrum compounds are broken down in water to nontoxic products. Pyrethrins are inactivated and decomposed by exposure to light and air. Pyrethrins are also rapidly decomposed by mild acids and alkalis. Stored pyrethrin powders lose about 20% of their potency in one year.
B.4 Insecticide Profiles These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures. Note: These profiles OMIT all candidate AIs rejected by this PERSUAP. Insecticides approved: Azadirachtin, Buprofezin, Carbaryl, Clofentezine, Deltamethrin, Imidacloprid, Lufenuron, S-Indoxacarb, Pymetrozine, Spinosad, Sulphur, Thiacloprid, and Thiamethoxam. Azadirachtin Azadirachtin is classified as a botanical insecticide as it is extracted from the neem tree Azadirachta indica. Neem oil is classified as a tetra-nortri-terpenoid and kills or repels mites and insects including whiteflies, aphids, scales, thrips, fungus gnats, caterpillars, mealybugs, leafminers, beetles, and leafrollers on vegetables, fruits, nuts, melons and field crops as well as in the greenhouse. It is also classified as an insect growth regulator. It is structurally similar to insect hormones called "ecdysones," which control the process of metamorphosis as the insects pass from larva to pupa to adult. Metamorphosis requires the careful synchrony of many hormones and other physiological changes to be successful, and azadirachtin seems to be an "ecdysone blocker." It blocks the insect's production and release of these vital hormones. Insects then will not molt, thus breaking their life
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cycle. Azadirachtin may also serve as a feeding deterrent for some insects. Depending on the stage of life-cycle, insect death may not occur for several days. However, upon ingestion of minute quantities, insects become quiescent and stop feeding. Residual insecticidal activity is evident for 7 to 10 days or longer, depending on insect and application rate. It is very safe to humans in its pure form and classified in the least toxic class IV by EPA (relatively non-toxic). But due to the irritation caused by its solvents and carriers it is classified as toxicity class II-III by EPA. Neem oil causes moderate eye irritation. If the product gets in your eye, open your eyes while rinsing slowly and gently with water for 15-20 minutes. It has proven safe regarding chronic toxicity and is not carcinogenic, mutagenic nor teratogenic. It also is not an endocrine disruptor nor has been linked to reproductive problems in long term feeding tests. It is slightly toxic to bees. Thus the farmer should not apply it while bees are actively visiting the treatment area. It is practically non-toxic to birds, mollusks, and fish, but moderately toxic to aquatic insects. It may cause a significant fish kill if large concentrations reach waterways which is highly unlikely. Azadirachtin is relatively harmless to spiders and parasitoids andother beneficials such as ladybeetles that consume aphids.This is because neem products must be ingested to be active. Azadirachtin breaks down rapidly (in 50-100 hours) in water or light, and is not likely to accumulate or cause long-term effects in groundwater or in the soil. When used as directed on product labels, neither clarified hydrophobic extract of neem oil or azadirachtin are expected to harm non-target organisms. The substances are found in the environment, where they degrade naturally. However, product labels direct users not to apply the products directly to water, not to contaminate water during cleaning or disposal activities, and not to apply when honeybees are actively foraging.
Buprofezin Buprofezin is a chitin biosynthesis inhibitor (Insect Growth Regulator) effective against the nymph stages of whitefly, scales, mealybugs, plant hoppers, and leafhoppers by inhibiting chitin biosynthesis, suppressing oviposition of adults, and reducing viability of eggs. Treated susceptible pests may remain alive on the plant for three to seven days, but feeding damage during this time is typically very low. Insect Growth Regulator is not disruptive to beneficial insects and mites. Buprofezin is not very acutely toxic to laboratory animals via the oral, dermal or inhalation routes of exposure and they were not very imitating to animal eyes or skin (tested on rabbits). Also, these materials were not skin sensitizers (tested on guinea pigs). Buprofezin was not very toxic, irritating or caused skin sensitization following acute exposures in laboratory animals. Also, buprofezin did not cause any significant developmental or reproductive effects. However, buprofezin caused liver and thyroid gland effects at relatively low doses as well as causing a limited increase in liver tumors in female mice. Buprofezin was negative for carcinogenicity in male mice and rats and was negative in numerous genotoxicity studies. Based on these data, the USEPA classified buprofezin as having "suggestive evidence of carcinogenicity, but not sufficient to
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assess human carcinogenic potential." Nevertheless, buprofezin appears to have some weak carcinogenic potential. Buprofezin is practically non-toxic to birds and is slightly toxic to mammals on an acute basis but can be toxic with chronic exposures. It is not acutely toxic to aquatic organisms at concentrations below its water solubility limit, but was toxic in chronic studies conducted with both fish and invertebrates. Buprofezin had little to no effect on aquatic algae or macrophytes at water concentrations equaling that which would result from the application of the seasonal maximum application rate directly to a water body six-inches deep. It is relatively nontoxic to honeybees. Buprofezin is moderately persistent in the environment. Carbaryl Carbaryl is the common name for a chemical known as 1-naphthyl methylcarbamate, it belongs to a family of chemicals that kill or control insects (insecticides) known as carbamates. Carbaryl is used to control a wide variety of pests, including moths, beetles, cockroaches, ants, ticks, and mosquitoes. Carbaryl products are used on fruits, vegetables, rangeland, lawns, ornamental plants, trees, and building foundations. Carbaryl is a cholinesterase inhibitor, and can also act as a plant growth regulator.it disrupts an insect’s nervous system and may be toxic if touched or eaten. Products with carbaryl can be formulated as dusts, wettable powders, liquid concentrates, granules, or baits Carbaryl is classified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as 'moderately hazardous' (Class II).
Carbaryl is moderately toxic when fed to rats LD50 ranges from 50mg/kg to 5000mg/kg i.e. from highly toxic to very low toxicity respectively. A study with mice found an increase in tumors when they were fed carbaryl throughout their lifetime. Carbaryl does not accumulate in mammals because it is rapidly broken down by the liver and eliminated. Carbaryl is very highly toxic to honey bees and other beneficial non-target insects. Carbaryl is moderately toxic to freshwater and marine/estuarine fish and invertebrates, but is practically non- toxic to birds. At pH levels above 7, carbaryl is degraded rapidly; however, at lower pH values, degradation is slow and there is potential for carbaryl to bioaccumulate. Depending upon conditions, carbaryl has a half-life ranging from 4 to 72 days in soil. Carbaryl breaks down faster in sandy, flooded, or well aerated soils and has an average half-life of 3.2 days on plant leaves. Carbaryl does not dissolve well in water and sticks to soil and is commonly found in groundwater. Clofentezine It is an insecticide, specifically acaricide belonging to chemical class tetrazines with contact action, and long residual activity. It acts by inhibiting embryo development. Used in Control of eggs and young motile stages (but not adults) of Panonychus ulmi and Tetranychus spp. on pome fruit and stone fruit, citrus fruit, nuts, vines, hops, strawberries, cucurbits, cotton, and ornamentals. Has no effect on predatory mites or beneficial insect species. Formulation types SC, WP. Toxicity class WHO (a.i.) III slightly toxic. Oral Acute oral LD50 for rats >5200 mg/kg. Skin and eye Acute percutaneous LD50 for rats >2100 mg/kg.Animals - In mammals, undergoes metabolism by hydroxylation and exchange of the chlorine atoms on the rings for methylthio groups. Following oral administration, excretion occurs within 24-48 hours in the urine and faeces. Plants - In metabolism studies, unchanged clofentezine was the major extractable residue. Trace amounts (4%) of 2-
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chlorobenzonitrile, the major photodegradation product, were also detected. Soil/Environment In soil, the major degradation route leads to 2-chlorobenzoic acid, and finally to CO2. DT50 in soil 65- 85 d (15), 28-56 d (25), depending upon soil type. However, in laboratory studies, no leaching occurs. In water, 2-chlorobenzonitrile is the major product formed by hydrolysis and photodegradation, with smaller amounts of other compounds. Low solubility in water makes determination of soil adsorption constants difficult. Deltamethrin See Section B3, Acaricide Profiles (for use in Dairy) for the profile for deltamethrin.
Imidacloprid (for seed treatment only) Imidacloprid is a neonicotinic insecticide that is registered by USEPA for a variety of uses on food, feed, seed and non-food items. It works by interfering with neurotransmission in insects (the affected neurological pathway is less common in mammals), which leads to accumulation of acetylcholine and eventual death of the insect. Imidacloprid is of moderate acute toxicity via the oral route and of low toxicity via the inhalation and dermal routes of exposure. Symptoms of exposure may include fatigue, twitching, cramps and weakness in muscles. Chronic exposure may lead to adverse effects of the thyroid and stress to the liver. USEPA has classified imidacloprid as “Group E” (no evidence of carcinogenicity to humans). Workers using imidacloprid must wear baseline attire (long-sleeved shirt, long pants, shoes plus socks) plus chemical-resistant gloves. Due to its very high toxicity to honey bees, imidacloprid is only approved in this PERSUAP for use as a seed treatment. It is highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates and has the potential to cause chronic risk to birds and small mammals. Imidacloprid may also pose an acute and chronic risk to both freshwater and estuarine/marine invertebrates. Secondary toxicity to fish is also possible through alteration in invertebrate food chains. Imidacloprid is environmentally persistent, thereby increasing the probability of exposure by non-target organisms. S-Indoxacarb (note: “Indoxacarb” is not registered by USEPA; S-Indoxacarb is USEPA- registered) It is an insecticide of chemical family oxadiazines. S-Indoxacarb is a broad spectrum foliar insecticide used to initially control of chewing and sucking pest’s e.g. Lepidopterous insects, like moths, in their larval stages. These include agricultural pests like the beet armyworm, cotton bollworm, the cabbage looper and leafhoppers. However, it also has broad spectrum activity on other pests, such as ants and cock-roaches, and various plant bugs. Used in crops like including apples, pears, lettuce, cabbage, corn, soybeans and cotton. S-Indoxacarb has several formulations, including tablet, broadcast granule, water dispersible, granule, and suspension concentrate. Indoxacarb interferes with a group of ion channels by inhibiting the flow of sodium ions into nerve cells, hence causes tremors, cessation of feeding, paralysis and death of insect pests. Its acute and dermal mammalian toxicity is in class III, slightly toxic. It has very low inhalation toxicity, is a slight to mild skin irritant and is a skin sensitizer, but is not an eye irritant in animals. As an oxadiazine, it is highly toxic to fish, bees, crustacea, aquatic invertebrates, but conserves most
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beneficial arthropods so is good in IPM programs. Has an LD50 greater than 5000mg/kg. Human toxicity includes Neurotoxic and hematological effects, lung damage. It has not been found to have chronic toxicological effects and is not classified as an endocrine disruptor. It is not mutagenic, teratogenetic, or carcinogenic nor does it negatively affect the reproductive systems of mammals. It is considered to be only moderately persistent in the soil and is considered to be immobile thus not a threat to move in ground water. Indoxacard should not be directly applied to water or to areas where surface water is present. Runoff from treated areas may be hazardous to aquatic organisms in neighboring areas. Lufenuron Lufenuron is of chemical family Benzoylurea. Lufenuron is used for control of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera larvae on cotton, maize and vegetables; and citrus whitefly and rust mites on citrus fruit. It is an Insect growth regulator
LD50 of lufenuron is greater than 2000 mg/kg rats. In soil under aerobic conditions lufenuron exhibits high to very high persistence. Pymetrozine Pymetrozine is a new active ingredient from a chemical class (pyridine azomethines) not previously used as a pesticide. The mode of action of pymetrozine in insects has not been precisely determined biochemically, but it may involve effects on neuroregulation or nerve-muscle interaction. Physiologically, it appears to act by preventing these insects from inserting their stylus into the plant tissue. Pymetrozine has been determined to be of low acute toxicity to humans, birds, aquatic organisms, mammals, and bees. Pymetrozine is not mutagenic. It produced some neurotoxic effects, but the frequency and magnitude were low. The EPA has classified pymetrozine as a “likely” human
carcinogen because tumors occurred in two species (rat and mouse).its LD50 for acute toxicity is 5820 mg/kg. The environmental fate profile for pymetrozine indicates no major issues in the areas of soil persistence, mobility, and fish bioaccumulation. Minimal environmental residues of this chemical in drinking water resources are expected. The ecological effects data showed that pymetrozine is practically non-toxic to terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates, and honeybees. In addition, the data showed that this pesticide is only slightly to moderately toxic to aquatic invertebrates. Spinosad Spinosad is derived from the fermented juices of a soil bacterium called Saccharopolyspora spinosad and there are two active ingredients: spinosyn A &D. These compounds are produced by certain microbes that were first discovered in soil found at an abandoned rum factory. Spinosad has a residual effectiveness of up to four weeks. This contrasts with B.t., which has a residual of only one or two days. In general, Spinosad provides effective control of pests belonging to the following groups: moths and butterflies (caterpillars); flies; mosquitoes and ants; and thrips. It is also effective for some beetles and members of the grass hopper family.
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Spinosad must be ingested by the insect, therefore it has little effect on sucking insects and non target predatory insects. Spinosad is relatively fast acting. The pest insect dies within 1 to 2 days after ingesting the active ingredient. Spinosad will not persist in the environment. Sunlight and soil microbes break it down into carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Spinosad does not significantly affect beneficial organisms including ladybugs, green lacewings, minute pirate bugs, and predatory mites. Spinosad is listed by the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) as acceptable for use during organic farming. Spinosad loses its toxicity after 8 to 24 hours and so it may be necessary to reapply a few days later if new larva hatch. Although spinosad is a broad-spectrum insecticide, meaning that it is toxic to a wide variety of insects, it is relatively non-toxic to mammals (toxicity class IV). Even though it is toxic to most insects, it is relatively safe to use around beneficial and non-target species because it is only toxic if ingested or if a treated surface is contacted while wet. Single dose oral toxicity is extremely low. No hazards anticipated from swallowing small amounts incidental to normal handling operations. It may cause slight eye irritation, but even prolonged exposure is not likely to cause significant skin irritation. A single prolonged exposure is not likely to result in the material being absorbed through skin in harmful amounts. It did not cause allergic skin reactions when tested with guinea pigs. Tests for carcinogenicity were negative and it does not cause birth defects nor negative effects on the reproductive system. Chronic tests on laboratory animals were all negative. It is highly toxic to bees if sprayed directly onto them but is practically non-toxic once the residue dries on the foliage. Therefore one should not spray when bees are flying. It is non-toxic to predatory sucking bugs, ladybeetles, and lacewings so work well in IPM programs. If used on a crop, the crop can still be labeled as organically grown. This insecticide would prove useful in vegetable culture due to its low risk of being poisonous to applicator and consumer. It is moderately toxic to highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates. It is soluble in water but breaks down on a leaf surface or in the soil after a few days so that it does not pose a threat to ground water. The routes of spinosad dissipation and transformation in the environment include photodegradation and biotransformation on plant surfaces, abiotic hydrolysis, aqueous photolysis, photodegradation on soil, and biotransformation via soil microorganisms. Volatilization from plant or soil is not a mechanism of transport of spinosad in the environment. It is photodegraded quickly on soil exposed to sunlight, but the degradation rate is decreased at longer exposure times. Spinosad is quickly metabolized by soil microorganisms under aerobic condition. Under anaerobic conditions, the degradation rate is slower. Sulfur Sulfur is a non-systemic contact insecticide/acaricide and protectant fungicide. Its properties have been recognized since 1880. It is used for control of apple scab, peanut leaf spot, brown rot, downy mildew, and powdery mildew diseases. It is used on apples, gooseberries, hops, ornamentals, grapes, peaches, strawberries, sugar beets, beans, carrots, lucerne, melons, and tomatoes. As an acaricide it controls many kinds of mites. As an insecticide it controls thrips and scales.
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Sulfur is a component of the environment and is even needed by humans for nutrition and health. But ironically it is also a pesticide. Some formulations also can cause phytotoxicity on certain crops or varieties. Sulfur comes in wettable, flowable, and colloidal formulations. Compatibility with other products is considered good. Numerous mixed products with insecticides and fungicides are manufactured. For reasons of phytotoxicity, mixing sulfur with oils should be avoided. Wettable sulfurs are the safest on tender foliage and its effectiveness is based on the finely ground particles. Sulfur is known to be of low toxicity to humans, and poses very little if any risk to animal health. Short-term studies show that sulfur is of very low acute oral toxicity and does not irritate the skin (it has been placed in EPA Toxicity Category IV, the least toxic category, for these effects). Sulfur also is not a skin sensitizer. However, it can cause some eye irritation, dermal toxicity and inhalation hazards for which WHO grades it in toxicity class III. Acute exposure inhalation of large amounts of the dust may cause catarrhal inflammation of the nasal mucosa which may lead to hyperplasia with abundant nasal secretions. Chronic exposure to elemental sulfur at low levels is generally recognized as safe. No known risks of oncogenic, teratogenic, or reproductive effects are associated with the use of sulfur. Also, sulfur has been shown to be non-mutagenic in microorganisms. Epidemiological studies show that mine workers exposed to sulfur dioxide throughout their lives often had eye and respiratory disturbances, chronic bronchitis and chronic sinus effects. Repeated or prolonged exposure to dust may cause irritation to the mucous membranes and can incite asthma attacks. Sulfur is considered practically non-toxic to non-targets such as bees, birds, fish, crustacea, and amphibians. Elemental sulfur is slowly converted to sulfate in soil by the action of autotrophic bacteria in the natural sulfur cycle. Elemental sulfur leaches in soil as sulfate at a slow rate. Thiacloprid It is an insecticide belonging to the chemical class chloronicotinoids. It is used in agricultural crops to control a variety of sucking and chewing insects, primarily aphids and whiteflies. Thiacloprid works by disruption of the nervous system by acting as an inhibitor at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Thiacloprid is classified as WHO II ‘moderately hazardous’. It is of moderate acute toxicity via both the oral route and as an aerosol, via the inhalation route. It is not acutely toxic by the dermal route. It is not a skin or eye irritant. Most common signs of toxicity are reductions in body weights in rats, mice and dogs are much less sensitive. Oral LD50 for rats 444mg a.i./kg Dermal LD50for rats >2000mga.i./kg The main route for dissipation of Thiacloprid in soil is through microbial degradation (from 0.6 to 3.8 days half-life). It is stable in anaerobic aquatic conditions (half life of over 1 year), and degrades under aerobic aquatic conditions with a half life of 10-63 days. The only two major degradates (greater than 10% of applied radioactivity). There is no concern for acute risk to freshwater fish and invertebrates or for chronic risk to freshwater fish and invertebrates. In addition, environmental fate studies indicate that thiacloprid is not expected to exist in concentrations that will pose risk to freshwater aquatic organisms.
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Thiamethoxam (for seed treatment only) Thiamethoxam is a second generation neonicotinoid insecticide, possessing some unique chemical properties. Used for control of aphids, whitefly, thrips, ricehoppers, ricebugs, mealybugs, white grubs, Colorado potato beetle, flea beetles, wireworms and ground beetles. The insecticide acts through contact, stomach and systemic activity. Major target crops are leafy and fruity vegetables, potatoes, rice, cotton, citrus, tobacco and soya beans, cereals, sugar beet, peas, sunflowers etc. It is also used as a wood preservative, to control termites. It is commonly used for modern integrated pest management programmes in many cropping systems. WHO toxicity class III slightly hazardous. Low acute toxicity to rodents. Oral acute LD50 for rats about 1563 mg/kg. The rat dermal LD50 is > 2,000 mg/kg and the rat inhalation LC50 is > 3.72 milligrams per liter (mg/L) air. Target organs for subchronic and chronic toxicity of thiamethoxam include the liver, testes, kidney, and thyroid, as well as hematological parameters. USEPA has classified thiamethoxam as “not likely to be carcinogenic to humans.” Due to its very high toxicity to honey bees, thiamethoxam is only approved in this PERSUAP for use as a seed treatment. It is only slightly toxic to birds and mammals and is practically non- toxic to freshwater and marine/estuarine fish. Freshwater and marine/estuarine invertebrates exhibit a wider range of sensitivities to thiamethoxam. Thiamethoxam is highly soluble in water and may leach to ground water, but is non-volatile. It is expected to be moderately persistent in the field when used as a seed treatment but has a low potential for bioaccumulation.
B.5 Fungicide Profiles These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures. Note: that these profiles OMIT all candidate pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP. Fungicides approved include Azadirachtin, Azoxystrobin, Captan, Carbendazim, Difenoconazole, Dimethomorph + Mancozeb, Famoxadone + Cymoxanil, Fluazinam, Folpet, Mandipropamid, Mancozeb, Mancozeb + Metalaxyl, Mancozeb + Cymoxanil, Sulphur, Tebuconazole, Triadimefon, Trifloxystrobin, Thiopanate-methyl. Azadirachtin Although Neem has fungicidal properties against powdery mildew fungi, USEPA only registers NEEM/Azadirachtin as an insecticide. Thus, use of NEEM/Azadirachtin is only permitted as an insecticide. See discussion under insecticides, above. Azoxystrobin The active ingredient azoxystrobin is a methoxyacrylate compound used as a preventive and curative systemic fungicide. Some trade names for products containing azoxystrobin include Abound, Amistar, Bankit, Heritage, and Quadris. Formulations come as a wettable granule. Azoxystrobin possesses the broadest spectrum of activity of all presently known antifungals. Azoxystrobin is a broad spectrum fungicide with activity against several diseases on many edible crops and
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ornamental plants. Some diseases controlled or prevented are rice blast, rusts, downy mildew, powdery mildew, late blight, apple scab, and Septoria. Azoxystrobin is of low chronic toxicity to humans and is not likely to be a carcinogen. Azoxystrobin is of low acute and chronic toxicity to birds, mammals, and bees but is highly toxic to freshwater fish, freshwater invertebrates, and estuarine/marine fish, and very highly toxic to estuarine/marine invertebrates. Azoxystrobin is moderately persistent in the environment, but is subject to photodegradation. It may have the potential to leach to ground water. Photolysis accounts for the majority of the initial loss of the compound, the remainder being degraded microbially. Based on laboratory data, the predicted mobility of azoxystrobin in soil is relatively low. As azoxystrobin does not leach it is very unlikely to enter into water bodies except by accidental, direct over-spray. However, the compound in laboratory tests degrades with a half-life of approximately 7 weeks in flooded anaerobic soils. Captan Captan belongs to the phthalimide class of fungicides. It is used to control diseases on a number of fruits and vegetables as well as ornamental plants. Captan is a non-specific thiol reactant with protective and curative action that works by inhibiting respiration of numerous species of fungi and bacteria. It also improves the outward appearance of many fruits, making them brighter and healthier-looking. Captan is utilized by both home and agricultural growers and is often applied during apple production. Captan can be formulated as an emulsifiable concentrate, flowable concentrate, ready-to use liquid, liquid soluble concentrate, solid, water dispersible granules, wettable powder, and dust.
Technical grade captan is low in toxicity when ingested by both rats and mice with oral LD50 values of>9,000 mg/kg and >7,000 mg/kg, respectively. The U.S. EPA has assigned captan a carcinogenicity classification of B2, a probable human carcinogen. Captan is structurally similar to the compound thalidomide, which is a known human teratogen. Captan dissipates rapidly in the environment, with a half-life of less than 1 day, based on the results of hydrolysis and aerobic soil studies. Parent captan is slightly mobile to relatively immobile in various soils. The major degradates appear tobe mobile in soil. Though these degradates have the potential to reach ground and surface water, they are not expected to be persistent. Carbendazim Carbendazim is a systemic benzimidazole fungicide that plays a very important role in plant disease control. It is used to control a broad range of diseases on arable crops (cereals, oilseed rape), fruits, vegetables and ornamentals. It is also used in post-harvest food storage, and as a seed pre-planting treatment. Carbendazim works by inhibiting the development of fungi probably by interfering with spindle formation at mitosis (cell division). Carbendazim is classified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as ‘unlikely to present hazard in normal use.The acute oral LD50 for rats is >15000 mg/kg. It’s also carcinogenic also it is a suspected endocrine disruptor. Carbendazim is said to be harmful to fish or other aquatic life
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Difenoconazole It is a fungicide of chemical class azole. It is a broad spectrum fungicide that controls a wide variety of fungi – including members of the Aschomycetes, Basidomycetes and Deuteromycetes families. It controls various fungi including Septoria tritici, Brown Rust, Light Leaf Spot, Leaf Spot, Pod Spot, Ring Spot and Stem canker. It acts as a seed treatment, foliar spray and systemic fungicide. The mode of action of difenoconazole is that it is a sterol demethylation inhibitor which prevents the development of the fungus by inhibiting cell membrane ergosterol biosynthesis. It is taken up through the surface of the infected plant and is translocated to all parts of the plant. It has a curative effect and a preventative effect. WHO class III slightly harzadous. Oral Acute oral LD50 for rats 1453, mice >2000 mg/kg. In animals after oral administration, difenoconazole was rapidly eliminated practically to entirety, with urine and faeces. The half life is 9 days. Residues in tissues were not significant and there was no evidence for accumulation. In plants there are two routes of metabolism: one by a triazole route to triazolylalanine and triazolylacetic acid; the other by hydroxylation of the phenyl ring followed by conjugation. Soil/Environment Practically immobile in soil, strong adsorption to soil particles, low potential to leach below top soil layer. Soil dissipation rate is slow and dependent on application rate. Dimethomorph + Mancozeb Dimethomorph is a systemic morpholine fungicide for use on potatoes. Its mode of action is the inhibition of sterol (ergosterol) synthesis. Morpholines are all systemic with curative and preventative qualities which has been used for control of downy mildews, late blights, crown and root rots for grapes, potatoes, tomatoes, and other vegetables Mancozeb is a broad spectrum contact fungicide with a protective action which belongs to the dithiocarbamates family of chemicals, which also includes maneb. Mancozeb alone is used on a number of crops world-wide to control a number of fungal diseases, such as Anthracnose, Pythium blight, leaf spot, downy mildew, Botrytis, rust and scab. It is also effective against Algae. It is approved for use on a huge variety of crops, including potatoes, oilseed rape, lettuce, wheat, apples, tomatoes, table grapes, wine grapes, bulb onions, carrot, parsnip, shallot, durum wheat and leeks. Mancozeb acts by disrupting lipid metabolism. Mancozeb is sold in combination with a number of other chemicals to give more specialised effects. Dimethomorph does not hydrolyse and only slowly photodegrades in water and on soil surfaces. It has a moderately persistent half-life in aerobic soil biodegradation studies, while anaerobic studies showed a rapid initial degradation followed by a significant slowing down. Biodegradation was rapid in two aerobic sediment-water systems, with half-lives for parent compound of 2.09 and 2.94 days in the whole system and disappearance of parent from water after 7 days after treatment. Mobility in soils was generally low to medium, and soil column studies showed that parent compound was not leached through a 30 cm soil column and remained mostly within the top 10-15 cm of soil. The moderate persistence of dimethomorph may result in a 2.6% annual carryover and predicted
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residues of 28.1 g a.i./ha (equivalent to 0.014 mg a.i./kg soil in the top 15 cm) in the soil after one year given a maximum of six applications in a season on grapes. Plants can take up and translocate dimethomorph, although this is reduced as the compound is aged in soil. Bioconcentration is not expected. Dimethomorph was practically nontoxic to bobwhite quail and mallard duck in single oral dose and 5 day dietary toxicity studies. When tested alone, it was moderately toxic to rainbow trout and bluegill sunfish and only slightly toxic to carp. However, in conjunction with mancozeb as ACROBAT MZ 690 FUNGICIDE, it was very highly toxic to trout. No acceptable study was submitted on the toxicity of dimethomorph alone to daphnids, but as ACROBAT MZ 690 FUNGICIDE it was highly toxic. Dimethomorph alone was only slightly toxic to freshwater green algae. Dimethomorph is also relatively nontoxic to adult worker honey bees (orally and topically), earthworms, predatory mites and other beneficial arthropods. Soil nitrification, ammonification and respiration were not significantly affected at up to 10X the maximum rate (2.4 and 16 mg per kg soil of dimethomorph and mancozeb, respectively). Famoxadone + Cymoxanil Famoxadone belongs to the oxazolidinedione class of chemicals and is highly active against spore germination and mycelial growth of sensitive fungi. The biochemical mechanism of action of famoxadone is inhibition of the fungal mitochondrial respiratory chain at Complex III, resulting in a decreased production of ATP by the fungal cell. Famoxadone has low acute toxicity when administered by oral, dermal, and inhalation routes. The
acute LD50 after oral administration is > 5000 mg/kg bw in rats and the LD50 after dermal 3 administration is > 2000 mg/kg bw in rabbits. The LC50 in rats after 4 h is > 5300 mg/m , the only concentration tested. Famoxadone produces transient mild dermal irritation and transient mild eye irritation, but does not cause skin sensitization. Famoxadone does not appear to be neurotoxic. In 28-day studies of immunotoxicity in rats and mice, no evidence of immunotoxicity was found in rats receiving doses in the diet of 800 ppm, equal to 55 and 57 mg/kg bw per day in males and females respectively, or in mice receiving doses in the diet of 7000 ppm, equal to 1664 mg/kg bw per day in females, the highest doses tested. Degradation of famoxadone in soils under aerobic conditions showed half-lives varying from 2 days in silt loam to 11 days in sandy loam. Folpet Folpet is a protective leaf-fungicide. Its mode of action inhibits normal cell division of a broad spectrum of microorganisms. It acts by denaturing fungal proteins and is used to control cherry leaf spot, rose mildew, rose black spot, and apple scab. Used on berries, flowers, ornamentals, fruits and vegetables, and for seed- and plant-bed treatment. Also used as a fungicide in paints and plastics, and for treatment of internal and external structural surfaces of buildings WHO class U unlikely hazardous. The acute oral toxicity for male and female rats is >10 g/kg. It has no mutagenic effects, on carcinogenic studies it was found to be carcinogenic but dose related, also teretogenic effects were positive. Degradation is probably the same as that of captan, in which three chlorine atoms are removed under the influence of endogenous thiol compounds, with the formation of the trithiocarbonate,
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thiophosgene, and phthalimide. No information currently available. Some injury to crops due to phytotoxicity has been noted, especially during extended dry periods Fluazinam Fluazinam is a multi-site contact fungicide falling under the pyridinamine family. Fluazinam has a multi-site mode of action that disrupts enegry production in the fungi. It is used for the contol of late blight, tuber blight and sclerotinia on potatoes; gray mold and downy mildew in grapevines, scab and alternaria blotch on apples; grey mold, melanose and mites on citrus; sclerotinia rote and southern blight on peanuts. Fluazinam appears to be practically nontoxic to avian species on a subacute basis (mallardand Bobwhite quail LC50 > 10,500 ppm). Mammalian toxicity data suggest that this compound is practically nontoxic to small mammals on an acute basis (rat LD50 = 4,300 mg/kg). Although acute exposure should result in minimal toxic effects to birds, the risk assessment suggests that the proposed uses can cause chronic (reduced growth in young) effects in birds. The risk assessment suggests that the proposed uses can result in chronic risk tomammalians (herbivores and insectivores). Fluazinam is considered to be very highly toxic to highly toxic to fish (freshwater andestuarine/marine) on an acute basis (LC50 = 0.036 - 0.11 ppm). Chronic freshwaterNOAEC/LOAEC values were calculated at 0.0053 - 0.00069 ppm and 0.010 - 0.014 ppm, respectively, with larval survival, reduced number of spawns, and growth as the endpoints affected. The risk assessment suggests that exposure of this compound to fish (freshwater andestuarine/marine) through the proposed use patterns (peanuts and potatoes) can result in acute (restricted use and endangered species concern category) and chronic risk. Exposure to aquatic invertebrates (freshwater and estuarine/marine) from peanut use can result in acute risk (restricted use and endangered species concern category). Available data on fluazinam suggest that this compound is (parent and degradates) moderately persistent, should not leach substantially to ground water but may present concerns for transport to surface water by runoff (especially in soils with low organic content) Mandipropamid Mandipropamid is a new fungicide in the mandelamide class for the control of foliar oomycete pathogens in a range of crops including Plasmopara viticola in grapes, Phytophthora infestans in potatoes and tomatoes, and Pseudoperonospora cubensis in cucurbits. Mandipropamid is also proposed for uses on leafy vegetables to control downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) and blue mold (Peronospora effuse).
Mandipropamid has low or minimal acute toxicity (Category IV). The LD50 for acute oral and derma toxicity is greater than 5000mg/kg. Mandipropamid is considered to be persistent in the environment based on its degradation in soil and water. It can reach surface waters via spray drift and rainfall events that cause runoff. The major route of dissipation is degradation under aerobic aquatic conditions. Mandipropamid degrades to several intermediatery degradation products. The transformation products are ultimately degraded to non-extractable residues and carbon dioxide. Mandipropamid is moderately mobile and some of
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its metabolites are mobile to highly mobile in soils, and therefore have the potential to leach into ground water. Mancozeb Mancozeb is a broad spectrum contact fungicide with a protective action which belongs to the anethylene bis-dithiocarbamate (EBDC) fungicide family of chemicals. Mancozeb is used on a number of crops world-wide - fruit, vegetable, nut and field crops against a wide spectrum of fungal diseases, including potato early and late blight, leaf spot, scab, downy mildew and rust. It is also used as a seed treatment of cotton, potatoes, maize, safflower, sorghum, peanuts, tomatoes, flax, and cereal grains. Mancozeb is available as dusts, liquids, water dispersible granules, as wettable powders, and as ready-to-use formulations. Mancozeb is labeled by EPA in toxicity class III via both the oral and dermal route. It is a mild skin irritant and sensitizer, and a mild to moderate eye irritant in rabbits. Workers with occupational exposure to mancozeb have developed sensitization rashes. In chronic toxicity tests no toxicological effects were apparent in rats fed dietary doses of 5 mg/kg/day in a long-term study. Impaired thyroid function was observed as lower iodine uptake after 24 months in dogs fed doses of 2.5 and 25 mg/kg/day of mancozeb, but not in those dogs fed 0.625 mg/kg/day. A major toxicological concern in situations of chronic exposure is the generation of ethylenethiourea (ETU) in the course of mancozeb metabolism and as a contaminant in mancozeb production. ETU may also be produced when EBDCs are used on stored produce or during cooking. In addition to having the potential to cause goiter, a condition in which the thyroid gland is enlarged, this metabolite has produced birth defects and cancer in experimental animals. Chronic reproductive effects were determined in a three-generation rat study with mancozeb at a dietary level of 50 mg/kg/day there was reduced fertility but no indication of embryo-toxic effects. It is unlikely that mancozeb will produce reproductive effects in humans under normal circumstances. No teratogenic effects were observed in a three-generation rat study with mancozeb at a dietary level of 50 mg/kg/day. In view of the conflicting evidence, the teratogenicity of mancozeb could not be ascertained. Mancozeb was found to be mutagenic in one set of tests, while in another it did not cause mutations. Mancozeb is thought to be similar to maneb, which was not mutagenic in the Ames Test. Data regarding the mutagenicity are inconclusive but suggest that mancozeb is either not mutagenic or weakly mutagenic. No data are available regarding the carcinogenic effects of mancozeb. While studies of other EBDCs indicate they are not carcinogenic, ETU (a mancozeb metabolite), has caused cancer in experimental animals at high doses. Thus, the carcinogenic potential of mancozeb is not currently known. The main target organ of mancozeb is the thyroid gland; the effects may be due to the metabolite ETU. Mancozeb is rapidly absorbed into the body from the gastrointestinal tract, distributed to various target organs, and almost completely excreted in 96 hours. Mancozeb has modest effects on non-target organisms. Mancozeb is slightly toxic to birds, and is moderately-to-highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates and is rated as slightly toxic in crayfish, and moderately toxic to both tadpoles and bees.
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Mancozeb is of low soil persistence, with a reported field half-life of 1 to 7 days. Mancozeb rapidly and spontaneously degrades to ETU in the presence of water and oxygen. ETU may persist for longer, on the order of 5 to 10 weeks. Because mancozeb is practically insoluble in water, it is unlikely to infiltrate groundwater. If it is released into water, it will tend to adsorb to sediment and suspended solids. Studies do indicate that ETU, a metabolite of mancozeb, has the potential to be mobile in soils. However, ETU has been detected (at 0.016 mg/L) in only 1 out of 1295 drinking water wells tested. Mancozeb degrades in water with a half-life of 1 to 2 days in slightly acidic to slightly alkaline conditions. When used as directed, mancozeb is not poisonous to plants. Mancozeb, if applied to soil, will have a low mobility based on its high adsorption coefficient. It has low soil persistence with a reported half-life of 1-7 days. Again, the primary concern with mancozeb is its spontaneous degradation to ethylenethiourea (ETU) in the presence of water and oxygen. ETU has a persistence of 5-10 weeks. Metalaxyl Metalaxyl is a systemic fungicide belonging to the benzenoid class and is absorbed through the leaves, stems and roots. It is used to control plant diseases such as damping off, Phytophthora, Pythium, downy mildew, potato blights. It is used as a seed treatment for long lasting protection. It is used on many food and feed crops, and on non-food crops and for residential and greenhouse uses. Metalaxyl may be applied by foliar application, soil incorporation, surface spraying, drenching, sprinkler or drip irrigation, and soil mix or seed treatment. Metalaxyl generally is of low acute toxicity but is a moderate eye irritant and has been placed in EPA Toxicity Category III, or slightly toxic, for eye irritation effects. Rabbits exhibited slight eye and skin irritation, but guinea pigs displayed no sensitization after metalaxyl exposure. In a sub-chronic feeding study using rats, reduced food consumption and liver cell effects were noted at the highest dose tested. In a dermal study using rabbits, no treatment-related effects were observed. In a chronic toxicity study concluded that metalaxyl did not have carcinogenic potential in laboratory animals. Although people may be exposed to residues of metalaxyl in many food commodities, the chronic dietary risk from all uses is minimal. Application and post-application risks to workers and others also are minimal because metalaxyl has no toxicological endpoints of concern. Feeding data suggest that metalaxyl is unlikely to cause reproductive effects. Nor is it teratogenic or mutagenic. Available studies of the carcinogenicity of metalaxyl are inconclusive. The liver is the primary target organ for metalaxyl in animal systems. Studies with rats and goats showed rapid metabolism and excretion via the urine and feces. Metalaxyl poses minimal if any risks to birds, small mammals, fish and estuarine species, honey bees and aquatic plants. The registered uses of metalaxyl do not present an acute hazard to endangered terrestrial and aquatic animals or plant species. Aquatic invertebrates and crusteacea are slightly more susceptible to metalaxyl, which is rated as slightly toxic to these organisms. Metalaxyl is moderately stable under normal environmental conditions. It is photolytically stable in water when exposed to sunlight, with a half-life of 400 days, and is stable to photo degradation in soil with a half-life ranging from 7-170 days. These properties in combination with its long persistence pose a threat of contamination to groundwater. In aquatic systems, metalaxyl degrades moderately rapidly. Very little of the chemical is lost to volatilization. Metalaxyl is persistent and
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mobile, and both metalaxyl and its major degradation metabolites are readily leached in many soils. Monitoring data demonstrate that metalaxyl and its primary degradation products have the potential to reach groundwater. Metalaxyl is not absorbed directly from the soil by plants. Sulfur Sulfur has properties against powdery and down mildews and is a fungicide, acaricide, and insecticide. Its use would be for control of plant diseases on vegetable crops. See discussion under under insecticides. Tebuconazole Tebuconazole is not expected to pose significant acute risk to fish, aquatic invertebrates, aquatic plants, birds and small mammals. However, there is potential for chronic risk to freshwater fish, marine fish and marine invertebrates from proposed uses on turf at 1.4 lbs ai/A. Though acute risk to birds is not predicted, there is a potential chronic risk to birds that feed primarily on vegetation (short and tall grass and foliage) or insects resulting from all of the proposed new multiple application uses of tebuconazole. Since tebuconazole is persistent (T,,2=800 days) and has high affinity (K,,=906 to 1251ml/g) for soil sorption, it is likely to adhere to soil particles and may move from the application site on entrained sediments in runoff waters.
For aquatic organism exposure, the estimated peak concentration of tebuconazole in surface water from most of the proposed new uses is not likely to exceed 13 pg/L for aerial applications and 12.43 pg/L for ground applications. The average 56 day concentration of tebuconazole in surface water is not likely to exceed 10.1 1 pg/L for aerial applications and 9.03 pg/L for ground applications. One exception is the use of tebuconazole at 1.4 lb ai/acre on turf which is estimated to result in potential peak levels of 57 ppb and 56 day residues of 42 ppb. The turf estimates are based on Tier I estimate as no Tier I1 model scenario has been developed for turf uses at this time. Surface water EECs indicates no acute risk to aquatic fish or aquatic invertebrates. Chronic risk concern levels (RQs) for freshwater fish, marine fish and marine invertebrates are exceeded by the 1.4 lb ai/A use on turf, but not by other proposed use rates in this application for new uses. Repeated applications may have the potential for residue buildup in sediments that may pose additional chronic hazard to aquatic organisms. Thiophanate-methyl Thiophanate-methyl is a systemic fungicide with protective and curative action belonging to chemical class benzimidazole. Thiophanate is effective against a wide range of fungal pathogens including: eyespot and other diseases of cereals; scab on apples and pears; Monilia disease and Gloeosporim rot on apples; Monilia app. On stone fruit; Canker on fruit trees; powdery mildews on pome fruit, stone fruit, vegetables, cucurbits, strawberries, vines, roses, etc.; Botrytis and Sclerotinia spp. On various crops; leaf spot diseases on beet, oilseed rape, celery, celeriac, etc.; club root on brassicas; dollar spot, Corticium, and Fusarium spp. On turf; grey mould in vines; Pyricularia oryzae in rice; sigatoka disease in bananas; and many diseases in floriculture. Thiophanate-methyl formulations include dust, granular, wettable powder, water-dispersible granular and flowable concentrate
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WHO class U unlikely hazardous.LD50 for acute oral toxicity is greater than 5000mg/kg while for dermal dose is greater than 2000mg/kg. No carcinogenic and teratogenic effects have been reported. Thiophanate-methyl degrades primarily to MBC whether on foliage, in soil, or in water. Both photolysis and hydrolysis are important routes of degradation. While the TM degradation rate is slower on foliage than in the aquatic environment, conversion to MBC is expected to be rapid under most normal agricultural conditions. Triademefon Triadimefon is a broad spectrum, systemic fungicide belonging to a group of pesticides called triazoles (or conazoles). Triadimefon is used to control various fungal diseases in fruit (pineapple) and non-food use sites such as: pine seedlings, Christmas trees, residential (sod farm) and commercial turf, ornamentals, and landscapes. Triadimefon is classified as moderately toxic to freshwater fish and invertebrates on an acute basis. Triadimenol is classified as slightly toxic to freshwater fish and moderately toxic to freshwater invertebrates on an acute basis. Triadimefon is classified as practically non-toxic to birds on an acute basis and classified as slightly toxic to mammals on an acute basis. Combined acute dietary (food and water) risk estimates were calculated based on combined dietary exposure from pineapples (triadimefon) and drinking water (triadimefon from golf course application to entire golf course), seed treatment uses (triadimefon and triadimenol) and bananas (triadimenol import tolerance). Risks were below the Agency’s level of concern (<100% aPAD) at the 95th percentile of exposure (assuming 2 applications per year for turf at 2.7 lbs ai/A). The dietary exposure for acute food and drinking water was 33% of the aPAD for the U.S. population and 94% of the aPAD for all infants less than one year old, the most highly exposed population subgroup. The chronic dietary risk from exposure to food and drinking water was below the Agency’s level of concern, at 18% of the cPAD for the U.S. population and 57% of the cPAD for non-nursing infants, the most highly exposed population subgroup. Inhalation risks for residential handlers were below the level of concern for all residential uses of triadimefon. However, combined dermal and inhalation risks were above the level of concern (MOEs < 1000) for mixing, loading, and applying triadimefon with a hose-end sprayer to greenhouse ornamentals. In the majority of occupational scenarios where data are available, combined dermal and inhalation risks were below the level of concern at baseline (long-sleeve shirt, long pants, shoes, socks, no respirator) or baseline plus chemical-resistant gloves. However, there were risk concerns requiring additional dermal or inhalation protection (e.g. a respirator or engineering controls) for several of the scenarios involving mixing/loading/applying wettable powder. Acute and chronic RQs for birds and mammals exceeded the level of concern. Risks (RQs) did not exceed the level of concern for freshwater fish, freshwater invertebrates, and aquatic non-vascular plants. No data were available to assess the risks to estuarine/marine invertebrates, estuarine/marine fish, vascular aquatic plants, and terrestrial plants. The Agency’s screening level ecological risk assessment for endangered species resulted in the determination that triadimefon will have no direct acute effects on threatened and endangered
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 150 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. freshwater fish, freshwater aquatic invertebrates, and aquatic non-vascular plants. However, the assessment indicated that triadimefon has the potential for causing acute risk to endangered birds and mammals. Chronic RQs for endangered mammals exceeded the level of concern at all application rates modeled. Chronic RQs for endangered birds also exceeded the level of concern. No data were available to assess the risks to estuarine/marine invertebrates, estuarine/marine fish, vascular aquatic plants, and terrestrial plants. Trifloxystrobin Trifloxystrobin is a broad-spectrum foliar fungicide that has high levels of activity against many fungal pathogens within the Ascomycete, Deuteromycete, Basidiomycete and Oomycete classes. Pests controlled by this active ingredient include grape and cucurbit powdery mildew, apple scab and powdery mildew, peanut leafspot and brown patch of turfgrasses. Trifloxystrobin works by interfering with respiration in plant pathogenic fungi. The site of action of strobilurin compounds is located in the mitochondrial respiration pathway. As a result of this mode of action, trifloxystrobin is a potent inhibitor of fungal spore germination and mycelial growth. EPA finds that acute and chronic (non-cancer) aggregate risk and short- and intermediate-term occupational worker risk estimates for trifloxystrobin do not exceed EPA’S level of concern. EPA has concluded that there is a reasonable certainty that no harm will result to infants, children or adults from the use of trifloxystrobin on cucurbit vegetables, grapes, peanuts, pome fruits, turf, ornamentals, and imported bananas. EPA has established tolerances for residues of trifloxystrobin and its primary metabolite, CGA-321113 on these crops. A 12-hour REI is required to comply with the Agency's Worker Protection Standard, since the technical material is in acute Toxicity Category 3 and4 and is a strong dermal sensitizer. Trifloxystrobin has been classified as a "not likely human carcinogen". Subchronic and chronic toxicity studies demonstrated that the primary effects of trifloxystrobin occur in the liver and kidneys, at high doses. Prenatal developmental toxicity studies in rats and rabbits provided no indication of increased susceptibility to in utero exposure to trifloxystrobin. There were no mutagenicity concerns from testing of trifloxystrobin. Trifloxystrobin is expected to degrade rapidly (hours to days) inmost soil and aquatic environments. The free form of the acid metabolite, CGA-321113, appears to be a mobile and persistent metabolite that can be further degraded but at a slower rate than the parent compound. Trifloxystrobin affects aquatic organisms at low concentrations. However, trifloxystrobin is not expected to occur in surface waters at concentrations high enough to be risky to aquatic organisms with the possible exception of estuarine invertebrates with similar sensitivity as mysid shrimp. Trifloxystrobin is not considered to be a risk to birds, mammals and honey bees, because of its low toxicity. There is no presumed risk for either terrestrial or aquatic plants. Trifloxystrobin has been classified as being highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates; however, because of relatively low exposure concentrations in water, the risk to fish and invertebrates is low. There is a possibility of some effects to estuarine invertebrates, but the exposure is uncertain and this risk is lower than the risk from registered alternatives
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B.6 Herbicide Profiles These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures. Note: that these profiles OMIT all candidate pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP Herbicides surveyed include glyphosate, linuron, metribuzin and pendimethalin
Glyphosate (USEPA Acute Toxicity Category II and III Isopropylamine salts only) Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide used to kill all weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses known to compete with commercial crops grown around the globe. It can be used on non-cropland and among a great variety of crops. Glyphosate's mode of action is to inhibit an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine. It is absorbed through foliage and translocated to growing points. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective as a pre-emergence herbicide. Glyphosate is supplied in several formulations with glyphosate acid being the most common. The isopropylamine salt is being recommended which is generally the least toxic (class III). Glyphosate has a United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Toxicity Class of III for oral and inhalation exposure. Glyphosate is low in toxicity to rats when ingested by rats. The acute oral LD50 in rats is greater than 4320 mg/kg. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives such as surfactants which vary in nature and concentration. Laboratory toxicology studies have suggested that other ingredients in combination with glyphosate may have greater toxicity than glyphosate alone. Toxicologists have studied glyphosate alone, additives alone, and formulations. Epidemiological studies have not found associations between long term low level exposure to glyphosate and any disease and consider glyphosate to be noncarcinogenic and relatively low in dermal and oral acute toxicity.
Even though the LD50 values show the compound to be relatively non-toxic it can cause significant eye irritation. The toxicity of the more commonly known technical product (glyphosate), and the formulated product (Roundup) falls into toxicity class II. In a number of human volunteers, patch tests with glyphosate salt produced no visible skin changes or sensitization. Sub-chronic and chronic tests with glyphosate have been conducted and with few exceptions there were no treatment-related easily observable or cellular changes. In a chronic feeding study with rats, no toxic effects were observed given at high doses. No toxic effects were observed in a chronic feeding study with dogs fed the highest dose tested. The lifetime administration of very high amounts of glyphosate produced only a slight reduction of body weight and some microscopic liver and kidney changes. Blood chemistry, cellular components, and organ function were not affected even at the highest doses. Hens fed massive amounts over three days and again 21 days later showed no nerve related effects. Most of the field and laboratory evidence shows that glyphosate produces no reproductive changes in test animals. It is unlikely that the compound would produce any reproductive effects in humans. In a teratology study with rabbits showed it was safe; in addition no developmental toxicity was observed in the fetuses at the highest dose tested. The compound did not cause mutations in microbes. Genetic tests on eight different kinds of bacterial strains and on yeast cells were all negative.
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The compound poses little mutagenic risk to humans. Rats and dogs and mice fed glyphosate over a wide range of doses showed no cancer related effects directly due to the compound. EPA has stated that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that glyphosate is not carcinogenic in humans. Glyphosate is only slightly toxic to wild birds. The bioaccumulation factor in chicken muscle, fat, eggs, and liver was low. Glyphosate is practically non-toxic to fish, but is of moderate toxicity to some fresh water invertebrates and may cause adverse effects to non-target aquatic plants. There is a very low potential for the compound to build up in the tissues of aquatic invertebrates or other aquatic organisms. Glyphosate is relatively non-toxic to honeybees. Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence. When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated especially those with high organic content. Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria. Glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonate (AMPA), residues are considered to be much more toxicologically and environmentally benign than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate. In soils, half-lives vary from as little as three days to 141 days at a different sites. Because glyphosate is so tightly bound to the soil, little is transferred by rain or irrigation water. One estimate showed less than two percent of the applied chemical lost to runoff. The herbicide could move when attached to soil particles in erosion run-off. Photodecomposition plays only a minor role in environmental breakdown. Once in the plant tissue, the chemical is translocated throughout the plant, including to the roots. Linuron Linuron is a substituted urea, chemical name 3-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea. Linuron may be applied preplant, preemergence, postemergence, or post transplant using ground equipment. The registered modes of application are band treatment, directed spray, or broadcast spray in a number of crops including asparagus, carrots, celery, corn (field and sweet), parsley, parsnips, potatoes, sorgum, soybeans, and winter wheat. End-use products include wettable powde50%a.i.), flowable concentrate (40.6% a.i.), water dispersable granules (50% a.i.), and liquid suspensions. Linuron functions as an herbicide through the inhibition of photosynthesis. It is approved for a wide range of noxious weeds. Since the LC50falls in the range of >1 and <10 ppm, linuron is classified as moderately toxic to freshwater fish. Linuron appears to be moderately persistent and relatively immobile, however it is slightly mobile in coarse textured soils Degradation appears to be primarily microbially mediated, with an aerobic soil half-life (t½) of 49 days and an anerobic, aqueous t½of <21 days. Abiotic processes, such as hydrolysis showed a t½>30 days for pH 5, 7, and 9. The registrant calculated an average t½ of 945 days. At 30 days, 98.4 percent of the labeled linuron remained. Minor degradates were 3,4- dichlorobenxenamine (DCA), N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-N’-methylurea (DCPMU), N-(3,4- dichlorophynyl)-N’methoxyurea Metribuzin Metribuzin is a herbicide which belongs to the family of Triazinone, it is used to selectively control certain broadleaf weeds and grassy weed species on a wide range of sites including vegetable and
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 153 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. field crops, turf grasses (recreational areas), and non-crop areas. It acts by inhibiting electron transport in photosynthesis The LD50 in an acute dermal study with rabbits was greater than 20 g/kg, oral study showed acute toxicity of LD50 2.3g/kg. In studies using laboratory animals, metribuzin generally has been shown to be of Low acute toxicity. It is slightly toxic by the oral and inhalation routes and has been placed in Toxicity Category III (the second lowest of four categories) for this effect. It is practically non-toxic by the dermal route of exposure and has been placed in Toxicity Category IV (the lowest of four categories). It is also classified as "Restricted Use" based on potential for groundwater contamination and possible carcinogenic effects. Based on available data, the primary routes of degradation of metribuzin and its primary degradates are microbial metabolism and photolytic degradation on soil. These compounds will be available for leaching to ground water and runoff to surface water in many use conditions because they are not volatile. Once in ground water, metribuzin is expected to persist due to its stability to hydrolysis and the lack of light penetration. Conversely, residues of metribuzin are not likely to persist in clear, well- mixed, shallow surface water with good Light penetration since parent metribuzin degrades rapidly by aqueous photolysis. Pendimethalin Pendimethalin is a selective herbicide belonging to chemical class 2,6-Dinitroaniline herbicide. It is used to control broadleaf weeds and grassy weed species in a number of crop and noncrop ,areas and on residential lawns and ornamentals. Formulations include liquid, solid, granular, emsulsifiable concentrate, and dry flowables. It is used both pre-emergence, that is before weed seeds have sprouted, and early post-emergence. Incorporation into the soil by cultivation or irrigation is recommended within 7 days following application. It is absorbed by plant roots and shoots, and inhibits cell division and cell elongation. Once absorbed into plant tissues, translocation is limited and pendimethalin breaks down via oxidation. Pendimethalin is applied by broadcast, chemigation, conservation tillage, containerized plant treatment, soil in corporation, and directed spray Pendimethalin is a slightly toxic compound in EPA toxicity class III by both oral and dermal exposure. WHO CLASS III. Pendimethalin is slightly to practically nontoxic by ingestion. It is slightly to practically nontoxic by skin exposure. It is not a skin irritant or sensitizer in rabbits or guinea pigs, but it causes mild eye irritation in rabbits. The inhalation 4-hour test indicated practically no toxicity via this route. It’s in Group C-possible human carcinogen, suspected endocrine disruptor. In a three-generation reproductive study of rats suggested that pendimethalin is unlikely to cause reproductive effects in humans under normal circumstances. It does not appear that pendimethalin is teratogenic, mutagenic, nor carcinogenic. Chronic exposure to pendimethalin has resulted in increased liver weights in test animals. Pendimethalin is largely unabsorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and excreted unchanged in the feces. Pendimethalin is slightly toxic to birds, but is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. It is slightly toxic to Daphnia magna, a small freshwater crustacean. The bio-concentration factor for this compound in whole fish is 5100, indicating a moderate potential to accumulate in aquatic organisms. Pendimethalin is non-toxic to bees.
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Pendimethalin is moderately persistent, with a field half-life of approximately 40 days. It does not undergo rapid microbial degradation except under anaerobic conditions. Slight losses of pendimethalin can result from photodecomposition and volatilization. Pendimethalin is strongly adsorbed by most soils. Increasing soil organic matter and clay is associated with increased soil binding capacity. It is practically insoluble in water, and thus will not leach appreciably in most soils, and should present a minimal risk of groundwater contamination. Pendimethalin is stable to hydrolysis, but may be degraded by sunlight in aquatic systems. Pendimethalin may also be removed from the water column by binding to suspended sediment and organic matter. B6: Biopesticide Profiles These profiles discuss the uses of the pesticide and its method of action, toxicology, and protective measures. Note: that these profiles OMIT all candidate pesticides rejected by this PERSUAP Biopesticides surveyed include Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, , Paecelomyces lilanicus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Trichoderma spp Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) B.t. is a biological insecticide (biopesticide) produced by fermentation of the naturally-occurring soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The bacteria form spores that are killed before being made into commercial pesticide products. When they form spores they also produce a crystal-like structure that is toxic to certain groups of insects. Like azadirachtin, B.t. must be eaten before it can kill the target insect pests. The crystals break down the cell lining the insect gut which causes the insects to stop feeding within 1 day. Other bacteria pass through the damaged gut tissue and multiply in the insect's body. The subsequent infection causes death within 2-3 days. B.t. only kills immature stages of certain moths (caterpillars). There are other B.t. strains that are effective against mosquito and black fly larvae. Its specificity to pests, combined with safety to man and the natural enemies of crop pests, make it highly suitable for use in pest management programs. Because the bacteria do not spread, it is important to treat the parts of the plant normally attacked by insect larvae. It is labeled on cotton, ornamentals, pome fruit, stone fruit, vines, tomatoes, olives, soybean, tobacco, vegetables and forest trees. B.t. is considered ideal for pest management because of its specificity to pests and because of its lack of toxicity to humans or the natural enemies of many crop pests. This microbial insecticide is classified as toxicity class III - slightly toxic because of its potential to irritate eyes and skin due to solvents in the formulation. Powder B.t. products may cause eye irritation and/or sensitization. Avoid breathing spray mist or dust. Treated areas are safe to re-enter right after application. Regarding chronic toxicity, there is no indication that B.t. causes reproductive effects. There is no evidence indicating that formulated B.t. can cause birth defects in mammals. B. thuringiensis appears to have mutagenic potential in plant tissue. Thus, extensive use of B.t. on food plants might be hazardous to these crops. However there is no evidence of mutagenicity in mammalian species. It is unlikely that B.t. is carcinogenic as tumor-producing effects were not seen in 2-year chronic studies with rats. There is no evidence of chronic organ toxicity in tests with dogs, guinea pigs, rats, or
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humans, or other test animals. B.t. does not persist in the digestive systems of mammals that ingest it. B.t. is practically non-toxic to bees, birds, and fish; however, shrimp and mussels may be affected adversely and B.t. is rated as slightly toxic against them. It did not have negative effects on frogs and salamanders but is classified as slightly toxic. B.t. spores are released into the soil from decomposing dead insects after they have been killed by it. B.t. is a naturally-occurring pathogen that readily breaks down in the environment. B.t. is degraded very rapidly when exposed to UV light and is unstable in water pH greater than 8 (highly alkaline). B.t. poses no threat via groundwater. Due to its short biological half-life and its specificity, B.t. is less likely than chemical pesticides to cause field resistance in target insects. B.t. is moderately persistent in soil. Its half-life in suitable conditions is about 4 months. Microbial pesticides such as B.t. are classified as immobile because they do not move or leach with groundwater. The EPA has not issued restrictions for the use of B.t. around bodies of water. For best results the farmers should apply B.t. when the immature stages of the target pest are feeding. But do not apply if there is a risk of rain within 24 hours of application. Repeat applications as necessary at 10-day intervals (in the absence of rain). During hot sunny weather, apply B.t. in the late afternoon to reduce exposure to UV light and maximize residual control (3-10 days).Thorough coverage and proper application rate is essential. Use an approved spreader-sticker with powder formulations for hard-to wet crops such as cabbage or to improve weather fastness of the spray deposits. Beauveria bassiana Beauveria bassiana is a fungus which causes a disease known as the white muscadine disease in insects. When spores of this fungus come in contact with the cuticle (skin) of susceptible insects, they germinate and grow directly through the cuticle to the inner body of their host. Here the fungus proliferates throughout the insect's body, producing toxins and draining the insect of nutrients, eventually killing it. Therefore, unlike bacterial and viral pathogens of insects, Beauveria and other fungal pathogens infect the insect with contact and do not need to be consumed by their host to cause infection. Once the fungus has killed it's host, it grows back out through the softer portions of the cuticle, covering the insect with a layer of white mold (hence the name white muscadine disease). This downy mold produces millions of new infective spores that are released to the environment. B. bassiana is widely used as bioinsecticide for the pest control of agricultural, ornamental and forest plants. Biopesticides made on the base of B. bassiana are effective against various species of thrips and aphids, the glasshouse whitefly, larvae of Colorado beetle and also several species of leaf- gnawing pests. Biopesticides are applied by way of the sprinkle of vegetative mass. The first signs of phytophage affection are observed in 5–7 days after treatment. Biopesticides can be applied singly or by means of mixture together with synthetic insecticides. But it is not recommended to use them simultaneously with fungicides. The minimal time interval of applications for fungicides is 48 hours before and after the treatment of B. bassiana biopesticides. The effectiveness of this product depends very much on climatic conditions, the methods of application and doses. The treatments with B. bassiana pesticides are the most effective on the primary stages of phytophage development (preventively).
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Usually B. bassiana pesticides are not toxic for useful insects, but it is known information about their negative influence on bees. Besides, Beauveria cannot be used in fish farming because it is potentially toxic for fish. Environmental safety is good. These products are generally non-toxic to beneficial insects; however, applications to areas where bees are actively foraging should be avoided. Beauveria products should not be applied to water, as they are potentially toxic to fish. Beauveria products are reduced risk pesticides. Even so, applicators should wear • Overalls • Gumboots • Respirator • Rubber gloves • Goggles Paecilomyces lilacinus (strain 251) Paecilomyces lilacinus is a naturally occurring fungus found in many kinds of soils throughout the world. As a pesticide active ingredient, Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 is applied to soil to control nematodes that attack plant roots. The fungus showed no toxicity or pathogenicity when tested in rodents and various invertebrates. Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 does not survive at human body temperature. Furthermore, exposure to the public will be minimal because the fungus is applied directly to soil. Therefore, no adverse effects are expected to humans or the environment when users follow label directions. The spore of this fungus acts by infecting, parasitizing and killing eggs, juveniles and young adults of most of the phytophagous nematode species. When the spores come in contact with different stages of the nematode, it germinates, grow and proliferate throughout the body of nematode and paralyze it. Eventually it leads to the death of the nematode. Uses in agriculture include use on food and non- food crops, including vegetables, specific fruits, turf, ornamentals, and tobacco. Target pests: Plant root nematodes, including root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and cyst nematodes (Geterodera spp. and Globodera spp.) Some strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus may produce toxins that can harm other organisms. Optimal laboratory growth of Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 occurs at 21-27 degrees C, and the fungus does not grow or survive at human body temperature. No adverse human health effects are expected from use of Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 as a pesticide active ingredient. No toxicity or pathogenicity was seen in laboratory rodent studies. Human exposure will be minimal because this active ingredient is applied directly to agricultural soil. Worker exposures are minimized by required use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). The fungus grows only at temperatures lower than human body temperature, so no infection is expected. No harmful environmental effects are expected at field concentrations of Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 based on laboratory studies conducted on insects (including several hymenopterans), rainbow trout, beneficial nematodes, Daphnia magna, and single cell green algae. Also, Paecilomyces lilacinus strain 251 returns to background soil levels several weeks to months after application
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Paecilomyces lilacinum Paecilomyces is a genus of nematophagous fungus which kills harmful nematodes by pathogenesis, causing disease in the nematodes. Therefore the fungus can be used as a bio-nematicide to control nematodes by applying it to soil. Before infecting a nematode egg, P. lilacinum flattens against the egg surface and becomes closely appressed to it. P. lilacinum produces simple appressoria anywhere on the nematode egg shell either after a few hyphae grow along the egg surface, or after a network of hyphae form on the egg. The presence of appressoria appears to indicate that the egg is, or is about to be, infected. In either case, the appressorium appears the same, as a simple swelling at the end of a hypha, closely appressed to the eggshell. Adhesion between the appressorium and nematode egg surface must be strong enough to withstand the opposing force produced by the extending tip of a penetration hypha. When the hypha has penetrated the egg, it rapidly destroys the juvenile within, before growing out of the now empty egg shell to produce conidiophores and to grow towards adjacent eggs. Pseudomonas fluorescens Pseudomonas fluorescens is found naturally on plants. The bacterial active ingredients are not expected to cause any adverse health effects in humans. Various studies found no evidence that these bacteria are harmful to mammals. These naturally occurring bacteria are not expected to harm the environment, including birds, mammals, plants, aquatic organisms, and honeybees. Trichoderma spp Trichoderma is a saprophyte fungus, which belongs to the family Hypocreaceae, the division Ascomycota. Different varieties of this fungus are used in agriculture against various phytopathogenes of crops in outdoor planting and glass-covered ground. Such species as T. harzianum, T. hamatum, T. lignorum and their biotypes have the most biological and commercial importance. The active components of biopesticides made on the base of this fungus-antagonist are their spores, mycelium and products of metabolism. In the process of development Trichoderma synthesizes a lot of antibiotics (gliotoxin, viridine, trichodermin and others). They destroy the cell walls of phytopathogene fungi and produce biologically active substances, which stimulate plant growth and development. Trichoderma is able to suppress more than 60 species of pathogens (Pythium, Botritis, Phoma, Sclerotinia, Fusarium, Ascochyta, Alternaria and others) on different plants (cucumbers, tomatoes, cabbages, peppers, various ornamentals, cereals and grain legume crops). Nowadays they are known two mechanisms of genus Trichoderma biological control: a rhyzosphere competence and an induced system resistance. Both of them provide longtime plant defense. The microorganism colonization of plant roots increases yield-capacity. After the treatment of seeds with the conidia of Trichoderma or their penetration directly in soil the introduced conidia colonize root surface. It increases absorbing surface making biological obstacle against the pathogens. The full root colonization with Trichoderma occurs at the time of seed treatment when the granular form of the fungus is incorporated on the surface of plowed soil and under tillage or ripping. In a greenhouse the colonization is realized by way of the addition of biofungicide in soil mixtures. The rhizospheral colonization by the fungi of Trichoderma geneses causes the suppression of plant diseases, the speeding-up of growth processes, the increase of the resistance to diseases and
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 158 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. unfavorable weather conditions (for example draught). Trichoderma biofungicides are able to suppress not only the agents of seed, root end soil infections but the disease development of fruits and vegetative mass by way of the laying of these substances on their surfaces. These biofungicides can be effective against the powdery mildew, the grey and the white rot, the mildew and other diseases. It is necessary to incorporate the conidia of Trichoderma every 10–15 days for the control of the mentioned phytopathogenes. There are some limitations for the application of Trichoderma biofungicides. At first they are preventive only because biofungicides are usually not able to control the diseases, which have already developed. Scientific researchers have shown that the development of Trichoderma isolates is suppressed by the high density of phytopathogene population. Trichoderma biofungicides are recommended to apply as a component of the integrated system of plant defense. The fungicides containing Trichoderma are effective at temperatures more than 14°C (the optimal threshold of development is observed at 24–28°C). The using of the conidium forms of the fungicides makes their application independent on the conditions of relative air humidity. The fungus Trichoderma is harmless for homeothermal (hot-blooded) animals, beneficial entomofauna and bees. Its fungicides don't cause the heat injuries of plants. B7 PROTECTIVE MEASURES Without exception the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is a necessity during any pesticide handling activity. While the exact items of PPE will depend on the use operation users must have minimum PPE comprising Overalls, Rubber gloves (neoprene or nitrile), Gum boots, Goggles and Dust mask. The use of additional items such as Aprons, Face Shields, and Respirator masks among others should be upon reference to individual pesticide labels as well as risk analysis of the use situation. IPs should carry out relevant risk assessments and advice accordingly.
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ANNEX C: MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF PESTICIDE SAFER USE TRAINING
Pesticide safer use training must address the following minimum elements.
• Definition of Pesticides • Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons • Concepts of active ingredients vs formulated products • Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective against only certain classes of organism. • Concept of proper application rates and the concept of pesticide resistance and techniques for preventing resistance. • Concept that pesticides have specific organisms against which they are effective • Survey of the core elements of Safer Pesticide Use: IPM, Safer Purchase, Transport, Storage, Mixing, Application, Reentry and pre-harvest Intervals, Clean-up & Disposal, including specific treatment of PPE • Pesticide First Aid & Spill Response • Interpretation of Pesticide Labels --- particularly to understand PPE requirements and other precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs, and expiration dates • Proper sprayer operation and maintenance.
The following sections provide specific content notes on some of these topics.
C.1 Integrated Pest Management IPM is an integral part of Safer Pesticide Use and supporting the use of pesticides only within an IPM framework is core requirement of this PERSUAP. Therefore Pesticide Safer use training must build an understanding of IPM fundamentals.
The heart of IPM is an understanding of the relationship between pest injury, damage, yield loss, and economic loss. IPM was developed within the discipline of economic entomology. Farmers who are not trained in IPM may spray a crop upon seeing a single insect in a field or a few brown spots of a disease on a leaf. Pesticides are expensive and should only be used as a last resort and only when economically justified.
Extension workers and farmers first need to understand the relationship between increasing injury levels and crop yield of each pest which is known as the damage function. A small amount of injury in fact can cause yield gain called overcompensation. In most cases significant yield loss does not occur until a certain pest density occurs in the field because the crop can compensate for this level of damage. Then there is normally a linear decline in yield with increasing pest density. From this
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 160 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. relationship the economic injury level, economic threshold or action threshold can be defined in the case of insect pests. Other methods to assess the threat of weeds and crop diseases will need to be developed based on field experience. Certain guidelines can be developed based on experience in neighboring countries.
IPM involves several tiers of integration. First there is the integration between control methods which must be harmonious. Non harmonious examples are the negative effect of pesticides on biocontrol agents. Biocontrol, which is the action of natural enemies against the pest, is free to the farmer so it behooves him not to upset this delicate balance unless absolutely necessary. The next tier of integration occurs between the different pest control disciplines. When one sprays an insecticide, herbivorous insects feeding on weeds are killed. Some fungicides also kill insect pests. Removing weeds forces army worms to now feed on the crop. The third tier is the integration with the cropping system and farming system. Crops that are well nourished can tolerate more damage. Many crop husbandry practices also affect pests, either positively or negatively. Application of Nitrogen fertilizer is an example. On the one hand it can stimulate plant diseases but on the other can provide strength of the crop to tolerate insect pest damage.
Pests do not occur in isolation thus the crop has to deal with multiple pests as well as multiple stresses. A crop that is weak from zinc deficiency or water stress cannot tolerate as much pest damage as a healthier crop. In fact some sucking insect pests explode in abundance on a drought stressed crop further exacerbating the problem. The relationship between multiple pests and multiple stresses can be additive (1+1 = 2), antagonistic (1 + 1 = 1), or synergistic (1 + 1 = 3). This can occur in terms of yield loss from adding more pests or stresses or can occur in terms of yield gain when one or more stresses are removed due to an effective curative control effort.
The IPM training will provide examples of the different pest control methods beginning with preventative ones which start with quarantine and cultural crop husbandry methods based on good agronomic practices which increase the crop’s tolerance for pest injury. Many of these methods fall under the rubric of cultural control. Host plant resistance is also a good example of prevention. Other pest control methods can be physical (a fence to keep out animals), mechanical (using nets), or biological (parasitoids, predators, pathogens). Biological includes natural control and man induced methods such as purchasing and releasing natural enemies or using selective pesticides. As a last resort there is chemical control.
Farmers will need to be trained to recognize pests in the field and to be able to assess their densities as well as know of the several methods of control for each. Training manuals with good color photos will be essential in the training process. Government approved recommended practices need to be published and updated annually in guides given to extension officers.
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Using personal protective equipment and clothing needs to be understood for each level of toxicity. This information is summarized below as well as other information on the risks and hazards of transport, storage, and disposal of pesticides. Safety practices need to be learned such as that pesticides should not be stored in the home where children can find them.
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C.2 Protective clothing and equipment Training must address the types of personal protective equipment (PPE), when they should be worn and why.
HANDLER PPE FOR WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD PRODUCTS
Toxicity Category by Route of Exposure of End-Use Product Route of Exposure I II III IV DANGER WARNING CAUTION CAUTION Coveralls worn over Coveralls worn over long- Long-sleeved shirt and Long-sleeved shirt and long-sleeved shirt and sleeved shirt and long long pants long pants long pants pants Dermal Toxicity Socks Socks Socks Socks or Skin Irritation Chemical-resistant Chemical-resistant Potential1/ Rubber boots or shoes Rubber boots or shoes footwear footwear Chemical-resistant Chemical-resistant Chemical-resistant No minimum4/ Gloves2/ Gloves2/ Gloves2/ Respiratory protection Respiratory protection Inhalation Toxicity No minimum4/ No minimum4/ device3/ device3/ Goggles 5/ Goggles 5/ No minimum4/ No minimum4/ Eye Irritation Potential
1/ If dermal t1/Toxicity and skin irritation toxicity categories are different, PPE shall be determined by the more severe toxicity category of the two. If dermal toxicity or skin irritation is category I or II, refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine if additional PPE is required.
2/ Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of chemical-resistant glove.
3/ Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of respiratory protection.
4/ Although no minimum PPE is required for these toxicity categories and routes of exposure, some specific products may require PPE. Read pesticide label/MSDS.
5/“Protective eyewear” is used instead of “goggles” and/or “face shield” and/or “shielded safety glasses” and similar terms to describe eye protection. Eye glasses and sunglasses are not sufficient eye protection.
Note: Where necessary, Farmers can make their own PPE. For example a plastic or water repellent apron from the waist to ankle length, can be fashioned from a large piece of plastic purchased in the local market (important if walking through the spray path).
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C.3 Proper Spray Technique: Protecting against herbicide spray drift Many farmers apply pesticides with a knapsack sprayer which means that delivery of pesticides is either in front of the person spraying or to the side, not to the back as it is with tractor drawn sprayers. Inevitably pesticide drift will be carried by the wind and potentially settle on sensitive ecosystems such as national parks if they are nearby. Herbicides pose the greatest risk for environmental damage especially when their drift lands on a neighbors crops and kills or severely damages them.
The potential for drift to travel long distances has been shown with the highly residual chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides such as DDT have been found at both of the poles on earth that arrived via the atmosphere. They are in sufficient quantity that their amount can be measured. Pesticides are transported to the earth’s distant poles are bound tightly to dust particles carried high into the atmosphere and moved on jet streams. Their presence only represents a very small percentage of the drift. Spray drift is a mostly local phenomenon, whereby spray droplets move to areas near to the field.
There are a number of ways in which pesticide drift can be minimized:
Increase spray droplet size. Fog sized droplets can travel three miles while a coarse droplet < 10 feet. To increase droplet size, the farmer can reducing spray pressure (ie. 30 to 50 pounds per square inch with 5 to 20 gallons of water per acre), increase nozzle orifice size, use special drift reduction nozzles, and purchase additives that increase spray viscosity.
Distance between nozzle and target/Application height. Reduce the distance between the nozzle and the target crop while maintaining recommended height above the crop reduces exposure of droplets to evaporation and wind.
Temperature and relative humidity. As pesticides vaporize more under high temperature, low relative humidity and/or high temperature will cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray nozzle and the target. Evaporation also reduces droplet size, which in turn increases the potential drift of spray droplets. It is best not to spray in the heat of the day to avoid drift problems.
Avoid spraying when the wind speed > 10 mph. As drift occurs as droplets suspended in the air, it is best to minimize applications during windy days. If spraying has to be done, however, the farmer should spray away from sensitive areas. Local terrain can influence wind patterns, thus every applicator should be familiar with local wind patterns and how they affect spray drift.
Do not spray when the air is completely calm or when a temperature inversion exists. When the air is completely still, small spray droplets become suspended in the warm air near the soil surface and will be readily carried aloft and away from susceptible plants by vertical air movement. A
2013 USAID-KAVES PERSUAP | pg. 164 Prepared by Fintrac Inc. temperature inversion occurs when air near the soil surface is cooler than the higher air. Temperature inversions restrict vertical air mixing, which causes small suspended droplets to remain in a concentrated cloud and impact plants two miles or more downwind. This cloud can move in unpredictable directions due to the light variable winds common during inversions.
C.4 Pesticide Transport Where IPs or beneficiary groups will be transporting pesticides, training must address the fundamentals of safe transport of pesticides. (Some of the largest accidents involving pesticides have occurred during transportation.) Drivers should be trained on how to deal with and contain spills and not to transport pesticides with food. Many of the agro dealers are also small and they ship their stock individually in relatively small quantities. Agro dealers should be sensitized about minimizing potential risks during transportation.
Minimum elements of safer transport are:
• keep pesticides away from passengers, livestock and foodstuffs; • do not carry pesticides in driver’s compartment; • containers must be in good condition; do not transport packages with any leakage; • transport under cover and protected from rain, and direct sunlight.
C.5 First aid Training must include the basic elements of pesticide first aid, as per the table below. Wherever possible, personnel at local health facilities should participate in/receive such training.
General Read the first aid instructions on the pesticide label, if possible, and follow them. Do not become exposed to poisoning yourself while you are trying to help. Take the pesticide container (or the label) to the physician.
Poison on skin • Act quickly • Remove contaminated clothing and drench skin with water • Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with detergent and water • Dry victim and wrap in blanket.
Chemical burn • Wash with large quantities of running water on skin • Remove contaminated clothing • Cover burned area immediately with loose, clean, soft cloth • Do not apply ointments, greases, powders, or other drugs in first aid treatment of burns
Poison in eye • Wash eye quickly but gently • Hold eyelid open and wash with gentle stream of clean running water • Wash for 15 minutes or more • Do not use chemicals or drugs in the wash water; they may increase the extent of injury
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Inhaled • Carry victim to fresh air immediately poison • Open all doors and windows so no one else will be poisoned • Loosen tight clothing • Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or if the victim’s skin is blue. If patient is in an enclosed area, do not enter without proper protective clothing and equipment. If proper protection is not available, call for emergency equipment from your fire department (if available)
Poison in • Rinse mouth with plenty of water mouth or • Give victim large amounts (up to 1 quart) of milk or water to drink swallowed • Induce vomiting only if instructions to do so are on the label
Procedure for • Position victim face down or kneeling forward, Do not allow victim to lie on his back, because inducing the vomit could enter the lungs and do additional damage vomiting • Put finger or the blunt end of a spoon at the back of victim’s throat or give syrup of ipecac • Collect some of the vomit for the physician if you do not know what the poison is • Do not use salt solutions to induce vomiting
When not to • If the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions induce • If the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison. A corrosive poison is a strong acid or alkali. It vomiting will burn the throat and mouth as severely coming up as it did going down. It may get into the lungs and burn there also • If the victim has swallowed an emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution. Emulsifiable concentrates and oil solutions may cause severe damage to the lungs if inhaled during vomiting
C.6 Pesticide storage Preventative measures are required in pesticide warehouses in order to reduce cases of pilferage, exposure through leakages, theft and expiration of pesticides. Where IPs or beneficiaries, including agro dealers, will be maintaining pesticide stores, training must address these practices, as per the best management practices for pesticide storage highlighted in FAO’s storage manual and summarized below:
• All primary pesticide storage facilities will be double-padlocked and guarded on a 24 hour basis • All the storage facilities will be located away from water courses, domestic wells, markets, schools, hospitals etc. Wastewater from pesticide storage facilities must not be drained directly into public drains but should be pre treated on site. • Soap and clean water will be available at all times in all the facilities • A trained storekeeper will be hired to manage each facility • Pesticides will be stacked as specified in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual.
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• Inventory management will include recording expiration dates of all pesticides and maintaining a “first-in first-out” stocking system. • All the warehouses will have at least two exit access routes in case of fire outbreak • A non-water-based fire extinguisher will be available in the storage facilities, and all workers will be trained on how to use this device, and how to respond to fire. (see below) • Warning notices will be placed outside of the store in the local language(s) with a skull and crossbones sign to caution against unauthorized entry
Further, if IP-run pesticide stores exist in an area with fire or emergency services, local first responders must receive training on how to deal with pesticide fires. The smoke from such a fire is highly hazardous and effluent from water spray can do great harm to the environment. If fire fighters use water to put out a fire in a pesticide storage shed, the runoff will be highly toxic.
C.7 Proper pesticide container disposal Once pesticides have been used, the empty containers need to be properly disposed of. Training must address proper disposal. This table gives a summary of the best practices for doing so.
Proper methods to dispose of pesticides and their empty containers Container Type Disposal Statements Metal Containers (non-aerosol) Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and bury Paper and Plastic Bags Completely empty bag into application equipment. Then bury empty bag Glass Containers Triple rinse. Then bury. Plastic Containers Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and bury
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ANNEX D: People Contacted, Interviewed, List and Credentials of PERSUAP Preparers
D1: People Contacted and Interviewed
Francis Wario – FPEAK Simon Muturi – Dairy Farmer in Gatanga Samuel Ngugi – Dairy Farmer in Gilgil Bernard Ogala of KHE chief Agronomist Nicholas Mugo Technical sales person Highchem Mt Kenya region Dr. Henry Kiara – Entomologist, ILRI Thome Corner Agrovet, Naivasha
D2: List and Credentials of PERSUAP Preparers
The Real IPM Company was selected as lead consultant for preparation of this PERSUAP following a competitive bidding process. It is a Kenyan company, based in Thika that has established a global reputation in providing integrated pest management solutions for commercial growers, especially those supplying the Kenyan horticultural export industry. In the last ten years, Real IPM has been a key service provider in the agriculture sector, providing services to large and small-scale farmers, servicing local and export markets. In addition to its reputation as a leading service provider to the commercial agriculture industry in Kenya, Real IPM also brought valuable development experience to the report including:
• Technical support to USAID funded development of crop protection programmes in passion fruit and cashew nut through the Kenyan Horticultural Development Programme (KHDP) and Kenya Horticultural Competitiveness Programme (KHCP). • DFID funded programme to facilitate biopesticide registration and capacity build regulators in Ghana and to develop small-holder cereal grower’s telephone data base to increase access for information and inputs in Western Kenya through the Research into Use (RIU) programme. • EU Pesticide Initiative Programme-funded training of local agronomists serving the export industry (Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania).
Real IPM technical staff involved in preparing the report:
• Henry Wainwright - PhD, Horticulture • Rikki Agudah – BSc. Agriculture • Collins Wanyama – Msc. Crop Protection • Felix Odingo – BSc. Agriculture • Collins Atai – BSc. Horticulture
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• Lee Ngugi – BSc. Horticulture • Grace Boyani – Horticulture • Dan Kangethe – BSc Horticulture
Technical back-up was provided by the KAVES technical team.
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