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A Sheffield Hallam University Thesis Research and development of CdTe based thin film PV solar cells DISO, Dahiru Garba Available from the Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA) at: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/4941/ A Sheffield Hallam University thesis This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Please visit http://shura.shu.ac.uk/4941/ and http://shura.shu.ac.uk/information.html for further details about copyright and re-use permissions. Learning ana infurmewun otsiviuco Adsetts Centre, City Campus Sheffield S1 iWD 102 006 840 X Sheffield Hallam University Learning and Information Services Adsetts Centre, City Campus Sheffield S1 IWD ProQuest Number: 10694443 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10694443 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Research and Development of CdTe based Thin Film PV Solar Cells Dahiru Garba Diso A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Sheffield Hallam University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2011 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Abstract The motivation behind this research is to bring cheap, low-cost and clean energy technologies to the society. Colossal use of fossil fuel has created noticeable pollution problems contributing to climate change and health hazards. Silicon based solar cells have dominated the market but it is cost is high due to the manufacturing process. Therefore, the way forward is to develop thin films solar cells using low-cost attractive materials, grown by cheaper, scalable and manufacturable techniques. The aim and objectives of this work is to develop low-cost, high efficiency solar cell using electrodeposition (ED) technique. The material layers include CdS and ZnTe as the window materials, while the absorber material is CdTe. Fabricating a suitable devices for solar energy conversion (i.e. glass/conducting glass/window material/absorber material/metal) structure. Traditional way of fabricating this structure is to grow window material (CdS) using chemical bath deposition (CBD) and absorber material (CdTe) using electrodeposition. However, CBD is a batch process and therefore creates large volumes of Cd-containing waste solutions each time adding high cost in manufacturing process. This research programme is therefore on development of an "All ED-solar cells" structure. Material studies were carried out using photoelectrochemical (PEC) studies, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Furthermore, the electrical characterisation of fully fabricated devices was performed using current-voltage (I-V) and capacitance- voltage (C-V) measurements. This research programme has demonstrated that CdS and ZnTe window materials can be electrodeposited and used in thin film solar cell devices. The CdS electrolytic bath can be used for a period of 7 months without discarding it like in the CBD process which usually has life-time of 2-3 days. Further work should be carried out to increase the life-time of this bath, so that there can be used continuously minimising waste solution production in a manufacturing line. An efficiencies showing up to 7% was achieved for complete devices. However, the consistency and reproducibility remains un-resolved due to production of efficiencies between (2 - 7)% efficient devices varying from batch to batch. One of the reasons has been identified as the growth of CdS nano-rods with spacing between them. This is the first observation of CdS nano-rods and could open up many applications in nano­ devices area. In order to improve the consistency of the solar cell efficiency, CdS layers should be grown with nano-rods aligned perpendicular to the glass surface and with tight packing without gaps, or with uniform coverage of CdS over the conducting glass surface. The possibility of growth of CdTe absorber layers with n- and p-type electrical conduction using change of stoichiometry was confirmed using the results presented in this thesis. This is a key finding, important to form multi-layer solar cell structures in the future. Acknowledgement In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent, the most Merciful. Peace and blessing of Allah be upon to His noble prophet Muhammad (, Sallallahu Alaihi Wassallam). Every hamd, every thanks, belong to Him by right. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my Director of studies Professor I. M. Dharmadasa for immense guidance and excellent supervision in the course of the thesis and for his cooperation throughout my stay with him in the University. I also extend my intrinsic thanks to my second supervisor Dr. K. Vemon-Parry for her critical comments and advice. My thanks also go to Electronic Materials & Sensors Group members and all staff within MERE My special thanks go to Mr. S. Creasy for carrying out SEM measurements. I would not forget with the support from our two collaborators Institute for Materials Research, University of Leeds, UK in particular Mr. M. Murray and Prof. M. B. Dergacheva from Institute of Organic Catalysis & Electrochemistry, Kazakhstan for carrying out Raman, XPS and AFM measurements. I also wish to express my special gratitude to Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil-Nigeria for FUNDING my PhD programme. I wish to thank all my colleagues of Physics Department, KUST Wudil and the University at large. I am most grateful to all my Dala ’ilul Khairat members, Safinatul Khairi Foundation members and Habeeb Family who assisted me a lot in carrying out this research in one way or the other. I would like to express my appreciation to my beloved wife, Ummul-Khair and my children: Hajarat, Abubakar, Usman and Khadija. My sincere thanks go to my brother Siyudi Haruna and all my brothers and sisters who take care of my family while I was away during my study leave period in Sheffield. Above all, special thanks to Almighty Allah ( Subhanahu Wata’ala ) for sparing and guiding me throughout, and blessing continuously be upon to his noble prophet Muhammad ( Sallallahu Alaihi Wassallam). Table of Contents Declaration i Abstract ii Acknowledgement iii Contents iv List of publications xi List of abbreviations and symbols xiii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Solar Radiation 1 1.1.1 The solar spectrum 1 1.2 Utilisation of Solar Energy 3 1.2.1 Types of Solar Energy Technology 4 1.3 Theory of solar cells 5 1.3.1 Semiconductor concepts 5 1.3.1.1 p-n junction 5 1.3.1.2 Metal-Semiconductorjunction 7 1.4 Photovoltaic Effects 9 1.4.1 Photovoltaic Technologies 9 1.4.1.1 Silicon based photovoltaic devices 12 1.4.1.2 Other type of solar cells 16 1.5 Thin Films Solar Cells 19 1.5.1 CdTe 20 1.5.2 CIGS 24 1.5.3 Multi-junction solar cell 24 1.6 Window Materials 27 1.7 Transparent Conducting Oxides (TCOs) 28 1.8 Motivation, Aim and objectives 29 References 32 iv Chapter 2: Growth Techniques and Characterisation 38 2.1 Growth T echniques 3 8 2.1.1 Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) 38 2.1.1.1 Sputtering 38 2.1.1.2 Thermal evaporation 39 2.1.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) 39 2.1.2.1 Metal-Organic CVD (MOCVD) 40 2.1.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 41 2.1.4 Close Space Sublimation (CSS) 42 2.1.5 Liquid-Phase Deposition 44 2.1.5.1 Spray pyrolysis 44 2.1.5.2 Screen printing 45 2.1.5.3 Inkjet printing 46 2.1.5.4 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) 47 2.1.6 Electrodeposition (ED) 48 2.1.6.1 Over view of ED 48 2.1.6.2 ED in General 48 2.1.6.3 Theory of ED 52 2.1.6.4 Equation related to ED of CdS, ZnTe and CdTe 54 2.2 Material characterisation 55 2.2.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD) 55 2.2.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell 57 2.2.3 Optical absorption 59 2.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 60 2.2.5 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 61 2.2.6 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) 62 2.2.7 Raman Spectroscopy 63 2.2.8 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 64 2.3 Device characterisation 65 v 2.3.1 Current Voltage (I-V) characteristics 65 2.3.2 Capacitance Voltage (C-V) characteristics 69 References 71 Chapter 3: Experimental 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Electrolyte preparation and deposition of CdS thin film 77 3.3 Electrolyte preparation and deposition of ZnTe thin film 78 3.4 Electrolyte preparation and deposition of CdTe thin film 78 3.5 Chemicals used to clean the substrates 79 3.6 Material characterisation 79 3.7 Solar cell completion 80 3.7.1 CdC^/heat treatment 81 3.7.2 Surface etching 81 3.7.3 Formation of back metal contact 82 3.8 Current-Voltage (I-V) measurement 83 References 84 Chapter 4: Electrodeposition of CdS (Window material-1) 85 4.1 Motivation and objectives 85 4.2 Introduction 85 4.3 Linear sweep voltammogram 85 4.4 Visual
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