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THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA Diplomatic Activity In Service Of Papal Teaching: The Promotion Of Religious Freedom In Relations With Selected Islamic States During The Pontificate Of John Paul II A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Canon Law Of The Catholic University of America In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Canon Law © Copyright All Rights Reserved By Jaclyn O’Brien McEachern Washington, D.C. 2010 Diplomatic Activity In Service Of Papal Teaching: The Promotion Of Religious Freedom In Relations With Selected Islamic States During The Pontificate Of John Paul II Jaclyn O’Brien McEachern, J.C.D. Director: John P. Beal, J.C.D. The purpose of this dissertation is to assess the various diplomatic agreements between the Holy See and four Islamic states (Kazakhstan, Côte d’Ivoire, Morocco, and Egypt) concluded during the pontificate of John Paul II as instruments for giving legal form to the pontiff’s magisterial teaching on religious freedom. It also determines how much of John Paul II’s teaching on religious freedom has been implemented and if the juridic status of Catholics in these states has improved with the conclusion of these agreements. This dissertation is divided into three chapters. The first chapter identifies four key elements of John Paul II’s teaching on religious liberty which shaped the Holy See’s diplomacy, shows how the pope developed from these four theological principles twelve specific benchmarks for success in promoting religious freedom, and identifies and examines the four core strategies that the Holy See has utilized to advance religious freedom, particularly in Islamic majority states. The second chapter examines the organization and functions of the diplomatic activity of the Holy See, including the activity of the Pontifical Council for Inter-religious Dialogue (Pastor bonus 159-162), and the instruments available for realizing the ecclesial vision of religious freedom in the Church’s external public law. The third chapter discusses how the teachings of the Church as articulated by John Paul II have been given form within his pontificate in the diplomatic agreements with all four Islamic states under consideration. It examines each of these agreements and the corresponding diplomatic initiatives to determine whether John Paul II met his own theologically-derived standards in promoting religious freedom through these diplomatic initiatives in these four Islamic-majority states. This dissertation by Jaclyn O’Brien McEachern fulfills the dissertation requirements for the doctoral degree in Canon Law approved by John P. Beal, J.C.D., as Director, and by Kurt Martens, J.C.D., and Robert A. Destro, J.D. as Readers. ___________________________________ John P. Beal, J.C.D., Director ___________________________________ Kurt Martens, J.C.D., Reader ___________________________________ Robert A. Destro, J.D., Reader ii To Patrick iii Contents Introduction ............................................................1 Chapter 1 I. Introduction ...........................................................8 II. Key Theological Elements of John Paul II’s Teaching on Religious Freedom ......11 A. Religious Freedom is a Requirement of Respect for Human Dignity .......14 B. Religious Freedom is a Universal and Indefeasible Right ...............23 C. Religious Freedom is an Individual Right with Private and Social Dimensions30 D. Religious Freedom is the Source and Synthesis of All Other Rights .......35 III. John Paul II’s Empirical Metrics for Determining if Religious Freedom is Present in States .............................................................44 A. Personal Empirical Metrics .......................................45 1. Freedom to Select One’s Religion ............................45 2. Freedom to Worship ......................................45 3. Freedom of Education .....................................46 4. Freedom of Religious Access ...............................46 5. Freedom from Discrimination and Coercion ....................47 B. Social Empirical Metrics .........................................48 1. Freedom to Organize ......................................48 2. Freedom to Appoint Leaders and Operate Transnationally .........48 3. Freedom to Train Their Own Ministers ........................50 4. Freedom of Speech and of the Press ..........................50 5. Freedom to Proclaim and Communicate Religious Teaching .......51 6. Freedom to Act Charitably ..................................52 7. Freedom of Dialogue ......................................52 IV. Diplomatic Tactics Stemming from John Paul II’s Teaching on Religious Freedom 53 A. The Promotion of Respect ........................................54 B. The Promotion of Dialogue .......................................64 C. Efforts to Secure Religious Freedom in Law .........................78 D. Efforts to Ensure the Survival of Religious Minorities ..................85 V. Conclusion .........................................................93 Chapter 2 I. Introduction ..........................................................95 II. Definition of the Holy See ..............................................95 III. Definition of the Holy See’s Diplomacy ..................................99 iv IV. Brief History of the Holy See’s Diplomacy ...............................102 V. The Juridic Status of the Holy See Under International Law ..................108 VI. The Juridic Status of the Holy See Under Canon Law ......................111 VII. The Nature and General Goals of the Holy See’s Diplomacy ................115 VIII. Diplomatic Actors in the Holy See’s Diplomacy .........................118 A. The Pope ....................................................119 1. The General Role of the Pope as a Diplomatic Actor ............119 2. Pope John Paul II as a Diplomatic Actor ......................120 B. The Secretariat of State .........................................123 1. The General Role of the Secretariat of State ...................122 a. The Section for General Affairs .......................124 b. The Section for Relations with States ..................125 2. The Secretariat of State Under Pope John Paul II ...............127 C. Legates ......................................................128 1. The General Role of Legates ...............................128 a. Apostolic Nuncios .................................130 b. Apostolic Delegates ................................132 c. Delegates or Observers ..............................132 2. The Function of Papal Legates ..............................133 D. The Roman Curia .............................................137 1. The General Role of the Roman Curia ........................137 a. Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace ................138 b. Pontifical Council for Culture ........................141 c. Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue ............142 2. The Roman Curia Under Pope John Paul II ....................146 IX. Power, Methods, and Tools of the Holy See’s Diplomacy ...................146 A. The Moral Authority of the Pope .................................146 B. The Holy See’s Bilateral Relations and Diplomatic Agreements .........151 1. Common Terms Applied to Diplomatic Agreements ............153 a. Treaties ..........................................155 b. Agreements ......................................156 c. Conventions ......................................157 d. Charters .........................................158 e. Protocols .........................................159 f. Declarations ......................................160 g. Memoranda of Understanding ........................161 h. Modus Vivendi ....................................161 i. Exchange of Notes .................................161 v 2. The Holy See’s Practice: Categorization of Terms ..............162 3. The Making of Diplomatic Agreements ......................164 a. Formalities .......................................164 b. Expression of Consent to Diplomatic Agreements ........166 i. Consent by Signature .........................166 ii. Consent by Exchange of Instruments ............167 iii. Consent by Ratification ......................168 iv. Consent by Acceptance or Approval ............168 v. Consent by Accession ........................169 c. Entry into Force of Diplomatic Agreements .............169 4. The Holy See’s Practice: Entry into Force of Diplomatic Agreements ........................................... 170 C. The Holy See’s Multilateral Relations .............................171 1. Diplomatic Agreements ...................................173 2. The Holy See At the United Nations .........................174 D. The Holy See as Arbiter ........................................178 X. Arguments For and Against the Continuation of the Holy See’s Diplomacy ......179 XI. Conclusion ........................................................181 Chapter 3 I. Introduction .........................................................183 II. The Republic of Kazakhstan ...........................................185 A. Introduction ..................................................185 B. Religious Freedom in Kazakhstan from Independence to the Agreement with the Holy See: 1991-1998 ..........................................187 1. Freedom to Appoint Leaders ...............................188 2. Freedom to Proclaim and Communicate Religious Teaching and Freedom from Discrimination ................................189 C. The 1998 Agreement

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