March 27th, 2009
Message from the Program Committee:
Welcome to the fifth annual meeting of the SC Upstate Research Symposium! The SC Upstate Research Symposium Series offers faculty and students the opportunity to showcase their current research, scholarly, and creative activities while interacting with other researchers and community leaders from throughout the Upstate. This year’s meeting features presentations and posters from faculty and students from USC Upstate, Converse College, Wofford College, Limestone College, Spartanburg Methodist College, Spartanburg Community College, Southern Wesleyan University, Lander University, Sherman College, and Presbyterian College. We would like to sincerely thank our community sponsors: Stäubli (our GOLD Sponsor), Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System (our SILVER Sponsor). Such support from prominent regional businesses and institutions is greatly appreciated and essential for the advancement of academic research in the Upstate. We would also like to thank the EPSCoR/IDeA RS state grant program. This year’s event will include keynote speeches by Mayor William Barnet III, Mayor of Spartanburg and Dr. Jay Moskowitz, President of Health Sciences South Carolina. Special invited guests include Mr. David Root of Converse Motors, who will present his company’s cutting edge Hydrogen Add-on Technology for automobiles during the Poster Session. If you have any questions or comments about this Symposium Series, or would like to receive an additional printed copy of the most recent Symposium Proceedings, please contact Dr. Sebastian van Delden, (864) 503-5292, [email protected]. More information can also be found on the Symposium website: http://www.uscupstate.edu/symposium.
Once again, welcome! The Program Committee
Sincere Thanks to our Community Sponsors:
The Stäubli Corporation is the Gold Level Sponsor for the Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium. Stäubli is a mechatronics solution provider with three dedicated divisions: textile machinery, connectors, and robotics. With a workforce of over 3000, the company generates a yearly turnover surpassing 1 billion Swiss francs. Originally founded 1892 as a small workshop in Horgen / Zurich, today Stäubli is an international group with its head office in Pfäffikon, Switzerland. Visit http://www.staubli.com for more information. The Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System is the Silver Level Sponsor for the Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium. The Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System offers a unique combination of world-class facilities, caring and dedicated professionals, advanced technology, and specialized treatment options. “Spartanburg Regional is more than a hospital, we’re are a family of healthcare providers who live and work in the Upstate. We're here to care for you when you need medical attention, but we're also here to help keep you well. We're your healthcare system, and we're with you for life.” Visit http://www.srhs.com for more information.
Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 1
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Table of Contents The Program Committee ...... 7 Keynote Speakers and Tutorial Presenters ...... 8 Symposium Schedule Overview ...... 9 Breakout Session 1: Biology ...... 10 Session Chair: Neval Erturk, Converse College Comparative Histopathology of the Lungs and Urinary Bladder of Rana pipiens Infected with Parasitic Helminths...... 10 Edna Steele, Stephanie Newton and Baye Williamson Converse College Ploidy Levels and Genome Sizes of Magnolia L. Species, Hybrids, and Cultivars .... 13 Kevin Parris, Spartanburg Community College; Thomas Ranney, N.C. State University W. Vance Baird and Halina Knap, Clemson University Messin' with Texas! The genus Isoetes (Isoetaceae) in the Lonestar State ...... 16 C. Matthew Hardman and Kerry Heafner Limestone College Using Spatial Assessment of Drift Fence Captures to Investigate Juvenile Dispersal of Ranid Frogs ...... 18 Chelsea Kross and Melissa Pilgrim USC Upstate Three Allotetraploid Segregates of Isoetes piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed ...... 21 Ricky Brannon, Miranda Dornis, Kristen Smith and Kerry Heafner Limestone College
Breakout Session 2: Human and Civil Rights: Around the World...... 24 Session Chair: Jane Watkins, Limestone College Charles W. Chesnutt and Racial Caricatures in Post-Bellum, ...... 24 Pre-Harlem America Peter Caster USC Upstate Child Trafficking - Borderline Slavery ...... 30 Landis Bunch and Carolyn Hooker Spartanburg Community College Environmental Activism in the Middle East ...... 32 Joni Hammond and Lizabeth Zack USC Upstate Scars of Africa ...... 34 Robin Ivey and Carolyn Hooker Spartanburg Community College Child Soldiers in Burma...... 36 Sam Karns and Carolyn Hooker Spartanburg Community College
Breakout Session 3: Mathematics and Computer Science ...... 38 Session Chair: Jerome Lewis, USC Upstate A Novel Robotic Approach to Contour Recovery using Structured Light ...... 38 Nicole Hodge, Robert Mahmoudishad, Mark Parrish, and Sebastian van Delden USC Upstate
2 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
Multithreaded and Parallel Programming: Problems and the Environments and Tools to Handle Them ...... 41 Edward Stokes and Wayne Smith Presbyterian College Mining Exceptions as Interesting Knowledge ...... 44 Stephen St. Peter and Rick Chow USC Upstate Determinants of Information Technology Acceptance: A Review ...... 48 of Technology Acceptance Model Bilquis Ferdousi Spartanburg Community College Mathematical Modeling of non-Newtonian Peristaltic Flows ...... 52 Muhammad Hameed USC Upstate Poster Session ...... 54 Investigation of the Role of Promoter Methylation and Histone Modification in the Down-regulation of the Colon Tumor Suppressor, DRA ...... 54 Derek Griffith and Jeannie Chapman USC Upstate An In-Depth Study of the Length of Hospital Stays with Regard to Procedures performed on Type II Diabetes Patients ...... 56 Anneliese Schmidt and Wei Zhong USC Upstate Implementation of the North American Amphibian Monitoring Program in ...... 58 the Upstate Region of South Carolina Alexsis Ferguson and Melissa Pilgrim USC Upstate Size of Rank Tests for Location in Linear Models with Repeated Observations ...... 61 Daniel Hagerman and Bernard Omolo USC Upstate On the Properties and Applications of the Space of Linear Functions L(R) ...... 63 Michael Blackmon and Gamal Elnagar USC Upstate Action Rule Summaries ...... 65 Cuong Hoang, Anna Novo and Angelina Tzacheva USC Upstate Transition to Preschool Programs for Young Children with Disabilities ...... 68 Delia Malone, Converse College Peggy Gallagher, Georgia State University The Effects of Linoleic Acid on Taste Preferences in Rats ...... 71 Harry Quedenfield and David Pittman Wofford College How Water-Replete Rats Respond to Different Tastes under the Influences of benzodiazepines ...... 74 Lindsey Richardson and David Pittman Wofford College How Water-Deprived Rats Respond to Different Tastes under the Influence of benzodiazepines ...... 77 Molly McGinnis and David Pittman Wofford College
Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 3
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Older Husbands and Younger Wives: The January-May Marriage in Nineteenth-Century British Literature ...... 80 Esther Godfrey USC Upstate Oil and Western Friendliness, The Cause for Russian Interference in Former Soviet-bloc Nations ...... 84 Seth Rubenstein and Trevor Rubenzer USC Upstate Efficient Estimation of Cox Model with Time-Dependent Coefficients with Missing Causes ...... 87 Seunggeun Hyun, USC Upstate Yanging Sun, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Modernism's Egypt "And Other Disorders of a Revolutionary Character" ...... 90 Celena Kusch USC Upstate Southern Wesleyan University Strategic Human Resource Plan ...... 93 Beverly Lowe, Felicia Thomas-Adams, Nicole Varnum and Lee Kizer Southern Wesleyan University Metaphor Familiarity and L2 Instruction ...... 95 Quincy Jenkins Spartanburg Community College The Preparation and Coordination Chemistry of N-2-pyridyl-N-2- (-4-phenylthiazoly)amine ...... 98 Geoffrey Ford and Edward Gouge Presbyterian College The Effects of Exposure to Domestic Violence on Child and Adolescent Development ...... 101 Vernette Porter, Jennifer Parker and Stefanie Keen USC Upstate Implementation of Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Type-2 Diabetes Patients ...... 104 Nicole Hodge and Wei Zhong USC Upstate Breakout Session 4: Healthcare ...... 107 Session Chair: Gayle Casterline, USC Upstate Correlation of Selected Health Determinants and Outcomes in the United States: 2005 ...... 107 John Hart Sherman College of Straight Chiropractic Ukranian Nursing: A Survey of Caring Behaviors ...... 109 Gayle Casterline and Nataliya Lishchenko USC Upstate Prevention of Hospital-Acquired, Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections: A Pilot Study ...... 112 Brian Conner Lander University Classification of Patients with Heart Disease Using Multi-Level Support Vector Machines ...... 116 Wei Zhong, Rick Chow, Richard Stolz and Marsha Dowell USC Upstate
4 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
Evidence of a New Taste Sensation for Dietary Fat...... 119 David Pittman Wofford College
Breakout Session 5: Human and Civil Rights: Here At Home ...... 122 Session Chair: Cole Cheek, Spartanburg Methodist College The Story of a "Typical American Girl" ...... 122 Christen Burrell and Melissa Walker Converse College Talkin' 'bout South Carolina: Addressing Dialect Diversity in Middle School Classrooms...... 124 George Reed and David Marlow USC Upstate Race and Class Identity in The Great Gatsby and Passing...... 126 John Crocker and Celena Kusch USC Upstate Meg Barnhouse: A Case Study of Discrimination in the Ministry ...... 129 Elizabeth Roberds and Melissa Walker Converse College From Lighting was Born a Man: Myth, Reality and Chief Pushmataha ...... 132 Cole Cheek Spartanburg Methodist College
Breakout Session 6: Education & Pedagogy: Learning & Assessment ...... 136 Session Chair: Jane Watkins, Limestone College Effect of the 6+1 Trait Writing Model on Student Writing Achievement ...... 136 Nancy DeJarnette, Limestone College Implementation of Learner-Centered Teaching in Higher Education: A "Customer Service" concept for academia? ...... 139 Joseph Ongeri, Spartanburg Methodist College The Peer Mentoring Program: A Pilot Program for the USC Upstate School of Education ...... 142 Daphine Dawson and Tina Herzberg, USC Upstate A Study in Cooperative Group Learning Styles at Spartanburg Community College ...... 145 William Gelders, Spartanburg Community College Assessment Beliefs and Practices of South Carolina Teachers...... 148 Sharon Feaster-Lewis, Southern Wesleyan University Chris Burkett, Columbia College
Breakout Session 7: Music and The Arts ...... 151 Session Chair: Rachel Snow, USC Upstate Audiation: The Musical Key to a Magical Life ...... 151 Jarrod Haning Converse College Playing the Gig You're On: Coltrane Knew How ...... 154 Gregg Akkerman USC Upstate
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Parallels of Musical Prosospopoeia in Buxtehude's Frieid und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt (1674) and Jacopo Peri's L'Euridice (1600) ...... 158 Ashley Higgins Converse College Romare Bearden: Contribution and Contrast to the Harlem Renaissance ...... 161 Mckensie Hall and Rachel Snow USC Upstate
Breakout Session 8: Business and Economics ...... 166 Session Chair: Royce Caines, Southern Wesleyan University A Preliminary Discussion of Corporate Social Responsibility ...... 166 Lilly Lancaster and Megan Creech USC Upstate Existence of Economies of Scale within Athletic Departments at Private, Four Year Institutions ...... 169 John Frazier Southern Wesleyan University Pro-Israel Campaign Contributions and Congressional Votes ...... 171 Trevor Rubenzer and Christopher Weidensee USC Upstate Strategic Human Resources Plan for the SWU Marketing Department ...... 174 Diana West, Joan Burgess, Leesa Inabinet, Susan Jones, Kirk Smith and Lee Kizer, Southern Wesleyan University
Breakout Session 9: Education & Pedagogy: Beyond the Classroom ...... 176 Session Chair: Tina Herzberg, USC Upstate The Classroom of the Future: Global, Interactive, Narrative ...... 176 Liezell Bradshaw, Tasha Thomas and York Bradshaw USC Upstate A Descriptive Analysis of Quality Online Practices as Perceived by West Virgina Higher Education Faculty ...... 179 Michael Murphy Lander University Undegraduate Community Translators and Interpreters: Professional Foreign Language Practice in Non-Profit, Food Service, and Health Care at Home and Abroad ...... 181 Douglas Jackson, Dierrias Booker, William Davis, Kayla Crim, Eric Guerreo and Melissa Trejo, USC Upstate The Marketing and Enrollment Department for Adult MBA Graduate Studies Strategic Human Resources Plan ...... 183 Barbara Peters, Zeolean Kinard, Deborah Williams, Mamie Whitaker, Howard Green and Lee Kizer, Southern Wesleyan University
6 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
The 2009 Program Committee
Dr. Sebastian van Delden, Dr. Caleb Arrington Symposium Chair Associate Professor of Chemistry Assistant Professor of Computer Wofford College Science; Director of Research Support USC Upstate
Susan Hodge, Sponsors Chair Dr. John Hart Senior Director of Community Associate Professor of Clinical Engagement Sciences; USC Upstate Assistant Director of Research Sherman College of Straight Chiropractic
Dr. Neval Erturk, Student Dr. Latha Gearheart Awards Chair Associate Professor of Chemistry; Assistant Professor of Biology Director of PC Summer Fellows Converse College Program Presbyterian College
Dr. Royce Caines Dr. Jane Watkins Dean and Professor Assistant Professor of Computer School of Business Science Southern Wesleyan University Limestone College
Dr. David Slimmer Dr. Dwight Dimaculangan Dean of the College of Science and Professor of Biology; Math; Director of Undergraduate Professor of Physics Research in CAS Lander University Winthrop University
Sherill Vaughn Cole Cheek Vice President of Academic Affairs Professor of History and Spartanburg Community College Anthropology Spartanburg Methodist College
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Keynote Speakers
Mayor William Barnet III, Mayor of the City of Spartanburg, South Carolina. Mayor Barnet received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Dartmouth College in 1964 and a Master of Business Administration degree from Amos Tuck School at Dartmouth College in 1965. He was a 1st Lieutenant in the US Army and Adjutant General’s Corps in 1967/1968. Mayor Barnet joined the family business, William Barnet & Son, Inc. (founded 1898) on December 1, 1968. He was elected President and CEO in 1976 and sold the company to a management team in April 2001. He is currently CEO of The Barnet Company and Barnet Development Company. He has served on several public and civic boards, including: Bank of America, Duke Energy, Palmetto Business Forum, ETV Endowment, Palmetto Institute, The Duke Endowment, Girl Scouts of South Carolina – Mountains to Midlands Council, Education Oversight Committee (Chairman), Leadership Spartanburg (Past Chairman), South Carolina Textile Manufacturers Association (Past President), Spartanburg County Foundation (Past Trustee). Mayor Barnet has received several Honors, including the Al Willis Award, Business Leader of the Year – 2001, the Dexter Edgar Converse Award, The Daniel Morgan Award, The Neville Holcombe Distinguished Citizen Award, the Order of the Palmetto, Paul Harris Fellow, South Carolina Business Hall of Fame, Citizen of the Year, Drummond Award for Statesmanship, and the National Alumni Association – Distinguished Citizen Award.
Dr. Jay Moskowitz, President of Health Sciences South Carolina. Dr. Moskowitz attended Queens College (City University of New York) from 1960-65, graduating from Brown University, in 1969, with a Ph.D. from the Division of Biological and Medical Sciences. Dr. Moskowitz joined the National Institutes of Health in 1969 and for over 26 years served in a number of capacities from Postdoctoral Research Associate, to Director, National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, to Principal Deputy Director and Deputy Director for Science, Policy and Technology Transfer. In 1995, Dr. Moskowitz joined Wake Forest University School of Medicine (formerly Bowman Gray School of Medicine) as Senior Associate Dean (Science and Technology) and tenured Professor of Public Health Sciences serving in that capacity until January 2002. In January 2002, Dr. Moskowitz joined The Pennsylvania State University as Associate Vice President for Health Sciences Research, Vice Dean for Research and Graduate Studies, Penn State College of Medicine, and Chief Scientific Officer, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center. He was a Professor of Medicine in the College of Medicine and Professor of Health Policy and Administration in the College of Health and Human Development. In September 2007, Dr. Moskowitz accepted the positions of President and CEO of Health Sciences South Carolina, Endowed Chair and Professor of Translational Clinical Research in the Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina. He also serves as Professor of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, and Adjunct Professor of Public Health, Clemson University. He has received numerous national, scientific, and community awards throughout his career. Tutorial Presenters
Granting Writing Engaging New Technology Elaine Marshall Undergraduates for Increasing Director of in Research Research Sponsored Awards Julie Morris Productivity USC Upstate Director of Cindy Jennings Undergraduate Director of Research Instructional USC Columbia Technology USC Upstate
8 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
PROGRAM SCHEDULE Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium March 27th, 2009 - Spartanburg Marriott
8:00-8:30 Registration, Poster Set-up 8:30-8:40 Opening Remarks, Sebastian van Delden, Symposium Chair 8:40-9:00 Welcome Address, Mayor William Barnet III, Mayor of Spartanburg 9:00-10:15 BREAKOUT SESSIONS I Tutorial Session 1: New Technology for Research (Ballroom) Cindy Jennings, USC Upstate Breakout Session 1: Biology (Salon A) Breakout Session 2: Human and Civil Rights: Around the World (Salon B) Breakout Session 3: Math and Computer Science (Salon C)
10:15-11:15 POSTER SESSION, Coffee Break 11:15-12:30 BREAKOUT SESSIONS II Tutorial Session 2: Engaging Undergraduates in Research Julie Morris, USC Columbia Breakout Session 4: Healthcare (Salon A) Breakout Session 5: Human and Civil Rights: Here At Home (Salon B) Breakout Session 6: Education & Pedagogy: Learning & Assessment (Salon C) 12:30-1:30 LUNCH; Keynote Speaker: Dr. Jay Moskowitz, President of Health Sciences South Carolina; Student Awards - Best Paper and Poster Awards 1:30-2:30 BREAKOUT SESSIONS III Tutorial Session 3: Grant Writing Elaine Marshall, USC Upstate Breakout Session 7: Music and The Arts (Salon A) Breakout Session 8: Business and Economics (Salon B) Breakout Session 9: Education & Pedagogy: Beyond the Classroom (Salon C)
2:30-2:45 Poster break-down
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Comparative Histopathology of the Lungs and Urinary Bladder of Rana pipiens Infected with Parasitic Helminths
Stephanie Newton, Baye Williamson, and Edna Steele Department of Biology Converse College 580 E. Main St., Spartanburg, SC 29302 {Stephanie.newton, Baye.williamson, Edna.steele}@converse.edu
Abstract — A total of 37 leopard frogs (Rana pipiens), metacercariae excyst and release the young flukes obtained in August and October 2006 from Nashville, which then migrate to the esophagus, trachea, and Tennessee, were examined for the presence of parasitic finally to lungs where they mature into adults [2]. helminths. Seventy six percent of the lungs examined Another parasite that inhabits the lung of frogs were infected with digenetic trematodes, is the nematode, Rhabdias spp. The infective Haematoloechus medioplexus, with a mean parasite filariform larvae of this nematode penetrate the intensity of 7.45. Rhabdias spp., a parasitic nematode, skin of an anuran, such as R. pipiens. They lodge was also found inhabiting the lungs, with parasite within various tissues in the host. However, only prevalence of 89% and mean parasite intensity of 8.45. those that reach the lungs are able to survive. In some of the lungs that were concurrently infected Within the lungs, the nematodes mature into with Haematoloechus and Rhabdias, significant hermaphroditic adults [3]. hemorrhage and copious mucus were observed. The The urogenital system of frogs is also urinary bladder was infected with another digenetic frequently inhabited by parasitic flukes, trematode, Gorgodera amplicava, with a parasite particularly the members of the Gorgoderidae family [4]. Gorgodera amplicava inhabits the prevalence of 50% and mean intensity of 0.69. Unlike urinary bladder of Rana pipiens. The adult fluke is the lungs, no nematodes and no hemorrhaging or 3 - 5mm long. The anterior portion is smaller than copious mucus secretions were observed in the bladder. the posterior. The ventral sucker is 2 – 3 times To determine if the helminth parasites cause any larger than the oral sucker. Its first intermediate significant damage to the frog’s lung and bladder at the host is a clam which serves as the host for the egg, tissue level, the histology of infected and uninfected miracidium, sporocyst, and cercariae stages. organs were compared. Results of this study showed Cercariae are expelled from the clam and eaten by minor localized erosion and blood infiltration in tissues the second intermediate host, usually tadpoles, due to the parasites. However, the extent of damage is larvae of salamanders, and crayfish. The frog minimal. This study suggests that the parasitic becomes infected by ingestion of the second helminths have very little histopathological effect on intermediate host containing infective lung and bladder of their amphibian host. metacercariae (5). Helminth parasites affect a wide range of Keywords — Histopathology, Rana, Haematoloechus, amphibians and reptiles. However, the definitive Rhabdias, Gorgodera hosts for these parasites usually show no obvious INTRODUCTION symptoms of disease. The purpose of this study is to examine, at the histological level, the infected Frogs play an important role as predators in food lungs and bladder to determine if any significant webs. They also serve as hosts to various species of damage is inflicted by the parasite to their parasitic helminths. The most commonly amphibian hosts. encountered parasites of the frog are the lung flukes, Haematoloechus spp. The adult flukes are MATERIALS AND METHODS dorsoventrally flattened worms with an inconspicuous acetabulum, about 1/4 - 1/5 the size A total of thirty seven leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) of the oral sucker. This parasite utilizes two were obtained from Sullivan’s Supply in Nashville, intermediate hosts, a snail and an odonate insect, Tennessee in August and October 2006. The frogs to complete its larval development prior to its were maintained alive in the laboratory until ready maturation into adult in the frog [1]. The frog for examination. The frogs were euthanized becomes infected by ingestion of the adult odonate according to the guidelines set by the Institutional insect (dragonfly) containing infective Animal Care and Use Committee and dissected metacercariae. Within the frog’s gut, the 10 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
immediately. The length and sex of the frog were DISCUSSION recorded and the lungs and bladder were examined for the presence of parasitic helminths. The Flukes and nematodes are known to feed off the parasite prevalence and intensity of infection were host tissue fluid or blood. Thus, hemorrhaging of determined. the infected tissue is expected. The copious mucus Infected and uninfected lungs and bladders could be attributed to the host response in their were removed and immediately fixed in 10% attempt to rid themselves of the parasites. Bolek phosphate buffered formalin. Routine histological and Janovy [6] reported that parasitism in juvenile processing of the lungs and bladders were frog results in decreased host performance and negatively impacts growth. This is an important performed at the Spartanburg Pathology point to consider in future studies. The Consultants. The slides were examined using insignificant damage observed in the lungs and compound light microscope. bladder may be attributed to the fact that all frogs examined were adults. It should be taken into RESULTS consideration that adult frogs may have developed resistance to the damaging effect of the parasites. All 37 frogs examined in this study appeared to be In a study by Gendron [7], it is noted that adult healthy, showing no external signs of disease. frogs can tolerate moderate levels of lung worm However, dissection of the lungs and urinary infection without much obvious impact on their bladders revealed presence of parasitic helminths. health. Rhabdias parasites are not considered Seventy six percent were infected with highly virulent pathogens in adults but the effects Haematoloechus medioplexus, 89% with Rhabdias on young anurans can be much more detrimental. spp., and 50% with Gorgodera amplicava. The Lung and bladder tissue are known for being mean parasite intensity was 7.45, 8.45, and 0.69 particularly stretchy and flexible. This fact may respectively. Haematoloechus and Rhabdias were allow the organs to accommodate these parasitic found in the lungs while Gorgodera was found in invaders. The fact that amphibians employ the urinary bladder. Some of the lungs were concurrently infected with Haematoloechus and multiple methods of breathing may also lessen the Rhabdias. Significant hemorrhage and copious effect of the parasites residing in the lungs. The mucus were observed in some of these lungs. In seemingly minimal effect on the host is beneficial particular, a lung heavily infected with thirty three to the parasite, as it would be fatal to the parasites H. medioplexus appeared shriveled compared to its to kill the host. healthier counterpart. The lung tissue was less elastic and resistant to return to its original shape CONCLUSION upon being compressed. Histological examination of the infected lungs revealed sections of parasites Results of this study showed that the in situ. Tissues adjacent to the parasite showed histopathological effect of Haematoloechus infiltration of blood cells, and slight erosion of epithelial tissue accompanied by hemorrhage. medioplexus, Rhabdias spp. and Gorgodera Epithelial cells adjacent to the parasite amplicava on the lungs and urinary bladder of (Haematoloechus or Rhabdias) lack the cilia their amphibian host is only minimal and does not normally found in uninfected cells (Fig. 1, 2). cause serious damage to the host organs. However, the damage does not appear to be extensive and are restricted only to areas that are ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in direct contact with the parasites. Examination of infected bladders also showed Special thanks are extended to Nita Russell of several parasites with a plug of host tissue within Spartanburg Pathology Consultants for technical the muscular sucker (Fig. 3, 4), Interestingly, no assistance with histological processing of tissues visible hemorrhage is apparent. Other than severe and Converse College for the use of its facilities. stretching of the bladder epithelial and smooth This research was supported by a grant from the muscle tissue, no apparent epithelial erosion was South Carolina Independent Colleges and observed. Universities.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
REFERENCES [6] M, Bolek and J. Janovy, Jr. Small frogs get their worms first: the role of nonodonate arthropods in [1] S. Snyder, and J. Janovy, Jr. Second intermediate the recruitment of Haematoloechus coloradensis host-specificity of Haematoloechus complexus amd and Haematoloechus complexus in newly Haematoloechus medioplexus metamorphosed northern leopard frogs, Rana (Digenea:Haematoloechidae). Journal of pipiens, and Woodhouse’s toads, Bufo woodhousii. Parasitology, vol 80(6), pp1052-1055, 1994. The Journal of Parasitology vol (93), pp 300-312 [2] Haematoloechus medioplexus, University of [7] A. Gendron, D. Marcogliese, S. Barbeau, M. Michigan Museum of Zoology, Animal Diversity Christin, P. Brousseau, S. Ruby, D. Cyr, and M Web. Fournier. Exposure of leopard frogs to a pesticide http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accou mixture affects life history characteristics of the nts/information/Haematoloechus_medioplexus.ht lungworm, Rhabdias ranae. Conservation Ecology, ml vol. 135, pp 469-476, 2003 [3] The Rhabditid Nematodes (Order Rhabditida) http://www.k-state.edu/parasitology/classes/ 625nematode19.html [4] K. Kim, K. Joo, and H. Rim. Gorgoderid trematodes (Digenea:Gorgoderidae) from the urinary bladder of frogs in Korea. Korean Journal of Parasitology, vol 33(2), pp 75-83, 1995 [5] O. Olsen. “Animal Parasites: Their Life Cycles and Ecology”. University Park Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1974
12 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Ploidy Levels and Genome Sizes of Magnolia L. Species, Hybrids, and Cultivars J. Kevin Parris1, Thomas G. Ranney2, W. Vance Baird1, and Halina T. Knap3 1Clemson University, Department of Horticulture, 164 Poole Agricultural Center, Clemson, SC 29634 2N.C. State University, Dept. of Horticultural Science, 455 Research Dr., Fletcher NC, 28732 3Clemson University, Dept. of Entomology, Soils, and Plant Sciences and Dept. of Genetics and Biochemistry, 276 P&AS Bldg., Clemson, SC 29634; [email protected]
Key Words: Cytology, Flow Cytometry, Genome Size, Because many species with significant Magnolia, Polyploidy ornamental appeal are polyploids with high chromosome counts, traditional cytology with light INTRODUCTION microscopy is extremely difficult. Diploid counts The genus Magnolia L. includes a broad range of are more feasible, but still require considerable valuable nursery and landscape plants. In 1980, skill and effort. Flow cytometry has proved to be The Journal of the American Magnolia Society an efficient means of estimating genome size and posthumously quoted E.H. Wilson, the great 19th allows for elucidation of ploidy level [5]. The century British plant explorer as saying: “No group objectives of this study were to determine the of trees and shrubs is more favorably known or genome sizes and relationships to ploidy levels of a more highly appreciated in gardens than diverse collection of species, hybrids, and cultivars magnolias, and no group produces larger or more of Magnolia by using flow cytometry in order to: 1) abundant blossoms.” [9]. Considerable progress increase sampling among and within species to has been made breeding improved Magnolias; develop an extensive database for use by magnolia however, a greater understanding of polyploidy in breeders; 2) determine the ploidy level of this genus would greatly enhance future breeding suspected, but unconfirmed, polyploid taxa (both efforts. Polyploidy is an important factor in plant naturally occurring and chemically induced); and breeding as it can influence reproductive 3) confirm hybridity in interploid crosses and compatibility, fertility, and gene expression [7]. interspecific hybrids that vary in genome size. This research provides an extensive survey of Over 275 diverse species and cultivars were polyploidy and determination of genome sizes in sampled from various sources that included taxa the genus Magnolia and will provide a valuable from each subgenera of Magnolia as well as both database for Magnolia breeders. species of genus Liriodendron. Nuclei, from newly expanded leaf or tepal tissue, were extracted, NATURE OF WORK stained (with DAPI), and then analyzed (minimum The genus Magnolia contains more than 250 2500 events) using a flow cytometer (PA-I, Partec, species belonging to various sections within three Münster, Germany) to determine relative DNA subgenera [3]. Although basic information on content. Genome sizes were determined by chromosome counts and ploidy levels of different comparing mean relative fluorescence of each magnolia species have been compiled [1, 2], sample with an internal standard, Pisum sativum sampling has been limited and little is known L. ‘Ctirad’, with a known genome size of 8.76 ρg about ploidy levels of specific hybrids and [4]. To increase resolution of genome size, cultivars. The base chromosome number for tetraploid Magnolias which have similar genome Magnolia is 1n=1x=19. However, different sizes to Pisum sativum ‘Ctirad’. M. virginiana subgenera contain species with a variety of ploidy ‘Jim Wilson’ (3.73 ρg) and M. grandiflora ‘Little levels from 2n=2x=38 to 2n=6x=114. Crosses of Gem’ (10.92 ρg) were used as secondary standards. species with varying ploidy levels may yield hybrids Genome sizes for the secondary standards were with odd ploidy levels, which often result in calculated as the mean of 10 separate subsamples reduced fertility or sterility [7]. Because of these determined with the Pisum sativum ‘Ctirad’ as an constraints, Magnolia breeders with a desire to internal standard. Holoploid, 2C DNA contents incorporate the best features of these hybrids have were calculated as: 2C = DNA content of standard attempted to induce new polyploids to overcome (mean fluorescence value of sample/ mean these limitations, yet most of these putative fluorescence value of standard). The relationship polyploids have never been confirmed. The range between ploidy levels and genome sizes was in ploidy levels within this genus also provides an determined for plants with documented opportunity to indirectly substantiate hybridity of chromosome numbers. Mean 1Cx monoploid distant hybrids, based on chromosome number genome size (i.e., DNA content of the non- and genome size, when parents differ in ploidy replicated base set of chromosomes with x = 19) levels.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Table 1. Summary of means and ranges for 2C, holoploid genome size (ρg) of Magnolia species grouped by section and ploidy level. 1Numbers in parenthesis, following classifications, indicated the number of species sampled, and the total number of taxa within those species sampled. 2Values represent means followed by (ranges) for all magnolia species sampled. Means for 2C genome size followed by different letters, within a column, are significantly different, P<0.05
Ploidy Level Classification 2n=2x=38 2n=4x=76 2n=6x=114 2n=8x=152 Subgenus Magnolia Section Magnolia 2C=3.792 D NA 2C=11.16 C NA (including Theorhodon,5,401) (3.43-4.40) (10.83-11.63)
Section Gwillimia (2,3) 2C=5.34 A NA NA NA (5.1-5.47)
Section Oyama (1,7) 2C=4.52 C NA NA NA (4.35-4.62)
Section Manglietia (6,12) 2C=4.78 B NA NA NA (4.65-5.07)
Section Rhytidospermum (4,8) 2C=3.96 D NA NA NA (3.66-4.69)
Section Macrophylla (1,5) 2C=4.56 BC NA NA NA (4.41-4.87)
Section Auriculata (1,2) 2C=3.83 D NA NA NA (3.74-3.92)
Section Kmeria (1,1) 2C=5.51 A NA NA NA (5.48-5.54)
Subgenus Yulania Section Yulania 2C=4.07 D 2C=8.43 A 2C=12.74 A 2C=17.34 (including Beurgaria and (3.84-4.16) (7.71-8.88) (11.49-13.22) (17.07-17.49 M. liliiflora, 13,46) Section Tulipastrum (1,3) NA 2C=8.01 A NA NA (7.86-8.26)
Section Michelia (14,22) 2C=4.55 BC NA NA NA (4.27-4.87)
Subgenus Gynopodium Section Gynopodium (1,3) NA NA 2C=11.57 B NA (11.44-11.72)
Genus Liriodendron (2,2) 2C=3.39 E NA NA NA (3.35-3.43)
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March 27th, 2009
was calculated as (2C genome size / ploidy level) to subgenus Yulania. Relative genome size (2C =6.16 assess variability in base genome size. A minimum ρg) of this hybrid is consistent with a triploid of two subsamples were tested to derive a mean condition, confirming it to be intermediate relative genome size for each taxa. Data were between the diploid and tetraploid parents. M. subjected to analysis of variance and means (insignis x virginiana) ‘Katie-0’ is another separation using the Waller procedure. important intersectional cross that demonstrates pigmentation of tepals can be introgressed into CONCLUSIONS white flowered species of subgenus Magnolia. Hybridity of M.‘Katie-O’ is suggested based on Flow cytometry was an efficient and effective morphological appearance, but intermediate method of estimating genome size. Genome size genome size (2C= 4.33 ρg) further substantiated its varied significantly among taxonomic sections hybrid origin. The difference in mean relative (Table 1), indicating that these groups have genome size for diploids in section Manglietia undergone considerable evolutionary divergence (2C=4.78 ρg) and section Magnolia (2C=3.79 ρg) [8]. Furthermore, this indicates that it is necessary allow for this distinction to be made. Flow to calibrate ploidy level with genome size for each cytometry did not allow for distinction of cultivars section, in order to estimate ploidy level from or interspecific hybrids within a given section due genome size in Magnolias. However, within a to highly conserved genome sizes within sections. section, genome sizes for a given ploidy level had Overall, flow cytometry provides an extremely narrow ranges and could clearly be used to useful tool to study polyploidy and provides an determine ploidy levels (Table 1). In general, the entry to the investigation of reproductive biology in ploidy levels determined for different species was the genus Magnolia. This research provides a consistent with past reports, with a few exceptions. foundation and database for breeders that will Magnolia cylindrica was found to be a tetraploid facilitate the development of hybrids in the future. here, while past reports have indicated it is a diploid [1, 2]. REFERENCES The results of this study also verified that M. [1] Callaway, D.J. 1994. The World of Magnolias. stellata and M. cylindrica accessions from the Timber Press, Portland. Holden Arboretum were induced polyploids. [2] Chen Zhong-yi, X. Huang, R. Wang, S. Chen. 2000. Phenotypic characteristics such as thickened Chromosome Data of Magnoliaceae. Proceedings of foliage and increased width to length ratio in The International Symposium on the Family foliage [6,7] were suggestive of polyploidy in M. Magnoliaceae. Beijing: Science Press. 192-201. seiboldii ‘Colossus’, a reported hexaploid. In this [3] Figlar, R.B. 2004 Classification of Magnoliaceae. study, samples of M. seiboldii ‘Colossus’ from Magnolia Society International. Nov. 2008. multiple sources had genome sizes (2C =4.35 ρg -
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Messin’ With Texas! The genus Isoetes (Isoetaceae) in the Lonestar State
C. Matthew Hardman and Kerry D. Heafner Department of Biology Limestone College 1115 College Drive, Gaffney, SC 29340 [email protected] Abstract — Isoetes is a genus of heterosporous lycopods Isoetes melanopoda is a wide-ranging diploid that with 300 to 400 species worldwide. Approximately ten occurs throughout much of the eastern two-thirds percent of these species occur in North America. Based of the United States in a variety of ephemerally wet on megaspore ornamentation, four Isoetes species were habitats. recently recognized from the Llano Uplift region of Most recently, Holmes et al. [3] used megaspore central Texas: Isoetes butleri Engelmann, I. lithophila surface ornamentation patterns to distinguish four Pfeiffer, I. melanopoda Gay & Durieu, and I. Isoetes species in Texas, all of which were collected piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed. Historically, I. from the Llano Uplift and Edwards Plateau regions piedmontana has been regarded as endemic to granite of central Texas. In addition to I. lithophila and I. flatrocks of the southeastern United States Piedmont melanopoda, Holmes et al. [3] recognized I. butleri region. These Texas populations are of interest because Engelmann, a diploid species typically occurring on of their significant geographic separation from the limestone seeps and on the much-studied cedar closest rock outcrop Isoetes populations in eastern barrens of central Tennessee, and I. piedmontana Alabama. Collections of rock outcrop Isoetes from the (Pfeiffer) Reed, a species historically considered endemic to the granite flatrocks of the Llano Uplift region of central Texas were made in May, southeastern U.S. Piedmont. 2008. Material for chromosome counts was obtained The Llano Uplift region of central Texas is from populations in Burnet, Llano, and Mason Counties. composed of Precambrian granite and protrudes Specimens from Bell and Coryell Counties are I. butleri. through the larger region of Cretaceous limestone All plants sampled were diploid and more closely that makes up the Edwards Plateau. The resembled I. melanopoda in terms of morphology. We occurrence of I. piedmontana in the Llano Uplift also sampled populations historically identified as I. region of central Texas seems unlikely for two lithophila. However, our material did not match major reasons. First, habitats that would support Pfeiffer’s original description which brings the identity of I. piedmontana do not occur between eastern this species into question. Alabama and central Texas, a distance of approximately 800 air miles. Because the spores Keywords — Isoetes, quillwort, Llano Uplift, of Isoetes are produced in subterranean sporangia, Texas. and because Isoetes produces the largest INTRODUCTION megaspores of the vascular land plants, dispersal Isoetes, the quillworts (Isoetaceae) is a genus of by wind, such as that documented in homosporous heterosporous lycopods that represents an ancient ferns, does not provide a plausible explanation for lineage in vascular land plant evolution. The genus the occurrence of I. piedmontana in Texas. is cosmopolitan and is composed of approximately Second, the different geochemistries of the Llano 300 to 400 species. The southeastern United Uplift and southeastern U.S. Piedmont would States is a significant center of diversity for this support the hypothesis of independent colonization genus in North America, especially in terms of the events and adaptations to substrates of different number of allopolyploid species, many of which mineral compositions as evidenced by the red or have been described in the last decade. pink granite of the Llano Uplift versus the lighter Correll and Johnston [1] recognized two species grey granite of the southeastern Piedmont. of Isoetes in Texas: Isoetes lithophylla [sic] Our study attempts to address three questions: Pfeiffer, and I. melanopoda Gay and Durieu. 1) Does I. piedmontana occur in Texas? 2) If so, do Pfeiffer [2] described I. lithophila as producing populations of I. piedmontana in Texas occur at megaspores that are grey when dry and brown more than one ploidy level, and do these different when wet, and having sporangia that are ploidy levels represent previously-unrecognized completely covered by the velum. This description species? 3) How diverse is the genus Isoetes in the is strikingly similar to that of I. melanospora Llano Uplift region of central Texas? Engelmann, which is endemic to central Georgia.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS populations in Alabama and North Carolina have Specimens previously identified as I. piedmontana, recently been separated out of I. piedmontana [4]. I. lithophila, and I. melanopoda were collected Isoetes lithophila was described by Pfeiffer in from sites in Bell, Burnet, Gillespie, Llano, and her 1922 monograph of the genus. The type Mason Counties, Texas. Seventeen individual material was collected in 1914 on a granite dome in populations were sampled, and roots were used to Burnet County. Pfeiffer cited grey or brown obtain chromosome counts. Sites sampled megaspores and sporangia that are completely included Fort Hood Military Installation, Inks Lake covered by vela as distinguishing features of I. State Park, enchanted rock State Park, property lithophila. Based on this description, I. lithophila adjacent to Ferguson Power Plant, and Mason is most morphologically similar to the federally Mountain Wildlife Management Area. endangered I. melanospora Engelmann of central For chromosome squashes, roots were harvested Georgia. The identity of I. lithophila should be re- and fixed for 3 hrs. in aqueous examined not only due to its resemblance to I. paradichlorobenzene (PDB) followed by 1 hr. in a melanospora, but also because none of the 3:1 solution of absolute ethanol/glacial acetic acid. material we collected from the Llano Uplift region For squashing, roots were hydrolyzed in 1N HCl for of central Texas matched Pfeiffer’s description of I. 12 min. followed by a 10 min. wash in 95% ethanol. lithophila. At present, three species of Isoetes can Roots were stained in Wittman’s hemotoxylin for 1 be recognized from Texas: I. butleri, I. lithophila, hr. then destained in glacial acetic acid for less and I. melanopoda. than 1 min. Root apices were excised and placed on a glass slide in a drop of Hoyer’s Medium, and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS squashed under a glass cover slip. Countable We acknowledge funding from South Carolina figures were photographed at 1000X. Independent Colleges and Universities, Inc. (SCICU). J.L. Pridmore, Limestone College, began RESULTS this project. We acknowledge the assistance of Plants collected in Bell and Coryell Counties on Ft. Laura Sanchez-Hansen and Eric Runfeldt at Fort Hood were actually I.butleri and not I. Hood, Jason Singhurst of the Texas Department of piedmontana. Because I. butleri is so Parks and Recreation, Dr. Walter Holmes at Baylor morphologically distinctive, no chromosome University, the herbarium at The University of counts were obtained from the Fort Hood plants. Texas at Austin, and Steve Leonard of The Nature All plants counted from the other sites were diploid Conservancy in Mississippi. (2n=22), and were more similar morphologically to I. melanopoda. REFERENCES
DISCUSSION [1] D.S. Correll and M.C. Johnston. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Texas Research In the Llano Uplift region of central Texas, both I. Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1970. butleri and I. melanopoda have been incorrectly [2] N.E. Pfeiffer. Monograph of the Isoetaceae. Annals identified as I. piedmontana. Isoetes butleri is the of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 9, pp.79-232, common quillwort of limestone glades and seeps in 1922. the central and eastern portions of the United [3] W.C. Holmes, A.E. Rushing, and J.R. Singhurst. States. Historical collections of I. butleri from as Taxonomy and identification of Isoetes (Isoetaceae) far north in Texas as Dallas and Tarrant Counties in Texas based on megaspore features. Lundelia, vol. 8, pp. 1-6, 2005. suggest that I. butleri may be more widespread in [4] K.D. Heafner, R.D. Brannon, M.L. Dornis, and K.M. Texas than currently realized. Morphologically, Smith. Three allotetraploid segregates of Isoetes material that we examined from granitic habitats piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed. Manuscript on the Llano Uplift more closely resemble I. submitted, Castanea, 2009. melanopoda, a diploid species of ephemerally wet habitats ranging over most of the central and eastern portions of the United States. Until its systematic relationships to I. melanopoda can be adequately assessed, I. piedmontana should be interpreted as the common diploid quillwort of only the granite flatrocks of the southeastern United States Piedmont. Three allotetraploid
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Using Spatial Assessment of Drift Fence Captures to Investigate Juvenile Dispersal of Ranid Frogs
Chelsea Kross and Melissa Pilgrim Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - In spring of 2007 we started a drift fence individuals weighing less than 5grams (see Figure study evaluating the use of an abandoned homestead by 1). We suspected that we were documenting a herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians). When wave of juvenile dispersal from nearby aquatic evaluating data collected during 2007, we noticed that habitats. A retention pond is located the majority of our ranid frog captures were of approximately 150m from the drift fence site and individuals weighing less than 5grams. We suspected Lawsons Fork Creek is located approximately 125m that we were documenting a wave of juvenile dispersal from the drift fence site. We hypothesized that the from nearby aquatic habitats. A retention pond is majority of ranid frogs entering the drift fence site located approximately 150m from the drift fence site were captured in traps oriented towards the nearby and Lawsons Fork Creek is located approximately 125m aquatic habitats. In addition, ranid frogs captured from the drift fence site. We hypothesized that the at our site represented four different species: Rana majority of ranid frogs entering the drift fence site were catesbeiana (American Bullfrog), R. clamitans captured in traps oriented towards the nearby aquatic (Green Frog), R. palustris (Pickerel Frog), and R. habitats. Evaluation of the spatial distribution of ranid sphenocephala (Southern Leopard Frog). Each frog species has a particular breeding phenology. frog captures revealed that we captured 91% of the Thus, there can be seasonal variation in emergence ranid frogs in traps facing the aquatic habitats and of metamorphosed individuals from aquatic only 9% of the ranid frogs in traps facing the forest habitats. In addition to assessing the spatial habitats. In addition, ranid frogs captured at our site distribution of ranid frogs captured at the drift represented four different species. We hypothesized fence site, we evaluated the arrival time of each that there would be interspecific variation in the timing ranid frog species at the drift fence site. of ranid frog captures at the drift fence site. In fact, we Specifically, we hypothesized that there would be did observe temporal variation in the arrival dates of interspecific variation in the timing of ranid frogs ranid species at the fence. Our drift fence site lies < captured at the drift fence site. 200m away from the aquatic habitats and would be considered part of their “buffer zone”. Thus, as our data set grows, the drift fence site has the potential to 0.9 contribute useful data relevant to increasing our 0.8 understanding of how buffer zones impact amphibian 0.7 Funnel Trap Pitfall Trap population persistence. 0.6
INTRODUCTION 0.5 0.4
Drift fence arrays are a standard technique used to 0.3 inventory and monitor many wildlife species, including reptiles and amphibians [1,2,3]. In 0.2 0.1 addition to allowing documentation of species Frog Captures Proportion Ranid of richness in an area, drift fence arrays can assess 0 seasonal movement patterns of a species or 0-5 >10 movement patterns of animals relative to specific Mass (g) habitat features within a landscape [4,5]. In spring of 2007 we started a drift fence study evaluating Fig 1. Size distribution of ranid frogs captured in pitfall the use of an abandoned homestead by and funnel traps. herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians). When evaluating data collected during 2007, we noticed that the majority of our ranid frog captures were of
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March 27th, 2009
METHODS captured entering the homestead from each direction simply by calculating the percentages of DRIFT FENCE DESIGN total ranid frogs captured in each of the two divisions. We used EXCEL (version 2003) for data To assess the use of the abandoned homestead by management and analyses. herpetofauna, we surrounded the homestead with a 62m drift fence in March of 2007. We dug a RESULTS 15cm deep trench around the homestead. We Between 4/26/07 and 6/15/2008, we captured 33 erected pre-staked silt fencing (61cm high) in the ranid frogs entering the drift fence site (Table 1). trench and buried the bottom of the fence. We We captured 91% of the ranid frogs in traps facing placed a pair of traps every 3m around the fence. the aquatic habitats and only 9% of the ranid frogs We placed one trap of a pair on the inside of the in traps facing the forest habitats. We observed fence and one trap of a pair on the outside of the interspecific differences in the timing of frog fence. In total, we surrounded the fence with 20 captures (Table 1). We captured 16 R. pitfall traps and 20 funnel traps. We used 18.9L sphenocephala (Southern Leopard Frogs) in July buckets as pitfall traps. We drilled holes in the of 2007; thus July represented the peak month of bottom of each bucket for drainage and then ranid frog arrival at the drift fence site. buried the buckets flush with the fence and the surface of the ground. We placed a sponge in each Table 1. Ranid Frogs Captured Entering the Upstate bucket to act as a flotation device for animals Homestead captured during periods with heavy rain. We constructed our funnel traps using 0.64cm Drift Fence Site. N = the number of individual frogs. hardware cloth, following the design of Fitch [1]. Species: N: Dates Captured: Our funnel traps were covered with extra silt Rana catesbeiana 2 10/9 – 10/24/2007 fencing to provide shade for captured animals. (American Bullfrog) Rana clamitans 4 6/26 – 6/27/2007 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS (Green Frog) Rana palustris 1 3/5/2008 During time periods when the fence was open, we (Pickerel Frog) checked the fence daily for trapped animals. We Rana sphenocephala 26 5/13 – 9/ 16/2007 (Southern Leopard recorded the trap number and species name for Frog) each captured animal. We transported captured animals to the laboratory for data collection. We recorded the length (to 0.1cm) and mass (to 0.1g) CONCLUSIONS of each reptile and amphibian captured. We permanently marked snakes weighing more than Evaluation of the spatial distribution of traps that 20g with passive integrated transponders (PIT- tags). In addition, we used probes to determine captured ranid frogs entering the drift fence site the gender of each snake and used palpation to supported our hypothesis that ranid frogs in our determine the reproductive condition of female study were predominantly arriving at the snakes. Following data collection, we transported homestead site from the direction of the closest captured animals back to the fence for release. We aquatic habitats. In addition, assessing differences released animals five meters from the fence in the in the arrival time of each ranid species at the drift direction they were heading when trapped (i.e., we fence site supported our hypothesis that arrival at released animals captured in outside traps within the fenced area, and we released animals captured the drift fence site would show interspecific in inside traps outside of the fenced area). variation. Our expectation is that as our data set To assess the spatial distribution of ranid frogs grows, we will be able to further assess temporal captured entering the homestead site, we divided and spatial variability in use of our terrestrial site the fence in half along its north to south axis. Traps by amphibian species. In addition, we hope to lying west of the division faced aquatic habitats, implement a study that uses frogloggers while traps lying east of the division faced forest habitat. We compared the number of ranid frogs (automated data acquisition systems) to record breeding choruses at the aquatic habitats. We Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 19
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
would then be able to assess whether or not there is an association between specific breeding events and waves of ranid frogs arriving at the drift fence site. The importance of terrestrial habitats surrounding wetlands to the survival of amphibian populations is well-recognized [6,7,8,9]. Our drift fence site lies < 200m away from aquatic habitats and would be considered part of the “buffer zone” for both the retention pond and Lawsons Fork Creek. Thus, our site has the potential to contribute useful data relevant to increasing our understanding of how buffer zones impact amphibian population persistence.
REFERENCES
[1] H. Fitch, H.S. “Collecting and life-history techniques,” In Snakes: Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology. R. Seigel, J. Collins, and S. Novak (Eds). McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, pp 143-164, 1987.
[2] W. Heyer, M. Donnelly, R. McDiarmid, L. Hayek and M. Foster (Eds), “Standard techniques for inventory and monitoring,” In Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard methods for amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, pp 75-141, 1994. [3] B. Todd, C. Winne, J. Willson, and J. Gibbons. “Getting the drift: examining the effects of timing, trap type, and taxon on herpetofaunal drift fence surveys,” American Midland Naturalist 158, pp 292- 305, 2007. [4] X. Glaudas, K. Andrews, J. Willson, and J. Gibbons. “Migration patterns in a population of cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) inhabiting an isolated wetland,” Journal of Zoology 271, pp 119-124, 2007.
[5] D. Patrick, M. Hunter, Jr., and A. Calhoun. “Effects of experimental forestry treatments on a Maine amphibian community,” Forest Ecology and Management 234, pp 323-332, 2006. [6] R. Semlitsch, “Biological delineation of terrestrial buffer zones for pond-breeding salamanders,” Conservation Biology 12, pp 1113-1119, 2001. [7] J. Gibbons, “Terrestrial habitat: a vital component for herpetofauna of isolated wetlands,” Wetlands 23, pp 630-635, 2003. [8] R. Semlitsch and J. Bodie, “Biological criteria for buffer zones around wetlands and riparian habitats for amphibians and reptiles,” Conservation Biology 17, pp 1219-1228, 2003. [9] T. Rittenhouse and R. Semlitsch, “Distribution of amphibians in terrestrial habitat surrounding wetlands,” Wetlands 27, pp 153-161, 2007.
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March 27th, 2009
Three Allotetraploid Segregates of Isoetes piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed
Ricky D. Brannon, Miranda L. Dornis, Kristen M. Smith, and Kerry D. Heafner Department of Biology Limestone College 1115 College Drive, Gaffney, SC 29340 [email protected]
Abstract — Isoetes piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed type population in Georgia, as well as the (Isoetaceae) has historically been recognized as the tetraploid (2n=44) status of a population in common quillwort of the much-studied granite flatrocks Randolph County, Alabama. Subsequent of the southeastern United States Piedmont Region. cytological analyses have also revealed additional Cytological studies have confirmed diploid (2n=22) and tetraploid populations in Hancock County, tetraploid (2n=44) populations included in this species. We present the results of a study comparing thirteen Georgia, Franklin and Wake Counties, North morphological features in plants from three tetraploid Carolina, and Powhatan County, Virginia [4], [5]. populations in Alabama and North Carolina that have A cursory examination of the enzyme historically been identified as I. piedmontana. The triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) demonstrated Alabama population differed significantly from both that tetraploid populations of I. piedmontana in North Carolina populations in seven characters. The Randolph County, Alabama, and Franklin and two North Carolina populations differed significantly Wake Counties, North Carolina exhibit additive, from each other in twelve of thirteen characters. Based yet different, allele compositions at TPI-2 and TPI- on previously published genetic evidence and the results 2 [5]. of the present morphological study, we recognize three allotetraploid segregates of I. piedmontana: Isoetes While there is sufficient genetic evidence to alabamensis sp. nov. from Randolph County, warrant recognition of the Alabama and North Alabama; Isoetes carolinae-septentrionalis sp. Carolina tetraploid populations at the species level, nov. from Wake County, North Carolina, and Isoetes no analyses testing the morphological distinctness analogous sp. nov. from Franklin County, North Carolina. Isoetes piedmontana sensu stricto of tetraploid populations included in I. should be interpreted as the common diploid quillwort piedmontana have been conducted until the found on granite flatrocks in the southeastern United present study. The goals of this paper are to 1) States Piedmont Region. report the results of a morphological study
comparing Alabama and North Carolina Keywords — Isoetes, quillwort, tetraploid. allotetraploid populations of I. piedmontana and 2) provide names for these newly delineated INTRODUCTION allotetraploid taxa. Isoetes piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed was originally described as a variety of Isoetes virginica Pfeiffer MATERIALS AND METHODS based on having shorter and more numerous The three populations of I. piedmontana examined leaves per plant and megaspores with a different in this study have previously been confirmed as ornamentation pattern [1]. Reed [2] subsequently being tetraploid [5]. All data were derived from elevated I. virginica var. piedmontana to species plants collected in the 2007 field season. Thirteen status in a treatment of Isoetes of the southeastern morphological features were examined from a total United States. Populations presently recognized as of 58 pressed and alcohol-preserved plants. I. piedmontana have been collected on granitic Sample sizes for each character varied among the outcrops ranging from eastern Alabama, through three populations. Microphylls were delineated central Georgia, through central South and North into subulate and alate portions [5]. Total leaf Carolina, and to east-central Virginia. length was measured from the point of attachment Genetic evidence, derived from chromosome on the corm to the subla apex. Alate lengths were counts and allozymes, suggests that I. measured from the leaf base to either the longer of piedmontana may contain more than one species. the two ala apices or to the ala apex that was most Matthews and Murdy[3] confirmed the diploid accessible. Subulate length was calculated as the (2n=22) status of fifteen populations, including the difference between total leaf length and alate
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
length. Subulate width was measured at mid- the Randolph County Alabama population had subula, and alate width was measured at the ala’s triangular to deltate ligules and labia that were widest point above the sporangium. Sporangial commonly bifid. Leaves from plants in the Wake features were measured at either 400 or 500X with County, North Carolina population had variously an ocular micrometer. Sporangium length and triangular ligules and irregularly undulate labia. width, as well as velum coverage and ligule and Leaves from plants in the Franklin County, North labium features were measured on plants Carolina population had triangular to broadly preserved in 91% isopropyl alcohol. Ligule width deltate ligules and had labia that are mostly was measured across the base of the ligule; ligule spatulate. length was measured from the bottom of the base Four significantly different principal to the apex. Labium width was measured across components were generated which accounted for the lower lip of the foveola, the pit from which the 61% of the total variation explained in the data set. ligule arises; labium length was measured from the Characters with the most heavily weighted edge of the lower lip of the foveola to the labium’s component loadings in PC 1 were percent velum highest point. Selected ligules and labia were coverage (-0.789), ligule width (0.742), and labium drawn with camera lucida. Megaspore diameters length (0.620). In PC 2, alate length, sporangium were measured from air-dried spores at 500X with width and megaspore diameter had the three most an ocular micrometer oriented parallel to the heavily weighted component loadings (-0.740, equatorial ridge of the spore. Microspore lengths 0.489, and 0.452, respectively). The jack-knifed were measured from spores mounted in Hoyer’s classification matrix that resulted from the DFA medium at 1,000X with the micrometer parallel to using percent velum coverage and ligule width the spore’s hylar ridge. from PC 1 revealed that 90% of the plants from the Means and standard deviations were calculated Randolph County, Alabama population whereas for each character in each population. Statistical plants from Wake and Franklin Counties, North analyses were conducted on standardized data Carolina were correctly classified while 85% and using SYSTAT Version 10.2 [6]. First, pair-wise 100% of the time, respectively. Using all thirteen two sample t-tests were used to assess which morphological characters, 90% of the plants from characters differed significantly among the three Alabama were correctly classified, whereas plants populations. Then, twenty samples for which all from Wake and Franklin Counties, North Carolina thirteen morphological variables could be were correctly classified 85% and 95% of the time, measured from each of the three populations were respectively. used for principal components analysis (PCA). Finally, two separate discriminant function DISCUSSION analyses (DFAs) were conducted to assess the Based on the results of this morphological study degree to which individuals from each population and on previously published genetic evidence, we could be correctly assigned to their respective recognize three new allotetraploid segregates of I. population. The first DFA was run using the two piedmontana: Isoetes alabamensis sp. nov. from characters with the heaviest component loadings in Randolph County, Alabama; Isoetes carolinae- PC 1. The second DFA was run using all thirteen septentrionalis sp. nov. from Wake County, North morphological features because plants from each Carolina; and Isoetes analogous sp. nov. from population could be classified a priori based on Franklin County, North Carolina. Formal geography. Jack-knifed classification matrices and descriptions of these new taxa have been submitted canonical scores plots demonstrating the best to Castanea, the journal of the Southern possible delineation among the three populations Appalachian Botanical Society. While not were generated by the DFAs. necessarily a useful field character, the importance of obtaining chromosome counts from any Isoetes RESULTS population cannot be overemphasized. Pair-wise two sample t-tests revealed that the Identifications based on a single morphological Alabama plants differed significantly from both feature, such as megaspore ornamentation, are North Carolina populations in seven characters, tenuous at best and need to be supported with some of which were the same for both populations. either multiple morphological features, The Franklin County population, however, differed chromosome counts, or both. Assessing spore size significantly from the Wake County population in alone may allow only an estimation of ploidy level. twelve of thirteen characters. Ligules and labia The simple task of counting chromosomes led to were among the most variable features among the the realization that the entity long thought to be I. three populations. Ligules from all three populations are auriculate. Leaves from plants in 22 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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lacustris L., a decaploid (2n=110) in southeastern Tennessee is actually an octaploid (2n=88) [7]. Isoetes piedmontana sensu stricto should be interpreted as the common diploid quillwort of the southeastern U.S. granitic flatrocks until its systematic relationship to the wide-ranging diploid species I. melanopoda can be thoroughly examined.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by South Carolina Independent Colleges and Universities (SCICU), Inc. We acknowledge the assistance of C.M. Hardman, J.L. Pridmore, D. Drmač, A. Cox, and
W. Knapp. We extend special thanks to R.D. Bray.
REFERENCES
[5] N.E. Pfeiffer. A new variety of Isoetes virginica. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, vol.66, pp. 411-413, 1939. [6] C.F. Reed. Isoetes in the southeastern United States. Phytologia, vol 12, pp. 369-400, 1965. [7] J.F. Matthews and W.H. Murdy. A study of the Isoetes common to the granite outcrops of the southeastern piedmont, United States. Botanical Gazette, vol. 130, pp. 53-61, 1969. [8] L.J. Musselman and D.A. Knepper. Quillworts of Virginia. American Fern Journal, vol. 84, pp. 48- 68. [9] K.D. Heafner and R.D. Bray. Taxonomic reassessment of North American granite outcrop Isoetes species with emphasis on vegetative morphology and I. piedmontana (Pfeiffer) Reed sensu lato. Castanea, vol. 70, pp. 204-221. [10] SYSTAT Software Inc., Richmond, CA. [11] N.T. Luebke and J.M. Budke. Isoetes tennesseensis (Isoetaceae), an octaploid quillwort from Tennessee. American Fern Journal, vol. 93, pp. 184-190.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Charles W. Chesnutt and Racial Caricature in Post-Bellum, Pre- Harlem America
Peter Caster Languages, Literature, and Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract - Charles W. Chesnutt’s plantation fiction of demonstrates how that racist visions appear in the the late nineteenth century for the Atlantic Monthly and “large black type” of print journalism, thus staging The Conjure Woman operate in a register that the complementary nature not only of history and capitulated to white stereotypes of blackness, even as fiction, but visual image and printed text in his deft narrative strategies both extend beyond folklore producing black masculinity in the national to historical precedent and humanize African American men and women. However, a combination of factors led imagination. Chesnutt’s 1901 novel joins the irony him to abandon plantation narrative, namely his and use of dialect from his tragicomic plantation middle-class assimilationist disdain for dialectic fiction, tales of the previous fifteen years with the the rise of racist violence in South and North during the sentimentality of his passing narrative The House 1880s and 1890s, and his suspicion that comic Behind the Cedars (1900) in a sensationalist plot, depictions did not deflect that violence, but instead which culminates in a fictionalization of the 1898 legitimized it. The House Behind the Cedars, The Wilmington massacre as white rioters killed many Marrow of Tradition, and a number of his short stories African American citizens and overthrew the reconfigure the racist stereotypes of black men, no elected Republican government in North Carolina’s longer furthering minstrelsy tropes, but reinterpreting the servility of Sambo and the violent threat of Nat as a then-largest city. That event, related to the white construction and black masculine heroism, novelist by many of his friends and family who had respectively. Chesnutt’s portrayals offer an alternate seen it firsthand, joined with his longstanding discourse to the caricatures common to popular frustration with plantation fiction, leading him to periodicals such as Harper’s Weekly. Reformulating reconfigure the racial caricatures of black men. In these stereotypes celebrated the black middle and The Marrow of Tradition, he recasts the working classes and integrities of black selfhood, threatening “buck” figure of Nat and the servility of family, community.. the Rastus type as, respectively, heroic and a white Keywords — African-American, Charles W. construction. These literary depictions contrast Chesnutt, caricature, Harper’s Weekly with the illustrations of Harper’s Weekly’s Thomas Nast and lesser-known artists such as Sol Eytinge INTRODUCTION Jr., S.G. McCutcheon, and others, wherein African American men often appeared as simple, All over the United States the Associated Press submissive, even childlike, whether in that had flashed the report of another dastardly magazine or the others published during and after outrage by a burly black brute,--all black brutes reconstruction, some of them the very periodicals it seems are burly,--and of the impending in which much of Chesnutt’s short fiction initially lynching with its prospective horrors. This news, being highly sensational in its character, appeared. This essay demonstrates how the had been displayed in large black type on the illustrations of the nationally popular middle-class front pages of the daily papers. weekly Harper’s Weekly helped naturalize and promulgate stereotypical images of black men in Charles W. Chesnutt the decade following reconstruction, the very The epigraph, a provocative passage from Charles caricatures Chesnutt contested through W. Chesnutt’s novel The Marrow of Tradition reconfiguring them. (1901), sardonically lances the popular expectation of the “burly black brute” even as the passage 24 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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The tagline of Harper’s Weekly declared it “A They are leaving a field, and a crescent moon Journal of Civilization,” and its illustrations indicates night, perhaps implying that their harvest celebrating Republican ideals, domestic prosperity, is theft. The caption reads, “Water-millions is ripe” and identifies the artist as Eytinge, a frequent and “genteel” manners certainly depicted a world contributor to the weekly magazine and illustrator Chesnutt sought to join. Those illustrations played for editions of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Charles a significant role in the magazine’s success, as it Dickens, and Alfred Tennyson. The right-facing outstripped its closest competitor Frank Leslie’s detailed engraving matches its opposite in size, Illustrated Newspaper after the end of the Civil occupying three-quarters of the page, and depicts War. The editor of Frank Leslie’s in 1875 “A Zulu Scout” peering from brush, his eyes wide acknowledged that in comparison with his and expression serious. He holds a carbine in hand, bears a shield and bandolier of cartridges, publication’s emphasis on current, transitory wears prominent earrings, and is shirtless. These events, Harper’s Weekly’s illustrations offered are the Sambo and Nat stereotypes prevalent since “pictures of sentiment” that “last in the mind of the the antebellum era: one version is childlike, purchaser.” [1] Images depicting the inequities of simple, non-threatening, and happy in a rural class and racial difference may well have lasted in setting of likely poverty; the other is adult, serious, the mind of Chesnutt, who had access to such armed, and potentially violent. While we cannot magazines and read thoroughly in the 1870s and know what editorial process led to the commissioning of these two images and their 1880s and onward in his effort to improve himself adjacent publication, their side-by-side appearance and better his circumstances in becoming an invites at least one simple interpretation: African author. In an 1880 journal entry, he describes a men could be warriors, but Harper’s Weekly local bookseller recounting “a paragraph in preferred its black men at home to present less Harper’s [Monthly] Magazine,” though the potent forms of masculinity. episode in question is not a paragraph from an In the decade immediately following article but part of the caption of a three-panel reconstruction and the period of Chesnutt’s illustration—so easily do image and text confound. decision to become an author, Harper’s Weekly [2] Two years later, Chesnutt recounts his reading kept the eye of the nation turned southward. A and describes his motives to head north for a lead article in 1877 on “The Southern Question” literary career, writing, “I pine for civilization and begins, “As slavery was the commanding question ‘equality.’” [3] Harper’s Weekly promised the of our politics for a generation before the war, so former, and while its articles made some effort to the ‘Southern question’ which grows out of promote the latter, the frequent illustrations tell a reconstruction will long be the most important of different story. The nation’s most popular weekly all our political problems. The first step in its wise provides an illustrative record of imaginations of and peaceful solution is knowledge of the black men broadly held by the white middle class, situation.” [4] The magazine sought to increase the the very readership Chesnutt sought to cultivate. nation’s understanding of race relations in the Even as that “journal of civilization” often declared South, and 1880 alone saw Harper’s Weekly in print its commitment to racial justice, its publish one of Sherwood Bonner’s dialect tales, illustrations more generally capitulated to racist over thirty illustrations of African Americans, and stereotypes of black men. a four-part series of two-page articles focusing on black rural life in Georgia, South Carolina, and SECTION TWO Alabama. [5] The variations of black masculinity in these engravings balance among clinging to Two images appear on facing pages in the August 23, 1879 issue of Harper’s Weekly in a fashion that antebellum stereotypes, offering mostly accurate starkly dramatizes the polarized and competing but limited and limiting accounts of rural poverty, versions of black masculinity. On the left-facing and satirizing the efforts of African Americans to page, a detailed, stand-alone engraving features a enter the middle and upper classes. baby-faced black man with a watermelon under each arm and one balanced on his head, smiling and looking at the reader, followed by a young boy, perhaps his son, struggling with another melon.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
African American men to the paternalism of white mastery. These pages depict black men almost uniformly as rural and poor; occasional middle class depictions, often in Eytinge’s Blackville series, generally lampoon aspirations of social mobility. Almost exclusively, African American speech is offered as dialect in phonetic spelling, as a rule for comic effect, and only black men in Africa are offered as warriors and leaders. Such depictions tightly bound meanings of class and gender with race. That is, the professional occupations most available to black men in the mid- to late-nineteenth century were the ministry and education. Preaching, teaching, and the educational preparation increasingly undergirding each in their professionalization made knowledge, proper dress, and speech the defining characteristics of middle- and upper-class manliness. Lampooning ignorance, non-standard dialect, and foolishness not only generally denigrated blackness, but specifically attacked black masculinity. Furthermore, given the associations of honor and truthfulness—a man’s
Fig. 3. Petty thieves and liars. The caption for this image reads, “Injured Innocence—[Drawn by C.M. Coolidge.] Fig. 1 and 2 - Two versions of black masculinity. These “I hain’t seen nuffin of yer Chickens! Do you took me for facing pages of the August 23, 1879 issue of Harper’s a Thief? Do you see any Chickens ‘bout me? Go ‘way Weekly indicate the polarized and competing Sambo and dar, white man! Treat a boy ‘spectable, if he am brack!” Nat stereotypes. word being his bond—portrayals of black men as While Nast sometimes portrayed black men in the lying implied their lack of honor and thus lack of South as a voting bloc in a tug-of-war between manhood. Republicans and Democrats, more common were Criminality is among the most pernicious of depictions of black men as variously lazy, lying, the expectations fostered in the images. A drawing happy and smiling, petty thieves, and nostalgic for from the February, 9, 1878 issue offers a detailed “old massah.” The last of these fostered caricature of a seemingly guileless young black romanticized versions of slavery and subordinated 26 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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man denying the apparently outrageous accusation wherever there is portable property, and I don’t from a white man that he has stolen chickens, only imagine colored people like chickens any better to be undone by the chicks peering out from his than any one else.” Chesnutt’s longstanding hat. The caption for this image reads, “Injured storyteller Julius corrects her and offers a tale Innocence—[Drawn by C.M. Coolidge.] ‘I hain’t explaining that overworking starving slaves led to a seen nuffin of yer Chickens! Do you took me for a back-and-forth of conjuring, finally resulting in an Thief? Do you see any Chickens ‘bout me? Go ‘way exceptional hunger for chickens for the race. [9] dar, white man! Treat a boy ‘spectable, if he am Though humorous in tone, “A Victim of brack!’” His shirt and broad hat are in tatters and Heredity” in particular maintains the underlying suggest a rural setting, and the dark skin, tragedy that lays bare the relationships among exaggerated lips, and dialect clearly mark his poverty, race, crime, and punishment, as the blackness. His eyes meet those of the Harper’s Weekly readers and his address to the “white man” narrator’s capture of an young African American directly invokes the race, if not the gender, of many chicken thief encourages him to set an example, of those readers. The intended humor lies in the and “five years in the penitentiary would be about ironic distance between evidence of the crime and right”—a draconian sentence dodged when the the umbrage of his wounded pride at the narrator’s wife has Julius set the captive free after accusation and demand to be treated “‘spectable”— hearing the latter’s tale. [10] Petty crime and its better concealed than the chicks in this scene is the punishment provide the basis of an August 13, potential violence an African American could face in the South of 1878 for this mix of lie, theft, and 1887 cartoon appearing in Harper’s Weekly the insolence. same year as the publication of “A Virginia A seemingly insatiable lust for chicken and Chicken.” A magistrate addresses a shabbily watermelon harbored by black men appears in dressed black man, telling the defendant, “It’s ten numerous images of Harper’s Weekly from 1877 to dollars or thirty days, Uncle Rastus. You can take 1887. A May 4, 1878 cartoon features a black man fleeing a farm at night, his arms full of stolen chickens, and the caption laments, “Oh, why does the white man follow my path?” [6] An August 4, 1883 half-page detailed caricature manages to at once depict black masculinity as lazy, impotent, and criminal, as a black man in the foreground holds a rifle but slouches in sleep, his foolish grin clueless as two black children steal watermelons behind him. [7] A full page, detailed engraving and accompanying brief interpretive sketch from October 23, 1886 detail the trial of “The Village Pest,” a general class of youth likely to make town “lively” through petty thievery. Though the drawing in question depicts an African American boy, the short article that serves as an extended caption seems to pitch its defense of the boy in a light-hearted, ironic register, as “the abstracted fowls have no connection with the accused boy,” and his mother defends him. “There can be little doubt that the case will be dismissed.” [8] While the text indicates such a pest “is oftener white than black,” the image and is part of a larger pattern telling a different story. Chesnutt addressed this appetite in both “A Virginia Chicken” (1887) and “A Victim of Heredity; or, Why the Darkey Loves Fig. 4. Truth and consequences. The caption reads, “His Chicken” (1900). In the first, he overturns the Choice. Magistrate. ‘It’s ten dollars or thirty days, Uncle stereotype by demonstrating how all hungry men Rastus. You can take your choice.’ Uncle Rastus (after some appreciate roast chicken and in dire circumstances contemplation). ‘Well, yo’ kin gimme de money, sah.’” will steal to get it. In the second, the narrator and his wife are white upper-class sojourners in the South, and she declares, “There are thieves Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 27
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
your choice.” Rastus replies, “Well, yo’ kin gimme realistic portrayals of white subjects in illustrations de money, sah,” a misunderstanding of the penalty (aside from strictly political or comic works) and of fine or incarceration, to which the bailiff the more frequent caricatures of black subjects. Analysis of these illustrations does not dictate that responds with a look of shock. [11] It is a Harper’s Weekly or its illustrators were entirely sophisticated cartoon, a static image that racist, that men and women of African descent did nevertheless depicts a brief passage of time not not imitate the cultural practices of (largely white) only in the caption—“after some brief middle and upper classes in hopes of social contemplation”—but, read left to right, charts the mobility, or that such effort may have at times question, the answer, and the bailiff’s response of fallen short. However, it seems much most likely surprise at the answer. This brief narrative time that white illustrators drew their imaginations of blackness in a fashion both capitulating to the and space is itself bracketed by the presumed prior expectations of their predominantly white action of Rastus’s unnamed crime and the audience and to foster southern white readership. subsequent punishment, undoubtedly the jail For a reader and writer like Chesnutt, such sentence given his implied economic position. caricatures may have spurred him to envision Another layer of interpretation remains available alternative representations. as well. The judge holds his hands together in a Chesnutt’s only appearance in Harper’s fashion precisely matched by Rastus’s gesture of Weekly occurred in 1905, after he had given up contemplation, his right fingers under his chin, so making a career as a full-time literary writer, and it that his hand mirrors that of the white judge; is not one of his short stories or essays that moreover, Rastus’s very dark skin contrasts with appears, but a photograph of him at a table of his white lips, evoking the characterization of eight, part of a gathering of nearly 150 people to blackface. Illustrated in all likelihood by a white celebrate the seventieth birthday of Mark Twain. engraver for a primarily white middle-class [12] Twain’s dialect story “A True Story, Repeated readership, this drawing of the stereotypically Word for Word as I Heard It” appeared in the named Uncle Rastus operates as a trope of Atlantic Monthly in 1874, twelve years prior to minstrelsy, the popular racist white imaginations Chesnutt’s first publication there. Thirty-one years of black life that reached their height in the later and just months before the honoring of antebellum period but remained in some vogue Twain, Chesnutt saw the release of his last novel through the 1870s and 1880s. published in his lifetime, The Colonel’s Dream (1905), which sold poorly and ended what hopes he CONCLUSIONS still held for success as a novelist. The guests at the party included Twain, Howells, and Joseph Henry The images of African American families in Harper’s Weekly illustrations from 1877 to 1887 Harper of the Harper’s publishing empire, as well regularly depict African American men (and less as Andrew Carnegie, Willa Cather, and Nathaniel often, women) negatively: childlike, petty criminals Hawthorne’s son Julian. Chesnutt appears in the and loafers, living in rural poverty, their speech an photo somewhat in the background, seated at a impoverished version of English, poorly imitating table including seven other writers: May Isabel middle- and upper-class behavior, all for the Fisk, a frequent contributor to Harper’s Monthly intended amusement of white readers. Of course, Magazine; John Kendrick Bangs, then editor of the African American population of the United States immediately after reconstruction was Puck magazine, which had published nine of generally rural, often poor, and literacy varied. Chesnutt’s early short works; naturalist Ernest However, much of the magazine’s readership likely Ingersoll, author of fourteen non-fiction books; saw in the illustrations of well-to-do white men Anna P. Paret of Harper’s Bazaar; Roy L. and women dining, traveling, or otherwise McCardell, early film scenarist and prolific engaging in leisure less an accurate reflection of magazine writer; John Luther Long, author of the their present circumstances than a wishful mirror, a portrayal of themselves as rich, cultured, literate, short story “Madame Butterfly” (1898), the basis of and who they aspired to be. Black families were the play and opera; and poet Caroline Duer. Here depicted as poor, coarse, and foolish—emphasizing Chesnutt sat amidst the society he so aspired to what a racist white imagination believed them to join, and he likely felt a little of the ironic be. The contrast is underscored by generally more 28 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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ambivalence so common to his narratives as he joined his esteemed company to honor a white southern writer who earned his literary reputation and wealth in part through incorporating African American dialect and depicting black life.
Fig 5. Chesnutt in the background. In this 1905
photograph from Harper’s Weekly, Charles W. Chesnutt joined his contemporary authors at a party celebrating Mark Twain’s seventieth birthday. Chesnutt is seated in the back of the table in the very center of the photo, the fourth person from the left.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the USC Upstate Office of Sponsored Awards and Research Support for their generous financial assistance Fall 2008.
REFERENCES
[1] J. Brown. Beyond the Lines: Pictorial Reporting, Everyday Life, and the Crisis of Gilded Age America. University of California Press, pp 4, 62, 2005. [2] C. Chesnutt. The Journals of Charles W. Chesnutt. Duke University Press, pp 126, 1993. [3] C. Chesnutt, The Journals, pp 172. [4] Harper’s Weekly vol. 21(1051), pp 122, 1877. [5] Harper’s Weekly vol. 24(1251), pp 816-817, 1880;
Harper’s Weekly 24(1246), pp 733-734, 1880; Harper’s Weekly 24(1247), pp 749-750, 1880; Harper’s Weekly 24(1248), pp 765-766, 1880; Harper’s Weekly 24(1249), pp 781-782, 1880. [6] Harper’s Weekly 22(1114), pp 360, 1878. [7] Harper’s Weekly 27(1389), pp 1389, 1883. [8] Harper’s Weekly 30(1557), pp 1557, 1886. [9] C. Chesnutt. The Short Fiction of Charles W. Chesnutt. Howard University Press, pp 125, 1981. [10] C. Chesnutt. The Short Fiction, pp 123, 131. [11] Harper’s Weekly 31(1598), pp 588, 1887. [12] Harper’s Weekly 44(2557), pp 1884, 1905.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Child Trafficking - Borderline Slavery Landis Bunch and Carolyn Hooker Spartanburg Community College 523 Chesnee Hwy, Gaffney, SC 29341 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - In some Middle Eastern countries, such as Fortunately for Etse, he didn’t go because he saw Africa, China, and Japan, children are sold by their what had happened to his friends who had believed parents or voluntarily go with child traffickers. They the traffickers. Etse said of his friends, “They told are sent away from their families, do not get paid me they worked in the fields…, but none of them much, and often work in terrible conditions. Families wanted to go back. They said the traffickers are often tricked or are in such terrible debt, that they deceived them”[2]. have to find a way to support themselves. They agree to Africa, China, and Japan are a few of the send their children to work. Child trafficking has countries that engage in child trafficking. In these become a popular way for countries to have legal countries, trafficking has also come to mean that borderline slavery and has become a tragic form of children could possibly be forced into an unwanted human rights abuse. marriage. Countries have made trafficking “forms of forced labor and servitude” [2]. Some Keywords – Child trafficking, human rights governments, such as Thailand, target and punish abuse the victims, not the perpetrators. This allows these countries to continue to traffic children. Most of the time, the children are smuggled into countries INTRODUCTION [3]. The European Commission is an organization Child trafficking is an ongoing crisis in many parts that tries to control child trafficking. When they of the world, especially in Eastern countries, such find other organizations involved or associated as Africa, China, and Japan. Child trafficking with the trafficking, they immediately start begins between a family and a trafficker, a typically investigating and freezing funds to prevent any private arrangement. Most families traffic their other illegal trafficking. The European children because of economic troubles. Other Commission has been around since 2000 [4], and has found “serious abuse [of] migrants and asylum families traffic their children without realizing they seekers at the hands of human traffickers” [4]. The have done it. Most traffickers go around to small group focuses on vulnerable children who are villages and claim that they have well-paying jobs victims of trafficking. The victims are “considered available for these children. Yet, in reality, the useful for the purpose of investigating, arresting, parents are giving the children to a life of and prosecuting traffickers” [4]. servitude. The traffickers traffic children because Child trafficking causes problems for every they can make a profit and the children work for person involved in the process. The governments of some countries allow the trafficking, but some, little to no pay [1]. Children who are victims of this such as the European Commission groups, try to atrocious practice lose their childhood and are protest against this human rights violation. So far, often scarred for life. Their lives border on slavery. these groups have been able to stop a some of the countries that traffic in children but have made SECTION TWO only a dent into the others. Families are not helping the violation issue either. Some families Etse is a young boy from Togo who told his story of send their children away to earn money. Others are being harassed by child traffickers to leave his tricked into letting their children go with family and come with them to Nigeria. They traffickers. Trafficking does not benefit anyone promised him that he could help his family and except the traffickers and the families, but for only make lots of money. According to Etse, he was a little while. The families briefly profit, but the living in Togo and his family was very poor. He money lasts for only so long. The traffickers are said, “Life was hard, and a friend told me I should the ones who get the most out of trafficking. They go to Nigeria, because I was not doing anything are the ones who benefit from the cheap labor and here. I thought if I could go to Nigeria and get rich, get the servitude from the children [5]. I could come back and learn a trade”[2].
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CONCLUSION
The basic human rights of children are abused through child trafficking. The children end up in a life of servitude. All of their rights are taken away; they have no life; they are not allowed to move on and have families. If they do not get out, their lives are scarred forever. For those who do get out, their lives are often scarred by the memories of their lives in servitude. This violation needs to be stopped in all countries. The perpetrators should be punished for taking away children’s rights. The victims should not be punished for crimes committed against them.
REFERENCES
[1] “Trafficking.” Human Rights Watch. Human
Rights Watch. 20 October 2008
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Environmental Activism in the Middle East Lizabeth Zack and Joni Hammond Department of Sociology, Criminal Justice, Women’s Studies University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - In the last twenty years, civil society and And organizations in Jordan have begun to raise community-based groups have emerged across the environmental awareness through the schools and Middle East to address a variety of environmental businesses. challenges, from water scarcity and waste disposal to Despite evidence of this trend, little scholarly industrial pollution and coastal degradation. Despite research exists on this relatively new kind of evidence of the trend, little scholarly research exists on political activism. During the 1990s, after this relatively new kind of political activism. Research international agencies and NGOs, along with on the Middle Eastern environment has examined the scientists, academics, and local residents, pointed prominent environmental issues facing the region and to an impending environmental crisis in the the varying policies and protections states have Middle East, scholars produced a number of books and articles on the Middle Eastern environment. instituted in response to those challenges, while They reported on the variety of environmental research on political activism in the Middle East has challenges facing the region, from water issues to focused on Islamist movements and other popular industrial pollution to coastal degradation [1]. campaigns against authoritarian rule. Neither Some analyzed the variation in environmental approach accounts very well for the patterns of policy and protection structures created across environmental activism that have emerged in recent different Middle Eastern countries; others years. This project addresses that gap in our examined the impact of traditional and eco- understanding by looking closely at grassroots and civil friendly forms of tourism on the natural society campaigns around environmental issues in environment [2]. Most of the research followed the Jordan in recent years. The project draws on state-centered, top-down approach to addressing information from newspapers, organizational websites, environmental issues and paid less attention to interviews, and government documents. The analysis organized efforts to address environmental pays close attention to the groups involved, their concerns in the civil society sector and at the complaints and demands, how they mobilize, and the grassroots level. Moreover, the recent burst of outcomes and impact of their efforts. This analysis of research on political activism in the Middle East environmental activism in Jordan should shed light on has tended to focus on Islamic activism and the varying patterns of mobilization around popular movements against authoritarian rule, environmental issues across the Middle East and the with some analysts rendering environmental role civil society plays in addressing environmental causes a luxury issue for the elites. None of these concerns in the region. approaches accounts very well for the patterns of environmental activism emerging in recent years. Keywords — environment; politics; Middle East What accounts for this type of political activism in the Middle East? Who mobilizes INTRODUCTION around environmental causes and how and why they do it? In a region where national security and In the last twenty years, civil society and economic development usually dominate community-based groups have emerged across the governmental agendas and where issues of human Middle East to address a variety of environmental rights, religion and democratization preoccupy challenges, from water scarcity and waste disposal opposition movements, why and how do people to industrial pollution and coastal degradation. join campaigns to protect the environment? This Local branches of Greenpeace-Mediterranean were project seeks to address these questions about established in Turkey, Lebanon and Israel. environmental activism by examining the level and Neighborhood groups in Cairo pushed for better type of activity, the groups and communities sewage systems and parks and campaigned against involved, how they organize, the factors prompting cement and lead smelter factories. More recently, activism, and the outcomes of their efforts. Iraqis have mobilized to save the southern Marshes Broadly speaking, the project seeks to expand our that were nearly destroyed in the first Gulf War. understanding about the impact of environmental
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change from the perspective of residents and local Government documents – Jordan Ministry of communities across the region and the role that Environment (www.moenv.gov.jo). grassroots campaigns have in addressing environmental challenges in the Middle East. SIGNIFICANCE
RESEARCH PLAN A study of environmental activism in Jordan should give us a better understanding of the The goal of our research is to better understand conditions under which people collectively how grassroots and community-based groups mobilize to address consequential changes in the respond to environmental change in the Middle local and regional environment. It should offer a East. We examine environmental activism in clearer picture of which groups become involved, Jordan, a country that is notable for the level of the issues they choose to address, the types of citizen-based mobilization around environmental activities they organize, and the effects of their issues. The project is an extension of preliminary efforts. An in-depth look at the case of Jordan research conducted in Jordan in 2006-07 that should also give us a better sense of how and why focused closely on an organized campaign against a mobilization around environmental issues varies cement factory in a community just outside the across the Middle East and the conditions that capital city of Amman. The campaign was striking both promote and inhibit it. The project should in its history, sophisticated organizational also broaden our knowledge about the role civil structure, and degree to which it functioned at the society has played, and can potentially play, in grass-roots level. It also appeared to be part of a addressing environmental challenges and broader pattern of popular interest and political problems in the region and the impact it can have activity around environmental issues. The project in shaping policies and protection structures meant suggests that, despite the authoritarian restrictions to mitigate those problems. on political life in Jordan, civil society does have a A study of environmental activism in Jordan role to play in addressing environmental concerns can also expand our knowledge of popular political in the country. life in the Middle East. The Middle East is a region Our current research examines these broader where authoritarian rule persists to varying patterns across Jordan and expands the scope of degrees in most countries, and where political the preliminary research beyond the single case participation is restricted in myriad ways and can study to include other environmental campaigns, incur high personal costs, making it especially issues and groups. Our data analysis will pay close important to understand how and why people attention to the groups involved, their concerns mobilize collectively and publicly to address their and demands, how they mobilize, and the impact grievances. In recent years, the heightened interest of their efforts. Our analysis will rely on the in Islamic activism and the Islamist parties, following sources: organizations, networks and movements that operate across the region has meant that attention Newspapers - The Jordan Times is the on-line to other forms of political activism, including English language newspaper, and has a history campaigns around women’s issues, human rights, of reporting on environmental issues. economic distress and the environment, has Websites of Environmental organizations – waned. A project that helps to capture the diverse organizations with websites include the Royal types of political activism should certainly enhance Society for the Conservation of Nature our knowledge of political life in the region. (www.rscn.org.jo), International Union for the Conservation of Nature-West Asia/Middle ACKNOWLEDGMENTS East Regional Office (www.iucn.org), Friends of Environment Society (www.foe.org.jo), and The authors would like to thank the CURS Jordan Environment Society (www.jes.org.jo); Research Assistant Program for their support. these websites offer information on the history, mission, activities, and other aspects of the REFERENCES organization. [1] J.G. Jabbra, N.W. Jabbra. “Challenging Blogs – Jordan Environment Watch Environmental Issues,” E.J. Brill, 1997. (www.arabenvironment.net) [2] E. Watkins. “The Middle Eastern Environment,” Cambridge: St. Malo, 1995.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Scars of Africa Robin Ivey and Carolyn Hooker English Department Spartanburg Community College 523 Chesnee Hwy, Gaffney, SC 29341 {rkkirby, hookerc}@sccsc.edu
Abstract - Young women in Ethiopia are victims of SECTION TWO female genital mutilation. There are three different types of female genital mutilation; Ethiopia practices Female genital mutilation involves the cutting the most horrific kind. Some countries forbid this of female genitalia to reduce a woman’s sexual practice, unless it is done in a clinical setting, but it is enjoyment. There are three main types of still legal in Ethiopia. It is referred to as “circumcision.” female genital circumcision. Type I, also Women are said to be impure and unfit for marriage if referred to as Sunna circumcision, involves they have not been circumcised. After enduring the the removal of the tip of the clitoris. 80% of torture of female circumcision, some women have a all incidents are done using this method. Type lifetime of adverse physical effects from the procedure. II involves the removal of all of the clitoris and In some countries, groups are trying to educate people to perform the procedure under sterile conditions. scraping away the parts of the labia majora and minora. Type II is mainly done in areas Keywords — Female, mutilation, Ethiopia where infibulation is discouraged. Type III includes infibulation, which includes the INTRODUCTION complete removal of the clitoris, labia majora and minora, and the sewing of the sides and Today, there are at least 130 million victims of vulva with thorns or some other suturing female genital mutilation. Some eight to ten material. A very small opening is left for million of these occur in the Middle East and passing urine and menstrual fluids. Infibulation is widely used in the areas of Africa. In addition, there are thousands of Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. It is also used victims in the United States[1]. Laws are in throughout the Nile Valley, Southern Egypt, place in Kenya and other areas of Africa that and along the red sea. Type III is considered make this practice illegal; however, in to be the most brutal form of female genital Ethiopia the practice is still legal. Males mutilation[3]. predominantly rule Ethiopia while women and The reasons for female genital mutilation children have very few rights. When a girl is are complex. It is important to note that female genital mutilation or female born in Ethiopia, she represents a dowry for circumcision is not a religious practice, but her family. Her father prearranges her more a cultural practice. Jews, Christians, marriage. In many cases, she must marry Muslims, and members of other religions, someone that is 20-30 years older than she is. practice female genital mutilation. In Female genital mutilation is a ritual that takes Ethiopia, none of these religions requires the place before marriage. Women are said to be practice of female genital mutilation. Female impure and unfit for marriage unless they circumcision has been referred to as the “coming-of-age ritual”[4]. Others believe the have been circumcised[2]. This female female genitalia will continue to grow, circumcision or female genital mutilation is a becoming a grotesque penislike organ violation of human rights and in Ethiopia; dangling between a woman’s legs[4]. however, this practice is still legal. This However, the main reason for this culture practice is one of the most horrifying examples ritual is to ensure purity. An uncircumcised of a violation of a woman’s human rights. female is considered unclean and impure. Female genital mutilation is a ritual performed on female children between the ages of four and twelve[4]. Often times the 34 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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girls are held with such force that if they Majid and women like her are trying to struggle to escape, they end up breaking their educate people about the horrific dangers of own bones[5]. performing this ritual. Still, education will One of the most horrifying examples is of a take time and the people of Ethiopia will be young six-year-old child, Aisha Majid. Early hard to convince. This is the only way of life one morning her mother told her they were that they know and changing their cultural going to visit a sick relative. They arrived at a rituals will be hard. One suggestion for now red brick house, which the young child did not might be to have a licensed professional recognize. By the time the child realized perform these procedures under sterile where she was, it was too late. Young Aisha conditions with the use of anesthesia. tried to escape, but was subdued by her mother and aunt. Aisha referred to the REFERENCES midwife performing the circumcision as the [1] J. Carroll. “Circumcision of young girls violates their rights.” Do children have rights?. Jamuna Carroll. cruelest person she had ever seen. Aisha still Detroit: Greenhaven. 2006 Opposing Viewpoints remembers catching a glimpse of the razor Resource Center. Gale. Spartanburg Community Coll. Lib. 12 Oct 2008 that the midwife used. It was wrapped in a
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Child Soldiers in Burma Sam Karns and Carolyn English Department Spartanburg Community College 523 Chesnee Hwy, Gaffney, SC 29341 [email protected]
Abstract – Burma, a country located in Southeastern recruited are often poor and separated from their Asia, has had a long history of turmoil. After winning family and are picked up at public places by its independence from Britain’s Indian Empire, a junta military personnel who are rewarded for bringing forcefully took over the country and has controlled it in new soldiers[2]. When it comes to age in the since. Refusals by the junta to liberalize the government Burmese army, morals do not play a role in have kept the country in poverty – an issue that inevitably led to the problem of poor children being deciding who is too young to enlist. recruited by the army. As a result, Burmese children While in the Burmese army, child soldiers are well under the age of eighteen are forced to fight and subjected to various kinds of atrocities. When commit atrocities that will physically and mentally scar approached and told to join the military, children them for the rest of their lives. who refuse are put in jail and continually beaten until they agree to join[2]. Other, grimmer ways of Keywords – Burma, Child Soldiers, Abuse persuading children to enlist are also used such as cutting off the lips and ears of those that refuse[4]. INTRODUCTION To make sure that the children remain loyal to the army, many officers force the new recruits to kill Burma is a country in Southeastern Asia bordered their own families so they will have no incentive to by the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, and Thailand. return home[3]. Training of the soldiers often The country won its independence from Britain’s includes what is known as “the ram” which Indian Empire in 1937 and has been run by a involves the children rolling almost nude on a military junta since that time. Due to stony surface while being kicked by officers[4]. mismanagement by the junta and refusal to Also included in training are long runs while liberalize their system of government, Burma’s carrying heavy machine guns – no easy task for the economy has been dwindling. Further younger soldiers who can barely lift the guns[5]. In contributing to the country’s less than desirable battle, children are given numbing drugs to dull economic status is the government’s hostile their pain and fear and forced to go on suicide attitude towards democracy exemplified in their missions[4]. At other times they are told to walk attacks on pro-democracy demonstrators. All of through questionable fields and become human these factors keep the majority of Burma in a land mine “detectors”[4]. Burmese army officers perpetual state of poverty, causing children with choose adolescents for such terrible tasks because nothing else to turn to to join, either voluntarily or they are too young to refuse or comprehend what involuntarily, the army[1]. This issue of child they are doing[3]. soldiers in Burma is a most unfortunate situation Some children either escape or are relieved of and is a major violation to children’s rights. their military duty and go on to tell their horrific tales of being in the army. Sai Seng of Burma SECTION TWO describes his experience of watching his friend,
Burma’s army forces unwilling children into who unsuccessfully tried to escape, being beaten enlisting, many of whom are well under the age of with a bamboo stick by the entire training camp[5]. eighteen. In the Burmese military, which consists Seng recalls his friend “being bloody because of 350,000 people, about twenty percent of those sometimes the sticks broke when they hit him[5]. enlisted are under the age of eighteen[2]. While His friend died the same night after officers coldly the age of eighteen does not seem like a terribly “laid him on the cement floor without a mat” and unreasonable age, Burma delves lower to ages as low as eight for being eligible for the military[3]. let him bleed profusely without treatment[5]. Seng In fact, the age of the children is not what concerns witnessed horrible events that no one should ever recruitment officers; instead, the children who be subjected to – especially not children. “[stand] as tall as a rifle [are] often deemed eligible for military service”[4]. The children that are
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CONCLUSION
Enlisting children under the age of eighteen in the Burmese army is a serious issue that should not be overlooked. Beyond the fact that this practice is morally wrong, Burma is ruining its chance at having a peaceful future. By placing children on the frontlines of war, Burma is subjecting them to extreme brutality as well as to a culture that promotes senseless killing. These children, assuming they survive their military service, are the same people who will grow up and take part in society – a society that will continue the cycle of militarization and violence[4]. For the country’s sake and for the rest of the world’s safety, some action should be taken immediately to stop Burma’s use of children in its army.
REFERENCES
[1] “Burma,” Central Intelligence Agency, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-factbook/geos/bm.html.
[2] A. Kazmin. “Burma ‘Forcing Children into Army,’” General OneFile, Gale, Spartanburg Community Coll. Lib., http://find.galegroup.com.
[3] “Facts about Child Soldiers,” Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/campaigns/crp/fact_sheet.html.
[4] M. Wessells. “Child Soldiers: In Some Places, if You’re as Tall as a Rifle, You’re Old Enough to Carry One,” General Onefile, Gale, Spartanburg Community Coll. Lib., http://find.galegroup.com. [5] “Sold to Be Soldiers: The Recruitment and Use of
Child Soldiers in Burma,” Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/reports/2007/burma1007.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
A Novel Robotic Approach to Contour Recovery using Structured Light Nicole T. Hodge, Robert Mahmoudishad, Mark Parrish, and Sebastian van Delden Division of Mathematics and Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected] Abstract — This paper describes a novel approach to ultrasonic sensor, for example, can use timed depth recovery using structured light in which a single pulses to recover depth but cannot recover fine- camera and simple laser dot pointer are mounted to the grain surface fluctuations. Structured light can also end of a robotic manipulator. This approach is very be used to recover depth in which case light is novel, but interesting because unlike most structured projected in a known pattern on the surface. A light approaches it requires no camera/laser camera (or cameras) is then used to observe how calibration. The algorithm has been implemented and the light pattern has been projected on the surface. tested on a Stäubli RX60 robotic manipulator with This paper describes a novel approach to depth CS7B controller onto which an inexpensive off-the-shelf recovery using structured light in which a single USB camera and laser-dot pointer are mounted with a camera and simple laser dot pointer are mounted bracket. Once depth has been recovered a 3D digital to the end of a robotic manipulator. The basic model of the surface is re-constructed which can be concept is illustrated in Figure 1. The initial viewed by an operator. Experimental test results are position of the laser dot is observed as the initial reported. depth (distance to surface) – all other depth Keywords — Robotics, Structured Light, quantities that will be recovered are with respect to Computer Vision. this initial surface location. The robotic arm then proceeds to translate the camera/laser end-effector INTRODUCTION along the unknown contour that is to be measured. Determining the distance to an object with respect As the depth changes so will the location of the to oneself typically requires the integration of data laser dot. Immediately as the laser dot’s location in gathered from at least two input sensors that are the input images moves, the robotic arm translates observing the object. Humans can recover depth the camera-laser dot away from or towards the information because we are equipped with two surface until the laser dot is back in its original eyes that are mounted in a fixed position in our eye position. Once it has returned to its original sockets. The way this stereo input data is position, the distance that the robotic arm has integrated in the brain is not yet fully understood. Computer vision systems can also be built to translated is recorded as the new depth to the recover depth and typically also use two cameras surface. When all depths have been recovered a 3D mounted at a known offset and angle with respect digital model of the surface is re-constructed so to each other. A single camera can be mounted to that an operator can observe the contour the end of a robotic manipulator (a monocular graphically. Although this approach is very novel, it vision system) and then translated a known is interesting because it requires no camera/laser distance. An image is taken at the initial position calibration - unlike most structured light and then again at the final position. These two images are used to recover depth. In both of these approaches. cases, the most difficult issue is the correspondence problem – the ability to determine the locations of the real world points in both of the images. There have several approaches developed for tackling the correspondence problem. These approaches typically try to match high-interest points (small areas of high image contrast) in the both images. Approaches with two cameras degenerate quickly when the input images do not contain high- interest points. In such cases, different types of input sensors can be used to recover depth. An
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THE ALOGITHM then the robotic arm moves on to the next location. The lastMove variable (initialized on line 12) is The algorithm is formally defined below. Lines 01- used to keep track of which Z direction the arm has 07 of the algorithm performs several required been translating – either positive or negative (away initializations, including setting the X, Y, and Z from or towards the surface). If this sign flips, then robotic translation quantities to some mm values. the algorithm has over shot the required depth and Note that the values N, M, Xoffset and Yoffset has translated in the reverse direction. This occurs defined the size of the area to be scanned in mm. when the Zoffset is set at a value too high causing The initial position of the laser dot (line 06) is set the algorithm to shoot pass its goal. If this at an initial depth of 0 – all other depth quantities happens, the currentDepth is recorded and the that will be recovered are with respect to this initial algorithm moves on to the next location. If this is surface location. Line 07 defines how the camera not handled, the algorithm could bounce around coordinate system is aligned (mapped) with the the desired depth and never converge for that robot coordinate system. The laser dot moves in a particular location. straight line in the camera coordinate system, and Finally, once all depths have been recovered a this mapping information is required to determine 3D digital model of the surface is re-constructed so the corresponding robot world direction that the that an operator can observe the data graphically. laser dot moves. This can be manually user defined, or automatically determined. The nested NO CALIBRATION REQUIRED for-loops translate the camera/laser end-effector so that depth is recovered for each location in the Although this approach is very novel, it is surface area. The condition in lines 16-18 interesting because it requires no camera/laser determine if the laser dot has been lost in the calibration - unlike most structured light camera’s FOV due to an occlusion or excessive approaches. In most previous approaches, the depth variation since the last location. In such angle offsets between the camera, laser and surface cases, the previous depth is simply recorded since must be known so that depth can be properly the depth cannot be accurately determined, and triangulated. This is not required in our approach primarily because the camera/laser end-effector is mounted to a robotic arm which can precisely translate it in the robot’s world or tool coordinate system. Furthermore, because the camera/laser end-effector is moving, a large area can be scanned – larger than the camera’s field of view, and large global depth difference can be recovered. Figure 2 illustrates the geometry of our camera/laser end-effector, and shows how depth recovery is possible without knowing α and β – the angle offsets of the camera and laser. It is important to note that the baseline of the triangle with unknown α and β angles does not necessarily have to be aligned with the robot’s world coordinate system. As the camera/laser end- effector is translated along an unknown contour in the robot world’s X and Y axes, the location of the laser-dot in the camera’s input image stream changes when the distance to the surface changes and so do the α and β offset angles. Any change in the location of the imaged laser dot results in the robot arm translating the end-effector away from or towards the contour. Once the laser dot is back to its original location the camera’s input image stream, the original α and β angles will have been restored – even though the algorithm does not know what they are. The amount of world Z translation is store as the depth to the contour at this location.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Fig. 2. The camera/laser geometry is uncalibrated as angles α and β are unknown. (a) shows the initial geometry; (b) shows the new geometry after the robotic arm translates along its world X and/or Y axes; (c) shows that the initial geometry is recovered as the robot translates along its world Z axis so that the laser dot it back to its original location in the camera’s input image and the α and β angles are restored.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS the depth changes abruptly by a distance large enough to cause the laser dot to move outside the The algorithm has been implemented and tested camera field of view, then the algorithm will fail on a Stäubli RX60 robotic manipulator with CS7B because it will no longer be able to locate where the controller. An inexpensive off-the-shelf USB laser dot has moved too. Furthermore, the speed of camera and laser-dot pointer were mounted with a this algorithm suffers from the fact that bracket to the end of the manipulator. Figure 3 movements are incremental (movement and image shows our implementation of the system which has capture are synchronized), causing the robot to recovered a portion of a car door’s contour, and constantly start and stop its movements. displayed it in 3D on the monitor. A video CONCLUSIONS demonstration of the project can also be found on the following website: The novel algorithm described in this paper http://faculty.uscupstate.edu/svandelden. accurately recovers the depth of an unknown The detail of the recovered 3D model is contour without the need to calibrate the determined by the X, Y, and Z translation offsets camera/laser geometry. We are currently working that are defined by the user in the algorithm. For example, if the Z translation offset is set to 1 mm, to solve the occlusion problem, and also the speed then the algorithm will accurately recover the inefficiency associated with the algorithm. distance to contour to within 1 mm. There are several traditional limitations to ACKNOWLEDGMENTS using structured light to recover depth. Shiny We would like to sincerely thank Stäubli for surfaces can cause the reflection of the laser dot to generously donating several robotic arms to USC also be captured by the camera, causing the camera Upstate. This project has been partially funded by to observe two laser dots – the reflected and the the Magellan Scholars Program offered by USC refracted one. The surface must be relatively dull, Columbia. or dulled by, for example, coating it with powder. Occlusions can cause the structure light to not be observed by the camera because it is blocked by an object in the scene. This problem could be minimized in our approach by rotating the camera/laser end-effector until the laser dot becomes visible once again – we are currently working on this problem. Surrounding light sources can also be an issue when using structured light. In our approach, the room must be relatively dark so that the laser dot can be reliably and accurately located in the camera’s input image stream. As noted above, this approach can recover large global depth changes over a surface area larger that the cameras field of view. However, if
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March 27th, 2009
Multithreaded and Parallel Programming: Problems and the Environments and Tools to Handle Them Andrew Stokes Physics and Computer Science Presbyterian College 503 South Broad Street, Clinton, South Carolina 29325 [email protected]
Abstract — Multithreaded applications and parallel ANALYSIS programming have been pushed greatly for increased efficiency, especially as multi-core and multiple processors With these increased complexities come more become cheaper and more accessible. However, there are difficulties in debugging these applications. Several some complex issues that spring from these techniques problems arise, or become much worse, due to the including race conditions (where a program behaves differently if one piece of it runs faster than another), parallel nature of these applications. Deadlock (where deadlocks (where multiple pieces of a program are unable to an application locks up because multiple processes are do anything as they wait on each other), and memory leak waiting on each other), race conditions (where (where the longer an application runs the more resources it undesirable behaviour can arise when processes or claims though it does so unnecessarily). To the programmer threads run in an unexpected order), and memory leak who is new to these application styles, some of these problems (where an application unnecessarily claims resources) can be dealt with easily while others seem unavoidable. Many are all problems that parallel programmers face when have trouble debugging their applications as the tools they they try to write their applications. have used up until this point no longer give them enough information and time is lost as they search through code with a fine toothed comb. To help combat these issues special PROBLEMS development environments have been created and a handful of tools have been assembled. However, many programmers find Deadlock is a problem often found in parallel themselves armed with discovering their own solutions and processing applications but it is also usually easily learning only through experience. Through the use of various fixed. When a deadlock occurs the developer must look applications, development environments, and literature, this back at the application and see which resources became paper surveys some of these problems and looks at some locked. This can sometimes be found by looking at solutions from literature and from developers used in theory when the deadlock occurred in an application but often and in practice as well as some of the environments designed deadlocks are much subtler than that. According to for the development of these applications. Herlihy and Shavit, “the heart of the problem with
deadlocks is that no one really knows how to organize and maintain large systems that rely on locking. The Keywords —Parallel, Multithreaded, Deadlock association between locks and data is established mostly by convention.” In the past, companies often simply INTRODUCTION paid a dedicated team of highly skilled programmers to write the parts of applications that locked data so as to As processors with multiple cores get cheaper the avoid deadlock. However, applications today are too demand for applications that can be executed in a large and need to be too scalable to do that affordably. parallel fashion is increasing quickly, both in the [1] private and public sector. Programmers are being Race conditions happen whenever it is assumed that asked to write complex applications that do many an application’s commands will run in a certain order things simultaneously, both in dependent and but unique circumstances cause them to run in a independent fashions, that all work towards a different order. Often this issue comes around because common goal. These applications can be upwards of scheduling in a multitasking system or because the developers write their code with a particular flow of of millions of lines long and being developed by commands in mind and something delays one of the hundreds of different developers. As any manager threads or processes causing it to become out of step. for a big convention can tell you this is a logistics These issues are usually fixed by locking down data in nightmare and it is no easier when you are working such a way that it must be done in the order imagined by on separate processes instead of people and, in the developer. However, this can cause the program to fact, it can be much harder. be inefficient and may not even be possible if the particulars of the data are not known beforehand. Also, Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 41
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
one of the things that make race conditions so difficult loss they cause, and the amount of information they give to work with is that they may not occur very often or to the developer this paper surveys these tools and how consistently. Common developer tricks, such as using they aid the developer with these tasks and problems. command line output, can cause the race condition to BoundsChecker, for example, monitors all calls not occur as it changes the timing of the data flow. from API modules, COM objects, and software Memory leak is not just a problem for multi libraries. Because of this it can find memory out of threaded applications but it is a lot more prevalent in bounds errors, memory leaks, and even detecting them. Memory leak occurs when some memory is no deadlocks. However, it is only for C++ and only usable longer needed but it is also not freed either. In with the Microsoft Visual C++ compiler, which limits programming languages that do not have a garbage its possible use quite a bit. collector, such as C, a programmer must be very careful IBM Rational Purify inserts code into the to free any memory when it is no longer necessary. application during the linking step of the program Even in languages that have a garbage collector memory compilation. After a program has been linked to Purify, leak can still be a problem if the garbage collector if there is an error Purify can give the location of the thinks that the referenced memory can still be useful. In error and the memory address at which it occurred. a non-multithreaded application that runs for a relatively Purify can detect memory leaks, array out of bounds short time memory leak is not usually a problem as the errors, attempts to access unallocated memory as well as applications resources are freed when it finishes. attempts to free memory that is not allocated. IBM However, in multithreaded applications, the resources Rational Purify may be run with Microsoft Visual will not be freed until the entire application finishes, Studio and gcc/g++ for Unix/Linux and is compatible rather than the individual threads. According to Hughes with C/C++, Java, and .NET. and Hughes, the key difference between threads and Valgrind is unusual as it could possibly be processes is that processes have their own encapsulated considered an environment rather than a tool. Valgrind address space while threads all share one address space. reads the machine code of a compiled application and [2] then translates the code into a processor neutral, single- Memory leak can also be a problem in an static assignment language it calls Intermediate application that is supposed to run for long periods of Representation (IR). It then allows tools, both native to time, such as most server applications. Memory leak is the environment and created by third parties, to inspect hard to find or notice as well because the developer and modify the code before the code is translated back would have to find when a resource is no longer being into machine code and run in the Valgrind environment. used but is still being referenced. This can be nearly This process causes a great deal of performance loss but impossible in situations where the developer does not it has a great deal of customizability. It can detect race specifically know the particulars of the data they will be conditions, memory leaks, and reading and writing to handling. unallocated and uninitialized memory as well as having Several techniques have been developed to try and a heap and cache profiler. One other advantage of combat memory leak. One such technique is called Valgrind is that because it reads an application from Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII). RAII says machine language the original code can be written using that a programmer should have their objects acquire any language on any compiler. However, Valgrind itself their resources when they are initialized and they should has only been made available for Linux but it has always free them when the object is destroyed. This unofficial ports to Unix as well as an experimental port technique can greatly help reduce or eliminate memory to Wine. leak but if the programmer is too zealous in destroying their objects or freeing their memory then they can ENVIRONMENTS create dangling pointers. Along with these tools come development TOOLS environments, such as nVidia’s CUDA environment. CUDA is a development environment for the C These problems are often hard to locate and some of language (though there are several third party wrappers them may not even show up except in very specific for other languages) that is designed to help developers conditions. Several things have been done to try and write applications that utilize nVidia’s Graphical overcome these problems including textbooks, Processing Units, or GPUs. GPUs are particularly good development tools, and special working environments. at doing simultaneous data operations and as such are These tools include IBM Rational Purify, Memwatch, often used for large amounts of numerical calculations. Valgrind, and BoundsChecker. By looking at what According to Dr. Thomas Kurfess, BMW Chair of conditions these tools can specifically detect, the Manufacturing of ICAR, even the automotive industry methods in which they detect them, the performance is looking into using GPUs and CUDA for parallel data
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processing (personal communication, February 10, 2009). [2] Hughes, C., & Hughes, T. Professional Multicore OpenMP is another environment for developing Programming: Design and Implementation for C++ parallel processing applications in a shared memory Developers. Wiley Publishing Inc., 2008. environment. Since it is an API package it can be used [3] Riegel, E. The Khronos Group Releases OpenCL 1.0 in a variety of compilers for the C, C++, and Fortran Specification. Khronos Press Releases. Retrieved languages. OpenMP is praised because it allows a February 09, 2009, from developer to make an application multithreaded without http://www.khronos.org/news/press/ having to make very many code changes. In essence, a developer can mark sets of code as being threads with a particular style of work (such as splitting up looping work, consecutive but independent work, and making sure a particular piece of code is only executed once). Also, if the code is compiled in a non-multithreading system then the compiler will ignore the lines of OpenMP code, meaning that only one version of the code needs to be written. OpenMP does have some drawbacks, however. It lacks a reliable error handler, which can be a bit problematic. Also, it only runs efficiently on shared memory systems. OpenCL is another environment and it can be considered the new OpenMP. OpenCL is an environment for working with GPUs, CPUs, and multicore processors. It allows for both task based parallelism (which is usually what CPUs and multicore processors are used for) and data based parallelism (which is what GPUs are commonly used for). However, any discussion of OpenCL is merely theoretical as it will see its first usage in Mac OS 10.6 [3]
CONCLUSION
As more and more developers are being called upon to create multithreaded and parallel processing applications they are looking for more and more help in creating them faster and with less faults. Some new issues arise from the very nature of multithreaded and parallel processing and the resources that are available to the common developer can seem very limited. There are tools and environments available but their ability to detect these conditions are usually limited or come at a high price. It would seem that, despite the availability of these tools and environments, what developers use the most is simply experience. Each developer seems to have their own method and set of tools for avoiding, finding, and fixing these problems.
REFERENCES
[1] Herlihy, M., & Shavit, N. The Art of Multiprocessor Programming. Elsevier Inc, 2008
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Mining Exceptions as Interesting Knowledge Stephen St. Peter1, Rick Chow2 Division of Mathematics and Computer University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected] [email protected]
Abstract — Exceptions are interesting but unexpected predefined knowledge. The algorithm requires the knowledge that may exist in transaction databases. computations of probabilities of certain items, such Suzuki et al. proposed a formal definition of exception as used_seat_belt and injury, or sets of items that as a rule triplet and an algorithm to mine for those occur in a dataset [1, 2]. However, Suzuki’s work exceptions using probabilities of item sets in the does not include an algorithm to compute those transactions [1, 2]. However, the algorithm does not probabilities effectively and efficiently. This address how some of those crucial probabilities can be research focuses on adopting an item set mining computed effectively and efficiently. This research algorithm proposed by Rácz [3] to compute the focuses on the implementation of an exception mining probabilities of item sets and mine for exceptions algorithm that combines the exception definitions by as defined in Suzuki’s papers [1, 2]. Suzuki and an item set discovery algorithm by Rácz et. al. [3]. The algorithm utilizes a prefix tree structure call DEFINING EXCEPTION RULES a trie to facilitate the computations of certain probability based interestingness measures. The In data mining, an association rule is a presentation of knowledge that is expressed as y → efficacy of the algorithm is tested using a national x where x and y are items in a dataset of healthcare dataset. transactions. The item y is called the antecedent Keywords — Data mining, exception mining, and x is called the consequent. Let P(z) be the probability that an item z occurs in a transaction; interestingness measures. in other words, it is the percentage of transactions in which z appears. Hence, the Support of a rule y INTRODUCTION → x is defined to be P(y) and the Confidence of the rule is defined to be Hilderman and Hamilton define data mining as P(x | y), which is the conditional probability of x “the efficient discovery of previously unknown, occurring in a transaction given the presence of y. valid, novel, potentially useful, and understandable The Support of a rule measures the rule’s patterns in large databases” [4]. Current research generality as P(y) must exceed a certain threshold has been attempting to define various θS. The higher the threshold θS, the more general interestingness measures which are designed to the rule will be, meaning more transactions select and rank discovered patterns according to involving this rule are present in the transaction their potential interest to a target end user [1, 4, 5]. file. On the other hand, Confidence models the Some of the interestingness measures focus on the conditional probability P(x | y) to measure the surprisingness of the knowledge – surprising accuracy of a rule. The higher the Confidence, the patterns contradict a person’s previous knowledge greater the chance that x will occur if y occurs. or expectations. Patterns that are exceptions to Similarly, Confidence is expected to exceed a previously discovered patterns can also be threshold θF, i.e., P(x | y) > θF. A negative rule, u considered surprising. Exceptions are interesting v, is for measuring the lack of association because they challenge existing knowledge and between the items u and v. For a negative rule to be encourage further research in new directions [1]. A interesting, P(u) is expected to exceeds θS while P(v real-world example of an exception discovered in | u) is expected to be less than another threshold car accident data is that the common knowledge θI. general rule of [IF used_seat_belt = yes THEN An exception rule is defined as a triplet of injury = no] has a surprising exception of [IF three rules: A common sense rule, a negative rule, used_seat_belt = yes AND passenger = child THEN injury = yes] [2]. and a reference rule. For example, the seatbelt Suzuki et. al. proposed a probability based exception can be presented as a special type of exception algorithm that does not depend on triplet as follow:
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Table 1: Triplets with a Single Antecedent in the Exception Rule
Type 1 Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type10 Type11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x y → x z x z x x z y z xy xz xy xz yz xy z yz z y z y x x y → z z → y z → y z → x z → x y → z y → z z → y z → y z → y z → x
Common Sense Rule: seatbelt → no_injury calculation of the probabilities P(y), P(α), P(γ), P(x Negative Rule: seatbelt, child no_injury | y) , P(δ | y), and P(β | α) requires an effective and Reference Rule: child → seatbelt efficient algorithm since the item variables x, y, and z can be mapped to hundreds if not thousands In this paper, the common sense rules and of items. Rácz suggested the use of a prefix tree or reference rules are restricted to having just one trie for computing the probabilities of item sets [3]. antecedent while the negative rules are allowed to Item sets of one, two, and three or more items are have one or two antecedents. Furthermore, all represented in a trie, which allow quick rules are allowed to have exactly one consequent. calculations of support and confidence. This The simplicity of the triplets allows users to have research adopts Rácz’s algorithm, instead of better comprehension of the rule and hence, Suzuki’s, as a framework to generate the items in a enables easier decision making based on the rule. rule template. Under the above constraints, eleven different types of triplets can be enumerated. If only one TRIE Data Structure antecedent is allowed in the negative rule, four different types of triplets can be generated as Consider Figure 1 in which five transactions with shown in Table 1. If two antecedents are allowed in items a, b, c, and d. Rácz’s trie is structured so that the negative rules, seven more triplets types (Type the root of the trie holds the number of 5 to Type 11) can be enumerated. transactions in the dataset. The nodes at the first level store the occurrences of single items. In this For example, the triplet for the seatbelt example is example, the single items a, b, c, and d occur 2, 3, a Type 9 triplet. In general, a triplet can be defined 3, and 1 times in the transactions, respectively. formally as a tuple t with three rules: t(y → x, α Nodes at the second level store the occurrences of β, γ → δ), where the 2-item sets. The item sets {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c} and {c, d} occur 2, 1, 1, and 2 times, respectively. (α, β, γ, δ) ϵ {(z, x, y, z), (z, x, z, y), (x, z, z, y), (y, z, Likewise, the third level holds the occurrences of z, x), (xy, z, y, z), (xz, y, y, z), (xy, z, z, y), (xz, y, z, the only 3-item set {a b c}. Using this trie, the y), (yz, x, z, y), (xy, z, z, x), (yz, x, z, x)} support and confidence of a rule can be calculated easily. For instance, Support for the rule c → d is MINING INTERESTING EXCEPTION RULES calculated as P(c) = 3/5. The Confidence of the rule 2/5 2 If a triplet t(y → x, α β, γ → δ) satisfies the is P(d | c) = P(c d) / P(c) = . 3/5 3 constraints P(y) > θS, P(α) > θS, P(γ) > θS, P(x | y) > θF, P(δ | y) > θF, and P(β | α) < θI, where θS , θF , and θI are the thresholds for Support, Confidence, and negative rule, respectively, the exception rule triplet is considered to be interesting. However, the
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Transactions Trie
5 1. a b c 2. c d 3. a b 4. b a 2 b 3 c 3 d 1 5. c d
b 2 c 1 c 1 d 2
c 1
Fig. 1. Transactions and the Corresponding Trie Structure
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS CONCLUSIONS
This study utilizes the Healthcare Cost & This research implements an exception mining Utilization Project (HCUP-3) database, which is algorithm using Rácz’s trie and Suzuki’s definition the largest and most robust U.S. national inpatient of exception rule triplets. The efficacy of the database [6]. In this paper, a subset of patient algorithm is tested against a healthcare dataset. records from 2004 is selected by restricting the Even though the algorithm is effective in finding patient’s age to 65 years or older, the main some exceptions in the data set, the algorithm still diagnosis to diabetes only, and the number of needs further improvements to increase the procedures to two or more. A data cleaning step is number of antecedents and consequents in the also applied to the dataset to remove records that rules for mining more complex exceptions. have incomplete information or noisy data. The However, the increase number of items in a rule resulting dataset consists of 6765 transactions. In triplet also requires additional optimization this experiment, the transactions include only the techniques to reduce processing time. diagnosis codes for the patients’ complications and Table 2. Descriptions of Diagnosis Codes the length of stay labels, which indicate whether or not a patient stays 9 or more days in the hospital. Diagnosis Codes Descriptions With the following threshold settings, θS = 0.05, θF = 0.8, and 2 Septicemia (except in labor) θI = 0.2, five Type 4 rules are discovered and listed below. The descriptions of the diagnosis codes are 157 Acute and unspecified renal listed in Table 2. The rules are subject to further failure studies by healthcare professionals. 238 Complications of surgical
procedures or medical care
Rule 1: Rule 2: Rule 3: Rule 4: Rule 5: 238→ ≥ 9 days 238 → ≥ 9 days 2→ ≥ 9 days 157 → ≥ 9 days 157 → ≥ 9 days 238 157 238 2 2 238 157 238 157 2 157 → ≥ 9 days 2 → ≥ 9 days 238 → ≥ 9 days 238 → ≥ 9 days 2 → ≥ 9 days
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March 27th, 2009
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is supported by the Student Research Assistant Program and Research Incentive Award from University of South Carolina Upstate and the Healthy Living Initiative Faculty Research Grant from the ReGenesis Community Health Center (RCHC).
REFERENCES
[1] E. Suzuki and J.M. Żytkow, “Unified algorithm for undirected discovery of exception rules: Research Articles,” Int. J. Intell. Syst. 20, 7, pp. 673-691, Jul. 2005. [2] E. Suzuki, “Discovering interesting exception rules with rule pair,” In Proc. Workshop on Advances in Inductive Rule Learning, PKDD-2004, pp.163-178, 2004. [3] Balázs Rácz, Ferenc Bodon, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Benchmarking Frequent Itemset Mining Algorithms: from Measurement to Analysis, ACM SIGKDD Workshop on Open Source Data Mining Workshop (OSDM'05), in Bart Goethals and Siegfried Nijssen and Mohammed J. Zaki editors, pp. 36 - 45, Chicago, IL, USA. 2005. [4] R.J. Hilderman and H.J. Hamilton. “Knowledge Discovery and Interestingness Measures: A Survey,” Technical Report, University of Regina, 1999. [5] L. Geng and H.J. Hamilton, “Interestingness measures for data mining: A survey,” ACM Comput. Surv. 38, 3, Sept. 2006. [6] M. Dowell, B. Rozell, D. Roth, H. Delugach, P. Chaloux, and J. Dowell, “Economic and Clinical Disparities in Hospitalized Patients with Type-2 Diabetes,” Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 36, pp. 66–72, 2004.
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Determinants of Information Technology Acceptance: A Review of Technology Acceptance Model
Bilquis Ferdousi Business Technology Spartanburg Community College 800 Brisack Road, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract — The expected productivity gains and investments in IT. The expected productivity gains organizational benefits delivered by IT cannot be and organizational benefits delivered by IT cannot realized unless IT is actually accepted and used in be realized unless IT is actually accepted and used optimal level. Despite advances in computer hardware in optimal level. For that reason, the acceptance of and software, the troubling problem of underutilized IT IT has been a major focus of Information Systems continues. For that reason, the mainstream IS research relentlessly attempts to understand and explain the (IS) research for more than two decades [1]. determinants of IT acceptance. In such an effort, Davis According to Compeau and Higgins [2], (1989) developed Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), understanding the factors that influence people’s the most researched and widely used theory in IS use of IT has been a goal of IS research since the literature to study the factors that affect people’s mid-1970s. Since then, people’s IT acceptance has acceptance of IT. Davis proposed that Perceived been a focal research topic in IS and is considered Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) of IT as “one of the most mature research areas in the form people’s belief on IT and therefore, predict their contemporary IS literature” [3, p. 426]. attitude toward IT, which in turn predicts acceptance of IT. Thus, PU and PEOU determine the acceptance of an TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL IT. Extensive research supports the notion that PU and PEOU are primary drivers of people’s acceptance of an The mainstream IS research relentlessly attempts IT. Nevertheless, the findings on TAM are mixed in to understand and explain the determinants of IT terms of statistical significance, direction, and acceptance [4]. In such an effort, Davis (1989) [5] magnitude. The inconsistent results of empirical developed his Technology Acceptance Model researches suggest that not all significant factors were (TAM) to study the factors that affect people’s explained in TAM. Further research revealed that acceptance of IT. TAM, a refinement of Ajzen and additional factors have effect on people’s IT acceptance. Fishbern’s [6] Theory of Reasoned Action, Besides, the effects of PU and PEOU are not same in provided a foundation for research on why people significance. accept or reject IT. TAM is the most researched and widely used theory among several models in Keywords — Acceptance of Information the IS literature to explain people’s acceptance of Technology, Technology Acceptance Model, IT. Although prolific stream of research on Perceived usefulness, Perceived ease of use. acceptance of IT uses a variety of theoretical models, of all theories, the TAM is considered the INTRODUCTION most influential and commonly employed theory for explaining people’s use of IT. TAM still Use of IT has been demonstrated to be a key driver continues to be most widely applied theoretical model in the IS research field [7]. of organizational performance and organizations Davis in his TAM proposed that Perceived are making significant investments in IT [1]. Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use However, if people do not use IT as anticipated, (PEOU) of IT form people’s belief on IT and successful productivity gain from IT can be hard to therefore, predict their attitude toward IT, which in achieve. Despite advances in computer hardware turn predicts acceptance of IT [8]. Thus, Davis and software capabilities, the troubling problem of explained, people’s intention to use an IT primarily underutilized IT continues. The low use of installed is the product of a rational analysis of desirable perceived outcome, namely PU and PEOU of an IT, IT has been identified as a major factor underlying which finally determine the acceptance of that IT. the lackluster returns from organizational
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Thus, the constructs - PU and PEOU - are as “the degree to which a person believes that using theoretical base of TAM. a particular system would be free of effort.” (p. The conclusions and implications drawn from 320). But these perceptions may change with time Davis’ research have already been highly relevant as users gain first-hand experience with IT usage, in IT acceptance research and are providing which in turn, may change their subsequent IT important direction in investigation on this issue. usage behavior. It is difficult to tell whether people In IS research, the TAM has been frequently used use an IT because of favorable perceived to analyze people’s intention and actual use of characteristics or whether favorable perception, in different IT [9]. PU and PEOU are important fact, emerged over the course of using the IT. constructs and probably two of the most widely Experience plays an important role, which was not cited correlates of IT acceptance and usage [10]. explicitly included in the original TAM. Empirical Since its inception, the TAM has been validated evidences that show PEOU becomes non- with various applications in different studies and significant with increased experience [12], and PU has become the most widely applied model on IT and prior use of an IT has a significant impact on acceptance and usage [8]. Extensive research actual use of that IT lead researchers to include supports the notion that PU and PEOU are primary experience, voluntariness, and gender as drivers of people’s intentions to adopt an IT. constructs in TAM2. Results of numerous studies are consistent with Like experience, voluntariness and gender these two factors to explain people’s IT acceptance issues were not explicitly included in TAM. TAM2 and usage [11]. extended original TAM by including subjective Nevertheless, the reported findings on TAM norm as an additional predictor of intention to use are mixed in terms of statistical significance, an IT in the mandatory situation [14]. When an IT direction, and magnitude [8]. The inconsistent use is mandated, as it is in many organizations, the results of empirical researches suggest that not all underline relationships of original TAM will be significant factors were explained in TAM [9]. different. That is, when people must use a specific Consequently, it is important to know whether two IT, the importance of their beliefs and attitudes as aforementioned constructs in TAM are enough for antecedents to the acceptance of IT is likely to be complete explanation of people’s IT acceptance. It minimized. Users might not like to use an IT but is also important to know if both constructs have they use it anyway because they are required to do same significance in predicting people’s IT so [15]. In addition, PU is more salient for men acceptance. while PEOU is more salient for women [14]. Again, the effect of subjective norm is more salient for CONSTRUCTS IN TAM NOT EXHAUSTIVE women in the early stages of experience [3]. In IT acceptance, TAM focused more on PU; TAM, which has been widely applied to a diverse even then, the length of that PU has not been set of technologies and users, allow only two core addressed. PU can be of two distinct types – long- constructs - PU and PEOU [3]. Using only two term usefulness and near-term usefulness. constructs, it is assumed that when people Perceived near-term usefulness has the most intended to use an IT, they are free to use that significant influence on people’s IT acceptance without limitation. In the real world, there are while perceived long-term usefulness has positive many constraints, such as limited ability, time but lesser impact [8]. constraints, environmental or organizational Extending the theoretical constructs, empirical limits, or unconscious habits, which limit users’ researches found more factors such as force of freedom to use an IT. Thus, it is obvious that the habit, management support, trust and enjoyment, PU and PEOU are not only factors that can have perceived compatibility and perceived fit have effect on people’s use of an IT [12, 13]. The influence on people’s IT acceptance. Again, PEOU inclusion of more factors to explain people’s IT along with some other factors such as experience acceptance and usage based on findings in further and frequency of use positively correlated with PU studies lead to develop TAM2 or combine original [11]. Further researches demonstrate that TAM with other theoretical model or variables. computer self-efficacy (CSE) is one of the individual factors consistently supported in IS EXTENTION OF TAM – TAM2 literature as an important factor to predict people’s IT acceptance [18]. CSE implies that individuals Davis (1989) defined Perceived Usefulness (PU) as who consider computers too complex and believe “the degree to which a person believes that using a that they will never be able to control these particular system would enhance his or her job computers will prefer to avoid them and are less performance” and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) likely to use them [16]. CSE explains considerable Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 49
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
proportion of variance (48%) of PEOU; and CSE PEOU [19]. Researches demonstrate that there is and PEOU together explain 50% of PU [8]. strong correlation both between PU and IT Therefore, understanding CSE is important for the acceptance and between PU and PEOU, but the successful implementation of IT in organizations direct relationship between PEOU and IT [2]. acceptance is weak [8]. Again, although PU has a USEFULNESS VS. EASE OF USE direct positive relationship with IT acceptance and PEOU has an indirect positive relationship (via Different researches found the applicability of PU) with IT acceptance, PEOU has no significant Davis’ (1989) proposition about the role of direct relationship with people’s intention to use IT Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of [10]. While some researchers found that PEOU has Use (PEOU) in people’s acceptance of different IT no relationship with PU and PU has direct [3]. However, while PU has been identified relationship with IT acceptance [19], some found consistently in the literature as significant in that PEOU has a positive impact on PU of an IT. people’s IT acceptance, the evidence for PEOU has Again, PEOU affects PU, which in turn, has an been inconsistent [20]. Some studies suggest that influence on duration and frequency of use of the PEOU does not have an effect on intention to use IT [20]. Davis emphasized on further research to an IT [8], while others show that PEOU has address the possibility of halo effect between the significant effect on intention to use or actual use PEOU, PU, and acceptance of IT. of IT [9, 3]. Most research found that PU has a strong CONCLUSIONS persistent effect on individuals’ intention to use IT, and PEOU has a smaller effect [1]. Davis himself IS researchers have investigated and replicated found that PU is significantly correlated with both TAM, and agreed that it is valid in predicting self-reported current use and self-predicted future people’s acceptance of various IT. TAM is a use of an IT. PEOU is also significantly correlated representative model in the stream of IS research, with current use and future use of IT but, PU has a which has experienced improvements and significantly greater correlation with use of IT than refinement over the years, and is considered the does PEOU. Emphasizing on the greater influence most well known model. Yet the existing empirical of PU on people’s IT acceptance, Davis made a findings on TAM are neither consistent nor major conclusion, “perceived usefulness is a strong conclusive, and provide relatively low explanation. correlate of user acceptance and should not be As a result, researchers have started to question ignored by those attempting to design or the generalizability of TAM [14]. Scholars argued implement successful systems.” (p.334). Thus, that despite the plethora of literature on TAM, the Davis implied that the importance of PU should empirical researches have so far produced not be sacrificed for PEOU. It makes sense that significantly mixed and inconclusive results. user will not accept an IT that is easy to use but not Although they are not uncommon in social sciences useful. Rather they will accept an IT that is useful, where human behavior is difficult and complex to even if that requires some degree of efforts to learn explain, the mixed findings not only undermine the how to use that IT [19, 8]. Davis suggested that precision of TAM, but also complicate efforts for IT from a causal perspective “ease of use may be an practitioners and researchers to identify the antecedent to usefulness, rather than a parallel, antecedents to people’s acceptance of IT [8]. direct determinant of usage.” (p.334). That is, According to Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw [21], PEOU affects PU, which in turn, influences the IT TAM was developed acceptance. Davis admitted that this intriguing interpretation, which conceptually explains that to provide an explanation of the there might have causal influence of PEOU on PU, determinants of computer acceptance that underscores the theoretical importance of PU. is generally capable of explaining user Obviously, this interpretation contradicts his behavior across a broad range of end-user conclusion that PU has stronger relationships with computing technologies and user people’s IT acceptance, and PU has prominences populations, while at the same time being over PEOU, the factor “overemphasized” by the both parsimonious and theoretically human-computer interaction designers (5, p.334). justified. (p. 985) Admitting this contradiction, Davis left the issue for further research. Further research, TAM is often employed because of its parsimony consistent with Davis’ finding, found that PU is and robustness, allowing the researcher to explain more influential than PEOU in driving people’s IT considerable variance of IT acceptance while using acceptance and is a more important predictor than 50 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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only two constructs, PU and PEOU [10]. However, context,” The Journal of Computer Information although parsimony is an important consideration Systems, vol. 45(3), pp 43-52, 2005. [12] R. Agarwal, and J. Prasad. “Is individual differences in scientific research, people’s use of new IT is germane to the acceptance of new information likely to differ depending on the context within technologies?” Decision Science, vol. 30(2), pp 361- which such IT is encountered. Complete 391, 1997. understanding of people’s use of IT requires a [13] B. Szajna. “Empirical evaluation of the revised technology acceptance model,” Management model that includes different factors that affect the Science, vol. 42(1), pp 85-92, 1996. IT acceptance process across many different [14] V. Venkatesh, and M. G. Morris. “Why don't men contexts [22]. The PU and PEOU constructs are ever stop to ask for directions? Gender, social influence, and their role in technology acceptance useful to explain IT acceptance, but has to be and usage behavior,” MIS Quarterly, vol. 24(1), pp integrated into a broader model, which would 115-139, 2000. include factors related to both human and social [15] A. S. Brown, P. A. Massey, M. M. Weiss, and R. J. change process [9]. Burkman. “Do I really have to? User acceptance mandated technology,” European Journal of Information Systems, vol. 11, pp 283-295, 2002. REFERENCES [16]Hasan, B. “The influence of specific computer experiences on computer self efficacy beliefs,” [1] A. Bhattacherjee, and G. Premkumar. Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 19, pp 443-450, “Understanding changes in belief and attitude 2003. toward information technology usage: A theoretical [17] M. Igbaria, and J. Ivari. “The effects of self-efficacy model and longitudinal test,” MIS Quarterly, vol. on computer usage,” Omega - International Journal 28(2), pp 229-254, 2004. of Management Science, vol. 23(6), pp 587-605, [2] D. R. Compeau, and C. A. Higgins. “Computer self- 1995. efficacy: Development of a measure and initial test,” [18] M. I. Klopping, and E. McKinney. “Extending the MIS Quarterly, vol. 19, pp 189-211, 1995. technology acceptance model and the task- [3] V. Venkatesh, G. M. Morris, B. G. Davis, and D. F. technology fit model,” Information Technology, Davis. “User acceptance of information technology: Learning, and Performance Journal, vol. 22(1), pp Toward a unified view,” MIS Quarterly, vol. 27(3), 35-48, 2004. pp 425-478, 2003. [19] M. Koufaris. “Applying the technology acceptance [4] H. M. Selim. “An empirical investigation of student model and flow theory to acceptance of course websites,” Computers & online consumer behavior,” Information Systems Education, vol. 40, pp 343-360, 2003. Research, vol. 13(2), pp 205-224, 2002. [5] F. D. Davis. “Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of [20]D. McCloskey. “Evaluating electronic commerce use, and user acceptance of information acceptance with the technology acceptance model,” technology,” MIS Quarterly, vol. 13(3), pp 319-340, The Journal of Computer Information Systems, vol. 1989. 44(2), pp 49-57, 2003. [6] I. Ajzen, and M. Fishbein. “Understanding attitudes [21] F. D. Davis, R. P. Bagozzi, and P. R. Warshaw. “User and predicting social behavior,” Prentice-Hall acceptance of computer technology: A comparison publishers, 1980. of two theoretical models,” Management Science, [7] E.M. van, Raaij, and J. J. L. Schepers. “The vol. 35(8), pp 982-1003, 1989. acceptance and use of a virtual learning [22] R. C. Plouffe, S. J. Hulland, and M. Vandenbosch. environment in China,” Computers and Education, “Research report: Richness vol. 50(3), pp 838-852, 2008. versus parsimony in modeling technology adoption [8] Q. Ma, and L. Liu. “The technology acceptance decisions—understanding merchant adoption of a model: A meta-analysis of empirical findings.” smart card-based payment system,” Information Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, Systems Research, vol. 12(2), pp 208-220, 2001. vol. 16(1), pp 59-72, 2004. [9] P. Legris, J. Ingham, and P. Collerette. “Why do people use information technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model,” Information & Management, vol. 40, pp 191-204, 2003. [10] O. N. Ndubisi, K. O. Gupta, and C. G. Ndubisi. “The moguls’ model of computing: Integrating the moderating impact of users’ persona into the technology acceptance model,” Journal of Global Information Technology Management, vol. 8(1), pp 27-47, 2005. [11] M. Zviran, N. Pliskin, and R. Levin. “Measuring user satisfaction and perceived usefulness in the ERP
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Mathematical Modeling of non-Newtonian Peristaltic Flows Muhammad Hameed Division of Mathematics & Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract — We have analyzed the peristaltic transport fluid is assumed to be viscous and Newtonian, of a heat conducting non-Newtonian fluid through an mostly for mathematical simplicity. This axi-symmetric tube and in a planner channel. assumption is not valid everywhere because most Governing equations for the flow system are derived of the industrial and biological fluids are non- using longwave length approximations on the walls of Newtonian in nature. the boundary. Analytical results are obtained using Non-Newtonian fluids are of great interest regular perturbation analysis. Numerical computations because of their practical importance in are performed and the numerical results are compared engineering and industry. The classical Navier- with the analytical solutions to determine the validity of Stokes equations have been proved inadequate to results. Various quantities of interest are evaluated and describe and capture the characteristics of complex discussed. The expressions for the pressure rise, rheological fluids as well as polymer solutions. frictional force and the relation between the flow rate These kinds of fluids are generally known as non- and pressure gradient are obtained. Newtonian fluids. Most of the biological and industrial fluids are non-Newtonian in nature. Few Keywords — List no more than 5 keywords here. examples of such fluids are blood, tomato ketchup, honey, mud, plastics and polymer solutions. The INTRODUCTION inadequacy of the classical theories to describe these complex fluids has led to the development of Peristalsis is a mechanism of pumping fluids in different new theories to study non-Newtonian cylinederical tubes and channels when a fluids. There are different models which have been progressive wave of contraction or expansion proposed to describe the non-Newtonian flow propagates along the walls of a distensible tube behavior. Among these, the fluids of differential containing liquids. In general, it includes type [5] have received considerable attention. Fluid propulsive and mixing movements and pumps the of second grade is a subclass of fluids of differential fluid against pressure rise. Physiologically, type, which has been studied successfully in peristaltic action is an inherent property of smooth various types of flow situations and is known to muscle contraction. It is an automatic and vital capture the non-Newtonian affects such as shear process that drives the urine from the kidney to the thinning or shear thinking. bladder, food through the digestive tract, blood in small vessels and many other situations. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION Mathematical and computer modeling of the peristaltic motion has attracted the attention of We consider the motion of a second order fluid many researchers starting with the work of Latham through a two-dimensional channel of width 2L [1] and Shapiro [2]. Since then, several with flexible wall. Using Cartesian coordinates, we investigators have contributed to the study of take X along the centerline and Y normal to the peristaltic motion in both mechanical and channel. The components of velocity V are physiological situations. Provost & Schwarz [3] did longitudinal velocity U and transverse velocity V. a theoretical investigation to study the viscous We assume an infinite train of sinusoidal waves effects in peristaltic pumping and assumed that the which progress with velocity c along the walls of flow is free of interial effects. Later on, Pozrikidis the channel. [4] extended the idea and used boundary integral The height of the wall for peristaltic flow is method to study the peristaltic flow in a channel defined by for Stokes flow and studied the relationship of 2 molecular convective-transport to the mean h( x , t ) a b sin ( X ct ), pressure gradient. After the pioneering work of the above researchers, studies of peristaltic flows in where b is the amplitude of the wave, a is the mean different flow geometries have been reported half width of the channel and represents the analytically, numerically and experimentally by a number of researchers. In most of the studies, the 52 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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wavelength. Furthermore, we assume that there is solutions, we have computed numerical solutions no longitudinal motion of the wall. using finite difference scheme to find the flow and The basic governing equations for the flow of a energy fields. In order to study the quantitative second order non-Newtonian fluid neglecting effects, graphical results are obtained and thermal effects are the field equations, known as discussed for different physical quantities. The the continuity equation and the momentum results are analyzed for an adequate range of equation given as influential physical parameters.
V 0 REFERENCES
dV f div [1] T. W. Latham, “Fluid motions in a peristaltic pump,” dt M.S. Thesis, MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1966. [2] A. H. Shapiro, M.Y. Jaffrin and S. L. Weinberg, dT 2 Peristaltic pumping with long wavelengthA t low Cp k T grad V , Reynolds number. J. Fluid Mech. Vol. 37, pp 799- dt 825, 1969. [3] A. M. Provost, W. H. Schwarz: A theoretical study of where represents the density, V represents the viscous effects in peristaltic pumping, J. Fluid. Mech. Vol. 279, pp. 177–195, 1994. velocity vector, T is the temperature, C p is the [4] C. A. Pozrikidis, C. A study of peristaltic flow. J. of specific heat and f represents the body force per Fluid Mechanics, vol. 180 pp 515- 527, 1987. [5] C. Truesdell, W. Noll, “The non-linear fields theories unit mass. The constitutive equation for the extra of Mechanics (3 Ed.)”, Springer, 2004. stress tensor is give as
2 pI A1 1 A 2 2 A 1 .
The Rivilin-Erickson tensors A1 , A2 are defined as T A1 ()() gradV gradV T A2 A 1t V grad A 1 ()(). A 1 gradV A 1 gradV
The above equations are non-dimensionalized and solved using a regular perturbation technique 2a based on the small parameter , which is the ratio of mean half width a to the wavelength .
CONCLUSIONS
Considering the importance of heat transfer in peristalsis and keeping in mind the sensitivity of liquid viscosity to temperature, an attempt is made to study the effect of heat transfer on peristaltic flow of a non-Newtonian fluid. The non- dimensional problem is formulated in the wave frame under the long wavelength limits with finite Reynolds number. By using perturbation expansion method, asymptotic solutions for velocity and temperature fields are obtained accurate to o(2 ) and o ( 2 Re 2 ) . The results for the viscous case become a special case of our work. Furthermore, to check the validity of analytical
Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 53
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Investigation of the Role of Promoter Methylation and Histone Modification in the Down-regulation of the Colon Tumor Suppressor, DRA Derek L. Griffith and Jeannie M. Chapman Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — Expression of the tumor suppressor, DRA, is not been investigated. It is not likely due to aberrantly lost in tumors of the colon. The mechanism deletion of the gene since DRA DNA (but not RNA by which this occurs has not been investigated. It is or protein) has been detected in colon carcinoma known that loss of expression is not due to gene deletion cell lines [1]. Rather, it is more likely that one or or major chromosomal rearrangements. Since DRA more elements associated with the promoter of mRNA cannot be detected in colon cancer tumors, DRA are altered or missing in colorectal cancer. down-regulation is likely at the transcriptional level. Since there is evidence that DRA plays a role in The goal of this project was to determine if either controlling cellular proliferation in the colon [3], histone modification or promoter methylation is and, since down-regulation of this gene is observed responsible for loss of DRA expression. Both of these in colorectal cancer [1], understanding the processes are common mechanisms for loss of tumor mechanism of down-regulation may be an suppressor expression. Re-expression of DRA mRNA important step in understanding the overall was assessed by RT-PCR in two colon adenocarcinoma molecular basis of this form of cancer. The current cell lines, DLD-1 and Caco-2, after treatment with study is an investigation into the mechanism by which DRA is down-regulated in two colon cancer inhibitors of histone deacetylation and/or promoter cell lines, DLD-1 and Caco-2. Two common methylation. mechanisms of gene down-regulation, promoter hypermethylation and histone deacetylation, are Keywords — DRA, tumor suppressor, investigated. methylation, histone deacetylation, colorectal cancer MATERIALS AND METHODS
INTRODUCTION CELL CULTURE
There are two main types of genes that play a role The human colorectal cancer cell lines DLD-1 and in cancer progression—oncogenes and tumor Caco-2 were grown in RPMI 1640 and DMEM suppressors. Oncogenes promote cell growth, so supplemented with 10% and 20% fetal bovine their overexpression in cells can lead to tumor serum, respectively. Both media were formation. Tumor suppressors, as their name supplemented with 100 units/mL penicillin, 100 suggests, prevent cell growth. Cells that lose g/mL streptomycin, and 292 g/mL glutamine. expression of these types of genes are susceptible Incubation took place at 37˚C in a 5% CO2 to tumor formation. DRA, for down-regulated in atmosphere. Cells were allowed to reach 75-80% adenoma, is a putative tumor suppressor that was confluency before being subcultured. Cell counts originally identified in a search for genes that were were carried out using a hemacytometer. As a underexpressed in colon cancer [1]. Expression of positive control for DRA mRNA expression [4], DRA is either lowered or absent altogether in Caco-2 cells were allowed to grow at the post- tumors from colorectal cancer patients as well as confluent state for 12 days before RNA harvest. colorectal cancer cell lines maintained in the laboratory [1, 2]. It has been demonstrated that DRUG TREATMENTS restoring DRA expression can suppress the growth of colon cancer cells [2]. Additionally, mice that Cells were seeded on day 0 in 6-well plates at have been genetically engineered not to express ~50,000 cells per well in 2 mL of the appropriate DRA (DRA -/- mice) exhibit an increase in cell medium. Drug treatments were performed on days proliferation in the colon, suggesting that DRA 1, 3, and 5. Cells were treated with 2 µM 5-aza-2- truly regulates cell proliferation in vivo [3]. deoxycytidine (azaC), 2 mM sodium butyrate, or a The mechanism by which DRA expression is combination of both. One well in each plate lost in colorectal cancer is not understood and has 54 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
received no drug treatment and served as a CONCLUSIONS negative control. The cell death observed in DLD-1 and Caco-2 cells RNA HARVEST treated with both azaC and sodium butyrate suggests a synergistic effect for these two drugs. RNA harvests were performed on days 2, 4, and 6 The exact mechanism of cell death is unknown at using the RNA isolation reagent RNA STAT-60 this time. Further investigation could reveal according to the manufacturer’s protocol. In brief, whether cell death was via apoptosis or necrosis or medium was aspirated and 500 µL of RNA STAT- simply a toxic event. 60 reagent was added. The wells were scraped and GAPDH PCR results confirm successful the contents were placed in microcentrifuge tubes. isolation and purification of mRNA from all cell After a 3 minute incubation at room temperature, treatments as well as successful amplification of 100 µL of chloroform were added. The contents cDNA from this gene. Because DRA cDNA was were centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4°C, followed by detected in post-confluent Caco-2 cells, PCR retention of the aqueous layer which contained the primers and parameters were appropriate for this RNA. This layer was then mixed with 250 µL of gene. However, because we were unable to detect isopropanol at room temperature for 5-10 minutes. p14 and p16 cDNA, we were unable to determine if Centrifugation at 4°C for 10 minutes followed. the drug treatments were effective for re- The pellet was retained and washed with 500 µL of expression of these genes or if primer design ethanol. After a brief centrifugation, the ethanol and/or PCR parameters were appropriate. Human was aspirated, and the pellets were thoroughly genomic DNA could serve as a positive control for dried. RNase-free water was used to dissolve the p14 and p16 cDNA amplification by PCR in future RNA pellet, and the samples were stored at -80˚C. experiments. Until p14 and p16 cDNA are detected following drug treatment, we are unable to RT-PCR AND GEL ELECTROPHORESIS definitively conclude what, if any, effect these drugs had on DRA mRNA expression. Semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Protoscript® II RT-PCR Kit was performed according to manufacturer’s protocol. mRNA was The authors wish to thank the University of South first mixed with dT23VN primer and dNTPs and Carolina Upstate Office of Sponsored Awards and heated for 5 minutes at 70°C. First-strand cDNA Research Support for a research assistantship synthesis carried out at 42°C for one hour with M- awarded to D. L. G. MuLV Reverse Transcriptase in the presence of RNase inhibitor. PCR amplification of cDNA REFERENCES utilized gene-specific primers, and PCR products [1] C.W. Schweinfest, K.W. Henderson, S. Suster, N. were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis. Kondoh, and T.S. Papas, “Identification of a colon mucosa gene that is down-regulated in colon RESULTS adenomas and adenocarcinomas.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science U S A, 1993, vol.
90(9): p. 4166-70. Cell morphology and confluency were monitored [2] J.M. Chapman, S.M. Knoepp, M.K. Byeon, K.W. daily during azaC and sodium butyrate treatment. Henderson, and C.W. Schweinfest, “The colon anion No changes were apparent until the sixth day when transporter, down-regulated in adenoma, induces significant cell death was observed in both cell growth suppression that is abrogated by E1A.” types. In Caco-2 and DLD-1 cells treated with the Cancer Research, 2002, vol. 62(17): p. 5083-8. combination of azaC and sodium butyrate, a [3] C. W. Schweinfest, D.D. Spyropoulos, K.W. reduction in cell number of ~80-85% was Henderson, J.H. Kim, J.M. Chapman, S. Barone, observed. Cell death was also observed in both cell R.T. Worrell, Z. Wang, and M. Soleimani, “slc26a3 types treated with sodium butyrate alone, but it (dra)-deficient mice display chloride-losing diarrhea, enhanced colonic proliferation, and was significantly less than that seen in cells treated distinct up-regulation of ion transporters in the with both drugs. There was little cell death colon.” Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2006, vol. observed in cells treated with azaC alone. Gel 281(49): p. 37962-71. electrophoresis confirmed that PCR amplification [4] D.G. Silberg, W. Wang, R.H. Moseley, and P.G. was successful in all samples for GAPDH cDNA Traber, “The Down regulated in Adenoma (dra) and in post-confluent Caco-2 cells for DRA cDNA. gene encodes an intestine-specific membrane Amplification of p14 and p16 cDNA was not sulfate transport protein.” Journal of Biological apparent, however. Chemistry, 1995, vol. 270(20): p. 11897-902. Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 55
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
An in Depth Study of the Length of Hospital Stays with Regard to Procedures Performed on Type II Diabetes Patients Anneliese Schmidt and Wei Zhong Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — The initial data provided moderate results examples creating a file that line for line shows with error rates ranging from 17-29% with whether each case was correctly or incorrectly corresponding predicted error rates ranging from 32- predicted and provides the actual error, precision, 40%. For the revised data, the unfiltered files resulted and recall rates corresponding to the test data. in predicted error rates ranging from 23.9-52.3%, whereas the actual error rates ranged from 17.3-70.0%. The filtered files, from the revised data, resulted in the SECTION TWO predicted error rates ranging from 23.9-52.3%, First, it was necessary to extract the cases whereas the actual error rates ranged from 0.0-75.0%. regarding Type II diabetes from the NIS. Dr. Wei Zhong wrote and executed the programs necessary Keywords — Data mining, Type II Diabetes, C4.5, for this stage. Not only did these programs extract SVMlight. the appropriate cases, they trimmed the cases’ data to provide only the relevant information including INTRODUCTION procedures performed and length of hospital stay. This data mining project was an investigation of Secondly, Dr. Zhong prepared files containing patients diagnosed with Type II Diabetes. either training sets of data or testing sets of data. Specifically, it was an exploration into the length of In the next stage, several C based programs time a patient remained in the hospital, nine plus were written in order to convert these data sets to days or less, with regard to the procedures the the proper format necessary to run C4.5. The first patient may have received. The study was version of the program explicitly listed the conducted using data from the Nationwide attributes, procedure code numbers, pertaining to Inpatient Sample (NIS), a nationwide database of a particular cluster to write the ~.data file used by hospital inpatient stays, provided by the C4.5. The second version of the converter program Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) combined two input files, a test file and its cross- [1]. The ultimate goal of the ongoing project is to validation file, into one ~.data file. The third help reduce overall healthcare costs by providing a version of the converter program extracted the base from which doctors can determine how long a attributes from the training file, created an patient will need to remain in the hospital. attribute file, ~.names, and created the ~.data file. Two statistically based programs C4.5, written The fourth version of the converter program added by Ross Quinlan [2], and SVMlight, written by a conversion of the procedure code numbers to the Thorsten Joachims [3], were used to analyze data procedure code names. A similar program was extracted from the NIS. C4.5 was designed to written to convert the testing data sets into the generate decision trees, and rule sets based on the ~.test file. These programs were then executed on decision trees produced, from a set of training all the data sets provide by Dr. Zhong. data. C4.5 builds a decision tree using the concepts At this stage, the data clusters were tested of Information Entropy, a measure of the using C4.5 and the results were interpreted. C4.5 uncertainty associated with a random variable, and provides numerous options that can be invoked to Information Gain, the difference in entropy [54]. improve the error rates produced by the induced C4.5 produces statistical and probabilistic results, decision tree on both the training data and the as well as provides an estimate of the error rate on testing data. For example, when many cases have new data based on the tree and rule set generated. the same outcome it can lead to odd trees and SVMlight is an implementation of Vapnik’s Support therefore reduce the predictive power of that tree. Vector Machine [5] and is designed for pattern Weighting is an option that attempts to improve recognition and optimization. Similar to Quinlan’s the predictive power by ensuring that the sum of C4.5, SVMlight uses a set of training data to create a the weights of cases must meet some minimum. model file and provides estimates for error, The options were tested with several degrees of precision, and recall rates. SVMlight then uses the rigorousness. Each option was tested singly as well learned model to make predictions on test as in conjunction with others, and none of the
56 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
combinations of options made a significant CONCLUSIONS improvement to the results. The initial data sets provided moderate results with error rates ranging The attempt to improve the results of this project from 17-29% and predicted error rates ranging through in depth study by producing a trimmed from 32-40% (i.e. only 60-68% accuracy on new the data set showed a slight improvement but also data). broadened the range of error rates. There are an The next stage of the project was to produce extensive number of procedures that can be somewhat larger training sets of data. A new C performed on any given patient. In other words, based program was written to combined two there is a large number of attributes that must be related sets of data and proportionally considered for each case provided to C4.5. This redistributed the combined data into four different component seems to be a large factor in producing files. A separate program was written that reasonable actual and predicted error rates. To combined three of the four newly redistributed files increase the size of the training clusters would be creating the training data file while leaving the the most practical next stage of testing for this fourth as the corresponding test data file. This project. Larger clusters would provide enough program was executed such that each of the four cases so that more of the attributes, with a paired files was used as a test data file, essentially outcome, would be represented. It may even be quadrupling the number of data and test files. necessary to do another in depth study of these The subsequent stage of the project was to use larger training clusters to determine which SVMlight as a tool to determine which cases were attributes appear to have the most significance, accurately predicted. Also, an optimization and then to trim the insignificant ones, as program written by Dr. Zhong was used to evaluate attempted here. three parameters used by SVMlight: trade-off Once an acceptable accuracy rate is achieved, between training error and margin; cost-factor by the next stage of this project would be to scale the which training errors on positive examples converter program to handle exceptionally large outweigh errors on negative examples; and the sets of data and test these sets using C4.5. The gamma parameter in the rbf kernel. These final stage of development would be to create a parameters provided somewhat low results for user friendly interface for a physician to input accuracy, precision, and recall rates were, around information regarding a current patient to predict 60%. After these new training/test files were whether that patient will remain in the hospital for evaluated with SVMlight, another C program was nine plus days or less. written that created filtered data files by comparing the prediction file that SVMlight created to the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS corresponding test file. Dr. Wei Zhong, assistant professor, Department of Finally, the converter program was used on Computer Science, University of South Carolina these redistributed, filtered and unfiltered, files Upstate. and then the files were tested using C4.5. The error rates on both the data and test files varied REFERENCES widely. For the unfiltered files the predicted error [1] The HCUP Nationwide Inpatient Sample; Agency rates ranged from 23.9-52.3%, whereas the actual for Healthcare Research and Quality Healthcare error rates ranged from 17.3-70.0%. There was one Cost and Utilization Project: Rockville, Maryland, outlier from the unfiltered data whose actual error 2004. [2] Quinlan, J.R.; C4.5: Programs for Machine rate was 100% for which it is believe that the data Learning. Elsevier, 1992. set was simply too small. For the filtered files the [3] Joachims, T. Making large-Scale SVM Learning predicted error rates ranged from 23.9-52.3%, Practical. In Schölkopf, B., Burges, C., and Smola, whereas the actual error rates ranged from 0.0- A., editors, Advances in Kernel Methods – Support 75.0%. The range for the predicted error rate Vector Learning. MIT Press, 1999a. remained unchanged for the filtered data but the [4] Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Classification and range for the actual error rate increased. When Prediction. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, looked at more closely, 82.7% of the data files Second Edition; Jim Gray, Microsoft Research, improved in actual error rate for the filtered files Series Editor; The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Data but the predicted error rate remained unchanged Management Systems; Morgan Kaufmann Publishers: San Francisco, 2006; pp 285-310, 318- for all of the filtered files. 327, 337-347, 354-366. [5] Vapnik, V. Statistcal Learning Theory. Wiley, 1998.
Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 57
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Implementation of the North American Amphibian Monitoring Program in the Upstate Region of South Carolina Alexsis Ferguson and Melissa Pilgrim Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - The North American Amphibian Monitoring In both scientific and public communities, one Program (NAAMP) was developed in 1995 as an of the most publicized outgrowths of the initiative to monitor amphibian population trends in biodiversity crisis is the issue of global amphibian Canada, Mexico and the United States (see decline. Of the 5,743 described species of www.pwrc.usgs.gov/naamp). NAAMP uses breeding amphibians, 32.5% are listed as threatened by the call surveys to inventory and monitor presence and persistence of amphibian species in a region. South World Conservation Union [6]. In addition, the Carolina joined NAAMP in 2008. USC Upstate’s most conservative estimate of the current research group, Upstate Herpetology, is responsible for amphibian extinction rate is 211 times greater than collecting NAAMP data for the Upstate region of South the background extinction rate for amphibians [3]. Carolina. Specifically, we are responsible for The disappearance of this group draws much conducting call surveys along 11 routes that span 7 attention for good reason. In many ecosystems counties in the Upstate. Our objectives for the 2008 amphibians are critical to energy/nutrient cycling season were to evaluate the productivity of Upstate within the system [7]. Amphibians make up the calling routes, the species richness of our region and bulk of the vertebrate biomass in many ecosystems. seasonal impacts on breeding phenology. We followed standard NAAMP protocol (see For example, in a single Carolina Bay over the http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/ course of one year, there was the exchange of more NAAMP/protocol/index.html) for data collection along than a ton (over 400,000 individual captures) of each route; for the 2008 season we were able to collect amphibian biomass between the wetland and data for NAAMP sampling window 2 (March 15 – April surrounding forest [8]. In addition to their role in 30) and NAAMP sampling window 3(May 15 – June ecosystem function, amphibians are often viewed 30). Our objectives for the 2008 season were to as measures of ecosystem quality. Because of their evaluate the productivity of Upstate calling routes, the sensitivity to environmental perturbation (e.g., species richness of our region and seasonal impacts on breeding phenology. Of the 110 potential breeding sites thin skin makes them susceptible to pesticide surveyed, 91 had anuran calling activity. The number of poisoning), they are viewed as bioindicators that species calling per site varied from 1-5, with per site reflect the health of an ecosystem. Amphibian loss species richness increasing during sampling window 3. is perceived as a factor that can destabilize In total, we recorded 12 anuran species calling along ecosystem function and represents environmental Upstate routes. We documented both interspecific and degradation. Thus, from a human perspective, intraspecific variation in calling activity between global amphibian declines are often viewed to sampling windows. represent overall environmental degradation likely associated with a reduction in ecosystem services INTRODUCTION and direct health risks. Humanity currently faces an environmental crisis: In response to the global amphibian decline the loss of biodiversity [see 1 and 2]. Biodiversity issue, the World Conservation Union (IUCN)/SSC) refers to the variety of life on Earth. To date, there developed the Declining Amphibian Task Force. are approximately 1.4 million identified living One goal of the task force is to identify geographic species [3]. We are losing these species to areas where amphibian declines are happening. extinction at a rate 100 –10,000 times faster than Thus, some of their work involves conducting the background extinction rate observed in the inventories delineating the location of current fossil record [4]. In fact, the fossil record is amphibian populations and monitoring the dominated by five mass extinction events, and identified populations for persistence through some scientists label the current trend in time. One large scale inventory and monitoring biodiversity loss as a sixth mass extinction [5]. program developed through the task force is the Unlike the previous five mass extinction events, the North American Amphibian Monitoring Program current event is largely the result of human (NAAMP). NAAMP was developed in 1995 as an impacts on the environment [5]. initiative to monitor amphibian population trends
58 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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in Canada, Mexico and the United States (see 2, we recorded calling activity for only 10 of the 12 www.pwrc.usgs.gov/naamp). NAAMP takes species. The three dominant callers during window advantage of a particular behavior associated with 2 were Spring Peepers, Northern Cricket Frogs, anuran breeding events. Each species of frog or and Fowler’s Toads. During window 3, we recorded toad has a unique breeding call calling activity for only 9 of the 12 species. The (vocalization/song). NAAMP uses breeding call three dominant callers during window 3 were surveys to inventory and monitor presence and Fowler’s Toads, Green Treefrogs, and Northern persistence of amphibian species in a region. South Cricket Frogs. In addition to documenting Carolina joined NAAMP in 2008. USC Upstate’s interspecific variation in calling activity between research group, Upstate Herpetology, is sampling windows, we recorded intraspecific responsible for collecting NAAMP data for the variation in calling activity. For example, we Upstate region of South Carolina. Our objectives recorded a 50% increase in American Bullfrog for the 2008 season were to evaluate the calling activity between windows 2 and 3. productivity of Upstate calling routes, the species We recorded at least 1 full chorus for 9 out of the richness of our region and seasonal impacts on 12 species. In sampling window 2, we scaled over breeding phenology. 70% of Spring Peeper calling activity as full breeding choruses. In sampling window 3, we METHODS scaled over 50% of American Toad and Green The USGS assigned 11 routes that spanned 7 Treefrog calling activity as full breeding choruses. counties to the Upstate region of South Carolina. We followed standard NAAMP protocol (see Table 1. Anurans recorded calling along Upstate http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/ NAAMP routes during sampling windows 2 and 3. NAAMP/protocol/index.html) for data collection along each route. Each route had ten stops. Each Scientific Name: Common Name: stop represented a potential amphibian breeding Acris crepitans Northern Cricket Frog site for our region; thus, there were 110 potential Bufo americanus Ameri can Toad Bufo fowleri Fowler’s Toad breeding sites in the Upstate of South Carolina. Gastrophryne Eastern Narrow-Mouthed Potential breeding sites represented a variety of carolinensis Toad habitats, such as flooded wetlands, farm ponds, Hyla chrysoscelis Cope’s Gray Treefrog creeks, and road ditches. We conducted anuran Hyla cinerea Green Treefrog calling surveys at each stop during NAAMP Pseudacris crucifer Spring Peeper sampling windows 2 and 3. Sampling window 2 was March 15 through April 30, while sampling Pseudacris feriarum Southeastern Chorus Frog window 3 was May 15 through June 30. At each Rana catesbeiana American Bullfrog stop, we recorded the time, temperature, noise Rana clamitans Green Frog factor (e.g., traffic) and moon visibility. Then we Rana palustris Pickerel Frog recorded any species calling during a five minute Rana sphenocephala Southern Leopard Frog period. We used a numerical scale to score anuran calling activity. The scale ranged from 1 to 3, with one representing low calling activity (e.g., hearing CONCLUSIONS individual frog calls) and three representing high Overall, our 11 Upstate routes were very calling activity (e.g., full breeding chorus of many productive. In our first year of NAAMP overlapping calls). We used EXCEL (version participation, we documented the presence of 12 of 2003) for data management. the 15 anuran species expected to occur in the Upstate region. Two of the 12 species (i.e., RESULTS Northern Cricket Frogs and Pickerel Frogs) are Of the 110 potential breeding sites surveyed, 91 had listed as species of concern by the South Carolina anuran calling activity. The York county route was Department of Natural Resources our least productive route, with 6 of 10 stops (https://www.dnr.sc.gov). Our hope is that data having no calling activity. Our Spartanburg county collected in the Upstate will be useful when route was the most productive route, with 8 of 10 developing management plans targeting stops having calling activity in both sampling conservation of these species statewide. windows. The number of species calling per stop Often the numerical score for calling activity is varied from 1-5, with per stop species richness used as an index of species abundance at a site. being higher during sampling window 3. For example, Nelson and Graves [9] found there We recorded 12 anuran species calling along was a positive correlation between the number of Upstate routes (Table 1). During sampling window individual Green Frogs captured at farm ponds in Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 59
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Michigan and the numerical score recorded for [4] R. Hassan, R. Scholes and N. Ash, “Ecosystems and calling activity in the ponds. Nine of the 12 species Human Well-Being, Volume 1, Current state and we recorded had at least one site where we scored trends: findings of the conditions and trends their calling activity as a full breeding chorus (i.e., working group,” Island Press, 2005. [5] R. Frankham. “Stress and adaptation in conservation a numerical score of 3). Thus, it appears several genetics,” Journal of Evolutionary Biology 18:750- species have sites in the Upstate where they are 755, 2005. locally abundant. [6] S. Stuart, J. Chanson, N. Cox, B. Young, A. NAAMP protocol has received some criticism Rodrigues, D. Fischman and R. Waller, “Status and [10, 11 and 12]. For example, NAAMP protocol trends of amphibian declines and extinctions specifies that call surveys are to be conducted in worldwide,” Science 306:1783-1786, 2004. the time window spanning half an hour following [7] K. Regester, K. Lips, and M. Whiles, “Energy flow sunset until 1am. The concern is that the protocol and subsidies associated with the complex life cycle will underestimate the presence of species that call of ambystomatid salamanders in ponds and during other times of the day. For example, adjacent forest in southern Illinois,” Oecologia 147:303-314, 2006. Bridges and Dorcas [13] demonstrated that the [8] J. Gibbons, C. Winne, D. Scott, J. Willson, X. NAAMP protocol would likely underestimate Glaudas, K. Andrews, B. Todd, L. Fedewa, L. Southern Leopard Frog occurrence on the Wilkinson, R. Tsaliagos, S. Harper, J. Greene, T. Savannah River Site (SRS; Aiken, South Carolina) Tuberville, B. Metts, M. Dorcas, J. Nestor, C. Young, during certain times of the year. On the SRS in T. Akre, R. Reed, K. Buhlmann, J. Norman, D. July, Southern Leopard Frogs had peak calling Croshaw, C. Hagen and B. Rothermel, “Remarkable activity between midnight and dawn. NAAMP data amphibian biomass and abundance in an isolated sets do have certain limitations. However, if wetland: implications for wetland conservation,” Conservation Biology 20:1457:1465, 2006. viewed as a long term inventory and monitoring [9] G. Nelson and B. Graves. “Anuran Population program, NAAMP can contribute useful Monitoring: Comparison of the North American information on both presence and persistence of Amphibian Monitoring Program’s Calling Index anuran species in a region. Our expectation is that with Mark-Recapture Estimates for Rana through time our NAAMP data set will allow us to clamitans,” Journal of Herpetology 38:355-359, evaluate how global climate change variables (e.g., 2004. precipitation and temperature patterns) impact [10] R. Alford and S. Richards. “Global Amphibian anuran range expansion, range contraction, Declines: A Problem in Applied Ecology,” Annual breeding phenology and community assemblages Reviews 30: 33-165, 1999. [11] W. Crouch III and W. Paton. “Assessing the Use of in the Piedmont of South Carolina. Call Surveys to Monitor Breeding Anurans in Rhode Island,” Journal of Herpetology 36:185-192, 1999. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [12] K. Genet and L. Sargent. “Evaluation of Methods We would like to thank the following volunteers for and Data Quality from a Volunteer—Based helping us collect NAAMP data during the 2008 Amphibian Call Survey,” Wildlife Society Bulletin season: Jared Ballenger, David Brothers, Lauren 31: 703-714, 2003. Horton, Sanjana Iddyadinesh, Martha Miller, Dr. [13] A. Bridges and M. Dorcas, “Temporal Variation in Gill Newberry, Matt Phillips, Will Reid, and Maria Anuran Calling Behavior: Implications for Surveys Sarkozi. We are grateful to our state coordinators and Monitoring Programs,” Copeia 2000: 587-592, 2000. (Dr. Eran Kilpatrick and Steve Bennett) for assistance with implementing NAAMP in Upstate region of South Carolina. We would like to thank J.D. Willson and Chelsea Kross for providing the photographs used in the poster.
LITERATURE CITED [1] E. Wilson. “The Diversity of Life,” Norton and Company, 1992. [2] E. Wilson. “The Future of Life”, Random House Incorporated, 2002. [3] M. McCallum. “Amphibian decline or extinction? Current declines dwarf background extinction rates,” Journal of Herpetology 41:483-491, 2007.
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March 27th, 2009
Size of Rank Tests for Location in Linear Models with Repeated Observations Bernard Omolo, Ph.D, and Daniel Hagerman Division of Mathematics and Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - An aligned rank test for location in a linear observations are defined on the unit interval, with model is considered. The power of the test under the null Cauchy errors, we can express as follows: hypothesis model is examined when repeated observations are present, via Monte Carlo simulations. = 2 + + We conclude that the test achieves the nominal √ significant levels for finite samples, as is expected from = 1, 2, … , ; = 1, 2, … , . statistical theory. Our interest is in testing if the function generating Keywords – Linear model; rank test; these observations is linear in [0, 1]. Using matrix orthonormal matrix; Type I error; statistical notation, the observations can be expressed as power.
= + INTRODUCTION = [ ] + Rank statistics have been used extensively in = + + . developing tests for location in linear models ([1], [2]). In these and other situations, the centered The null hypothesis to be tested is: design matrices for the full and the null hypothesis models have been assumed to have full rank. When : = vs : ≠ . this requirement is violated, standard approaches for derivation of null distribution of the rank tests As shown in [3], the test statistic for this cannot be applied. hypothesis is Omolo et al. developed an aligned rank test for 1 location in linear models with centered design = matrices with less than full rank [3]. The case when repeated observations are present was considered. where = ∙ , being the (orthonormal) This kind of linear model can also be obtained design matrix and the vector of aligned ranks of when observations are grouped, even if no the observations, and is the variance of the repetitions are present, as in testing for linearity of score function used. a partly linear model. By the Chernoff-Savage theorem(s), the In subsection 2.1 we present the model of statistic has an asymptotic chi-square analysis, the statement of hypothesis and the test distribution with degrees of freedom − 2 under statistic. The procedure and results from Monte the null hypothesis. Carlo simulations are described in subsection 2.2. In section 3, we provide a summary of the MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS conclusions from the Monte Carlo study above. Simulations for the size of the test were performed METHODS to assess its behavior under finite samples. Samples of sizes = 20, 50 and 100 and LINEAR MODEL significance levels α = .01, .05 and .10 were used.
The number of groupings, , was fixed at 10. One We consider a population consisting of = thousand (1000) values of the test statistic, , were observations, which can be grouped into groups, obtained using an R – 2.5.1 program [4]. each of size , based on some common To estimate the Type І error rate (size), the characteristics. Let denote the i-th observation number of values of the statistic that exceeded the from the j-th group. Assuming that these corresponding quantile of the chi-square
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distribution with 8 degrees of freedom was divided by the total number of simulations. Table 1 below displays the results of the simulations.
Table 1. Size of the test
α n = 20 n = 50 n = 100 .01 .0107 .0095 .0102 .05 .0522 .0493 .0496 .10 .1092 .1012 .0960
CONCLUSIONS
It can be observed from Table 1 above that as the sample size (n) increases, the estimates of Type І error rate approach the true α - levels. This implies that the test statistic converges in distribution to the chi-square with 8 degrees of freedom as is expected from statistical theory. The distribution of the test statistic under the full model, , would be the non-central chi-square, which would be useful in simulating power and is the subject of a future study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the USC Upstate Student Research Assistant Grant during the summer of 2008. We are grateful for this grant from the Office of Sponsored Awards and Research Support, USC Upstate.
REFERENCES
[1] J.N. Adichie. “Rank tests for subhypothesis in the general linear regression,” Ann Math. Statist. vol. 6, pp 1012-1026, 1978. [2] C.Y. Chiang and M.L. Puri. “Rank procedures for testing subhypothesis in linear regression,” Ann.
Inst. Statist. Math., vol. 36(A), pp 35-60, 1984. [3] J. Einmahl, B. Omolo, M. Puri, and F. Ruygaart.” Aligned Rank statistics for repeated measurement models with orthonormal design employing a Chernoff-Savage approach,” Journal of Statistical Planning and Inference, vol. 130, pp 167-182, 2005. [4] R Development Core Team, “R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing,” R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, 2007.
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March 27th, 2009
On the Properties and Applications of the Space of Linear Functions L(R) Michael Blackmon and Gamal Elnagar Department of Mathematics and Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — In this paper, we develop the space of linear differential equations. We first develop a method of functions ( = + ) as an algebra over a general anti-differentiation which allows us to establish a ring R, which we denote ( ) = { + : ( , ) ∈ }. We method to solve elementary differential equations. give necessary and sufficient conditions for a general Second we give necessary and sufficient conditions continuous function ( + ) = ( , ) + ( , ) to for the existence and uniqueness of solutions to a be differentiable on L(R). With our definition of much larger class of L(R)-differential equations. differentiability, we give conditions on which a first order differential equation defined on L(R) must hold in In section 3 we deviate from our current path order for it to be solvable. In addition to the algebraic and take a turn toward application. We provide an and analytical characterization of L(R) one of the application of the space (ℝ) to numeric applications of this algebra is numerical computation of differentiation. We define a scheme which can be derivatives for a certain class of functions. used to efficiently and compactly produce highly accurate approximations of the value of a functions Keywords —differentiability, differential derivative. We then conclude the paper with a equations, numeric differentiation, function collection of numerical results comparing the spaces. traditional finite-difference methods with ours.
INTRODUCTION ANALYTICAL AND ALGEBRAIC While the work on the theory of dual numbers is CHARACTERIZATION OF ( ) not recent (see [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].) However this Before we can characterize this space, we need to theory is interesting in that it provides an example define it. For this purpose suppose that S is a of an algebraic structure which can be extended to commutative ring with unity 1. Then, we can possess an analytic structure. Moreover, this construct the free module over the set of extension provides very interesting applications generators, {(0,1), (1,0)}, by defining the product of and serves as an example of a space in which the an element x in S with a generator as (1,0) = notion of differentiability can be defined and ( , 0) = (1,0) and (0,1) = (0, ) = (0,1) . exploited. The purpose of this paper is three fold: Moreover, we will define a product on the two first; to characterize the algebraic and analytical generators given by (1,0) ∙ (1,0) = (1,0), (1,0) ∙ properties of L(R); second; provide an example of a (0,1) = (0,1) ∙ (1,0) = (0,1), and (0,1) ∙ (0,1) = space in which the notion of differentiability exist; (0,0). With this we can define the space ( ) = and third; outline a methodology for the span {(1,0), (0,1)}. Now, throughout the rest of this construction of the space L(R). paper we will denote the generators {(1,0), (0,1)} as In Section 2 we begin by defining the space 1 and respectivly when speaking of values L(R) for an arbitrary ring R using the definition in ( ). given in [2]. From there we begin to characterize We now move to take up a quick algebraic the algebraic properties of L(R) as a ring. From the characterization of the space ( ). Given a construction process and assumptions imposed on commutative ring S, with unity 1, we can extract R we derive properties of L(R). After this we take the following isomorphism, which characterizes up an analytical characterization of L(R). We focus the behavior of ( ) as a ring. Suppose S is a on the case with the base ring the set of real commutative ring with unity 1. Then, we numbers and proceed to develop some of the have 〈 〉. With that we move to results contained in [1, 4, 6] concerning continuous ( ) ≃ [ ]/ and L(R)-differentiable functions. Moreover, we consider what happens when a point x in ( ) is offer an alternative proof of the necessary and used to evaluate an arbitrary polynomial in [ ]. To sufficient conditions for differentiability on L(R) this end: Suppose S is a commutative ring with (see [1, 4, 6]). Having established the basic unity 1, and = + . Then, for every ∈ [ ], ′ characteristics of differentiable functions defined we can extract that ( ) = ( ) + ( ). Given on L(R) we move to take up the question of L(R)- the algebraic structure of ( ), it is possible to
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impose an analytical structure on ( ) with the APPLICATIONS AND NUMERICAL RESULTS tactful assumption that also has an analytical structure. This can be seen when we assume S is a While abstract in its definition the space (ℝ) Banach Space under the norm ‖∙‖: → ℝ. Then, provides a very elegant method for numerical ( ) is a Banach Space with norm ‖ + ‖ = differentiation. This method is more symbolic than ‖ ‖ + ‖ ‖. With this norm comes a metric and numeric. However, it requires no explicit equation with a metric we can define convergence in ( ). parser and can be implemented in roughly 200 We will now specialize to the case when = ℝ, lines of C++ by taking advantage of operator which under the absolute value norm, is a Banach overloading. Space. It follows that we can define continuous What follows is a table comparing the functions taking (ℝ) into (ℝ), and moreover we traditional methods of numerical differentiation, can define the notion of differentiability in (ℝ) by and this method, for the function ( ) = sin (x ) the usual limit of the difference quotient. With on the interval (0.01,1) with ℎ = 0.00009. that we can establish that a continuous function ′ ′ ′ ( + ) = ( , ) + ( , ) is differentiable at Method/Norm ( ) ( ) ( ) a point = + if and only if − ‖∞ − ‖ − ‖
Left Diff. 4.40e+3 1.04e+5 1.28e+4 ⎧ = Right Diff. 3.91e+3 1.05e+5 1.32e+4 ⎪ Central Diff. 1.11e+3 1.94e+4 3.20e+3 ⎨ (ℝ) Method 6.37e-11 1.12e-9 3.20e+3 ⎪ = 0 ⎩ Next we do the same for the function ( ) = at the point = + . With our definition of ∑ ((1 − (−1) )⁄( )) sin ( ) on the interval differentiability, we can establish an existence and (−1,1) with ℎ = 0.0002. uniqueness result for differential equations defined over (ℝ). However, before we can do so, we must Method/Norm ′( ) ′( ) ′( ) define the operation of integration. ‖ ‖ ‖ Suppose that ⊂ (ℝ) and that we are given a − ∞ − − curve ∈ ([0,1], ), with (0) = and (1) = . Left Diff. 2.19e-1 2.44e+2 4.58e+0 We can define integration of the function ( + Right Diff. 2.19e-1 2.44e+2 4.59e+0 ) = ( ) + ′( ) + ( ) over the smooth Central Diff. 1.40e-3 1.80e+0 2.97e-2 curve as (ℝ) Method 2.55e-13 2.34e-10 3.86e-12
( ) = [ ( ) − ( )] REFERENCES + ( ) + ( ) . [1] M. A. B. Deakin. “Functions of a dual or duo variable,” Mathematics Magazine, vol. 39, pp 215– 219, 1966. Using this definition of integration, we can exploit [2] M. S. P. Eastham. “2968. on the definition of dual Piccard’s method of successive approximation to numbers ,” The Mathematical Gazette, vol. 45, pp obtain our desired result, which states: Suppose 232–233, 1961. , ⊂ (ℝ) are open, convex, and bounded, and [3] Andreas Griewank. “Evaluating derivatives: principles and techniques of algorithmic that ∈ × , (ℝ) is bounded by M and differentiation,” Society for Industrial and Applied satisfies the Lipchitz condition in its second Mathematics, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2000. argument with constant . Then, for any ∈ and [4] Anthony A. Harkin and Joseph B. Harkin. “Geometry ∈ there exists a unique solution to the initial of generalized complex numbers ,” Mathematics value problem: Magazine, vol. 77, pp 118–129, 2004. [5] Anders Kock. “Differential calculus and nilpotent ′( ) = , ( ) real numbers,” The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, vol. . 9, pp 225–230, 2009. ( ) = [6] Edna E. Kramer. “Polygenic functions of the dual variable w = u + jv,” American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 52, pp 370–376, 1930.
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March 27th, 2009
Action Rule Summaries Cuong Hoang, Anna Novo, and Angelina A. Tzacheva Department of Informatics University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 { hoangc, novo}@email.uscupstate.edu, [email protected]
Abstract - Most of the mined knowledge with KDD is significance of the mined rules, in the context of a presented in a form of rules. In addition to uncovering business action plan [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. important patterns, action rules may suggest actions to An action rule, provides hints to a business be taken based on that knowledge. In this way user to what changes within attributes are needed contributing to business strategies and scientific research. The large amounts of knowledge in the form in order to re-classify customers from low of rules presents a challenge of identifying the essence, profitability to high profitability class, introduced the most important or interesting part, of high by Ras an Wieczorkowska [6]. It is assumed that usability. In this paper, we propose an improved attributes in a database are divided into two method for discovering short descriptions of action groups: stable and flexible. By stable we mean rules, with agglomerative clustering. attributes whose values cannot be changed (age, place of birth, number of children). On the other Keywords — action rules, knowledge discovery, hand, attributes (like interest rate, or loan summaries, clustering approval) whose values can be changed or influenced are called flexible. Each action rule was INTRODUCTION originally constructed from certain pairs of With KDD (knowledge discovery of databases) we association rules. extract previously unknown patterns from large A new simplified strategy for action rule amounts of data. Patterns are of interest if they are extraction was proposed by Ras and Wyrzykowska being useful, meaningful, or otherwise have in [4]. In that work, we no longer use pairs of applications in business, medicine, science, and classification rules, but rather "grab" the objects. In similar organizations. this sense the action rules are mined directly from Action rules are of interest since they suggest the database. actionable patterns. In other words, the user can Tzacheva [2] introduced a generalization act on them to his/her advantage. For instance, an technique, which creates summaries of action actionable pattern can be used in the decision rules, by utilizing an exhaustive method. The making process of a business to increase profit. author provided great means for reducing the With large amounts of data, comes large space and furnished the user with the essence of amounts knowledge generated by the pattern the actionable knowledge. The author also discovery techniques. They often require time introduced the notion of diversity of action rule consuming post-processing of the mined results, in summaries [2]. Their clustering method, order to identify patterns meaningful to the user in partitioned the action rule space based on the context he/she is interested. supporting objects of an action rule. This method A challenging research problem in the field did not address the possibility of certain objects relates to reducing the volume of the discovered being moved to an unpredicted class. patterns, and selecting the interesting ones. In this work, we present an improved In this paper, we propose an improved method clustering method, which is based on the decision which decreases the space of action rules. We attribute, the left hand side, and next the right discover short descriptions of action rules, by hand side of the rule. By incorporating the right agglomerative clustering. We define a distance hand side of the rule, we are better able to control measure based on granularity, and the overlap such unexpectedness, as we attach descriptions to between sets. We, therefore, provide means for each tuple, specifying how the object will change. reducing the volume of the mined results, and supply the user with short general descriptions of high interest actionable knowledge. ACTION RULES By using ARAS [5] we discover action rules of the RELATED WORK form: In recent research, we have observed a focus [header] ^ [] (d , di) on: facilitating the user with grasping the
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where d is fixed, however di (right hand side) can be any value, which belongs to the domain of d. For simplicity reason, we assume that Vd = {d1, d2, d3}.
DISTANCE We assume hierarchical attributes. We define a distance measure based on granularity. The distance is equal to the number of different atomic terms between two rules. For instance, the distance between a1 ^ b1 a1 ^ b2 is equal to 1 . While the distance between: a1 ^ b1 a1 ^ b would be 0 since a1 ^ b1 is included in a1 ^ b The smallest distance is d(B2, B3) = 2/85 , so we because of the hierarchical structure. will merge (B2, B3) - into B, and re-compute the table. For a stopping condition, we will use a CLUSTERING generalization threshold , and monitor for dense If we combine two sets together, some elements groups, and jumps in the distance. If we do not will move into the new (merged) set, which should meet the generalization threshold value, we not be there, i.e. there will be an overlap. stop. For instance, CONCLUSION
In this work, we present an improved method for to decrease the space of action rules, through the creation of summaries, and the use of hierarchical attributes. This agglomerative clustering method A is a generalization of A1 and A2 . We would like generates summaries, or short descriptions of to have the smallest generalized A . So, we will action rules. calculate the distance next. This method provides improved means for The distance d(A1, A2) = calculated as negative reducing the volume of mined action rules. It distance between A and other clusters outside of supplies the user with short general descriptions of A group, i.e. with label different than d1 , such as high interest actionable knowledge. d2 or d3 . Directions for the future include implementation and testing with real-life datasets. For example, if the: Applicable fields are: business, financial, medical, overlap of A ^ B3 = 5 elements industrial. overlap of A ^ C2 = 4 elements REFERENCES then after we calculate all overlaps, we will choose [1] He, Z., Xu, X., Deng, S., and Ma, R. (2005). “Mining the set with the maximum number of elements action rules from scratch”, Expert Systems with overlapping. Let’s assume that is overlap of A ^ Applications, 29(3): 691-699. [2] Tzacheva, A.A., "Diversity of Summaries for B3 = 5 elements , and that the number of elements in A is = 85. Then the distance Interesting Action Rule Discovery", in Proceedings of: Intelligent Information Systems (IIS 2008), Springer-Verlag, 2008, pp. 181-190 . d(A1, A2) = 5 / 85 [3] Wang, K., Zhou, S., and Han, J. (2002). “Profit Mining: From Patterns to Actions”, In: Proceedings Analogically, we will compute the distance of all of the 8th International Conference on Extending other sets of the same label. The two sets, which Database Technology: Advances in Database have the smallest distance we will choose to merge. Technology. This agglomerative clustering is illustrated below. [4] Ras, Z., Wyrzykowska, E., and Wasyluk, H. (2007). “ARAS: Action Rules discovery based on 66 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Agglomerative Strategy”, In: Post-Proceedings of 2007 ECML / PKDD Third International Workshop on Mining Complex Data (MCD 2007). [5] Tzacheva, A. A. and Ras, Z. W. (2005). “Action rules mining.” International Journal Of intelligent Systems, 20(6):719-736. [6] Ras, Z. and Wieczorkowska, A. (2000). “Action Rules: how to increase profit of a company”, In: Principles of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, (Eds. D.A. Zighed, J. Komorowski, J. Zytkow), Proceedings of PKDD'00, Lyon, France, LNAI, No. 1910, Springer, 587-592. [7] Jiang, Y., Wang, K., Tuzhilin, A., and Fu, A. W.-C. (2005). “Mining patterns that respond to actions”, In: Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM'05).
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Transition to Preschool Programs for Young Children with Disabilities Delia G. Malone, Ph.D.1 and Peggy A. Gallagher, Ph.D.2 Education Department1 and Educational Psychology and Special Education2 Converse College1 and Georgia State University2 Converse College1 580 East Main Street Spartanburg SC 29302 [email protected] and [email protected]
Abstract - The purpose of this study was to examine evidenced by federal monitoring reports of state factors influencing a smooth transition and placement practices[3]. The professional literature also of young children with disabilities into Preschool echoes these problems and barriers to the Special Education programs. We examined transition process. associations between referral age and the following This ex-post facto study was conducted factors: level of functioning of the child, educational level of the mother, and source of the referral. We also through a review of student records of all 211 three sought to determine if these variables could assist in year olds who qualified for and received special predicting placement on or before the child’s third education services in one school district during one birthday or placement after the child’s third birthday. school year. It examined child, family, and Source of referral and child’s level of functioning were community factors that affect a smooth and significant factors in predicting age at referral and age effective transition to services. The research at placement with source of referral carrying the questions addressed whether there was a heaviest weighting, especially for referrals from the significant difference in three child age at referral Part C Early Intervention system. groupings, Group 1 (<33 months), Group 2 (33 –
36 months), Group 3 (≥36 months), based upon Keywords — Part C Services; early intervention. any of the following: the child’s level of functioning; the educational level of the mother; or INTRODUCTION the source of the referral. The study also considered if the first two age groupings Group 1 The Individuals with Disabilities Education and Group 2 were significantly different based Improvement Act (IDEIA) 2004 outlines the upon successful placement of the child on or before requirements of the transition process for young the third birthday. The final statistical procedure children with disabilities[1]. A transition meeting determined if any of the variables assisted in with participants from the lead agency, the family, categorizing which children were placed in the and the local education agency should be convened three groups of age at referral; and in the two at least 90 days before a child is eligible for categories of placement: on or before the child’s Preschool Special Education, i.e., by the time the third birthday or placement after the child’s third child is two years nine months of age (33 months). birthday. Each state must have policies and procedures on RESULTS file to ensure this "smooth and effective transition" so that an Individualized Educational Program The major findings of the study are summarized as (IEP) or an Individualized Family Service Plan follows: Children in the earliest referral group (IFSP) is developed and implemented by an (younger than 33 months) tended to have access to eligible child's third birthday[2] (Department of Part C services. Children in the two earliest groups Education, 1999, Authority: 20 U.S. C.1412 (a)(9)). tended to have more significant delays than the There are several steps that must occur in children referred after the third birthday. transition, each often problematic for ensuring a Significant school district resources were directed smooth and timely process. One is referral and toward assessment of the children referred for Part screening. Sometimes there are different B services. Maternal educational level was not a requirements for referral or screening in the Early factor in the timing of referral. Intervention (Part C) program versus the preschool These findings suggest that children with special education school (Part B) program. noticeable delays are most likely to be brought to Eligibility for preschool services must also be the attention of Part C early enough to receive Part determined to establish that a child meets the state C services and to be referred early enough to avoid criteria for the program. All states are required to a break in services from Part C to Part B. However, meet the requirements of transition prior to a in spite of a child being involved with Part C, or child’s third birthday for children previously due to the timing of referral, the school district still enrolled in Early Intervention (Part C of IDEA); yet expended considerable staff time and resources in practice, issues or barriers to transition are evaluating children to document and establish
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their eligibility for Part B services. The eligibility birthday while 92.7% were placed after the third requirements for Part B and Part C for this state birthday. were very similar.
SOURCE OF REFERRAL PREDICTING AGE AT REFERRAL AND AGE OF PLACEMENT Source of referral was a significant factor in this research. Specifically, the majority (75.6%) of the As indicated above, the source of referral and the children referred from Part C were referred in the child’s level of functioning both played a role in earliest group, Group 1. The remaining sources of predicting age at referral and age of placement as referral, Private, Parent, or Other, had the majority evidenced by the discriminant analyses. Source of of their referrals in the oldest group, as indicated referral, however was the predictor with the by their respective percentages of 50.0%, 64.9%, heaviest weighting, especially for referrals from and 60.7%. The majority of referrals in this study Part C. were from Part C. These also represented the earliest referrals, constituting 86.6% of the CONCLUSIONS referrals within Group 1. In these data, referral While there are many areas to explore in seeking through Part C was the most likely source for early resolution to problems that remain in early referral to the school district for children with transition, it is important to remember that it is suspected disabilities. ultimately in the child’s best interest that persons In the discriminant analyses, source of referral in the community are aware of services available in was the highest predictor (specifically Part C order to expedite access to intervention during the referral) of age at referral, accounting for 90% of critical stages in a child’s development. These data the between group variance for that discriminant suggest that early referral through Part C is more analysis. It remained the strongest weighted likely to assure Part B services by the time of the predictor for determining age of placement child’s third birthday than referrals through other groupings (on or before age 3 or after age 3) in sources in the community. combination with level of functioning scores. Parent referral remained the second highest in the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ordering of the structure matrix at -.54 after Part C referral at .94. It is noteworthy that the majority of We would like to acknowledge Sage Publications referrals from parents occurred after age 3 rather for publishing this work (see reference below)[4], than earlier. all rights reserved.
AGE OF REFERRAL AND PLACEMENT AGE REFERENCES
Analysis by Pearson Chi-Square (1, N= 152)=15.30, [1] Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement p<.001 showed a significant relationship between Act (IDEIA) of 2004, PL 108-446, U. S. C. § 1400 et age at referral and placement on or after the child’s seq. third birthday. For the 48 children placed on or [2] Department of Education, 34 CFR Parts 300 and 303 (March 12, 1999). Assistance to states for the before the third birthday 45, (93.8%) were referred education of children with disabilities and the prior to 33 months (Group 1) and 3 (6.3%) were Early Intervention program for infants and toddlers referred from 33 through 36 months (Group 2). Of with disabilities: Final regulations. Federal Register, the group of 104 children placed after the child’s 64(48), § 300.132. third birthday, 66 (63.5%) were from Group 1 and [3] U. S. Department of Education: Office of Special 38 (36.5%) were from Group 2. Education Services (OSEP), State Annual When the percentages are considered Performance Reports, Letters to States. Retrieved within each referral age grouping, the earlier group October 20, 2004 from of referrals Group 1 (<33 months) had 40.5% of its http://www.ed.gov/fund/data/report/idea/partbap r/index.html group in the program on or before the third [4] D. G. Malone and P. A. Gallagher. “Transition to birthday and 59.5% were placed after the third preschool programs for young children with birthday. The next referral age Group 2 had 7.3% of disabilities,” Journal of Early Intervention, its group in the program on or before the third vol.30(4), pp.341-356, 2008.
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Table 1
Descriptives of Referral Age Groupings by Sources of Referral and Levels of Functioning Sources of Referral Levels of Functioning (all sources)
Age of Child N In Part Private Parent Other Communicati Academic Social Self- Physical at Referral Part C on Mean (SD) Mean Mean help Mean B (SD) (SD) Mean & (SD) by (SD) age 3 Group 1 111 45 96 4 6 5 23.33 (8.221) 26.01 28.07 27.71 27.41 (<33 mos.) (7.008) (8.113) (9.923) (11.167) Group 2 41 3 23 5 7 6 23.78 (9.004) 26.54 28.44 29.90 29.80 (33—36mos.) (10.383) (11.879) (15.912) (14.566) Group 3 59 N/A 8 9 24 17 34.83 (11.204) 36.08 41.19 42.24 43.56 (≥36 mos.) (10.479) (13.565) (13.163) (12.866) Totals 211 48 127 18 37 28 26.64 (10.571) 28.93 31.81 32.20 32.39 (1*) (9.829) (12.103) (13.698) (14.175) % Behind Chronological Age 85.3% 73.5% 63.5% 57.8% 56.4%
*Source was not reported for one of the children in Group 3.
Note: Means and Standard Deviations for scores were based upon “gap scores” computed for each score for each child by subtracting the child’s chronological age from each subtest age score.
Table 2
District (Part B) Resources Expended to Establish Eligibility and Develop the IEP Referral Age Groups Assessments Provided Through School District Resources
Age of Child at N Audiological Ophthalmology Psychological Speech OT PT Referral Referral Referral Group 1 111 45 6 80 67 39 21 (<33 mos.) Group 2 41 14 1 31 25 7 6 (33—36 mos.) Group 3 59 20 4 30 43 3 0 (≥36 mos.) Totals 211 79 (37%) 11 (5%) 141 (67%) 135 49 27 (64%) (23%) (13%)
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The Effects of Linoleic Acid on Taste Preferences in Rats Harry Quedenfeld and David Pittman Psychology Department Wofford College 429 North Church Street, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {Quedenfeldhb, Dave.Pittman}@wofford.edu
Abstract - The free fatty acid (FFA) linoleic acid (LA), solutions with linoleic acids than in solutions commonly found in dietary fats such as corn oil, can be without it. This study tests this hypothesis by detected by rats on the basis of gustatory cues as examining licking responses of rats in a two-bottle evidenced by 20s brief-access tests and following preference test over daily 1 hour testing sessions. conditioned taste aversion pairings. FFAs depolarize One bottle in each cage contains 200 µM linoleic the membrane potential of rat taste receptor cells by inhibiting delayed rectifying potassium channels. acid (LA) added to sucrose (sweet, nutritive), Trpm5 and CD36 have both shown to have roles in saccharin (sweet, nonnutritive), citric acid (sour), membrane depolarization by FFAs as well. This study NaCl (salt) monosodium glutamate (MSG, umami) examined licking responses of Sprague-Dawley rats to or quinine (bitter) taste solutions and the other sweet, salt, sour, bitter and umami taste solutions with bottle does not (NLA). Sixty-six µM LA is and without 200µM linoleic acid. When compared to detectable and avoidable by rats, so 200µM was solutions with the absence of LA, licking responses in chosen to be sure of its detection [21]. In theory, the first day of testing for sucrose and monosodium linoleic acid depolarizes TRCs’ membranes and glutamate increased whereas licking for NaCl increases the perceived intensity of concomitant decreased. It is suggested that LA may depolarize taste receptor cells and increase the perceived intensity of tastants, thus altering the licking responses to concomitant tastants. The increased palatability tastants. associated with foods in high dietary fats may be RESULTS accounted for by detectable levels of LA. APPETITIVE STIMULI Keywords — Dietary fat, free fatty acids, On day 1, the addition of 200µM LA to the gustatory, tastants, preference appetitive stimuli sucrose and MSG increased licking responses. There were significantly more INTRODUCTION licks per burst for sucrose solutions with LA (t11=5.044, p=0.000), along with longer burst Palatable food is often eaten because food choices durations (t11=5.242, p=0.000). Sucrose solutions are closely associated with taste. Previous research with LA also had more licks in the first minute has shown that animals [1-4] and humans [5] are (t11=2.666, p=0.022). There were also significant attracted to dietary fats. This is reasonable because effects of LA on MSG solutions, with significantly fats are high-energy foods; however, if they are more meal licks for LA solutions (t10=5.571, over consumed it may lead to obesity. A multitude p=0.000). MSG with LA also had significantly of health conditions are more likely in obese longer session durations (t10=2.564, p=0.028), individuals including cardiovascular disease, meal durations (t10=3.287, p=0.008), more bursts stroke, hypertension, dyslipidemia, type II diabetes of licking (t10=2.611, p=0.026) and more last mellitus, osteoarthritis, asthma, and certain minute licks (t10=2.836, p=0.018). There were cancers [9]. More than 30% of Americans exceed a approximately twice as many meal licks for LA body mass index of 30 and are considered obese solutions than for those without, but they were not [10].Obesity can be attained with high levels of significantly different due to variability (t11=1.416, dietary fat consumption [11-12]. Taste palatability p=0.185). and postingestive signals both strongly influence The second day of testing for sucrose, MSG and overconsumption of dietary fat [13-15]. Recent saccharin resulted in no significant differences in reports of the detection of fatty acids based on licking responses between any variables of LA gustatory cues in humans [16-20] and the issue of versus NLA solutions. Within-side comparisons obesity evidences the importance to understanding revealed the licking responses within the left and an animal model in which we can explore the role ride side for sucrose, MSG and saccharin were not of free fatty acids (FFAs) in taste. significantly different between LA and NLA Based on research that evidences transduction solutions. of FFAs, it is hypothesized that rats will more intensely perceive concomitant tastants in
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1000 Tastant Alone # 900 Tastant + LA AVERSIVE STIMULI 800 700 * On day 1, the addition of 200µM LA to NaCl 600 significantly deceased licking responses compared 500 to solutions without LA. There were significantly 400 Licks / meal / Licks * more meal licks for non-linoleic acid solutions 300 (NLA) (t11=-3.770, p=0.003) as well as significantly 200 longer meal duration (t11=-3.354, p=0.006), more 100 burst licks (t11=-2.902, p=0.014), higher number of 0 bursts (t11=-2.891, p=0.015) and burst duration 0.05M 0.2M MSG 0.2M NaCl Water (t11=-2.900, p=0.014). Further, rats had Sucrose significantly more session licks for NLA solutions Fig. 1. Average licks per meal (+SEM) for sweet, (t11=2.978, p=0.013), and last minute licking was umami, salt, and water stimuli. Significant effect of nearly significantly higher (p=0.061). Whereas all 200µM linoleic acid is indicated by numeral (p<0.05) of these data show a preference for NLA over LA or star (p<0.01) symbols. solutions, the average rate of licking was significantly higher for LA solutions (t11=2.387, addition of LA caused increased licking indicative p=0.036). Licking responses with quinine of the increased palatability of the solution. In hydrochloride and citric acid solutions showed no general, larger differences in licking responses significant difference between NLA and LA were seen in innately appetitive tastant solutions solutions. rather than aversive ones. On Day 1, NaCl with LA On day 2 the average rate of licking for also suggested that LA enhances the salty and Quinine-HCl+LA was significantly higher than the innately aversive taste, thus yielding higher licking average rate of licking for NLA solutions (t9=2.449 responses in the NLA solution. p=0.037). The frequency of licking on citric Results are not only indicative of gustatory acid+LA solutions was significantly higher than cues causing for increased or decreased licking that on NLA solutions (t11=-2.539, p=0.028) and based on palatability or lack thereof, but the latency was significantly longer for citric acid postingestive cues as well. Unlike previous with LA than without. The second day of testing for research, this study analyzes data based on both of NaCl showed no significant differences in licking these motivators for licking. By performing data responses between any variables of LA versus NLA. microanalysis, it is understood how licking is In within-side comparisons, left bottle data increased or decreased with certain tastants with analysis on NaCl shows significantly different LA. Thus, the reasons for increased licks per meal licking between LA and NLA solutions. There were for MSG with LA are elucidated by the following: nearly significantly more first minute licks for NLA the meal duration for MSG with LA increased and (t11=-2.165, p=0.059) and NLA had more blast the number of bursts also increased. It is likely that sessions (t11=-2.489, p=0.034) and longer blast the number of bursts directly affects meal duration duration (t11=-2.591, p=0.029). There was also because more than 1s must separate bursts. Thus, significantly longer latency (t11=3.451, p=0.007) the increased amount of bursts and pauses caused and a higher average rate of licking for LA for longer meal duration. Conversely, NaCl with LA (t11=2.385, p=0.041). Same-side data analysis on had decreased meal duration and decreased the left side of citric acid showed a nearly number of bursts, and thus less pauses. It is shown significantly higher average rate of licking for citric that NaCl with LA had less average meal licks than acid NLA vs. citric acid with LA (t11=-2.087, NaCl without because rats took shorter meals and p=0.061). All other comparisons within the left had less bursts. NaCl also had significantly less and right side for aversive stimuli show no licks per burst and shorter burst duration with LA significant differences in licking responses between than without, which also caused total licks to LA and NLA. decrease. Sucrose solutions with LA, however, had CONCLUSIONS more licks per meal than sucrose without LA. Since This study demonstrated that addition of rats had more licks per burst and longer burst suprathreshold concentrations of LA to taste duration with sucrose with LA, they licked more solutions can alter licking responses in certain per meal. cases. On Day 1, the changes in licking responses Although Day 1 for sucrose, NaCl and MSG when rats are presented with sucrose, NaCl and showed significant differences in licking responses MSG with and without LA demonstrate the between LA and NLA solutions, the current expected effects of enhanced taste intensity due to methodology did not succeed in establishing LA addition. In sucrose and MSG solutions, consistent results that support the hypothesis of 72 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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LA enhancing taste. Side preferences may have the day, they will choose the most appetitive significantly affected licking responses, as the rats solution. had licked on right-sided bottles their entire lives REFERENCES until November 2008. There was not enough time [1] Imaizumi M, Takeda M, Fushiki T. Effects of oil to eliminate their side preference before testing, so inftake in the conditioned place preference test in it was still a factor. When side-specific analysis was mice. Brain Res 870:150-6, 2000. conducted on left and right sides between LA and [2] Takeda M, Imazizumi M, Sawano S, Manabe Y, Fushiki T. Long-Term optional ingestion of corn oil NLA with NaCl, only the left showed significant induces excessive caloric intae and obesity in mice. differences in licking because the rats were Nutrition 17:117-20, 2001. accustomed to licking to the right. In this instance, [3] Takeda M, Sawano S, Imaizumi M, Fushiki T. licking on the left side more purely shows the Preference for corn oil in olfactory-blocked mice in effects of palatability on licking responses. On Day the conditioned place preference test and the two- 1 of testing for sucrose, NaCl and MSG, all of the bottle choice test. Life Sci 69:847-54, 2001. more appetitive tastants were on the right side, [4] Yoneda T, Taka Y, Okamura M, Mizushige T, sucrose and MSG with LA and NaCl without LA Matsumura S, Manabe T, et al. Reinforcing effect for were all on the right. The side-specific analysis corn oil stimulus was concentration dependent in an reveals that there was no significant licking operant task in mice. Life Sci 81:1585-92, 2007. [5] Drewnowski A. Why do we like fat? J Am Diet Assoc between LA and NLA on either side for sucrose or 97:S58-62, 1997. MSG on day 1, however. The significant differences [9] Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, in licking responses are confounded by side Vinicor F, Bales VS, Marks JS. 2003. Prevalence of preference. obesity, diabetes and obesity-related health risk The concentration of 5µM Q-HCl on Day 1 was factors, J Am Med Assoc 289:76-9, 2001. not high enough to be detected, for the rats licked [10] Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, abundantly on both sides, with the highest mean Tabak CJ, Flegal KM. 2006. Prevalence of licking of all tastants (mean NLA meal licks= overweight and obesity in the United States, J Am Med Assoc 295:1549-55, 1999-2004. 636.106). On Day 2, a concentration of 50µM Q- [11] Miller WC, Lindeman AK, Wallace J, Niederpruem HCl was presented to the rats with and without LA. M. Diet composition, energy intake, and exercise in Mean meal licks decreased greatly from Day 1, with relation to body fat in men and women. Am J Clin 219.667 average meal licks for NLA as opposed to Nutr 52:426-30, 1990. 636.106. Though licking decreased, the 50µM [12] Miller WC, Niederpruem MG, Wallace JP, concentration might not be high enough to cause Lindeman AK. Dietary fat, sugar, and fiber predict significantly higher aversion with addition of LA, body fat content. J Am Diet Assoc 94:612-5, 1994. so a proposed concentration of 75µM Q-HCl might [13] Drewnowski A, Greenwood MR. Cream and sugar: be used in the future. human preferences for high-fat foods. Physiol Behav 30:629-33, 1983. Future 2-bottle preference tests should [14] Elizalde G, Sclafani A. Fat appetite in rats: flavor consider testing for more than 1-h because unlike preferences conditioned by nutritive and non- 20s studies conducted with 1 bottle, rats must nutritive oil emulsions. Appetite 15:189-97, 1990. choose between two tastants. Thus, the longer the [15] Warwick ZS, Schiffman SS. Sensory evaluations of test the more likely it is to show a more accurate fat-sucrose and fat-salt mixtures: relationship to age representation of tasting preference. One-hour and weight status. Phsiol Behav 48:633-6, 1990. two-bottle preference tests likely may not be [16] Chale-Rush, A., Burgess, J.R. and Mattes, R.D. enough time for the rats to adequately sample both Multiple routes of chemosensitivity to free fatty solutions. In a future study, a 23-h test could be acids in humans. Am. J. Phsiol Gastrointest. Liver Physiol, 292, G1206-G1212, 2007b. conducted to ensure a large amount of licking and [17] Mattes, R.D. Oral exposure to butter, but not fat replacers enough time to show preference. A 23-h study is elevates postprandial triacylglycerol concentration in more naturalistic because their exposure to water humans. J. Nutr., 131, 1491-1496, 2001a. is almost all day, nigh the same as the 24-h [18] Mattes, R.D. The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol. Phsyiol Behav., 74, 343-348, 2001b. drinking ad libitum. Further, this would avoid the [19] Mattes, R.D. Fat taste and lipid metabolism in humans. issue of having water-replete or water-restricted Physiol Behav., 86, 691-697, 2005. rats. Though the rats in this study were water- [20] Mattes, R.D. Effects of linoleic acid on sweet, sour, salty, replete, they had not drank for 2-h prior to testing and bitter taste thresholds and intensity of ratings of adults. Am. J. Physiol Gastroinstest. Liver Physiol, 292, and would lick unnaturally more on the first bottle G1243-G1248, 2007. they sampled, as opposed to a 23-h test where the [21] Fukuwatari T, Shibata K, Iguchi K, Saeki T, Iwata A, Tani tastant solutions are all they have to drink and they K, Sugimoto E, Fushiki T. Role of gustation in the would not be without water for more than 1-h. recognition of oleate and triolein in anosmic rats. Physiol Since the solutions are all the rats have to drink for Behav 78:579-83, 2003.
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How Water-Replete Rats Respond to Different Tastes under the Influence of benzodiazepines Lindsey Richardson and David Pittman Psychology Wofford College 429 North Church Street, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {RichardsonLM, Dave.Pittman}@wofford.edu
Abstract - Benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide in a naturalistic setting, meaning they had free (CDP) are known to cause hyperphagia in rats when access to food and water. The data was recorded given sweet tastants and rat chow. We hypothesize that with a lickometer that was connected to a this increase in feeding is produced by an increase in computer allowing the measurement of the time of palatability. In this experiment we examined the effects each lick. We hypothesized that injections of of CDP on the licking for water-replete rats across sweet, sour, bitter, and salt solutions during 60-min benzodiazepines will cause water-replete rats to tests. Microanalysis of the licking patterns during increase their licking to aversive and appetitive testing identified specific variables associated with stimuli by increasing the palatability across all either changes in taste-evaluation (first minute licks, tastants. meal licks) and motivational influences on ingestion (latency, meal duration). We found that CDP METHODS significantly increased the total number of meal licks 16 male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this for water, both sweet stimuli, and bitter. CDP also experiment. One concentration of five taste stimuli significantly increased the number of first minute licks were used to test the effects of benzodiazepines on for water, both sweet tastants, bitter, and salt. CDP did not affect the meal duration data indicating an absence ingestion patterns. Water was also tested as a non- of post-ingestive effects. The latency was not affected taste control solution. The testing rig contained by CDP either meaning the amount of time that passed eight AC-108 gustometer cages each of which before the first lick was not significantly affected. This tested an individual rat. CDP (10 mg/1 ml/1 kg) research can be related to people taking anti-anxiety and saline injections were given twenty minutes medications. People should be warned that prior to each testing session in order for the drug benzodiazepines may increase their food consumption to produce its maximal effects. The groups were because appetitive and aversive foods become more counterbalanced by alternating days of CDP and palatable, even though they are not food deprived. saline injections. Bottle weight was measured
Keywords — Gustatory, GABA, Behavior, before and after testing sessions in order to Ingestion, Rat. determine consumption and the AC-108 measured the time of each lick during the one hour test INTRODUCTION session. Complex microstructural analyses were Benzodiazepines are drugs that are most conducted to examine meal analysis (meal licks commonly prescribed as an anti-anxiety and meal duration), licking pattern analysis medication. The drug increases the effects of a (number of bursts, size of bursts, burst duration particular neurotransmitter, GABA, which is found and pause duration), and taste-mediated analysis in areas of hindbrain involved in processing taste (first minute licks and average rate). A mixed information as the signals travel from our mouth to factorial ANOVA was conducted in order to the brain. GABA functions as an inhibitory examine the main effects of drug and neurotransmitter in the gustatory region of the concentration as well as any interactions. Post-hoc parabrachial nucleus (PBN), mediated mostly by paired t-tests were used to determine significant effects of CDP within each concentration. GABAA receptors [1]. There have been many studies in the past that have demonstrated an Significance was defined at p < 0.05. increase in food consumption due to benzodiazepine use [2-4]. The common thought is RESULTS that these drugs may actually make foods taste CDP significantly increased the number of meal better. It is suggested that benzodiazepines reduce licks for water, both sweet stimuli, and bitter as the aversive components of an aversive stimulus shown in Figure 1A. The increase in licking to the which enhances palatability and increases positive sweet stimuli was two to three times the amount of behavioral responses [5]. The study I conducted licking when the control saline injection was given. involved testing whether benzodiazepines cause an This increase in meal licks signifies the stimulus is increase in palatability across 5 different tastants
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Fig. 1. Average number of total licks in the first meal for CONCLUSIONS saline and CDP-injected rats (A). Average licks in the This research is a major contribution to its field first minute of testing for control (saline) and CDP because we are the first to ever examine the conditions (B). Average duration of the first meal for influence of benzodiazepines on sweet, salt, sour, saline and CDP-injected rats (C). Average latency until and bitter tastants using water-replete animals. the first lick for control (saline) and CDP conditions (D). Without the motivation of thirst, the water-replete more appetitive. We believe the sour rats were able to show bigger increases in licking concentration was too high and thus too aversive due to the benzodiazepines. The study I conducted for the water-replete conditions to gather a involved testing the rats under the water-replete significant amount of data. In the future we would condition although a parallel study was being consider using a lower sour concentration so that completed at simultaneously by Molly McGinnis water-replete rats will lick the sour stimulus and with water-restricted rats. We were able to look at allow us to analyze the possible effects of the both sets of data and make comparisons and benzodiazepine. CDP also significantly increased similarities between effects of water-deprivation the number of licks during the first minute for and no deprivation. Both conditions had water, both sweet stimuli, salt, and bitter (Figure advantages and disadvantages but in the water- 1B). deprived condition the drug appeared to have a The microstructural variables, meal duration smaller effect. We were able to replicate findings (Figure 1C) and latency (Figure 1D), represent non- other researchers have found demonstrating that taste influences on tastant consumption. CDP did benzodiazepines increase the licking to sweet not affect the meal duration data indicating there tastants and we found new evidence that was no effect on signals from the digestive system. benzodiazepines also increase consumption of The latency graph shows that CDP did not affect bitter, sour, and salt tastants. How does this relate the amount of time between putting the rats in the to humans taking some anti-anxiety medications? testing cages and their first lick. To summarize, This means that people taking benzodiazepines benzodiazepines increased patterns of licking may increase their consumption of food because associated with increased taste palatability with no sweets become sweeter and aversive foods become effect on consumption variables associated with more palatable, even though they are not food non-taste influences. deprived.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was funded by the Fullerton Foundation through the Community of Scholars program at Wofford College.
REFERENCES [1] T. Yamamoto. “Central mechanisms of taste: Cognition, emotion and taste-elicited behaviors.” Japanese Dental Science Review. pp 91-99, 2008. [2] S. Higgs and SJ Cooper. “Hyperphagia induced by direct administration of midazolam into the parabrachial nucleus of the rat,” European Journal of Pharmacology vol. 313, pp 1-9, 1996. [3] S. Higgs and S.J. Cooper. “Increased food intake following injection of the benzodiazepine receptor agonist midazolam into the IVth ventricle.” Pharmacol Biochem Behav, vol. 55, pp 81-86, 1996. [4] S.J. Cooper. “Palatability-dependent appetite and benzodiazepines: new directions from the pharmacology of GABA(A) receptor subtypes.” Appetite, vol. 44, pp 133-150, 2005. [5] Berridge and Treit. “Chlordiazepoxide directly enhances positive ingestive reactions in rats.” Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior, vol. 24(2), pp 217-21, 1986.
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How Water-Deprived Rats Respond to Different Tastes under the Influence of benzodiazepines Molly McGinnis and David Pittman Psychology Department Wofford College 429 North Church St. Spartanburg, SC 29303 {McGinnisMR, Dave.Pittman}@wofford.edu
Abstract - Previous research has shown that CDP, a research we aim to do is unique in that it includes a benzodiazepine, causes hyperphagia in rats. We wider range of tastants including aversive tastes in hypothesize that the hyperphagia is due to an increase addition to the previously tested sweet tastants, an in the palatability of taste by CDP. A counterbalanced appetitive stimuli to rats. It is hypothesized that design was used to test the effect of CDP on the licking the rats will increase their consumption of a wider patterns of water-deplete rats to sweet, salt, and bitter tastants during 60-min tests. Microanalysis of the array of tastants, including the more unpleasant licking patterns identified specific variables associated tastes (sour and salty) based on the effect that with either changes in taste-evaluation (meal licks, benzodiazepine has on the gustatory system. average rate) or motivational influences on ingestion not linked to taste (latency, meal duration). It was METHODS found that while under the influence of CDP, rats licked 16 male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this significantly more and at a faster rate to all tastants experiment. One concentration of five taste stimuli except sour. Increases in these variables reflect an were used to test the effects of benzodiazepines on increase in taste palatability. No significant differences ingestion patterns. Water was also tested as a non- were found in the non-taste motivational state variables, meal duration and latency. Weight gain is taste control solution. The testing rig contained one of the side-effects and can be explained by this eight AC-108 gustometer cages each of which hyperphagia in rats. The reason people are over-eating tested an individual rat. Prior to testing, rats were can be attributed to the fact that the palatability of the placed on a 23-hour water restriction schedule. tastants is increased. This information may be used by CDP (10 mg/1 ml/1 kg) and saline injections were physicians to warn patients to be mindful of what they given twenty minutes prior to each testing session are eating while using these drugs in order to avoid in order for the drug to produce its maximal weight gain. effects. The groups were counterbalanced by alternating days of CDP and saline injections. Keywords — Gustatory, GABA, Behavior, Bottle weight was measured before and after Ingestion, Rat. testing sessions in order to determine consumption and the AC-108 measured the time of each lick INTRODUCTION during the one hour test session. Complex Benzodiazepines, which are most-widely known as microstructural analyses were conducted to being used for anti-anxiety purposes, have been examine meal analysis (meal licks and meal shown to make certain foods appear to be more duration), licking pattern analysis (number of palatable to people [1]. A known side-effect to bursts, size of bursts, burst duration and pause taking this anti-anxiety medication is weight-gain. duration), and taste-mediated analysis (first Scientists have found that rats consume more minute licks and average rate). A mixed factorial foods when under the influence of benzodiazepines ANOVA was conducted in order to examine the [2]. There are areas in the hindbrain where taste main effects of drug and concentration as well as signals are processed as they are sent from our any interactions. Post-hoc paired t-tests were used mouth to our brain [3]. It is thought that GABA is a to determine significant effects of CDP within each neurotransmitter used in the processing of this concentration. Significance was defined at p < taste information, and benzodiazepines are known 0.05. to increase the effectiveness of this neurotransmitter. Thus, increased consumption of RESULTS food may be due to benzodiazepines making the We found that while under the influence of the food taste better. drug, the rats licked more to all taste solutions (see Previous research has shown that Figure 1A). To tell us how they licked more, we benzodiazepines increase rat consumption of sweet looked at the pattern of consumption provided by stimuli [4]. The purpose of our research is to test the microanalysis of the data. Looking at the data benzodiazepine’s influence across the four different basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 77
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Fig. 1. Average number of total licks in the first meal for saline and CDP-injected rats (A). Average rate of licking under control (saline) and CDP conditions (B). Average duration of the first meal for saline and CDP-injected rats (C). Average latency until the first lick for control (saline) and CDP conditions (D). from the number of meal licks, we found that the latency to lick measures the amount of time before rats licked significantly more to all tastants besides the rat took its first lick and is influenced by how sour. We believe that we did not find an effect for thirsty the rat is and by any cues from the smell of sour because the concentration was too strong. the solutions. Again, CDP did not affect the However, their licks to the other aversive stimuli, amount of time it took the rat to lick compared to salt and bitter, significantly increased while under the control rats. So to summarize, CDP selectively the influence of the drug. This tells us that CDP affected patterns of licking associated with made these aversive stimuli more palatable. As increased taste palatability with no effect on any expected, their licks increased to the sweet stimuli variables associated with non-taste cues. as well, telling us that CDP made the sweet tastants more appetitive. CONCLUSIONS Another microanalysis variable related to taste This is the first time that an experiment explored is the rate at which the rats licked the solutions the effects of benzodiazepines on long-term (Figure 1B). Rats lick faster to more palatable consumption of salt, sour, bitter, and sweet stimuli. stimuli. We found that the rats licked faster for The novel data from this experiment look into the every solution except for sour while under the behavioral feeding patterns of rats under a longer influence of the drug, showing us once again that it duration of time, giving us more information about made these tastants more palatable. how these drugs influence the taste system in order Two microanalysis variables not related to to increase consumption. In addition, our taste but rather related to motivational states are experiment replicated what has been previously meal duration (Figure 1C) and the time until the reported about the influence of benzodiazepines on first lick (latency-Figure 1D). Meal duration sweet tastes. Furthermore, we discovered new measures the length of each meal and is influenced knowledge that CDP also affects aversive tastes, by feedback from the gut. CDP did not significantly such as salt and bitter. This lends more insight into affect the length of the meals, meaning that it did the drug’s ability to cause weight gain in people. not influence this postingestive feedback. The There appears to be a synergistic effect in that
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benzodiazepines make sweets taste better and at the same time increase the palatability of normally aversive stimuli. This information should be used by physicians to warn patients to pay more attention to what they eat while using these drugs in order to avoid weight gain.
Information from this research was compared to another study conducted in our laboratory done by Lindsey Richardson, who used a similar procedure but tested water-replete rats. Comparing our results showed that when rats are not thirsty there is a bigger drug effect. Together both studies show that by making food tastier, benzodiazepines have the ability to stimulate over-eating, and consequently promote weight gain.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was funded by the Fullerton Foundation through the Community of Scholars program at Wofford College.
REFERENCES
[1] L. Longo. “Addiction: Part I. Benzodiazepines--Side Effects, Abuse Risk and Alternatives,” 2000. [2] S. Higgs and S. Cooper. “Hyperphagia induced by direct administration of midazolam into the parabrachial nucleus of the rat,” European Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 313, pp 1-9, 1996. [3] T. Yamomoto. “Central mechanisms of taste: Cognition, emotion and taste-elicited behaviors,” Japanese Dental Science Review, vol. 44(2), pp 91- 99, 2008 [4] K. Berridge and D. Treit. “Chlordiazepoxide directly enhances positive ingestive reactions in rats,” Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior, vol. 24(2), pp 217-221, 1986.
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Older Husbands and Younger Wives: The January-May Marriage in Nineteenth-Century British Literature Esther Godfrey Department of Languages, Literature, and Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract - My presentation summarizes the theories sections of his influential Lot’s Daughters, but, to and research of my first book, The January-May my knowledge, no substantial study has been Marriage in Nineteenth-Century British Literature, offered to address the larger Victorian which is scheduled to be released by Palgrave phenomenon. Macmillan in February 2009. This book offers the first Even when January-May marriages do arise as substantial study on a theme that has been so much a part of nineteenth-century literature that it has been side-issues in critical discussions, critics have ignored—so obvious, in truth, that it has been traditionally followed the lead of second wave overlooked. Despite its frequent emergence in the feminist critics and enlisted such marriages as literature of the period, the January-May marriage has further evidence of the oppression of women in the received very little scholarly treatment. Perhaps nineteenth century, with the beautiful and saint- because such marriages remain common in the twenty- like heroine suffering under the unreasonable first century and because their existence has a long domination of a patriarchal husband. This critical history in Western societies, these relationships appear perspective emphasizes the powerlessness of the to have been too commonplace to deserve much critical young wife and laments her experiences within the attention. confines of society and marriage. Speaking of the Keywords — Marriage, British Literature, Age, famous literary marriage between Dorothea Brooke Gender and Edward Casaubon in George Eliot’s Middlemarch, Barbara Hardy expresses this view INTRODUCTION with a particular nod to the age difference in the Over the past several decades, increasing attention marriage; she claims that such fictional suffering has been given to the impact of historical and heroines cultural factors such as race, class, and gender on the interpretation of nineteenth-century literature. are all brought up in a culture where Critics like Gayatri Spivak, Mary Poovey, Sandra marriage is what is expected of them and Gilbert and Susan Gubar have demonstrated that is all that is expected of them. The horror these three aspects of identity are crucial to and misery of such asystem is negotiations of power within literary texts, and the demonstrated in marriages with men who continued popularity of these critical themes are old enough to be their fathers, who attests to the rich potential that such readings have little in common with them, and who afford. And yet, an emphasis on the triad of race, in various ways fail in sexuality and love. class, and gender can overlook other important Casaubon is over forty-five, Dorothea facets of identity formation in the literature. nineteen. (70) Despite the recent increase of attention on the figure of the child in literature, age has largely been I do not claim that Hardy is entirely wrong in her neglected as an important component of social assessment of these types of marriages. Certainly mechanisms of power, but an analysis of the Dorothea and other young brides sometimes feel literature reveals that age can work in conjunction “horror and misery” from their marriages that they with race, class, and especially gender to never expected in their engagements and that are destabilize or to reinforce hegemonic systems of related to the generational gaps that divide the control and influence. spouses. Yet the distribution of power in these Despite the popularity of the January-May marriages is far from unidirectional, and January- theme in the Victorian period, academic May marriages are neither wholly libratory nor scholarship has missed the theme’s importance as wholly conservative in their approaches to gender. social commentary. There are a handful of articles Rather than displaying simplistic power structures, that specifically address the concept of young wives these marriages often reveal complex systems of in relation to certain nineteenth-century works, gendered control, and age proves a crucial, though and Robert Polhemus alludes to the theme in complex, marker of the division of power between
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husbands and wives. My book explores the CHAPTER ONE multiple possibilities that these relationships explore through the themes of incest, aesthetics, My first chapter gives an overview of the literary horror, economics, and love. and historical tradition of this theme. I present a general description of the theme’s evolution over SECTION TWO time, focusing on particularly intriguing examples from the tradition from authors such as Chaucer, In Charlotte Brontë’s 1848 Jane Eyre, Rochester’s William Shakespeare, and Aphra Behn. Because I housekeeper Mrs. Fairfax responds to Jane with contend that the number of these marriages in certain dismay at the thought of her forty-year-old nineteenth-century literature does more than master marrying the twenty-five-year-old Blanche reflect the prevalence of these relationships in real Ingram: “I should scarcely fancy Mr. Rochester life, I describe some of the social and legal changes would entertain an idea of the sort” (163). Yet to that made these marriages provocative to the Mrs. Fairfax’s great surprise, Rochester later nineteenth-century imagination. I also describe makes an “unequal match” with an even greater the two dominant patterns that I find in the disparity in age to Jane, ultimately bringing the theme—a love triangle and a parody of traditional novel to a sentimental close. Marriages with large marriage—and I discuss the ways these patterns age differences form an important narrative frame can affect meaning in the texts. I conclude this in Victorian British literature, and they chapter with a discussion of Canto I of Byron’s Don conveniently merge disruptive and conservative Juan as a case study of literary January-May forces. Although they play with normative codes of marriages. sexual propriety and gender identity, they find legitimacy and acceptance through their CHAPTER TWO allegiances to literary, social, and legal conventions. The second chapter of the book addresses the Boasting a long literary history, the January- “daddy-daughter” element of January-May May marriage had proven to be an effective plot marriages through detailed readings of Dickens’s structure that could evoke a wealth of unspoken texts, including Nicholas Nickleby, The Cricket on cultural assumptions concerning male potency, the Hearth, David Copperfield, and Bleak House. female fidelity, economic exchange, and gender- Initially, my attention here appears to cover well- based power. Able to meet a wide range of traveled critical ground; as Robert M. Polhemus objectives, the January-May theme could work observes, “Ever since people learned that David subversively or conservatively, through humor or Copperfield was a favorite of Freud’s...readers have through melodrama. The unique possibilities of found illuminating signs of the Oedipus complex in the January-May marriage thus offers an the book” (“The Favorite Child” 10). While the important tool for authors and readers attempting incestuous implications of January-May marriages to negotiate specifically nineteenth-century remain obvious to most readers of these works, I concerns regarding gender and sexuality, and the believe that this psychological approach has been theme resurfaces with newfound energy and intent vastly oversimplified. Since I read marriage as throughout the period. Without becoming trite, psychologically and legally essential to Dickens’s January-May relationships become central to the understanding of family and patriarchy, I claim plots of dozens of canonical nineteenth-century that the introduction of the incestuous element texts, and they shade the experiences of characters into marriage (however legitimized by the lack of and readers through countless other works. It familial blood) proves to be a destabilizing force for appears that peculiar circumstances converge in larger social constructions. Ultimately, this the nineteenth century to encourage a heightened chapter suggests that the daddy-daughter aspect of interest in the theme’s potential, and consequently, these intergenerational relationships undermines while January-May marriages pervade British patriarchal authority and argues for reading these literature, I maintain that the popularity of this incestuous marriages as opportunities for gender theme emerges in response to numerous social, play rather than as inherent victimization. industrial, political and economic factors that heightened anxieties over the identities of men and CHAPTER THREE women. The third chapter explores the visualization of power in January-May marriages and the attention to the effects of aging on the body; an examination of the aesthetics of January-May images sharpens Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 81
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a critical understanding of the theme’s mechanics. CHAPTER FIVE Critically, this chapter is aligned with recent efforts by theorists like Elizabeth Grosz to reassess the Focusing on Sense and Sensibility, Jane Eyre, and corporeality of the physical body without Lady Audley’s Secret, the fifth chapter probes the essentialzing the body as a site for gender sexual economies that shape the January-May difference. This chapter develops in three sections marriage theme. Unfortunately, many of these how Victorian perceptions of vision and aesthetics assumptions about this market have become so respond to aging and how those perceptions relate familiar that they are taken for granted and hence to power. The first section of this chapter misunderstood. Because the traffic in young examines four paintings from the Victorian period women has been so prevalent in Western society that engage the theme of the January-May and its literature, one must actively defamiliarize marriage: William Quiller Orchardson’s series, the text from a male-dominated sexual economy The First Cloud, Mariage de Convenance, and that one has been taught to expect in order to After!, as well as Edmund Blair-Leighton’s Until appreciate the complexities that such exchanges Death Do Us Part. All four paintings use the encapsulate. I demonstrate how the emphasis on bodies of older men and younger women to age in January-May texts reveals that these visualize power, destabilizing and returning agency interrelated systems also contribute to a traffic in along gendered divides. This chapter concludes men. with a third section that discusses male embodiment in Middlemarch, focusing specifically CHAPTER SIX on the attention given to Casaubon’s physical appearance. The novel’s vivid, however unkind or My final chapter negotiates how intergenerational grotesque, descriptions of Casaubon heighten the love functions despite the economics of marriage. text’s dalliances with sexual deviancy and its play Austen’s Emma potentially reconciles a difference with marital power, creating aesthetic images of in age with an overwhelming love, and several of “Old and Young” that both titillate and repulse the marriages that are not fulfilled offer other readers’ sentimental and sexual expectations. examples. In An Old Man’s Love, a man who is initially concerned with gaining the affections of CHAPTER FOUR his ward, who “did receive from his hands all that she had—her bread and meat, her bed, her very The fourth chapter addresses the Gothic element clothes,” ultimately surrenders his desire for her, within the January-May marriage theme. I argue dissolves their engagement, and even provides a that the January-May marriage itself presents a dowry so that she can marry another lover (who is historical anachronism, merging past and present closer to her age). John Jarndyce in Bleak House with a condition just as horrifying as a nineteenth- also elects to withdraw his marital prospects with century venture into a medieval castle. As Esther, establishing her and her young love historical anachronism, the “horror” of the Woodcourt in their own “Bleak House.” And January-May marriage caters to broader Sydney Carton makes the ultimate sacrifice of his nineteenth-century fears of aging and proves all life to free the lover of Lucy in A Tale of Two Cities. the more terrible (and exciting) because of its Rather than suggesting that a submissive nature is associations with sexuality in the marriage theme. vital to true love, I claim that such texts support a This perceived threat of older men penetrating genderless sacrifical ideal that is far removed from young women corresponds with social anxieties the self-centered practices of the older husbands in about potential emotional and economic burdens Middlemarch or The Woman in White. These of what was thought to be an increasingly aged examples also counter conventional associations of population. In texts like Hardy’s Jude the Obscure, individuality with masculinity and sacrifice with January-May marriages become a form of Gothic femininity, challenging nineteenth-century nightmare, indicating a direct correlation between concepts of gender and power yet again. the popularity of the January-May theme in the nineteenth century and the rise of the vampire CONCLUSIONS legend in literature. I read three vampire texts— The Vampyre, Varney the Vampire, and Dracula— The aim of my book is to theorize about what these as contributors to and participants in the January- marriages reveal about age, gender and power. May marriage theme. The danger inherent to such an endeavor, it appears to me, resides in unnecessarily limiting the implications of this line of argument. Certainly, I do not intend to argue that women must be young 82 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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to wield power, or that such power must be sexual or romantic. Any identity that originates from age and its influence on gender is a slippery one. Much work remains to be done to elucidate how age affects gender throughout various ethnic, economic, and historical conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank the SARS program for the released time grant that allows me to continue my work on nineteenth-century marriage and the Department of Languages, Literature and Composition for its continued support.
REFERENCES
[1] Brontë, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. 1847. Boston: Bedford, 1996. [2] Hardy, Barbara. “The Miserable Marriages in
Middlemarch, Anna Karenina, and Effi Briest.” George Eliot and Europe. Ed. John Rignall. Aldershot, England: Scolar,1997. 64-83.
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Oil and Western Friendliness, The Cause for Russian Interference in Former Soviet Republic Nations Seth Rubenstein and Trevor Rubenzer History, Political Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract - At what level of international energy LITERATURE REVIEW importance and friendliness to the west does Russia feel Previous scholars namely Legvold [2], Wallander the necessity to interfere in former soviet republics and [2], and Bater [3] made great strides in recognizing to what degree do they do so, is it covert like Yushenko that post-Soviet Russia’s relationship with former or overt and highly aggressive like in Georgia in an Soviet republics (FSR’s) was re-emerging as a effort to create a bi-spheral world with Russia on one end an the United States on the other. Existing research Sovietesque model. Russia was more than willing into the matter of Russian interference in FSR’s does not to dictate the terms of foreign policy and more account for both oil importance and western importantly regional economic policy to its former friendliness or independence as causes this research regional possessions. Rosefielde [4], Vatansever does however look at isolated cases of just oil [5], Snakelina [6], and Melville [6] explored the importance and just western friendliness in Belarus, importance of oil to Russia and her relationship Poland, the Ukraine, and Georgia as reasons for with her former enemy The United States in the internal hostile interference by the Russian Federation. coming century. Prior literature does not however, What we find is that with an increase in western link the importance of oil and the relationship with friendliness and strategic oil importance so does the likelihood of Russian interference in a countries internal the west to how Russia interacts with its neighbors. affairs. Furthermore as those two variables increase so does the force of action taken ranging from political RESEARCH DESIGN assassination to war. In this qualitative comparative case study I examined a spectrum of Russian hostile Keywords — Political Science, Russia, Oil, NATO, interference through Belarus and Poland on one West end of the spectrum to the Ukraine in the middle and Georgia on the other end of the spectrum. The INTRODUCTION measure of western friendliness (variable 1) is Many “Russian observers” have postulated that the measured in terms of US Foreign Military Aid. reason for recent Russian aggression in Georgia With the criteria for being friendly as foreign aid has not been the stated goal of protection of per capita in excess of $.30 USD/per capita. The Russian citizens in South Ossetia but rather to data coming from USAID[7]. For measurement of Punish Georgia for its Pro-Western policies in strategic oil importance (variable 2) I will be particular its friendly status with The United States measuring the total oil control of each country that of America [1]. Other scholars over the past decade combines both oil exports and the flow of oil have pointed out the Russian Federations through regional pipelines. The criteria for increasing reliance on Oil as its main revenue strategic oil Importance will be what I’m coding source as it today account for 60+% of the revenue “Total Oil Control” in excess of 1 million barrels a for their federal budget. Legvold, Wallander, and day. The data for this measure comes from a Bater in particular have explored whether or not oil variety of sources [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] and control has caused Russia to intervene in the [14]. Lastly to test whether or not Russia has affairs of its former Republics. What my interfered in one of the case study nations I created comparative case study tries to do is to link the a simple data set using the Google Search two. In an age where oil is the most precious Algorithm. By simply typing the search query commodity and most needed resource for the “(country name) + interference by Russia” and industrial world it along with the historical using the first result as a yes or no to that question. tendencies of Russian nationalism and Russian To test the hypothesis I constructed a Boolean Slavic nationalism undoubtedly go hand in hand truth table to input a true or false count on the rather than separate entities when asking the variables of oil importance true or false, friendly to question what causes Russia to pursue a foreign the west true or false, and the result Russian policy of interference in former republics. interference true or false. The results are coded
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using the Boolean logic in Binary with 0 equaling CONCLUSIONS False and 1 equaling True. What we can conclude from the results of the truth table and the strategic oil importance and western FINDINGS friendliness tables is that in a sample of Former My findings for US Foreign Aid shows that Georgia Soviet Republics that countries with both high a country of roughly 4 million 630 thousand has levels of oil importance and high levels of the highest per capita share of US Military friendliness to the west will inevitably lead to some Assistance even with Poland’s inclusion of the sort of hostile interference by Russia. We can also multimillion dollar Missile Defense Shield. deduce from the numbers that there is a scale of Georgians get about $2.93 per person of the 13 interference that as the two independent variables million dollars allocated by USAID the closest go up so does the forcefulness of the interference. country to that number is Poland with $0.83. The In the case of the Ukraine which elected a Pro- Ukraine ranks 3rd with $0.34 per person. The Western candidate that was still willing to “play lowest number for all of Eurasia is Belarus with ball” with the Kremlin on some oil issues the $0.01 per person! What’s clear is that Belarus is interference was aimed directly at him in attempt not on the United States’ list of friendly countries. to get rid of him before an election against a If we dive into the source numbers even further we Kremlin backed candidate. With the case of find that the 100,000 given through USAID is Georgia the force was much greater, full out open almost entirely for counterterrorism and policing; war or an “interstate dispute” with that country for so it’s entirely in the United States interests and their strong support and relations with the United purely self motivated. So what can be extracted States and its extraordinarily strategic pipeline that from these numbers is that Georgia is a very was in part funded by US companies that supplied friendly country as is Poland and Ukraine. oil from many US companies located in Caspian The results for the second test with regards to Sea that eventually fed the United States with that strategic oil importance shows that Poland lacks oil. It has become clear through source documents any substantial oil resources and is reliant on and the correlation between Friendliness to the others for its oil security. For that reason its coded West and Oil Importance that the old Soviet Union as being non-important or as I have labeled it in is back in spirit and the politick of the Cold War is the table strategically unimportant. However now policy of the Russian Federation and it’s Georgia, Ukraine, and Belarus all have oil control seeking to control oil resources for its own gain. in the upwards of 1 million barrels a day a very significant number. While both the Ukraine and Belarus don’t export their oil directly to the United REFERENCES States the oil that they export or run through a [1] "War In Georgia." GlobalSecurity.org. Ed. John Pike. pipeline does feed Western Europe i.e the West. 2 Dec. 2008. 12 Dec. 2008 The data from the Georgia case shows that perhaps
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[8] "Georgia." CIA World Factbook. 20 Nov. 2008. Central Intelligence Agency. 4 Dec. 2008
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Efficient Estimation of Cox Model with Time-Dependent Coefficients with Missing Causes Yanqing Sun1 and Seunggeun Hyun2 1Department of Mathematics and Statistics University of North Carolina at Charlotte 9201 University City Blvd. Charlotte, NC 28223 2Division of Mathematics and Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract —In many medical and engineering studies, the cumulative incidence can be obtained using the time to an event, such as the time from onset of a well-known Kaplan-Meier method [1]. Under this disease to death, is being frequently studied. However, approach, the censoring mechanism is assumed to in many situations, the items or the individuals fail due be noninformative. In other words, the survival to more than one failure mechanism, commonly referred to as competing risks. For example, a patient time of an individual is assumed to be independent can die due to cause unrelated to the disease of the of a mechanism that would cause the patient to be interest. Moreover, it is common that the exact cause of censored. However, a patient can experience an failure may not be observed although the failure time is event different from the event of interest. For observed. In this research, new statistical inferential example, a breast cancer patient may die due to methods for estimating the regression parameters of causes unrelated to the disease. Such events are interest in the competing risks problem with missing termed competing risks events. In this setting, it causes will be developed. This paper investigates the would often be of interest to calculate the cause-specific hazard model with time-dependent cumulative incidence of a specific event of interest. coefficients. A two-stage estimation procedure is proposed. An extensive numerical and graphical Any subject who does not experience the event of investigation will be presented to evaluate the interest can be treated as censored. However, a performance of the proposed method and to ensure patient experiencing a competing risk event is that the proposed method is appropriate for practical censored in an informative manner. Hence the use. Kaplan-Meier estimation procedure may not be directly applicable. The cumulative incidence Keywords — cause-specific hazard rate, function for an event of interest must be calculated competing risks model, Cox model with time- by appropriately accounting for the presence of dependent coefficients, weak convergence competing risk events. Under investigation, what is observed for each subject is a time to failure and an INTRODUCTION indicator that tells us which of the competing risks Survival analysis in medical studies, also called caused the failure. Thus to analyze competing risks event history analysis in social science, or data it is natural to consider models for the reliability analysis in engineering, deals with time relationship of the cause-specific hazard function, until occurrence of an event of interest. For the rate of occurrence of the cause of failure in the example, in order to determine the incidence of presence of all causes of failure, as a function of death due to breast cancer among breast cancer covariates [2]. patients, every patient will be followed from a A lot of methods have been developed to baseline date (such as date of diagnosis or date of analyze the competing risks data. In many clinical surgery) until the date of death due to breast trials, however, the time to failure is recorded but cancer or study closing date. A patient who dies of the cause of failure may not always be available. breast cancer during the study period would be Statistical inference based on ignoring missing considered to have an “event” at their date of data will be inefficient and biased. This renders death. A patient who is alive at the end of the study well known models such as the Cox proportional would be considered to be “censored.” Thus, every hazard model and the proportional odds models patient provides two pieces of information: follow- inapplicable and the traditional approach can not up time and censoring indicator. When the data be adopted [3,4]. This is the reason why anaysis of consist of patients who experience an event and competing risks data with missing cause of failure censored individuals, a nonparametric estimate of has received considerable attention recently. In
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this paper, new estimating equation approachs OXZRRVA ,,,,, . We consider a parametric using the inverse probability weighted technique and double robust technique will be proposed for model r(,) W for r() W , where is the regression estimating the regression parameters of interest. parameter vector. Furthermore, the standard Cox proportional When there is no missing cause, under the hazard model assumes that the regression local linear model we obtain the local linear partial coefficients are constant over time [5]. Often, likelihood function. The local linear partial however, the regression parameters may vary over maximum likelihood estimator, called the full data time. For instance, in an HIV-AIDS study estimator (FULL), is the vector that maximizes the comparing a new treatment with an active control, local linear partial likelihood function. The local the new drug may work well in the initial treatment linear partial maximum likelihood estimates can be period, but may gradually lose its potency due to realized by using the Newton-Raphson iterations mutation of the virus. If the drug does have the until converges. When we have missing causes in potential to lose its efficacy, then it is crucial to data, a naïve method for estimating the regression know when and how fast the drug becomes parameter is to simply ignore the missing data and ineffective. Thus to overcome the strong restriction apply the local linear partial likelihood function to of proportionality assumption of the Cox the complete data only. Such a procedure (called proportional hazard model, we propose the the complete case estimator, COMP) is clearly extended model which has time-varying inefficient if there is a significant amount of coefficients. Consistent and robust estimators will missing causes in data. As pointed out by Gao and be proposed. Tsiatis [7], the inverse probability weighted estimator uses only complete case. So it is SECTION TWO inefficient and relies on correct modeling of the Let T be the failure time of interest, V be the cause probability r(,) Wi . Gao and Tsiatis proposed the of failure and Z be a possibly time-dependent p augmented inverse probability weighted complete- dimensional covariate. In this paper we consider case estimators (AUG). We show that the the Cox model with time-dependent coefficients for augmented inverse probability weighted complete- the cause-specific hazard model case estimator converges to true parameter in a T normal distribution with a variance which can be j(|t Z ) j0 ()exp( t a j () t Z ) , where j0 ()t is the consistently estimated. baseline hazard function and
aj( t ) a j1 ( t ), , a jp ( t ) is the regression coefficient SIMULATION STUDY [6]. In a complete-case scenario, the cause of Simulation study will be conducted to evaluate the failure V is observed if a patient is dead, and is performance of the proposed method. An extensive missing if the failure time T is censored. We define numerical and graphical investigation will be R as the complete-case indicator, R 1 if V is presented to ensure that the proposed method is known or T is censored, and R 0 otherwise. In appropriate for practical use. We considered a competing risks model with two causes and with addition to the covariate Z used in the cause- the cause specific hazard functions equal to specific hazard rate, we also consider auxiliary covariate A that may help to describe the 1(t ) exp( tZ 1 Z 2 ) and missingness of the cause of failure. Let C be the (t ) exp( Z log( t 1) Z ) , where Z is a censoring time, X be the right-censored failure 2 1 2 1 Bernoulli random variable with success probability time XTC min( , ) , and be the indicator of non- 0.5 and Z has a uniform distribution on [0,1] . censorship. We assume that the censoring time C 2 and (,)TV are conditionally independent, given Z . The simple random right censoring C is taken to We also assume that the cause V is missing at be exponentially distributed, with parameter specified so that approximately 25% of the random. This can be expressed by observations are censored. r() W P ( R 1| 1,) W P ( R 1|, V 1,) W , Table 1 indicates overall smaller biases of the where WTZA (,,) . The observed data consist of proposed AUG estimator than COMP estimator iid replicates OXZRRVA ,,,,, of and sampling standard errors as well. The biases i i i i i i i i i and standard errors decrease as the sample size increases.
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Table 1. Mean absolute deviation of predicted CONCLUSIONS regression functions. Analysis of competing risks data with missing cause of failure is far more complicated and has Estimator n=600 n=800 received considerable attention in biostatistics FULL 0.717(0.365) 0.549(0.278) recently. This paper investigated the cause-specific 15% missing hazard model with time-dependent coefficients COMP 0.907(0.433) 0.752(0.328) AUG 0.775(0.381) 0.633(0.298) when some of the causes are missing. To develop 25% missing new statistical inferential methods for estimating COMP 0.985(0.468) 0.787(0.360) the regression parameters of interest in the AUG 0.822(0.399) 0.642(0.313) competing risks problem, we proposed a two-stage 35% missing estimators and showed that they are consistent and COMP 1.106(0.509) 0.863(0.389) robust. An extensive numerical and graphical AUG 0.904(0.451) 0.704(0.339) investigation indicated that the proposed method is appropriate for practical use. The Figure 1 shows the average estimates of the regression coefficient functions of cause 1 in the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS first row and their standard errors in the second This research was partially supported by the Office row based on 100 repetitions. From Figure 1 we see of Sponsored Awards and Research Support. that the estimator calculated using the complete data only (COMP) yields large biases and the AUG REFERENCES estimator has smaller standard errors. The [1] Kaplan, E.L. and Meier, P. “Nonparametric proposed AUG estimator looks closer to the full estimation from incomplete observations,” J. Am. estimator (FULL) obtained from the data where Stat. Assoc. 53, pp 457-481, 1958. there were no missing causes. [2] Kalbfleisch, J.D. and Prentice, R.L. “The Statistical Analysis of Failure Time Data,” Wiley: New York, 2002. [3] Cheng C.S., Fine J., and Wei, L.J. “Prediction of 1.5 TRUE FULL cumulative incidence function under the COMP 1.4 proportional hazards model,” Biometrics, 54, pp 1.0
AUG t t 219-228, 1998. 11 12
1.0 [4] Shen, Y. and Cheng, S.C. “Confidence bands for 0.5 cumulative incidence curves under the additive risk model,” Biometrics, 55, pp 1093-1100, 1999. 0.6 0.0 [5] Cox, D.R. “Regression models and life tables (with 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 discussion),” J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B., 34, pp 187-220, t t 1972. [6] Cai, Z. and Sun, Y. “Local linear estimation for time- dependent coefficients in Cox’s regression models,” Scand. J. Statist. 30 pp 93-111, 2003. 1.5 FULL 1.5 [7] Gao, G. and Tsiatis, A. “Semiparametric estimators COMP AUG for the regression coefficients in the linear 1.0 1.0 t t
transformation competing risks model with missing 11 12
cause of failure,” Biometrika, 92, pp 875-891, 2005. 0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 t t Fig. 1. Average estimates of the regression functions in the first row and their standard errors for cause 1.
A simple preliminary numerical study showed that the proposed AUG estimators are more efficient with smaller standard errors even with no additional auxiliary variables assumed available.
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Modernism’s Egypt “And Other Disorders of a Revolutionary Character” Celena E. Kusch Department of Languages, Literature, and Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract — For early twentieth-century writer, H.D. characters’ voyage up the Amazon little more than (Hilda Doolittle), the contemporary Egyptian colony a reflection of their internal confusion about their and ancient Egyptian empire figure prominently within futures in Europe or the U.S. By shifting the focus her published poetry and prose. Throughout all of her to the traveling characters’ subjective experiences Egyptian texts, H.D.—like most literary modernists who of colonial landscapes, these modernist texts reference Egypt—makes no reference whatever to the revolutionary political changes taking place in the ignore or distort the colonies’ historical and newly independent colony at this time. The cultural contexts. Yet, the value of colonies as a archaeological trace of the past empire and its people so rich source for literary modernism comes precisely dominates the modernist imagination that the reality of from those landscapes’ enduring traces of forgotten the living, modern Egyptian nation becomes a blank or effaced peoples of both their present and their space within the texts. For H.D. as for other modernists, past. the narrative repression of the Egyptian colonial Like Africa for Conrad, India for E. M. Forster, landscape highlights the vexed relationship between and Brazil for Woolf, for H.D. (Hilda Doolittle), the literary modernism and the modernizing colonies which contemporary Egyptian colony and ancient challenge the Anglo-American confidence in science, progress, and even national identity. The absence of Egyptian empire figure prominently within her contemporary Egypt speaks back from the silence to published poetry and prose. For H.D. more than reveal the fundamental challenge to American and for any of these other writers, the use of the British identity it posed. Egyptian colonial landscape highlights the vexed relationship between literary modernism and the Keywords — modernism, Egypt, H.D., Hilda modernizing colonies that are neither blank nor Doolittle primitive, but rather overflow with resurgent history and culture that challenge the Anglo- INTRODUCTION American confidence in science, progress, and even As critics like Marianna Torgovnick and Simon national identity. Gikandi have argued, Anglo-American literary modernism is often associated with narratives of NATION, COLONY, AND EMPIRE progress and development made all the more Between 1922 and 1923, a number of historical and progressive and developed by their contrast to the literary events converge to make Egypt a “primitive” or “undeveloped” landscapes of significant part of the modernist imagination. The colonies [1, 2]. This relationship between modern years 1922-1923 are widely seen as the apex of empire and unmodernized colony can be viewed in literary modernism, marked by the publication of its two extremes. On one end of the spectrum, texts such texts as The Waste Land (T. S. Eliot), Ulysses like Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899) are (James Joyce), Cane (Jean Toomer), Jacob’s Room based on the author’s contemporary experience (Virginia Woolf), The Hairy Ape (Eugene O’Neill), within a colonial landscape whose lack of Spring and All (William Carlos Wiliams), modernization seems to return him to a Geography and Plays (Gertrude Stein), and The “prehistoric” time [3]. On the other end, texts like Beautiful and the Damned (F. Scott Fitzgerald). At Virginia Woolf’s The Voyage Out (1915) imagine the same time that British and American entirely fictionalized colonial spaces where British modernists announced their modernity with a and American characters escape the march of flurry of experimental publications, Egypt was history and buy time away from their modern lives registering the paradox of its national identity as at [4]. Despite the differences between narratives once a modern, living colony and an ancient, based on real travel and those based on fiction buried empire. In the same two years, Egypt alone, both types of texts represent the colonies as achieved its initial, though limited, independence blank spaces awaiting content from modernized, from Great Britain and established its first Anglo-American observers. Conrad’s Congo is parliamentary constitution, while Howard Carter literally uncharted territory, which the characters’ and Lord Carnarvon located and excavated the voyage does little to map or comprehend. Woolf’s ultimate archaeological symbol of ancient Egypt, fictional Santa Marina in Brazil makes the King Tutankhamun’s tomb.
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In the midst of this cultural moment, H.D. them with crushing contempt” [6]. The reason, the travelled to Egypt, arriving at the end of January article explains, is that Egyptians in the twentieth 1923 and staying long enough to view the entrance century “seem to feel that they have all eternity to Tutankhamun’s tomb and to witness the before them, and that the passing civilizations removal of several artifacts from the archaeological imposed upon their country from time to time are site. This experience figures in H.D.’s prose and merely minor episodes in their history. They poetry throughout her life: Egyptian hieroglyphics remained what they were . . .” [6]. In the popular and myths are at the heart of Trilogy (1944-1946), British and American imagination, therefore, there which refers to Karnak, 1923, in its dedication; are no contemporary Egyptians, only the “shell” of Egyptian concepts of the soul serve as the premise a once-great civilization with “nothing inside” [7]. for Kora and Ka (1934); Egypt is the primary In many ways, H.D.’s literary representations setting for Helen in Egypt (1961), her last long of Egypt repeat this refusal to acknowledge a poem; and the 1923 journey forms the basis for the modern Egyptian nation. Very few living Egyptians plot of two stories about an archaeologist’s speak in H.D.’s texts, and the poems and prose are assistant—“Secret Name: Excavator’s Egypt” preoccupied with ruined temples, monuments, and (1926) and “Hesperia” (unpublished). Remarkably, tombs. In her Egyptian stories, the modernist gaze throughout all of these Egyptian texts, H.D.—like remains fixed on the lost Egyptian empire, even as most modernists who reference Egypt—makes no the female protagonists attempt to tap into the reference whatever to the revolutionary political ancient aesthetic power of the ruins in order to changes taking place in the newly independent define a new space for their own, rebelliously colony at this time. The archaeological trace of the modern lives. In fact, “Secret Name: Excavator’s past empire and its people so dominates the Egypt,” ends with a moment of epiphany achieved modernist imagination that the reality of the living, because the modernist protagonist imaginatively modern Egyptian nation becomes a blank space bridges the temporal divide between her within the texts. contemporary Anglo-American life and Egypt’s Despite this literary gap, news reports from the imperial past. On a tour of the ruins at Karnak at 1920s reveal that the living Egypt was modernizing night, the character discovers an ancient birth so rapidly that the famed efficiency and order of house dedicated to Isis and believes she has the occupying British military could not contain its achieved a new knowledge of the lost Egyptian growing nationalism. A 1922 article in Outlook empire, exclaiming to herself, “The Greeks came to magazine, notes that the British are attempting to Egypt to learn” [8]. Echoing the kinds of modernist create “a new nation” out of Egypt based on the revelations inspired by blank colonial landscapes recent models of Ireland and South Africa, but in Conrad and Woolf, H.D.’s text focuses on the “there are misguided Egyptians, as there are subjective gains of the modern outsider; she does misguided Americans, who think that what is not even see the modern Egypt around her. called self-determination is more important than However, H.D.’s stories further reveal that the health, education, justice, and family life” [5]. The Egyptian landscape erupts with cultural content article complains that Egyptians will not wait to let and resist modernism’s attempt to relegate Egypt’s the independence unfold in an orderly fashion and culture to the past. “Hesperia” begins by undoing instead have staged riots, “ignorant or forgetful of the moment of epiphany in “Secret Name.” In the fact that republics are not made by the stroke of “Hesperia,” the protagonist’s discovery of this a pen, but are the product of long evolutionary imaginary ruin is quickly debunked as mere processes” [5]. Yet, while this and other articles hallucination, possibly even a symptom of the like it patronize the Egyptians for their naïveté in “hysteria” that has been affecting several grasping for too advanced a step in their national (historically real) tourists who visited Karnak at evolutionary development toward modernity, they night [9]. Repeatedly tourists, soldiers, and British simultaneously point out the highly effective officials throughout the stories are expelled from political strategies of strikes, negotiations, the country or threatened with disease. Through alliances, and general nation-building that have landscapes, weather, plants, skyscapes, and art, made the British attempt to rule them so difficult. Egyptian culture and power disrupt and defy the Just as in the literature, however, the ancient British and American characters who cannot even legacy of Egypt subsumes and negates the modern count on a landscape to appear the same way from Egyptian. Reflecting on a demonstration of day to day. Overwhelmed by their emotional airplane technology in Egypt in 1914, “A French reactions to the colony, the characters in H.D.’s Resident” observes that an Egyptian Bedouin stories repeatedly confront evidence that modern watched the spectacle with disdain: “far from Egypt is not frozen in the past by some arrested admiring our civilization and progress, they view development or even devolution from the ancient Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 91
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civilization, but it is unruly, living, chaotic, and imbued with agency in the present. Without telling REFERENCES the story of the struggle for modern Egyptian [1] M. Torgovnick. Primitive passions: Men, women, nationalism and independence, “Hesperia” still and the quest for ecstasy, Knopf, 1997. reveals that the colonial landscape does cause [2] S. Gikandi. “Picasso, Africa, and the schemata of “hysteria” in Anglo-American visitors who think difference,” Modernism/Modernity, vol. 10(3), pp 455-480, 2003. they will order, structure, and enlighten Egypt in [3] J. Conrad. Heart of Darkness, Ed. Paul B. the present. Armstrong, W. W. Norton, 2006. [4] V. Woolf. The Voyage Out, The Modern Library, CONCLUSIONS 2001. To understand literary modernism without [5] “Egypt.” The Outlook, pp 49-50, 11 Jan. 1922. understanding its colonial context, is to miss the [6] A French Resident. “Egyptian Memories.” The point. Modernism is fascinated by exotic, ancient, Living Age, vol. 313(4061), pp 328-334, 1922. colonial spaces and dependent upon them in order [7] M. Maeterlinck. “What is Civilization? VI: Ancient to manufacture its own identity as modernized, Egypt, Part One.” Forum, vol. 73(6), pp 784-795, 1925. progressive, knowledgeable, and new. Yet [8] H.D. “Secret Name: Excavator’s Egypt.”In modernism is written at the very moment that the Palimpsest, pp 173-244, Southern Illinois University world’s colonies refuse to be labeled primitive and Press, 1968. organize modern, nationalist political movements [9] H.D. “Hesperia,” Box 37 Folder 971. Beinecke to achieve independence and self-rule. Poised as it Special Collections Library, Yale University, 1924, is between Africa and the Mideast, Egypt poses a 1948. particularly pointed problem for modernists who would like to construct it as an open-air museum for the modern world. Its ancient empire made indisputably significant contributions to human civilization in all areas of science, politics, and the arts. At the same time its modern colony reached, at least temporarily, a level of independence from the British empire that only white settler colonies up to that point had achieved. Despite these gains, however, modernist literature and modern popular culture continually attempt to erase the modern Egyptians and refuse to write a space for them in narratives of progress and twentieth-century national identity. Based on H.D.’s fiction about
Egypt and contemporary journalistic reports of its independence movement, we can see that the Anglo-American narrative strategies are thoroughly invested in asserting modernism’s newness through its difference from the exotic, underdeveloped Egyptian past, but within the text’s encounters with modern Egypt that difference becomes as disruptive as the Egyptian nationalist movement itself. The absence of contemporary Egypt speaks back from the silence to reveal the fundamental challenge to American and British identity it posed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper is based on archival work completed with generous funding from the University of South Carolina Upstate Research Incentive Award. I also wish to thank the USC Upstate Office of Sponsored Awards and Research Faculty Release Program for supporting my research project this semester.
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Southern Wesleyan University Strategic Human Resource Plan Beverly Lowe, Felicia Thomas-Adams, Nicole Varnum, Lee Kizer Adult and Graduate Studies Southern Wesleyan University Central, SC {beverly.lowe, felicia.thomas, nicole.varnum, lkizer}@swu.edu
Abstract - Southern Wesleyan University is currently promote Adult and Graduate School Programs. The outsourcing the marketing for its Adult and Graduate Marketing Department will use training seminars Studies Programs. The University plans to internalize to provide the staff with the tools needed to be the marketing by August 31, 2009 in order to increase more effective in working with the media and enrollment in the programs. Using the departments and develop opportunities by providing resources and information already in place at Southern Wesleyan encouragement for conferences, networking and University, this Strategic Human Resource Plan was designed to aid in the process of developing and personal skill enhancement. [2] implementing the strategies necessary to successfully internalize the marketing for the Adult and Graduate SWOT ANALYSIS Studies Programs. SWU is committed to offering outstanding, Keywords: Southern Wesleyan University, Adult Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and Graduate Studies, Marketing department, (SACS) accredited programs, activities and services Enrollment and recruitment, Job analysis and for the diverse groups of people they serve. The design departments within the University to be utilized by the Marketing Department are staffed by INTRODUCTION intelligent, professional, Christian people of good judgment with the desire for University-wide Southern Wesleyan University (SWU) places success. The Marketing Department will, however, special focus on God and the surrounding face certain challenges due to the lack of community in order to foster a desire to learn and experience of a new team and the lack of an on-line become prepared to follow God’s will. “Southern program to compete with other institutions. It will Wesleyan University is a Christian community of have to rebuild the share of the marketplace lost learners, all seeking to fulfill God’s plan for their when changing from external to internal marketing lives.” The Adult and Graduate Studies Programs and build brand awareness for the Adult and of SWU, offered at six learning centers, are Graduate Studies Programs. This may not be designed to assist adult students in obtaining their realized if the right people are not hired within the degree while still meeting their personal and Marketing Department. professional responsibilities. [1] The Marketing The Marketing Department has the Department will be responsible for enhancing and opportunity to succeed because jobs require a maintaining the programs to enrich the student higher level of skills and education level than ever population while adhering to the University’s before due to changes in technology. It will be able Christian mission and values. to utilize the diversity of experiences, needs and priorities of those people who are entering higher OBJECTIVES education later in life and also the challenges presented by rising tuition costs, time to The Marketing Department will focus on graduation and decisions about careers that affect highlighting the Adult and Graduate Studies the decision-making process of graduate school. Programs in advertising and media using team The Marketing Department will be threatened by work to attain the strategic planning goals. It will the current economic crisis, the competition from budget funds to include short and long-range other educational institutions and the increase in marketing including any necessary technology. It on-line programs. It will also face the challenges will collaborate with the Information Technology presented by the demand for technology and the (IT) Department to develop Web-based trends in technology that are dramatically communication strategies and service, changing the nature of instruction inside and Advancement Services and Alumni Relations to outside of the classroom. [3] target business majors, and will be a part of all institutional activities and University-wide events to contribute to the overall image of SWU and Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 93
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HUMAN RESOURCE
SWU will incorporate the following positions to develop the Marketing Department: REFERENCES
Director of Marketing and Enrollment [1] “Mission Statement.” 29 Dec 2008. Southern Development to head the Marketing Wesleyan University. Department
(2) Recruiters to cover Charleston, North [2-4] “University Marketing and Communications 2005- Augusta, Columbia and Central, Greenville 2009 Strategic Plan.” 9 Jan 2009 Eastern Michigan and Greenwood University. Accounting Clerk for general accounting
(commensurate with qualifications, experience and ability) and bonus incentives; complete medical, dental and life insurance programs; and 401(k) retirement plan. SWU is an equal opportunity employer. [5]
CONCLUSION
Southern Wesleyan University Adult and Graduate
Studies Programs are designed to enhance skills in communication, information processing, and problem solving. The Marketing Department will be devoted to providing high quality recruiting services for the University’s mission, values, and long-term goals. It will develop a system that encourages open communication and a strong commitment to the University’s Christian values in order to gain a competitive advantage when recruiting for the Adult Graduate and Studies Programs.
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Metaphor Familiarity and L2 Instruction Quincy Jenkins Department of Humanities Spartanburg Community College Spartanburg, SC, P.O. Box 4386 [email protected]
Abstract — The use of metaphor in written language JOURNEYS in English, then common metaphors has created many great works in literature and such as we’re on the right path, he’s going down although the definition of ‘conceptual’ metaphor has the wrong road or he took my heart with him already been established, little has been done in relation would make comprehension of daily interaction to its literary appreciation or language instruction. The intent of this paper is to show the more broad impact of with L1 much easier as it would not be taken as metaphor as it affects standard and figurative “literal” and come across as being familiar (if not language usage and its importance/implication on L2 already since many concepts may be cross- instruction. This paper will provide a standard cultural). overview of conceptual metaphor and make a case for Having said that, there are instances where its use in language pedagogy. parts of speech could be seen as purely linguistic and would require background knowledge or Keywords — Target domain, Source domain schemata. Metonymy is where an individual word is used to relate to a broader idea, however with INTRODUCTION both the ‘speaker’ and ‘audience’ sharing the same The publication of the investigative research, background knowledge. Being born and raised in Metaphors We Live By, 1980 by Lakoff and Georgia, I have been raised with a certain amount Johnson, demonstrated the presence and of likeness (and respect) for Coca-Cola products. commonness of metaphor in common language Many native Georgians go to a restaurant and ask usage. This study showed that we speak about for a “coke”. However, an outsider must not be things as we conceptualize them to be and the confused by this request. Most likely if the server underlining theory being that there are two types brings the customer any soft drink or asks (for of metaphor, linguistic and conceptual. The latter clarification), “What kind of Coke?” the answer being very-well ordered, with mappings created to may very well be an answer different from any connect two different domains to one another (on product made by Coca-Cola. What has happened is one domain onto another); TARGET DOMAIN and that customer has employed metonymy; he/she SOURCE DOMAIN. “Linguistic metaphors are has replaced the manufactured for the motivated by conceptual metaphors and are the manufacturer. This may show other information as realisations that appear in everyday written and well such as what type of soft drink the consumer spoken forms”. [1] LOVE (target) is JOURNEY tends to choose (darker types) relative to others (source) is often the pretense for such metaphors and/or it can imply similar cultural backgrounds as my heart grows fonder, we’ll grow our since the server would have to just “know” that I relationship together, love takes time, etc. These was not really asking for a “coke”. are seen in everyday language and detailed more Though linguistic devices such as metonymy elegantly through linguistic devices in poetry and may occur, this paper will focus on the far-reaching prose. After all, metaphors is primarily conceptual concepts of metaphors and later how it may help in and not just a linguistic device because if it were, L2 instruction. one would be able to discuss all the different metaphors as relating to the same over-arching METAPHOR FAMILIARITY idea. According to Lakoff and Johnson, they Lakoff divided metaphors into subcategories in his describe metaphors "understanding and 1993 paper: specific-level and generic-level. experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another" Generic-level metaphor are those that are [2]; the Greek term meta-phora meaning ‘to carry employed on a daily basis and whose across’ (meta ‘across’ and phora ‘to carry’ or Latin conceptualization can be understood regardless of its counterpart being trans-fer). cultural boundaries. For example, MORE IS The importance to the understanding of UP/LESS IS DOWN. These metaphors are likely to metaphors to L2 speakers would then need to focus occur across cultures and be the most intuitively more on the practical, everyday and pragmatic uses recognizable to L2 learners with cross-linguistic and not necessarily on the literary ones. If a L2 correspondences which can be elicited and English student understands that LIFE/LOVE are discussed in the learning context [3]. Metaphors Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 95
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such as my money is piling, the stock market is current board had been holding back down, my costs are rising are examples of generic- progress. Records show that the budget for level metaphor due to the fact that they speak to a the past three school years had been seemingly universal concept. Another example riddled with inaccuracies. The board, could be seen in another broader conceptual however, defended the budget by stating metaphor where ‘IDEAS ARE FOOD’. Although I that the inaccuracies were simply due to a may have never heard the expression a casserole of jump in salaries and kept changing in promises, I am still able to understand the order to ensure that those salaries stayed meaning or concept because it is not specifically in line with current trends and inflation. linguistic, but belongs to a much broader context just as digest the information, troubles brewing or Through this paragraph, though not poetic, one swallowing the lies. Specific-level metaphors are can immediately see that it is riddled with those that are still completely able to be metaphors. If starting at the initial sentence, we conceptualized, but are not as common in practice know that the literal meaning of ‘ground-breaking’ as the others. These tend to be more employed in is not conveyed nor is it meant to be. It is figurative and/or poetic environments. From something that is done with dirt and a hoe. ‘Bend’ personal experience, I can recall reading poetry in is the physical alteration of a solid object. I can Spanish and Italian in during my graduate studies bend a metal pipe, for example, but I can not and feeling a total sense of admiration for the poets physically bend a situation. I can try to tear tough (most of whom have been long deceased) who leather or recognize that hot air is something that conveyed images and stories through linguistic rises; water ‘leaks’ through pipes, not newspapers; metaphorical devices. Though I had never read or living organisms ‘drown’; kangaroos ‘jump’ and much less seen these poems previously, the first graders stay ‘in line’. What is important to domains still allowed for me to conceive of the state here is that every metaphor, though familiar metaphor that was used by the author; linguistic and nearly unrecognizable as a metaphor, have metaphors could not be separated from the far- transferred linguistic meaning from one domain to reaching concept. Guy Deutscher points out that another. The usual tendency is to move from the good poets have a unique ability to create concrete or SOURCE domain to the abstract or unfamiliar metaphors while still keeping within a TARGET domain. larger context that is familiar. In his book, The In some literary research studies and Unfolding of Language, 2005, Deutscher cites a investigations, those metaphors that have lost the poem by Pablo Neruda where the poet is trying to power to influence and evoke emotion/image have explain to a younger apprentice what a poetic come to be known as ‘dead metaphors’. These are metaphor really is. At the end of the poem that so commonplace that they are seen simply as parts Neruda tells the young man, he states: ‘I have of speech and hence a standard part of ordinary spread my dreams under your feet; Tread softly language. All former knowledge of their because you tread on my dreams’ [4]. At first abstractness has been lost in usage and ubiquity. glance, the beauty of poetic genius would seem to be irrelevant to the day-to-day oral communication L2 INSTRUCTION of most language speakers. However, if we look In the classroom, the use of generic-level closer we will see that not only does one have to be metaphors is often ignored during instruction. Pablo Neruda to employ metaphors, but rather we However, if the principle goal of any L2 instruction all do so daily to some degree. is to eventually have the student arrive at a L1 or To further explain the common use or ubiquity native-like competence, then it must be included as of metaphors, read the following paragraph: a vital part of instruction. Competence usually entails both skill and proficiency, but another At the last PTA meeting, there were aspect to this is the linguistic knowledge that ground-breaking new rules meant to make encompasses socio-linguistic skill. Metaphors at the new board bend to the will of the the generic-level are more transparent and parents. Tough talk and quick thinking on therefore understood easier by L2 learners. The behalf of the organization made the board problems arise when trying to employ linguistic rise to action. News of the new rules was metaphors. In specific situations (such as an L2 leaked to a local paper through an learner of English studying business) there are unknown source. For years, the public specific-level metaphors that may need to be school system has been drowning in taught. For example, if the conceptual metaphor problems that included sinking salaries, BUSINESS IS WAR is taught during language rising taxes and complaints that the instruction in an English business class, students 96 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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may then be able to better interpret linguistic REFERENCES metaphors relating to stock market situations as [1] R Bailey. “Conceptual Metaphor, Language, they arise. On the other hand, for more generic- Literature, and Pedagogy” Journal of Language and level metaphors students may need to know the Learning, vol. 1(2), 2003. following to achieve even greater proficiency in L1: [2] G. Lakoff and M. Johnson. “Metaphors We Live By.” Chicago Press. 1980. Knowing the boundaries of conventional [3] R Bailey. “Conceptual Metaphor, Language, metaphors; understanding what is heard in terms Literature, and Pedagogy” Journal of Language and of conventional metaphors but also knowing what Learning, vol. 1(2), 2003. is not said. What are acceptable extensions of [4] G. Deustcher. “The Unfolding of Languge,” Henry conventional metaphor? When can speakers Holt and Company, 2005. acceptably innovate? When can metaphors be [5] G. Lakoff and M. Johnson. “Metaphors We Live By.” acceptably mixed? (This can be addressed by Chicago Press. 1980. reference to the … constraints of metaphorical use [6] G. Lakoff and M. Johnson. “Metaphors We Live By.” described in the contemporary theory) (metaphoric Chicago Press. 1980. competence/metaphoric extension and innovation) [5], Awareness of metaphorical layering; many utterances and expressions can be interpreted on a number of levels easily perceivable in the L1 but require more explanation in L2 (metaphorical understanding) and Sensitivity in the use of metaphor in terms of social and political correctness. This is important when learners come from diverse social and cultural backgrounds
(inter-cultural pragmatics and sensitivity) [6].
As any good L2 instructor knows, language and culture are very much intertwined. The instruction of conceptual metaphor may illuminate the commonalities between the two cultures help with the acquisition of L2. More importantly, for those students who are high-intermediate to advanced the development of this particular competence will help in linguistic environments that call for various levels of language usage, especially in professional settings where culture, language, pragmatics and awareness all overlap.
CONCLUSIONS This paper explained the importance and usage of metaphors in everyday language. Though we may not all be poets, we all employ metaphors on a daily basis. The systematic mappings of these from one domain to another have made it possible for us to think in terms of the abstract. The L2 instruction of the metaphor, mainly at the generic-level, has a great deal of importance in understanding not only achieving L1 or native-like competence, but also intercultural communication and similarities. Future investigations for possible research may include evaluating L2 textbooks for any, if at all, explanations of metaphors or similarities of conceptual metaphors between an L1 and L2 and how that has a direct affect on L2 acquisition.
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The Preparation and Coordination Chemistry of N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(-4- phenylthiazolyl)amine Mr. Geoffrey Ford, Dr. Edward Gouge Department of Chemistry Presbyterian College 503 South Broad Street, Clinton, SC 29325 {gtford, egouge}@mail.presby.edu
Abstract - The study of complex compounds is a projects. These compounds were N-2-pyridyl-N-2- growing field in the area of Coordination Chemistry. pyrimidylamine (HPPA), N-2-pyridyl-N-2- However, there are few studies on four-coordinate thiazolylamine (HPTA), N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(-4- complex compounds. This study aims to further the methylthiazolyl)amine (HMPTA), and N-2-(-6- development of a comprehensive set of data that will Methylpyridyl)-N-2-(-4-methylthiazolyl)amine show the effect of steric strain on the dihedral angle of (HDMPTA)[1]. Each of these compounds were the two ligand fields in a set of four CuN4 chromatophore compounds. These four compounds will synthesized and their properties studied and differ by a single functional group on the #4 position of compared respectively. This current study seeks to a thiazole ring. Our goal is to create the fourth complex produce similar compounds to N-2-pyridyl-N-2- compound, bis[N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(4- thiazolylamine and N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(-4- phenylthiazolyl)amine]copper2+, via organic chemical methylthiazolyl)amine[2]. The goal of this syntheses with the last step making the complex ion. research is the successful synthesis and UV-Vis Spectroscopy is the method of choice to show the characterization of two more compounds, N-2- effect of steric strain. We expect that with increasing pyridyl-N-2(-4-tertbutylthiazolyl)amine and N-2- bulk of the group at the #4 position, the magnitude of the dihedral angle will also increase. pyridyl-N-2(-4-phenylthiazolyl)amine. Together, these four compounds vary only by the functional Keywords: Ligands, 2-aminopyridine, 4-phenyl- group located at the #4 position on the thiazole 2-chlorothiazole, phenacylthiocyanide ring. Once all these compounds have been created and studied, the resultant data will be used to INTRODUCTION compile a general comparison of other like compounds that may be made in future studies. Coordination chemistry is the area of chemical science concerning molecular species that are METHODS AND MATERIALS composed of a central metal cation or atom bound to a group of surrounding molecules or ions by The study in which I am currently engaged involves coordinate covalent bonding. These surrounding three separate parts: 1) the creation of the 4- molecules or ions are also know as ligands. For phenyl-2-chlorothiazole constituent, 2) the example, a naturally forming complex molecule is synthesis of an unsymmetrical, heterocyclic the heme porphyrin group of the protein secondary amine using the 4-phenyl-2- Hemoglobin that is found in red blood cells; in this chlorothiazole as a reactant, and 3) the compound, an Fe2+ metal cation is located at the combination of that amine with a specific metal center and the protein “heme” is the ligand that cation to create a ligand-bound organometallic surrounds it. Another and much more common compound, otherwise known as a coordination example of ligand bonding can be found with the compound. Significance of this study will help to dissolution of any metal cation in water, resulting further the knowledge of coordination chemistry, in water molecules binding to the metal cation. as well as further the knowledge of the specific Coordination chemistry has been a subject long properties of the organometallic complex. Such studied, but only recently better understood. properties include acid/base characteristics, Today, many compounds are now assigned a dihedral angles of the ligand planes, steric coordination number, reflecting the number of hindrance in the ligand field, isomerism, and ligand bonds to the central atom in each complex. differences resulting from the use of different Normally, these numbers are 2 through 9, even metal cations as the central species. though more bonds may be formed. Unique to this study, the targeted secondary Prior to this study, the research group of Dr. amine to be created is N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(-4- Ed Gouge using similar unsymmetrical, phenylthiazoly)amine, as seen in Figure #1. heterocyclic secondary amines, which only differed via a particular ring substituent, undertook similar
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through a simple SN2 reaction that occurred by mixing a dissolved solution of chloroacetophenone with NaSCN (sodium thiocyanate). This product, the solid phenacylthiocyanide, was filtered and purified by recyrstallation from ethyl alcohol. This reaction, overall, progressed with a percent yield around 51%. A melting point range was determined to be 70.5o to 73.1o. Furthermore, a sample was studied by proton NMR and elemental analysis. The results of each confirmed that the Fig. 1. N-2-pyridyl-N-2-(-4-phenylthiazoly)amine. The phenacylthiocyanide was successfully created. R shows the position of the Phenyl group The next step in the synthesis was to close the phenacylthiocyanide into a thiazole ring. The The compound will be characterized, since, phenacylthiocyanide product was dissolved in currently, it is understood to have never been anhydrous diethyl ether, Et2O, anhydrous synthesized before. Only upon a successful hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g) was then bubbled synthesis of this amine will it be possible to through the solution. The reaction was closely continue to the next step. monitored and allowed to progress for The final part of the research will be comprised approximately 2 hours, before the inflow of HCl(g) of taking a Cu(ClO4)2 solution and combining it was stopped. The solution was allowed to degas with a solution of the synthesized secondary amine. over night. The solution was made basic through This will create the expected coordination the addition of sodium bicarbonate and the compound with the two ring nitrogen atoms in resultant NaCl was removed by filtration. The each of the two ligands acting as electron pair filtrate was concentrated and chilled producing a donors to the Cu2+ cation. Theoretically, two moles solid that was filtered and collected. After this, the of the unsymmetrical amine will bind to one mole collected solid was washed with deionized H2O. To of the Cu2+ cation yielding a pseudo-tetrahedral ensure that all the salt was removed, the resultant geometry, carrying a 2+ charge, and giving the solid was dissolved in ethyl alcohol and the filtered. Cu2+ a coordination number of 4. To clarify, a This filtrate was collected and diluted with pseudo-tetrahedral configuration consists of a deionized H2O to drive the 2-chloro-4- four-coordinate metal atom or ion that is not phenylthiazole out of solution. The resulting solid planar but does not contain four 109.5˚ angles. By was collected and dried. A melting point range was design, the complex will most likely be affected by determined to be 48.5o to 50.2o. The pure solid steric hindrance because of the size of the phenyl was analyzed for elemental composition. A proton group at position #4 on the thiazole ring. Once NMR and elemental analysis have confirmed the this complex cation is created, its various creation of the 2-chloro-4-phenylthiazole. properties can then be studied. Such properties Preparation of the 2-chloro-4-phenylthizaole include the amount of strain on the ligand bonds represents the first half of the production of the (with comparison to different R-groups), color, the desire ligand to this point. Overall, the reaction dihedral angle formed by the two ligand planes, progressed with a percent yield of approximately and the spectroscopy fingerprints. Past research, 80%. provided by Dr. Gouge, has shown that by The next step is now to create the other half of increasing the size of the group at the R position, the ligand, the 2-aminopyridyl constituent. This the strain placed on the CuN4 chromophore is also will be accomplished by reacting sodium amide increased. This is because the dihedral angle and 2-aminopyridine in liquid ammonia at between the two unsymmetrical, heterocyclic approximately -70o in a 1:1 molar ratio. amines grows as the size of the R group grows. Immediately thereafter, the sodium salt of the 2- Therefore, this change in angle of the ligand field aminopyridine will be reacted with the 2-chloro-4- can be studied by the number and position of the phenylthiazole to produce our targeted ligand; N- UV-Visible bands. The acid/base characteristics of 2-pyridyl-N-2(-4-phenylthiazolyl)amine. Once the the protonated central nitrogen also remain as an synthesis is confirmed, the final step for making area of interest in the study. the coordination compound will be done by combining the N-2-pyridyl-N-2(-4- CURRENT WORK phenylthiazolyl)amine with Cu(ClO4)2 in a 2:1 As mentioned earlier, the first step was to molar ratio. Upon completion, this product, bis[N- synthesize phenacylthiocyanide from 2-pyridyl-N-2(-4-phenylthiazolyl)amine]copper2+ chloroacetophenone; this was accomplished will be studied in both its protonated and Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 99
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deprotonated forms, mainly through the use of UV- Vis Spectroscopy. The key area of interest is the measure of the dihedral angle between the two ligand planes.
REFERENCES
[1] E. M. Gouge, J. F. Geldard, and E. Sinn. “Relationship between the Structure and Spectra of Pseudotetrahedral CuN4 Complexes and the Crystal Structure of [CuL2](ClO4)2, L=2-Pyridyl-2- Pyrimidylamine.” Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. 19, November, 1980 [2] E. M. Gouge and J. F. Geldard. Bidentate Chelate Compounds. 1. Pseudotetrahedral Copper(II) Complexes of Heterocyclic Secondary Amines.” Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. 17, February, 1978
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The Effects of Exposure to Domestic Violence on Child and Adolescent Development Vernette C. Porter, Jennifer S. Parker, Ph.D., Stefanie M. Keen, Ph.D. Department of Psychology University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {[email protected]} {jparker, skeen}@uscupstate.edu
Abstract - Domestic violence is prevalent in the United 35,301 incidents of DV were reported, of which States as well as other parts of the world. Prior 81.6% of the victims were women [10]. research has indicated that children and adolescents Spartanburg County is certainly no exception to who are exposed to domestic violence are at greater risk this serious issue; 1,723 incidents of DV were of developing behavioral, cognitive, and social reported in 2006, of which 81.1% of the victims problems. Although these problems can affect children and adolescents into their adulthood, research on short were women [10]. With these figures in mind, the term effects has mixed results. This study will evaluate current Attorney General for South Carolina has the short term characteristics of children and named DV as the number one problem in the state adolescents exposed to domestic violence and assess [10]. DV not only affects the lives of the women whether factors associated with exposure to domestic who are abused, but also impacts the development violence affect their development. of the children and adolescents who are exposed to the abuse. Keywords - children, adolescents, domestic Graham-Bermann and Edleson [13] state that violence an estimated 10 million children and adolescents witness acts of DV each year. Prior research has INTRODUCTION documented the negative long-term effects of Domestic violence (DV) refers to violent behaviors exposure to DV on child and adolescent that one intimate partner perpetrates to threaten, development. Some of these effects include intimidate, or control another. Women are more anxiety, depression, PTSD, as well as behavioral, likely to be victims of DV; although, there have cognitive, and social problems [3-8]. In addition, been some incidents in which men have been children and adolescents living in homes with DV abused by their partners. In recent years, this type have a greater risk of becoming victims of abuse. of violence has become an epidemic in According to Graham-Bermann and Edleson [13], communities across the nation. According to the the co-morbid rate of child maltreatment and DV is South Carolina Coalition Against Domestic between 30 and 60%. Violence & Sexual Assault (SCCADVASA) [1], four Although there is a substantial body of million women are abused by their partners each research regarding the negative effects of exposure year. Moreover, the SCCADVASA [2] estimates to DV on children and adolescents, there remain that one in four women will become a victim of DV several gaps in the research literature that need to during her lifetime. be addressed. First, much of what we know about DV is a prominent public health issue. the effects of DV exposure on children has come Approximately four million dollars are spent on from maternal reports and not from the children medical and mental health services to treat victims and adolescents themselves [4]. Second, the each year [1]. Victims of DV may experience a majority of the studies are conducted with children variety of health problems including stomach and adolescents living with their mothers in ulcers, gastrointestinal problems, chronic neck and battered women’s shelters [4]. There is less back pain, and migraines and frequent headaches research on the exposure and effects of DV on [11]. In addition, victims of DV may suffer from children and adolescents living outside of shelters. psychological problems such as depression, Given these gaps, one goal of the present study is anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to include direct assessments of children exposed [11]. For some of these victims, their injuries are so to DV. Another goal is to identify the effects on severe as to be fatal. Each year, up to 1,600 women children and adolescents who are living outside of die from DV-related injuries [12]. shelters. Furthermore, this study will examine DV is especially prevalent in South Carolina. whether exposure to community violence and The state is ranked 7th in the nation for women substance abuse have differential effects on these murdered by their intimate partners, and has children and adolescents. ranked in the top 10 since 2000 [9]. In 2006,
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METHOD high levels of anxiety, anger and trauma related symptoms. Additionally, the sample appears to PARTICIPANTS – Approximately 50 children and have high exposure to familial and community adolescents between the ages of 6 and 16 and their violence. All of the children reported exposure to mothers are expected to participate in the study. violence in the past year, and the majority reported The participants are recruited through Safe exposure to multiple acts of violence. Homes-Rape Crisis Coalition and P.A.C.E. Center Each of the twelve children completed the Beck in Spartanburg, S.C. While preliminary, the current Youth Inventory (BYI); a self-report multi-scale sample includes 7 mothers and 12 children (5 male measure that assesses self-concept, anxiety, and 7 female). The mothers’ ages range from 28 to depression, anger and disruptive behavior. 45, and the families represent diverse ethnic National norms by gender and age were used to backgrounds. score each measure. Anxiety scores were elevated for six of the children and two reported moderate PROCEDURE – Data collection is ongoing. to extreme elevations on the anger scale. One child Participants are provided detailed consent forms reported a moderately high score on the depression and, once they agree to participate in the study, scale. Eleven of the children have above average they are administered a series of questionnaires self-concept and one child has very low self- over a two hour period. The child and adolescent concept. The mothers when rating their children measures assess exposure to violence, depression, on the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young anxiety, anger, self-concept, trauma symptoms, Children reported similar findings. coping, emotion regulation, and social support. In the assessment of the mothers, they all The adult measures evaluate violence exposure, reported severe levels of anxiety. Furthermore, depression, anxiety, trauma symptoms, and they all reported high levels of posttraumatic stress alcohol/drug abuse. After the participants symptoms, with five of the mothers reporting complete their assessments, the mothers receive clinically significant levels. Reports of depressive $25 and the children and adolescents receive a gift symptoms were less consistent, as two mothers card. reported symptoms in the severe range, two in the moderate range, and three reported minimal MEASURES depressive symptomatology. Four of the mothers reported high levels of problematic alcohol use. Child and Adolescent High levels of alcohol and drug use were reported . Beck Youth Inventory-II (BYI) for five of the partners. . Trauma Symptoms Checklist . Conflict Tactics Scales-Parental DV CONCLUSIONS (CTS-DV) . Juvenile Violence Questionnaire (JVQ) DV is a serious crime that affects the lives of . Self-Report Coping Measure (SRCM) everyone involved. Recently, children and . Social Support Appraisals Scale (SSAS) adolescents who are exposed to DV have become a . The Emotion Questionnaire (EQ) subject of interest for researchers. Recognition of Adult this high risk population is important because DV . Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI) can have a great impact on their development. . Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) Therefore, children and adolescents who witness . Conflict Tactics Scales-2 (CTS-2P) acts of DV or who are victims may become violent . Conflict Tactics Scales- General during adulthood whereas other children and Violence (CTS-G) adolescents may show resilience toward DV during . PTSD Checklist/Life Events Checklist adulthood. (LE) Although researchers are interested in children . Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test and adolescents who are exposed to DV, they often (MAST) experience problems in working with this . Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) population. One problem is that researchers may not have the availability of assessing these children PRELIMINARY RESULTS and adolescents. Many DV cases do not get reported; therefore, children and adolescents do In the present study, seven mothers and twelve not get the opportunity to discuss their children were evaluated. Although the preliminary experiences. Another problem is that some sample is too small for statistical analysis, the data children and adolescents may not be willing to thus far indicate that many of these children have share their experiences, and as a result, they do not 102 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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receive the help that they need. Currently, more [8] S. Evans, C. Davies, and D. DiLillo. “Exposure efforts are being made by researchers as well as to domestic violence: A meta-analysis of practitioners to provide help for children and child and adolescent outcomes”, Aggression adolescents who are exposed to DV. They often and Violent Behavior, vol. 13, 131-140, 2008. suffer in silence, but with the help of intervention [9] National Coalition Against Domestic Violence programs and therapy, they will receive the (NCADV). Domestic Violence Facts: South services that they need so that they can get their Carolina. Retrieved January 22, 2009 from lives back together. http://www.ncadv.org/files/SouthCarolina.pdf 2005. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [10] H. McMaster. “Criminal Domestic Violence in South Carolina: 2006 Statistics”. Retrieved We would like to thank Safe Homes-Rape Crisis January 20, 2009 from Coalition and P.A.C.E. Center for their http://www/scattorneygeneral.org/fraud/cdv/ cooperation. This project is funded by a Healthy pdf/2006cdvstats.pdf. 2008. Living Initiative Faculty Mini-Grant and the Center [11] B. McAlister-Groves, M. Augustyn, D. Lee, and for Undergraduate Research and Scholarship. P. Sawires. “Identifying and Responding to Domestic Violence: Consensus REFERENCES Recommendations for Child and Adolescent Health”, Family Violence Prevention Fund. [1] South Carolina Coalition Against Domestic Retrieved January 20, 209 from http://www. Violence & Sexual Assault (SCCADVASA). uihealthcare.com/depts/…/childprotection/Pe Prevalence of Domestic Violence. Retrieved diatricConsensus.pdf. 2001. January 20, 2009 from http://www.sccadvasa. [12] N. Websdale. “Reviewing Domestic Violence org/articles/59.pdf. 2005. Deaths”, National Institute of Justice, (250). [2] South Carolina Coalition Against Domestic Retrieved January 20, 2009 from Violence & Sexual Assault (SCCADVASA). http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles 1/ jr00025.pdf. Domestic Violence 101: Defining Domestic 2003. Violence. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from [13] S. Graham-Bermann and J. Edleson. http://www.sccadvasa.org/articles/58.pdf. “Domestic Violence in the Lives of Children: 2005. The Future of Research, Intervention, and [3] D. Fowler and A. Chanmugam. “A Critical Social Policy”, Washington, DC: American Review of Quantitative Analyses of Children Psychological Association, 2001. Exposed to Domestic Violence: Lessons for Practice and Research”, Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, vol. 7(4), 322-344, 2007. [4] S. Holt, H. Buckley, and S. Whelan. “The impact of exposure to domestic violence on domestic violence on children and young
people: A review of the literature”, Child Abuse
andNeglect, vol. 32, 797-810, 2008. [5] G. Margolin and K. Vickerman. “Posttraumatic Stress in Children and Adolescents Exposed to Family Violence: I. Overview and Issues”, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, vol. 38(6), 613-619, 2007. [6] K. Sternberg, M. Lamb, C. Greenbaum, D. Cicchetti, S. Dawud, R. Cortes, O. Krispin, and F. Lorey. “Effects of Domestic Violence on Children’s Behavior Problems and Depression”, Developmental Psychology, vol. 29(1), 44-52, 1993. [7] P. Von Steen. “Adults With Witnessing
Histories: The Overlooked Victims of Domestic Violence”, Psychotherapy, vol. 34(4), 478-484, 1997.
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Implementation of Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Type-2 Diabetes Patients Nicole Tobias Hodge and Wei Zhong Division of Mathematics and Computer Science University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — Clustering the national healthcare database database can be very useful to generate healthcare into multiple clusters at multiple levels of a tree- policies at the local, state and national level. structure is very important for healthcare experts to analyze the underlying distribution patterns for various IMPLEMENTATION OF HIERARCHIAL subpopulations. This study utilizes the agglomerative CLUSTERING hierarchical clustering algorithm to partition the whole dataset. We have implemented the average distance This study utilizes the agglomerative hierarchical method and the centroid method to calculate the clustering algorithm. Agglomerative hierarchical distance between two clusters during the clustering clustering algorithm takes a lot of data samples, process. Both implementations for distance calculation puts them in individual clusters, and, through produced multiple levels of partitions with different iterations, groups the most similar clusters interesting distribution patterns. Information from the together. The iterations are continued until the lower levels and upper levels of the tree structure desired final number of clusters is obtained. As a provides comprehensive knowledge for healthcare result, the whole dataset is partitioned into experts to analyze underlying features from different multiple clusters at multiple levels of a tree- subpopulation. structure. Each level of the tree structure can Keywords — Hierarchical Clustering, Distance capture data distribution patterns for a particular Calculations, Type-2 Diabetes sample subspace [4]. The distance between clusters is the determining INTRODUCTION factor of their similarity. The more similar one There are 23.6 million children and adults in the cluster is to another, the smaller the distance is United States (7.8% of the population) who have between the clusters. Distance between two diabetes, however, only 17.9 million people have clusters can be defined by average distance or been diagnosed with the disease. Type-2 diabetes centroid distance. accounts for about 90% to 95% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes in adults. This type of diabetes METHOD 1: AVERAGE DISTANCE mostly affects those people of older age, obesity, family history of diabetes, physical inactivity, and The average distance method calculates the certain race/ethnicity. The total estimated cost of distance between each data sample from one diabetes in 2007 was $174 billion, according to the cluster to another and takes the average of those American Diabetes Association [1]. Clustering of distances. The distance is defined by equation 1 patients diagnosed with type-2 diabetes based on where Ci and Cj are the two clusters and likewise the procedural codes is an important aspect of p p is the distance between the data samples p public health policy. Good understanding about and the data sample p [4]. The average distance is distribution patterns in each clustered then deemed to be the distance between the subpopulation will provide relevant clinical clusters. This is computed by taking the distance knowledge for clinicians and health policy experts from every data sample in one cluster to every data to identify and evaluate important factors affecting sample in the other cluster and then dividing it by the length of stay and charges. the total number of distances taken. The average Previous studies for diabetes are based on distance for clusters is defined as: small and localized data sets. Typically, only local benchmarks are used in these models [2], reducing their applicability to the larger and more general 1 distavg (Ci ,C j ) p p (1) population. In contrast, this study uses The ni n j pCi pC j Healthcare Cost & Utilization Project (HCUP-3) Figure 2 shows the pseudocode for the algorithm to databases [3] which are the largest and most calculate the average distance between two robust U.S. inpatient databases. The national
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float_distance CalculateDistanceForCluster(Cluster A, Cluster B) { for every data sample in A for every data object in B distance += CalculateDistanceForProcedure(data_sampleInA, data_sampleInB) average_distance = distance / number of total distances taken return average_distance } float_distance CalculateDistanceForProcedure(data_sample X, data_sample Y) { for each procedure code if(X and Y had procedure) increment numOfMatch by 1 else if(X or Y had procedure) increment numOfMismatch by 1 distance = numOfMatch / numOfMismatch return distance } Fig. 2: Method of calculating the distance between clusters using the average distance method. clusters. Figure 3 shows the graphic diagram of this method, the distance would only be calculated average distance calculation. once from one centroid to the other. The distance is defined by equation 2 where Ci and Cj are the two clusters likewise mi and mj are the respective means (centroids) of the clusters [4]. The centroid is calculated from the coordinate values of each data object that is in the cluster. The coordinate values of the centroid are the averages of the respective coordinate values of each data object. Distance between clusters is determined by taking Fig. 3. Diagram for calculating average distance the dot product of the coordinate values of the two method between two clusters clusters’ centroids.
METHOD 2: CENTROID DISTANCE distmean (Ci ,C j ) mi m j (2)
Figure 4 shows the pseudocode for the algorithm to This method calculates the distance between two calculate the centroid distance between two clusters based on the cluster centroid. At the clusters. Figure 5 shows the graphic diagram of beginning of the program, the centroids are the centroid distance calculation. coordinates of the data samples themselves. With centroid CalculateCentroidOfCluster(Cluster A) { for each procedure code for each data sample in A ProcedureSum += data object’s value at that procedure CentroidOfA’s value at that procedure = ProcedureSum / number of data samples in A } float_distance CalculateDistanceBetweenCentroids(Cluster A, Cluster B) { for each procedure code distance = dot product of the Centroid values of A and B at each procedure
return distance } Fig. 4. Method of calculating the centroid of a cluster and method of computing the distance between two centroids.
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[3] Health Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/ [4] J. Han and M. Kamber. Data Mining, Concepts and Techniques. Second Edition. Elsevier publishers, 2006.
Fig. 5: Diagram for calculating centroid distance between two clusters
DATASET FOR THIS STUDY
The Health Cost & Utilization Project (HCUP) database was used as the dataset for this study. HCUP is the largest U.S. inpatient database. The dataset in this study consisted of over 9,000 samples of patients with diabetes that had at least two procedural codes [3]. Since diagnostics and procedural profile produces the best hierarchical clustering prediction results, these two profiles are used for the clustering process.
RESULTS ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION
The running time for centroid method implementation is very similar to that for average distance implementation. The upper level of the tree structure has 35 clusters while the lower level of the tree has 101 clusters. Both implementations for distance calculation produced multiple levels of partitions with different interesting distribution patterns. Information from the lower levels and upper levels of the tree structure provides comprehensive knowledge for healthcare experts to analyze underlying features from different subpopulation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported in part by Student Research Assistant Program and Research Incentive Award from University of South Carolina Upstate. This research was also supported in part by Healthy Living Initiative Faculty Research Grant from the ReGenesis Community Health Center (RCHC).
REFERENCES
[1] American Diabetes Association (ADA) Diabetes Information, American Diabetes Association, http://www.diabetes.orgs/about-diabetes.jsp [2] J. L. Breault, C. R. Goodall and P. J. Fos, “Data Mining a Diabetic Data Warehouse,” Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, vol. pp. 26, 37–54, 2002.
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Correlation of Selected Health Determinants and Outcomes in the United States: 2005 John Hart Sherman College of Straight Chiropractic P.O. Box 1452, Spartanburg, SC 29304 [email protected]
Abstract - Selected determinants of health and health 2005 [9], and per capita health care expenditures outcomes in the United States in 2005 were correlated. in 2004 [10]. The determinants consisted of obesity, physical activity, The following outcomes (n=5) were selected: diet, smoking, health insurance, chiropractors per Percent of population having a self-rated health capita, medical doctors per capita, and per capita perception as “excellent” in 2005 [5]; age-adjusted health care expenditures (in 2004). The outcomes consisted of health perception and age-adjusted death death rates in 2005 for: all causes [11], and for the rates for: a) all causes, b) cancer, c) heart disease, and top three individual causes of death (which were d) cerebrovascular disease. The Spearman test for cancer, [11] heart disease, [11] and cerebrovascular correlation was used along with a Bonferroni-adjusted disease [11]. alpha set at 0.001 for statistical significance of the correlation coefficients. The determinants of obesity, DATA ANALYSIS education, smoking, and physical activity showed statistically significant correlations with all outcomes. When checking assumptions, most of the The average correlation for each determinant, from correlations lacked linearity to the extent that a strongest to weakest, was: obesity, education, smoking, physical activity, diet, number of chiropractors per larger r-squared value was observed using a capita, no health insurance, number of medical doctors quadratic line (one bend) versus a linear line. per capita, and health care expenditures. Consequently, predictor-type statistics such as partial correlation and linear regression were not Keywords: outcomes research considered appropriate for these data. In addition, some of the data displayed skewed values that INTRODUCTION suggested an abnormal distribution (outside of skewness values of -1 and 1). Consequently, the This study assesses the correlation between selected Spearman correlation test was used for analysis. determinants and outcomes in the U.S. for the year The various strengths of the correlation coefficients 2005. Determinants and outcomes were selected on the were considered as follows: < 0.2 = negligible; 0.20 basis of the author’s interest, also known as “data- to 0.40 = low; 0.40 to 0.70 = moderate; 0.7 to 0.90 snooping” which can be helpful in developing a = high; and > 0.90 = very high [12]. Since multiple hypothesis [1]. Increased death rates have been linked tests for significance were performed (9 with determinants such as obesity [2-3] and smoking determinants x 5 outcomes = 45 correlation tests), [4]. a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha value was used where the traditional alpha level of 0.05 is divided by the METHODS number of tests performed (alpha= 0.05/45 = 0.001). The following determinants of health were selected (n=9): Percent of population in 2005 having RESULTS moderate physical activity on a regular basis [5], percent of population who are obese (BMI 30.0- Each determinant, except for health care spending 99.8) [5], percent of population in 2005 who and health insurance, had at least one correlation smoke every day [5], percent of population in 2005 coefficient that was statistically significant (p < who lack health insurance [5], percent of 0.001). All significant correlations occurred in the population in 2005 who consume fruits and expected direction, i.e., increased obesity vegetables 5 or more times per day [5], percent of increased mortality and increased health care population 25 years or older who have achieved a providers (DCs and MDs) decreased mortality. bachelor’s degree or higher in 2005 [6], number of The determinants of obesity, education, smoking, DCs (chiropractors) per capita in 2005 [7-8], and physical activity showed all five of their number of MDs (medical doctors) per capita in outcomes correlations having at least moderate strength and being statistically significant. The
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average correlation for each determinant, from [5] Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Centers strongest to weakest, was: obesity, education, for Disease Control and Prevention. [Cited 2008 smoking, physical activity, diet, DCs per capita, no Dec 7]. Available from: health insurance, MDs per capita, and health care http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/index.htm [6] Table 13. U.S. Census Bureau. [Cited 2008 Dec 10]. expenditures. Available from: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/ DISCUSSION education/cps2005.html [7] Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards (FCLB). Correlation does not in itself indicate causation but [Cited 2007 Dec 10]. Available from www.fclb.org. it can show clues. For the most part there are no [8] Email to author from FCLB with corrections for big surprises in this brief inquiry. Eyebrows may be Tennessee and Wisconsin for 2005. July 31, 2008. raised on a couple of the correlations. For example, [9] D. Smart. Physician characteristics and distribution DCs per capita showed stronger correlations than in the U.S. American Medical Association; 2007. MDs per capita showed. While DCs may be known [10] 2004 state estimates. Per capita personal health care. Department of Health and Human Services. for taking care of patients with back pain, there are September 2007. [Cited 2009 Jan 30]. Available a number of theories emerging on the deeper from: neurophysiological relationship between the spine http://www.cms.hhs.gov/NationalHealthExpendDa and visceral function [13-15]. ta/downloads/res-us.pdf The present study assumes that more health [11] National Vital Statistics Report. CDC. [Cited 2008 care providers (DCs and MDs) = more health care Dec 7]. Available from: delivered. The literature does not consistently http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/nvs support the notion that more health care = r/nvsr.htm [12] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. improved outcomes [16-17]. Consequently, Guilford’s suggested interpretation for correlation improved outcomes correlated with increased coefficient values. (2006). [updated 2006 Feb 16; number of providers per capita may be due to other cited 2007 May 11]. Administration for Children and factors. The relatively low correlation observed Families. Available from: between death rates and health care spending is www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/pubs/cwo02/appen consistent with findings elsewhere [16, 18-19]. dix/appendixG.htm [13] B. Budgell. Reflex effects of subluxation: the CONCLUSION autonomic nervous system. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 2000; 23(2):104-106. This study reveals that different determinants [14] L. Briggs, R. Boone. Effects of a chiropractic show different strengths of correlation, with adjustment on changes in pupillary diameter: a obesity showing the strongest while health care model for evaluating somatovisceral response. spending showed the weakest. Future study could Journal of Manipulative and Physiological utilize predictive statistics such as regression or Therapeutics 1988 Jun;11(3):181-9. structural equation modeling. This will help to [15] J. Pickar. Neurophysiological effects of spinal verify or refute the present findings. manipulation. Spine J 2002; 2(5):357-371. [16] E. Fisher, D. Wennberg, T. Stukel, D. Gottlieb, F. REFERENCES Lucas, E. Pinder. The implications of regional variations in medicare spending. Part 2: health outcomes and satisfaction with care. Annals of [1] R. Ott, M. Longnecker. An introduction to statistical Internal Medicine 2003; 138:288-298. methods and data analysis. Pacific Grove, CA: [17] E. Fisher, H. Welch. Avoiding the unintended Duxbury; 2001. consequences of growth in medical care. Journal of [2] D. Allison, K. Fontaine, J. Manson, J. Stevens, T. the American Medical Association 1999;281:446- VanItallie. Annual deaths attributable to obesity in 453. the United States. Journal of the American Medical [18] D. Filmer, L. Pritchett. The impact of public Association 1999; 282:1530-1538. spending on health: does money matter? Social [3] E. Calle, M. Thun, J. Petrelli, Ca. Rodriguez, C. Science and Medicine 1999; 49: 1309-1323. Heath. Body-mass index and mortality in a [19] G. Anderson, J. Poullier. Health spending, access, prospective cohort of U.S. adults. New England and outcomes: trends in industrialized countries. Journal of Medicine 1999; 341(15): 1097-1105. Health Affairs 1999; 18(3): 178-192. [4] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). State-specific smoking-attributable mortality and years of potential life lost--United States, 2000- 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2009; 58(2):29-33.
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Ukrainian Nursing: A Survey of Caring Behaviors Gayle L. Casterline and Nataliya Lishchenko Mary Black School of Nursing University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC [email protected]
Abstract - Since 2004, faculty of the school of nursing at such an international connection is even more the University of South Carolina Upstate has worked to valuable because Ukrainian nursing education is develop an effective international link between its undergoing a new wave of reform. The program and the nursing program at Ternopil State administration and faculty of the USC Upstate Medical University, Ukraine, including educational and Mary Black School of Nursing have been role research collaboration. The authors were invited to speak on Human Caring Science at the 3rd annual models for the Ukrainian Nursing School [2]. National Ukrainian Nursing Conference to more than 150 directors of nursing practice and curriculum in NURSING IN UKRAINE June 2008. Following the conference, the authors The nursing shortage spans the world. As in the visited Ternopil Regional Municipal Hospital and United States, careers in health care and nursing Ternopil Children’s Hospital. As a result of the interest specifically are highly sought after in the Ukraine. expressed by the nurses, the Caring Efficacy Scale There are 122 state owned nursing schools (Coates, 1995, 1997) was translated with permission financed from state and local budgets. Private and used as a pilot survey on a volunteer sample of 75 schools are not as popular in the country. As of nurses in clinical practice. Results indicated a high sense of efficacy in establishing caring relationships year 2007, 24,667 students were enrolled into with patients in the Ukrainian nurses surveyed. The Nursing Programs statewide. Nursing education in mean score of the CES was 4.89, which compares Ukraine is part of a unified national nursing closely with Coates’ original research results on staff curriculum taught in all nursing programs and nurses in the US (X = 4.9). Presenters will discuss the approved by the Ukrainian Ministry of Health and cultural and political characteristics influencing Education. Ukrainian nursing, as well as the importance of In 2007 there were 433,400 nurses in Ukraine; international research efforts in exploring the nature of approximately 60% associate degrees in nursing, caring behaviors as Ukrainian nursing education 10% have bachelor degrees in nursing, and the rest continues to reform. are trained specifically as midwives and “feldshers” Keywords — Caring Science, Ukraine, Caring (equivalent to a physician assistant in the US) [3]. Efficacy Scale, International Nursing Practice Nursing education at the associates level takes three years after full secondary education and four INTRODUCTION years after basic secondary education. This Ukraine is a post-Soviet independent country and program is obligatory for all students who want to the largest country in Europe with a population of continue toward the Baccalaurean Program, which 46 million. Ukraine borders with Russia on the is one year. A Masters program in nursing was East, Belorussia and Poland on North, and introduced for first time at two Ukraine Moldova, Hungary and Slovakia on the West. universities in September 2008. Introducing of Ukraine has fertile agricultural land, expansive Master’s program was very important for Ukraine, mountain ranges and the breath-taking Black and since today most of the nursing schools faculty are Azov Seas, and is in the geographic center of the physicians and pedagogical specialists but not Europe. nurses. The main goal of the new Master’s program Globalization of a worldwide educational in Ukraine is to prepare a new generation of environment calls for the new ways of instructors and professors for nursing schools who informational exchange and professional are nurses. development. Ukrainian/American cooperation The scope of nursing practice in Ukraine is has existed between USC Upstate and Ternopil generally the same as in the US with several State Medical University (TSMU) for more than differences. First, nurses in Ukraine are not four years. This international collaboration has expected to act as autonomously as they are in the resulted in a student and faculty exchange, a US. Secondly, the range of nursing skills is variety of scholarship activities, and the narrower comparable to the US nursing. Some of development of strong professional relationships the US nursing skills are prerogative of MDs in between the two universities [1]. The importance of
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Ukraine (some types of resuscitation, patient admission to the hospital, etc.). RESULTS The Nursing Association in Ukraine is a very Seventy-five nurses agreed to participate in the young organization, but it already plays an survey. They ranged in age from 20 years to 60 important and instrumental role in mentoring years, with an average of 35 years. Years of nursing nurses in Ukraine. Founded by Dr. Tatyana experience ranged from 1-39 years, with an average Chernyshenko, Chief Nurse in the Ministry of of 16 years. The mean score on the survey was Health of Ukraine, the Nursing Association is 4.89, indicating a high degree of efficacy in beginning to act as an organized voice for all building relationships with patients. This compares Ukrainian nurses. with Coates’ mean of 4.9 for medical-surgical nurses and Amendolair’s unpublished research in UKRAINIAN CONFERENCE ON “PHILOSOPHY nurses in South Carolina of 4.84. Nurses in IN NURSING” Ukraine appear to perceive similar confidence in The authors of the article were invited to present at their ability to connect in a caring way to their the Annual Ukrainian Nursing Conference in patients as nurses in the United States. Ternopil in June 2008. Nearly 150 nursing school directors, hospital administrators, nurse managers CONCLUSIONS and clinicians were present at the conference. Dr. Caring science continues to be a strong theoretical Casterline made a presentation on Caring Science framework for nursing education and clinical as developed by three well-known nurse theorists, nursing healthcare delivery. An International Dr. Jean Watson [3], Dr. Anne Boykin [4], and Dr. Caritas Consortium has been created by Dr. Kristin Swanson [5]. Watson’s theory of caring Watson to explore strategies for bringing caring emerged to shed light on the unique knowledge, science to life in academic and clinical practice practice, and values of the discipline of nursing. settings throughout the world [3]. International The basic core of nursing, which complemented partnerships strengthen and facilitate the but stood in stark contrast to conventional development of quality global healthcare and medicine, is the philosophy and science of caring. provide a forum for sharing original scholarship The success of nursing in the new millennium will and diverse forms of caring inquiry. be its commitment to a covenantal ethic of human service and respect for the sacredness of life. REFERENCES Both authors were impressed by the [1] T. Chernyshenko, L. Kovalchuk, N. Lishchenko, and overwhelming response demonstrated by O. Usynska Prospective for the International conference participants to the caring topic. Nurses Cooperation in Nursing Education In Nursing from all parts of the Ukraine wanted to talk about Education In Ukraine: From the Experience of Ternopil State Medical University Institute of their experiences with caring and to express how Nursing, Nursing, vol 2, pp. 5-9, 2007. they identified closely with the theories that they [2] V. Martsenyuk, N.Lishchenko, A. Prokopchuk et al. had not necessarily been exposed to educationally Nursing Education in the University of South but felt in their hearts. Carolina Upstate. Ukrmedkniga, Ternopil, Ukraine, pp. 31-250, 2006. THE SURVEY [3] J. Watson. Nursing: The Philosophy and Science of Following the conference, the authors visited the Caring. Boulder CO: University Press of Colorado. Ternopil Regional Hospital and the Ternopil 2008. Children’s Hospital. They were invited by hospital [4] A. Boykin, S. Schoenhofter. Nursing as Caring: A Model for Transforming Practice. Boston: Jones and administrators and unit managers to tour the Bartlett. 2001. facilities and talk with groups of nurses about [5] K. Swanson. What is Known about Caring in Nursing caring theory. Coates’ Caring Efficacy Scale (CES) Research. In A.S. Hinshar, S. Feetham, J. Sharer, was translated to Ukrainian with permission and eds., Handbook of Clinical Research. Thousand distributed to the hospital nurses (N=75). The CES Oaks, CA: Sage. 1999. is a valid and reliable tool which identifies 30 caring behaviors using a Likert scale ranging from –3 to +3. Researchers have used the CES in the United States to quantify caring behaviors in medical-surgical nurses. According to Coates, this was the first time the tool had been used in Ukraine. The authors also asked volunteer Ukrainian nurse participants to indicate their age and years of nursing experience on the survey. 110 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Шкала ефективності піклування© Інструкція: Під час заповнення цієї форми згадайте ваш нещодавній досвід роботи з пацієнтами в умовах клініки. Округліть відповідь, яка найкраще описує ваш досвід. Рейтингова шкала: -3 абсолютно незгідна +1 злегка згідна -2 посередньо незгідна +2 посередньо згідна -1 злегка незгідна +3 абсолютно згідна
Абсолютно Абсолютно Незгідна Згідна
1. Я не впевнена в тому, що можу виразити свою турботу до пацієнтів -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
2. Якщо я не відчуваю, що маю контакт з паієнтом, я намагаюся проаналізувати, що можливо -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 зробити, щоби досягти такого контакту 3. Я відчуваю себе комфортабельно, коли я торкаюся своїх пацієнтів під -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 час надання догляду
Fig. 1. Part of the translated Caring Efficacy Scale (Coates, 1995/Lishchenko,2008).
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Prevention of Hospital-Acquired, Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections: A Pilot Study Brian T. Conner Department of Nursing Lander University 320 Stanley Avenue, Greenwood, SC 29646 [email protected]
Abstract - Hospital-acquired urinary tract infections objective of this quasi-experimental pilot feasibility (HA-UTI) are well-documented adverse events that study is to investigate the effects of a new UTI constitute the most common type of healthcare acquired prevention (UTIP) protocol on hospital-acquired, infections around the world [2]. Strikingly, over 1 catheter-associated urinary tract infections (HA- million HA-UTIs are diagnosed each year and CAUTI). The UTIP protocol involves several approximately 80% of those are linked with urinary catheterization [3]. Evidence has shown that many of prevention measures bundled together in the these nosocomial infections are preventable. manner of other prevention bundles documented Unfortunately, these unintended clinical outcomes often by the Institute for Healthcare Improvement such lead to delays in recovery, extended hospital stays, and as those for ventilator-associated pneumonia and increased healthcare costs for hospitalized patients. central line blood stream infections. A number of Moreover, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid published studies have indicated a variety of Services’ (CMS) decision to halt payments on additional simple but effective HA-CAUTI prevention costs generated by HA-UTIs will result in increased strategies; however, extremely limited research hospital costs as well. The overall objective of this quasi- exists on the effectiveness of combined strategies experimental pilot feasibility study is to investigate the effects of a new UTI prevention (UTIP) protocol on for a comprehensive prevention protocol. The hospital-acquired, catheter-associated urinary tract UTIP bundle protocol is adapted from a proposed infections (HA-CAUTI). The UTIP protocol involves “bladder bundle” protocol developed by members several prevention measures bundled together in the of the Keystone Center for Patient Safety & Quality manner of other prevention bundles documented by the associated with the Michigan Health & Hospital Institute for Healthcare Improvement such as those for Association [1]. A recent study conducted among ventilator-associated pneumonia and central line blood 719 hospitals across America revealed that no stream infections. A number of published studies have standard UTI prevention methods currently exist indicated a variety of simple but effective HA-CAUTI and a very low percentage of the respondent prevention strategies; however, extremely limited research exists on the effectiveness of combined facilities reported having any strategic approach strategies for a comprehensive prevention protocol. [4]. Thus, this study breaks new ground by developing a comprehensive strategy for UTI Keywords: catheter-associated urinary tract prevention that, if successful, can be replicated and infections, hospital-acquired conditions, standardized throughout any acute care inpatient nosocomial infections, prevention setting. Prior to developing a definitive efficacy study of INTRODUCTION the proposed bundle protocol intervention, this Hospital-acquired urinary tract infections (HA- pilot study is intended to evaluate and refine the UTI) are well-documented adverse events that protocol measures, demonstrate clinical feasibility constitute the most common type of healthcare of implementing the protocol, and obtain pilot acquired infections around the world [2]. data. Through this study each measure within the Strikingly, over 1 million HA-UTIs are diagnosed protocol will be evaluated for effectiveness as well each year and approximately 80% of those are as validity with relation to the intended outcomes. linked with urinary catheterization [3]. Evidence Additionally, power and effect sizes will be has shown that many of these nosocomial calculated for development of a larger clinical trial infections are preventable. Unfortunately, these that will be generalizable to any hospital. unintended clinical outcomes often lead to delays This pilot study using the UTIP bundle protocol in recovery, extended hospital stays, and increased will be conducted in a sample of patients with healthcare costs for hospitalized patients. indwelling catheters on a 32-bed telemetry nursing Moreover, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid unit within a local hospital and compared to Services’ (CMS) decision to halt payments on patients with indwelling catheters on a similar 32- additional costs generated by HA-UTIs will result bed telemetry unit within the same hospital who in increased hospital costs as well. The overall will receive routine care. Routine care consists of
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the hospital’s current standard polices and recruit a sample size of approximately 45 patients procedures related to insertion and care of per group (total N=90). indwelling catheters without the provision of the The pilot study will be conducted over three UTIP bundle protocol. All patients admitted to the months with the following inclusion criteria: male units over a three month period and who agree to or female inpatients ≥ 18 years of age who require participate in the study will be included. A sample insertion (by a registered nurse working on the size of 45 patients per group is anticipated based specified unit) and maintenance of an indwelling on the average daily census of 20 and the average urinary catheter for more than 48 hours with a number of patients with indwelling catheters of 6 total stay within the same unit of at least five days (30%). The primary outcome measure is the post-catheter insertion. Data will be collected on incidence of HA-CAUTI and the expected outcome those patients who have had a catheter in place for is an 80% reduction in the rate, which is based a 48 hours or more. Exclusion criteria include: standard measure using the number of patients patients admitted and/or transferred into the with HA-CAUTI divided by the number of specified unit with an indwelling catheter already indwelling urinary catheter-days multiplied by inserted, patients already receiving antibiotic 1,000 [5]. The secondary measures include length therapy for any purpose prior to catheter insertion, of hospital stay and unpaid hospital costs due to patients who were previously catheterized and/or HA-CAUTI. The study hypothesis is as follows: receiving antibiotic therapy within 72 hours of Patients who receive the UTIP bundle protocol admission/transfer to the specified unit, and/or admitted to hospital unit 1 will have 80% fewer documented evidence of UTI in a patient prior to HA-CAUTI compared to patients who receive usual admission/transfer to the unit. Patients will be care admitted to unit 2, reduced or no delays in removed from the study if any of the following recovery or extended hospital stays, and reduced or events occur prior to the fifth day post- no unpaid hospital costs due to HA-CAUTI. catheterization; (a) the catheter is removed for any reason, (b) they are transferred or discharged from RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS the unit, or (c) antibiotic therapy is initiated
OVERVIEW, SETTING, AND SAMPLE SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
This pilot study will use formative protocol While not designed to confirm or refute the development methods and a two-group hypotheses about the intervention effectiveness, longitudinal study design featuring an intervention the purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the group on one telemetry unit (unit 1) and a control feasibility of the interventions, to obtain estimates group on another telemetry unit (unit 2). Patients of variability for the outcome measures, and to will be assigned to a group based on the unit to obtain preliminary indicators of intervention which they are admitted or transferred. effectiveness (e.g. estimates of effect size) as Randomization of participants will not occur in the necessary input for the design of future pilot study due to feasibility issues related to the efficacy/effectiveness studies. The sample size to intervention protocol. Institutional Review Board be used for this study was determined using (IRB) approval will be gained prior to Cohen’s statistical table and is based on achieving implementation of the study and informed consent 80% power to detect an 80% reduction in the will be obtained from each patient or legal incidence of HA-CAUTI with a significance level of guardian/healthcare power of attorney (HC-POA). P < 0.05 (2-sided). This information will steer the Those patients in the intervention group will be design of further large scale studies for evaluating informed of the experimental protocol being used the effectiveness of the UTIP bundle protocol. in their care while those patients in the control group will be informed that they will receive the INTERVENTION FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP usual hospital care for patients with urinary PARTICIPANTS catheters. This study will be conducted on two similar 32-bed telemetry units within a 400-bed The experimental intervention being tested in this acute care hospital located in rural South Carolina. pilot study is the UTIP bundle protocol which Specific admission criteria exist for each of the consists of five nursing measures related to units and the majority of the patients are attended indwelling urinary catheter usage to be by the same physicians. The main diagnoses of the implemented within the specified unit and applied patients admitted to each of the units involve to all eligible participants. Each of these measures cardiac, respiratory, and renal disorders. For this has been documented in various studies as pilot study, the projection is for the ability to individually contributing to the prevention of HA- Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 113
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CAUTIs; however, the purpose of this experimental Participant identification forms including intervention is to evaluate the efficacy of name, age, gender, race/ethnicity, medical combining the measures into a comprehensive diagnosis, and clinical symptomology for all bundled protocol and set of guidelines. The five patients approached about potential measures of the protocol include the following: enrollment in the study. Demographic and health data will be collected 1. Use of the smallest possible antimicrobial- on a Demographic Questionnaire for all impregnated catheter (preferably 14 or 16 Fr). patients enrolled in the study in both the 2. Development and daily use of a specific audit intervention and the control groups. tool to document the number of patients with Data related to the UTIP bundle protocol indwelling catheters inserted on the specified measures will be collected daily and recorded unit as well as the type, size, and duration of on the audit tool which will include compliance each. rate audits of nursing documentation on the 3. Development and use of a specified area within bedside flow sheets. nurses’ bedside charts for documentation of Data will be collected on a separate form daily assessment of catheter condition and accounting for the number of catheters securement method, and documentation of discontinued based on the physician-approved daily assessment of potential for protocol. discontinuation of catheter. Data will also be collected on the compliance 4. Development and use of a physician-approved rates with the daily physician reminder system RN-based catheter discontinuation protocol. as well as the number of catheters 5. Development and use of a physician reminder discontinued related to the reminder system. system to alert physicians on a daily basis of the necessity to evaluate the patient’s urinary THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF THE STUDY status and consider catheter removal. Several potential threats to validity of the study In addition to the five nursing measures of the exist with the primary issue being related to RN bundle protocol, development and implementation staffing. During the statistical analysis process the of training for all nursing personnel related to the researchers will control for staffing issues related measures will be conducted on the specified unit to having either less or more than the allocated and evaluation of the protocol implementation and amount of RNs for a given census. In addition, the compliance rates with all five measures will be researchrs will control for RNs who are floated or analyzed. assigned to the intervention unit from other nursing units on any given shift without having THE ROUTINE CARE CONTROL GROUP attended the education and training for the pilot study. Two other threats to validity include a lack Eligible participants within the control group will of availability on any given shift of the appropriate receive the usual routine hospital care for patients and approved antimicrobial catheters and/or the with urinary catheters established by the existing physician reminder system chart appliqués. policies and procedures but will not receive the experimental intervention. The routine care DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN consists of catheterizations using standard silicone catheters (16 or 18 Fr) and the standard All data will be entered into an SPSS database documentation on the existing nursing flow sheet. having integrated data quality and consistency checks (e.g. data-range) as part of the data DATA COLLECTION METHODS procedure. Data quality will be monitored and assured: 1) as reported; and 2) as entered into the The overall responsibility for data collection rests database. For the former, all hardcopy forms will with the principle investigator (PI) and will be be visually inspected before data entry. Further, a accomplished in collaboration with the Nursing manual comparison of randomly selected data Directors of the specified units. The Nursing hardcopy forms with data output listing generated Directors may delegate the data collection from the study database will be performed, and responsibilities but will remain accountable for consistency checks will be generated by SPSS producing the necessary and appropriate programs as part of routine data cleaning information to the PI on a weekly basis throughout procedures. All patients eligible for enrollment will the three month study period. The following data be registered and entered into the study database will be collected: 114 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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designed by the PI. In addition to the use of passwords and other security measures, all documents containing identifying information are considered confidential materials and are safeguarded to the greatest possible extent. No individually identifying information will be released or discussed with anyone other than study staff which includes the PI, the nursing directors from both units, the involved nursing staff members, and the involved physicians. Statistical analysis will be performed using standard tests as appropriate. Univariate descriptive statistics and frequency distributions will be calculated as appropriate for all variables for the total sample and within groups. Categorical data will be presented as absolute values and percentages while continuous variables will be expressed as means + standard deviation. Chi- square tests will be used for categorical variables and a two-tailed Students t test will be performed for comparison of continuous variables. Other tests will be used as appropriate for the data.
CONCLUSION
The occurrence of hospital-acquired conditions and their resulting effects are for the most part preventable. Building upon previous research of various individual prevention measures, this pilot study seeks to explore a new intervention bundle protocol to improve the prevention of HA-CAUTIs.
This study is scheduled to begin in May, 2009 and the intent is to publish results of the study by December, 2009.
REFERENCES
[1] Hospital infection control. (2008, February). Keystone provides keys to preventing UTIs: ‘Bladder bundle’ team includes ICPs, 35(2), 21-23. [2] Nazarko, L. (2008). Reducing the risk of catheter- related urinary tract infection. British Journal of Nursing, 17(16), 1002-1010. [3] Newman, D.K. (2007). The indwelling urinary catheter: Principles for best practice. Journal of Wound Ostomy Continence Nursing, 34(6), 655- 661. [4] Saint, S., Kowalski, C.P., & Kaufman, S.R. (2008). Preventing hospital-acquired urinary tract infection in the United States: A national study. Clinical infectious Diseases, 46, 243-250. [5] Stensballe, J., Tvede, M., Looms, D., Lippert, F.K., Dahl, B., Tennesen, E., & Rasmussen, L.S. (2007). Infection risk with nitrofurazone-impregnated urinary catheters in trauma patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 147(5), 285-293.
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Classification of Patients with Heart Disease Using Multi-Level Support Vector Machines Wei Zhong1, Rick Chow1, Richard Stolz3, Marsha Dowell2 1Division of Math and Computer Science, 2School of Nursing 3School of Business Administration and Economics University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {wzhong, rchow, rstolz and mdowell}@uscupstate.edu
Abstract — Solving classification problems using a classifiers working alone as long as the member single classifier can be enhanced by ensemble methods classifiers are diverse [3]. Diverse classifier such as bagging and boosting. Although bagging and ensembles can be developed using different feature boosting have shown promising results, both methods sets, training sets, or different classification have their weaknesses. In this paper, Support Vector algorithms [4,5,6]. Machine (SVM) is selected as the classifier due to its outstanding properties. In order to produce a new clustering-based ensemble method, we proposed the PREVIOUS WORK Multi-level Support Vector Machines (MLSVMs). Bagging [7] and boosting [8] are two of the most MLSVMs from different levels of a tree cooperatively popular ensemble methods for combining different decide class assignment of a given sample based on a classifiers. In the bagging algorithm, the bootstrap decision fusion algorithm. Three novel decision fusion method is used to create training samples for algorithms are compared to select the best decision generating multiple classifiers [7]. A bagged fusion strategy for SVM learning maximization. The classifier is then used to tally the votes from the heart disease dataset from national biomedical and healthcare databases is used for testing the ensemble of classifiers. The bagged classifier can classification performance of our new model. Our enhance the classification performance because the preliminary experimental results indicate that the bagging algorithm reduces the variance of the performance of MLSVMs is superior to a single SVM, individual classifiers. one-level clustering-based SVMs, bagged SVMs and In theory, boosting can significantly improve the boosted SVMs. MLSVMs proposed in this study provide performance of a classifier that performs just a a new and effective ensemble method to improve the little better than random guessing [8]. Since single classifier approach in addition to the popular boosting concentrates on misclassified samples, boosting and bagging methods. the final boosted model may have problems with over-fitting. In contrast, bagging is less susceptible Keywords — Classification, Boosting, Bagging, to the over-fitting problem [2]. Support Vector Machine, Clustering. In our previous work to produce a clustering- based ensemble method, the one-level Clustering INTRODUCTION Support Vector Machines (CSVMs) were proposed Support Vector Machine (SVM) [1] can be used as a [9]. One-level CSVMs can improve the robust classifier for solving difficult classification effectiveness and efficiency of SVM training by problems. Similar to other training algorithms, the dividing large datasets into multiple clusters and traditional SVM training algorithm produces a training a SVM for each cluster. A weakness of one- number of SVM classifiers based on different level CSVMs is that partitioning datasets into one training parameter settings. The most effective level may not be satisfactory; Consequently, SVM SVM classifier is selected as the final classification training for some clusters may be hindered due to model using specific performance evaluation improper clustering. criteria. Even though the rest of the SVM classifiers produced by the training algorithm are discarded, NEW APPROACH many of them may have better classification To overcome this weakness of one-level CSVMs, performance than the selected classifier in certain Multi-level SVMs (MLSVMs) are proposed to regions of the sample space. Hence, many effectively capture the complex underlying researchers have proposed various ensemble distribution patterns and to enhance the methods to combine different classifiers to further classification performance of a single SVM. The improve the classification performance of a single advantage of multi-level clusters is that some classifier [2]. The combined classifiers perform clusters at the lower levels may provide more better than any of the individual member suitable samples subspaces for SVM trainings than
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clusters at the upper levels and vice versa. As a classifiers called bagged SVMs and boosted SVMs. result, intelligent cooperation of MLSVMs in the The seven-fold cross-validation test is used for lower levels and upper levels of the tree structure comparing the performance of different provides a more effective classification decision for computational models [2]. This project uses a given sample. accuracy, recall, precision and F-measure for The Mutli-level Support Vector Machines performance measures [11]. These four (MLSVMs) include three phases for classifying performance measures are based on average values samples in the dataset. In the first phase, the entire for seven-fold cross-validation tests in order to dataset is divided into multi-level partitions with a reduce the bias of one test. tree structure by the hierarchical clustering algorithm. In the second phase, a MLSVM is RESULS ANALYSIS trained for each cluster in the tree-structure. The Figure 1 compares the classification performance training for each MLSVM in a local cluster is of a single SVM, one-level CSVMs, bagged SVMs, effective because it focuses on the unique boosted SVMs and MLSVMs. The results indicate distribution pattern in that particular sample that accuracy and F-measures of MLSVMs exceeds subspace. In contrast, the training of a single those of a single SVM by 6% and 7%, respectively. classifier for the entire dataset can be challenging The F-measure evaluates the trade-off between and difficult because of the complex data Precision and Recall. Performance of MLSVM is distribution patterns in the dataset. also superior to that of bagged SVMs and boosted In the third phase, a decision fusion algorithm is SVMs. used to merge MLSVM’s decisions from different tree levels to classify the samples intelligently. In this study, three decision fusion algorithms including TreeVote, TreeClassification and 100% WeightedTreeClassification are compared to select 90% the most effective fusion algorithm for MLSVMs. 80% The TreeVote is a recursive and bottom-up 70% algorithm that operates on the tree of clusters 60% generated in the previous step. The 50% TreeClassification algorithm adopts a 40% normalization strategy to select the most suitable SVM in the tree structure for a given sample in 30% order to perform robust and effective classification. Performance Classificatin 20% In the WeightedTreeClassification, the SVM 10% decision score is weighted by the cluster_sample 0% distance. Accuracy Precision Recall F-measure
MLSVMs Bagged_SVMs Boosted_SVMs CSVMs SVM DATASET AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP This study utilizes the Healthcare Cost & Fig. 1. Comparison of a Single SVM, one-level CSVMs, Utilization Project (HCUP-3) databases [10]. Bagged SVMs, Boosted SVMs and MLSVMs HCUP-3 databases are the largest and most robust U.S. inpatient databases with more than 600 CONCLUSIONS clinical and non-clinical variables for each hospital In this paper, the Multiple Level Support Vector outpatient sample. The SVM in this study is Machines (MLSVMs) are proposed to enhance the designed to classify patient samples based on performance of a single SVM. MLSVMs utilize a procedure information with respect to the length of multi-level tree structure to learn general hospital stay. The heart disease dataset from distribution patterns in the upper level of the tree HCUP-3 databases is used for testing the as well as specific distribution patterns in the lower classification performance of our new model. For level of the tree. Decisions of MLSVMs at different heart disease, samples with length of stay less than levels of the tree are then combined intelligently to seven days, which is the median length of stay for make more robust and effective classification than this dataset, are labeled as “positive;” otherwise, those of the bagged SVMs and the boosted SVMs. they are labeled as “negative.” The heart disease Three decision fusion algorithms are experimented dataset has 17,793 patient samples. to select the best decision combination strategy. To compare the performance of the MLSVMs MLSVMs proposed in this study provide a new and model with other ensemble methods, bagging and effective method to improve the single classifier boosting [2] are used to generate combined SVM Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 117
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approach in addition to the popular boosting and bagging methods.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported in part by Student Research Assistant Program and Research Incentive Award from University of South Carolina Upstate. This research was also supported in part by Healthy Living Initiative Faculty Research Grant from the ReGenesis Community Health Center (RCHC).
REFERENCES [1] V. Vapnik. Statistical Learning Theory. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York, 1998. [2] J. W. Han and M. Kamber. Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, 2nd ed.,Morgan Kaufmann, 2006. [3] L. K. Hansen and P. Salamon. “Neural Network
Ensembles,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. vol.12, pp. 993 – 1001, 1990. [4] J. Kittler, M. Hatef, R. P. W. Duin and J. Matas. “On Combining Classifiers,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. vol. 20, pp. 226 – 239, 1998. [5] T. K. Ho, J. J. Hull and S. N. Srihari. “Decision Combination in Multiple Classifier Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
Intelligence. vol.16, pp. 66-75, 1994. [6] L. Xu, A. Krzyzak and C. Y. Suen. “Methods of Combining Multiple Classifiers and Their Applications to Handwriting Recognition,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. vol 22, pp. 418 – 435, 1992. [7] L. Breiman. “Bagging Predictors. Machine Learning,” vol. 24, pp. 123-140, 1996. [8] Y. Freund and R.E. Schapire. “Experiments with a New Boosting Algorithm,” In Machine Learning:
Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference, pp. 334—343, 1997. [9] W. Zhong, J. He, R. Harrison,, P. C. Tai and Y. Pan. “Clustering Support Vector Machines for Protein Local Structure Prediction,” Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 32, pp. 518-526, 2007. [10] M. Dowell, B. Rozell, D. Roth, H. Delugach, P. Chaloux and J. Dowell. “Economic and Clinical Disparities in Hospitalized Patients with Type-2 Diabetes,” Journal of Nursing Scholarship, vol. 36,
pp. 66–72, 2004. [11] A. Singhal. “Modern Information Retrieval: a Brief Overview,” Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering, vol. 24, pp. 35-43, 2001.
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Evidence of a New Taste Sensation for Dietary Fat David W. Pittman Department of Psychology Wofford College 429 N. Church Street, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract — A major contributor to the prevalence of FATTY ACID MODULATION OF OTHER obesity is the over-consumption of high-caloric fatty TASTANTS foods. Evidence is emerging to support a role for the taste system in the detection of fats (i.e. fatty acids, 120% Linoleic Acid FAs). My laboratory has developed a behavioral model Oleic Acid to assess the ability of rodents to detect FAs. Using 100% brief-access behavioral assays, we demonstrated that 80% the addition of micromolar FAs to taste solutions modulates ingestive behavior. Consistent with the 60% predicted actions of FAs on their proposed transduction 40% mechanisms, FAs increased licking responses to appetitive stimuli and decreased licking to aversive 20% stimuli. Using conditioned taste aversion methodology, 0% we indentified detection thresholds for FAs (2.5-66µM) in the range of concentrations likely produced by -20% lingual lipase during fat consumption. We have also Significant Effects onSignificant Licking Responses shown genetic differences in the behavioral FA- -40% sensitivity such that obesity-resistant rats are more -60% responsive to FAs than obesity-prone strains of rat and Sucrose Glucose NaCl Citric Acid Quinine Appetitive Aversive within each strain female rats are more sensitive to FAs Fig. 1. Significant increases or decreases in the licking than male rats. Finally, we have demonstrated a responses of rats to sucrose, glucose, NaCl, citric acid, and specific role of taste in the orosensory detection of FAs quinine taste stimuli when fatty acids were present. using taste nerve transections. Rats with bilateral chorda tympani nerve transections show robust The proposed mechanisms of transduction for fatty impairments in the ability to detect FAs following a acids in taste system all involve depolarization of conditioned taste aversion to FAs. the taste receptor cells which in theory could enhance the intensity of any concomitant taste Keywords — Gustatory, fatty acid, behavior, rat. stimuli. To test this theory, we designed brief- INTRODUCTION access tests of 15-s trial durations in which 38 adult, male, Sprague-Dawley rats where randomly Rates of obesity have reached epidemic proportions with more than 1 out of 3 American presented with various concentrations of sweet, adults reported as obese and 2 out of 3 adults as salty, bitter, or sour taste stimuli both with and without a fatty acid present (100µM linoleic acid, overweight[1]. Taste palatability of high-fat food is cited as the primary influence in the over n=22 or oleic acid, n=16). As predicted, licking consumption of dietary fat[2-3] and there is a increased when fatty acids where added to the appetitive sweet stimuli, especially at the middle strong positive correlation between obesity and daily high-level intake of dietary fat[3-4]. range of tested concentrations indicating enhanced Traditionally, the sensory perception of dietary fat palatability which could be reflective of an increase in perceived intensity due to the presence of the during ingestion has been characterized in terms of textural cues and postingestive signals. However, fatty acid. Similarly, the results for the aversive across the last decade, accumulating evidence from stimuli (salt, sour, and bitter) were also reflective both molecular[5-6] and behavioral[6-10] research of increases in perceived intensity with rats licking has begun to challenge the traditional perspectives less to the aversive stimuli when fatty acids were on dietary fat perception introducing the concept present. These results are summarized in Figure 1, of chemoreception of the chemical components of with significant effects of linoleic or oleic acid on dietary fat (fatty acids) within the oral cavity, licking responses collapsed across concentrations specifically through the taste system, as providing for each tastant. The brief trial duration (15-s) immediate and selective signals during dietary fat suggests that rats were altering their licking consumption. responses based on immediate sensory feedback from the oral cavity.
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DETECTION OF FATTY ACIDS the previous CTA experiment with the inclusion of Having demonstrated that fatty acids could rats which received bilateral transection of the influence the ingestion of concomitant tastants, we chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve which turned to the question of whether or not rats could transmits taste signals from the anterior 2/3 of the detect the presence of fatty acids in absence of tongue to the brain. Rats receiving the bilateral other taste stimuli. Conditioned taste aversion chorda tympani transections before the pairings of (CTA) methodology pairs a taste stimulus with an fatty acids and LiCl did not show a conditioned aversive experience resulting in robust avoidance aversion to fatty acids in subsequent brief-access of the tastant in subsequent testing. Thus, if a tests. This evidence suggested that the taste known aversive stimulus is utilized (i.p. injections system was necessary in order to condition a taste of LiCl which induces gastric malaise in rodents), aversion to fatty acids. Next, using naïve rats, we then CTA methodology can be used to explore successfully conditioned a taste aversion to fatty whether or not a chemical stimulus is detectable by acids and confirmed the taste aversion by a brief- the rat. We paired 10-min consumption of 100µM access behavioral assay (Figure 2A). Immediately linoleic or oleic acid with LiCl injections over three following confirmation of a conditioned fatty acid consecutive days (control rats received saline aversion, we bilaterally transected the chorda injections). Clear taste aversions to the fatty acid tympani nerve in half of the conditioned rats were evident on conditioning days 2 & 3 as rats (CTX). Following a 3-day recovery period, the receiving the LiCl injections reduced their conditioned avoidance of fatty acids was reassessed consumption of the fatty acids by 80% in the 10- with a brief-access behavioral assay. Rats receiving min period compared to saline-injected control sham surgical procedures (intact taste system) rats. Following the conditioning days, the ability showed a residual avoidance to the fatty acids, to detect a various concentrations of linoleic or whereas the bilateral chorda tympani transected oleic acid was assessed by measuring the licking rats (impaired taste system) no longer avoided the responses to fatty acid concentrations <100µM fatty acids (Figure 2B). This is our strongest during brief 15-s trials. Our testing revealed a evidence to date that neural signals transmitted detection threshold for linoleic and oleic acid with through the taste system are in fact permitting the LiCl-inject rats avoiding 50µM but not 20µM detection of fatty acids as taste stimuli. linoleic acid compared to their saline-injected cohorts (for example, see Figure 2A). Although unlikely given the micromolar concentrations of fatty acid stimuli used in our study, we were concerned that perhaps textural cues were permitting detection of the fatty acids. Using an Ostwald viscosimeter, we determined that 100µM fatty acids were nominally (1.5%) more viscous than water. In comparison, corn oil is 50-fold more viscous than either the fatty acids or water. Olfaction (smell) could also provide a cue to allow avoidance of the conditioned fatty acid, so we measured the latency between the initiation of a trial and the first lick of the rat. We found no difference in the latencies to lick between unavoided and avoided fatty acid stimuli or between the conditioned (LiCl-injected) and unconditioned (saline-injected) rats. Thus, we theorized that the ability to avoid licking the conditioned fatty acids was due to immediate sensory cues from the oral cavity, with textural and olfactory cues unlikely leaving the taste system as the primary candidate.
A ROLE OF TASTE IN THE DETECTION OF FATTY ACIDS In an effort to confirm our hypothesis that the detection of fatty acids following a CTA was signaled through the taste system, we replicated 120 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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In a follow-up experiment, we conditioned preferences of other taste stimuli and taste aversions to 100µM linoleic acid in rats with characterizing the taste neural code for fatty acids no surgical manipulation and then measured the through neural recordings of the afferent taste avoidance of linoleic acid, sweet, salt, sour, and pathways from the oral cavity to the brain. bitter stimuli using brief-access (15-s) trials. The conditioned rats showed selective avoidance of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS linoleic acid with no difference in their licking This work was funded in part by the South Carolina responses to the other prototypical taste stimuli Independent Colleges and Universities summer compared to control, saline-injected animals. This research grant program and the Fullerton suggests that not only are fatty acids recognized by Foundation through the Community of Scholars the taste system but that their perception is likely program at Wofford College. unique from the typical taste perceptions associated with sweet, salt, sour, and bitter REFERENCES tastants. [1] Obesity and Overweight, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity. INFLUENCES ON FATTY ACID SENSITIVITY [2] Drewnowski,A. “Why do we like fat?” J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 97, S58-S62, 1997. We have since expanded our investigations into the [3] McCrory,M.A., Fuss,P.J., McCallum,J.E., Yao,M., taste sensitivity of rats to fatty acids to include Vinken,A.G., Hays,N.P. and Roberts,S.B.“Dietary comparisons of male and female rats as well as variety within food groups: association with energy obesity-prone (Osborne-Mendel) and obesity- intake and body fatness in men and women.” Am. J. resistant (S5B/Pl) genetically inbred strains of rat. Clin. Nutr., 69, 440-447, 1999. Across all strains of rat tested, female rats were [4] Miller,W.C., Niederpruem,M.G., Wallace,J.P. and consistently more sensitive to fatty acids than their Lindeman,A.K. “Dietary fat, sugar, and fiber predict male counterparts as measured by lower detection body fat content.” J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 94, 612-615, thresholds of fatty acids following a CTA. 1994. [5] Gilbertson,T.A., Fontenot,D.T., Liu,L., Zhang,H. and Furthermore, obesity-prone rats were more Monroe,W.T. “Fatty acid modulation of K+ channels sensitivity to fatty acids than obesity-resistant rats in taste receptor cells: gustatory cues for dietary fat.” perhaps suggesting a role for increased fatty acid Am. J. Physiol, 272, C1203-C1210, 1997. taste sensitivity in the over-consumption of food [6] Gilbertson,T.A., Liu,L., Kim,I., Burks,C.A. and and subsequent obesity. Interestingly, placement Hansen,D.R. “Fatty acid responses in taste cells of the obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats on a from obesity-prone and -resistant rats.” Physiol high-fat (60%) diet for 5-weeks did not affect the Behav., 86, 681-690, 2005. fatty acid sensitivity of obesity-prone rats but [7] Pittman,D.W., Labban,C.E., Anderson,A.A. and rather increased the sensitivity of obesity-resistant O'Connor,H.E. “Linoleic and oleic acids alter the licking responses to sweet, salt, sour, and bitter rats such that their detection threshold for fatty tastants in rats.” Chem. Senses, 31, 835-843, 2006. acids was then equivalent to the obesity-prone rats. [8] McCormack,D.N., Clyburn,V.L. and Pittman,D.W. Thus, we have begun to identify potential genetic “Detection of free fatty acids following a conditioned and environmental influences on the ability to taste aversion in rats.” Physiol Behav., 87, 582-594, detect fatty acids. 2006. CONCLUSIONS [9] Pittman,D., Crawley,M.E., Corbin,C.H. and We have demonstrated that fatty acids appear to Smith,K.R. “Chorda tympani nerve transection increase the perceived intensity of other taste impairs the gustatory detection of free fatty acids in stimuli, fatty acids can be detected in isolation male and female rats.” Brain Res., 1151, 74-83, 2007. [10] Pittman,D.W., Smith,K.R., Crawley,M.E., from other taste stimuli, and fatty acid detection Corbin,C.H., Hansen,D.R., Watson,K.J. and sensitivities are likely influenced by both genetic Gilbertson,T.A. “Orosensory Detection of Fatty and environmental factors. Perhaps more Acids by Obesity-Prone and Obesity-Resistant Rats: importantly, we have successfully established a Strain and Sex Differences.” Chem. Senses, 33(5), behavioral model allowing accurate assessment of 449-460, 2008. the taste sensitivity to fatty acids in a rat animal [11] Chale-Rush,A., Burgess,J.R. and Mattes,R.D. model. Recent reports of the detection of fatty “Evidence for human orosensory (taste?) sensitivity acids on the basis of taste cues in humans[11-12] to free fatty acids.” Chem. Senses, 32, 423-431, has given increased importance to our ability to 2007. [12] Mattes, R.D. “Oral Detection of Short-, Medium-, fully characterize the taste sensations and and Long-Chain Free Fatty Acids in Humans.” perceptions produced by dietary fat. Currently, we Chem Senses. 2008 Dec 16. [Epub ahead of print] are focused on clarifying how fatty acids influence
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The Story of a “Typical American Girl” Christen Burrell and Melissa Walker History Converse College 580 East Main Street, Spartanburg, SC 29302 {Victoria.burrell, Melissa.Walker}@converse.edu
Keywords: Women’s History, World War II however, the discrimination of women in the workforce brought her enthusiasm to a screeching Regardless of women's status at particular times in halt. When she applied for jobs, Mary stated: American history, the citizens of America have always had the idea of a “typical American girl.” Nobody would pay me any mind whatsoever. It was in Whether that idea stems from the ideology of the midst of the depression, and- our family was Republican Motherhood, the ideal of a southern prominent, so they certainly didn't want to waste their belle, or the lofty expectations of a stay-at-home money on somebody who didn't need it. I graduated from Smith, which was the leading women’s college in mother, women in the United States have always the nation at the time, so you know, it was cracker had a set of standards to live up to. However, as it jack, and it wasn’t good enough for the interviewer [2]. has been seen throughout history, in times of crisis, women have stepped out of their Racial and sexual discrimination ran rampant stereotypical roles. In World War II women played throughout the work force of the Great Depression a part in the fighting on both foreign soil and at [3]. While the depression did indeed drive women home. Through the stories and memories of Mary to look for ways to help provide for their families Wentling Walsh, one can glimpse back into time through the work force, they still faced similar and see the life of a woman during the World War types of discrimination, much like that Mary Walsh II era, including the discrimination, the experienced in trying to find a job after college. In opportunities, and the breaking away from that some circumstances women were forced to put off particular decade's image of a “typical American getting married in order to keep their current jobs girl.” [3]. Not only were personal career goals sacrificed, Mary Wentling Walsh was born September 11, but women who did have jobs were forced to work 1917 to Joseph and Mary Lynch Wentling. She was longer and harder for the same pay as before the raised in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, next door to Depression [3]. Furthermore, working conditions the house where she was originally born and where often proved intolerable as women were even her father was superintendent of a local coal mine. followed to the restrooms to make sure that they Mary's mother died unexpectedly when she was did not waste too much of the company's time [3]. four years old due to a case of botulism caused by Due to the lack of jobs available to her, Mary spent poison olives served at a family birthday party. most of her time after college volunteering. Her father later remarried another woman, whom As Mary continued her life in Greensburg, the family referred to as Allah [2]. Pennsylvania, the Second World War continued During the 1930's, women's educational going on around the globe. Thinking back, Mary opportunities were on the rise, but those who did commented, “Nobody was particularly enthused attend college risked getting a poor education, and about going in such a- I don’t know. They were were regulated to “feminine” majors, like home just trying to stay out of the war.” But, despite the economics and education. Women were seen as prior avoidance of the war, Pearl Harbor occurred, homemakers by most of society, and at times, even and America was thrown into the heat of the by their fellow female peers. Furthermore, many conflict [2]. young women at the time feared that too much With American involvement in World War II, education would interfere with their marital appeal new doorways were opened to women all over the [1]. As Mary Walsh grew older, however, she did country. In fact, instead of discouraging women not share this common view of college, and she from entering the work force, the government enrolled at Smith, a highly acclaimed school at the pleaded with them, using propaganda and plays on time. At Smith she majored in government, which emotions to motivate women to go out and find was a cross between history and political science jobs. Phrases like “Women in War: We Can't Win [2]. Without Them” and “Victory is in Your Hands” After she graduated from Smith, Mary was propelled women into the workforce, luring them ready to go out and “conquer the world.” Sadly into jobs that were formerly reserved for men [4].
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Women were placed in a variety of roles; some encouraged to go back to the home after the war operated cranes, while others tested guns. Some was over, Mary returned to her home and took care continued in predominantly “feminine” positions, of her elderly father for the following year. Just as while others traded that status in for welding and the propaganda used at the beginning of the war building fighter jets [4]. Discrimination, however, encouraged women to enter the workforce, did not vanish, and not only did women have to advertisement was once again employed to deal with their new world of work, they also had to hopefully urge women to return to their former deal with the discrimination that came with it. roles in the home, or to convince them that they They received less pay than their male preferred the housework better anyways [6]. It counterparts and in some cases they were simply would seem that Mary followed this trend, for not allowed to hold jobs previously held by these within a year she was married, and never held a job same male counterparts. Other places just refused again. She said, “Oh, I considered it [getting a job], to hire them [4]. but I didn't do anything toward getting one [2].” Doors were opened to Mary during World War While in Europe, a chance meeting with a II and she had the opportunity to join the Red family friend introduced Mary to people she never Cross in traveling overseas to work in England. would have met otherwise. Claiming that they After a few brief weeks of training, Mary was wanted to see a “typical American girl,” Mary was squished “like sardines” with other workers onto a introduced to them [2]. In many ways, Mary was a ship that would carry her to England where her typical American girl. She worried about whether work would begin[2]. Many citizens would join the or not her fiancé had found another person while Red Cross during World War II. During this time they both were separated by war, she became period, the Red Cross saw the enlistment of one addicted to Cadbury chocolate, and when she hundred and four thousand nurses, the making of returned home, she dove headfirst into marriage twenty-seven thousand packages, 13.3 million pints and motherhood [2]. However, there is much of blood donated, and 300,000 tons of supplies more than just “typical” about Mary Walsh. When shipped overseas [5]. Often the Red Cross set up World War II opened doors for women in society, places where the military personnel could stop, eat, she quickly walked through them, and through her and relax. These stations included food and many involvement, she helped gain opportunities never other various forms of entertainment. Working at seen for women before. Although at the end of the these provision stations was Mary Walsh's job. war some of these opportunities may have been Once Mary made it overseas, she became part of stripped from women, these opportunities did the Club Mobile. The Club Mobile was a regular however, open up a side of life that that particular bus that was converted to carry supplies, like generation had not seen, and would later go on to coffee, doughnuts, and other items to the men. be the inspiration that was needed for women to Commenting on her job, Mary said, realize that there was more to life than just being the housewife. ...so when they went on to the airfields, we made the REFERENCES coffee and doughnuts there, and then [went] on out to where the men actually were and served them the [1] Moran, Mickey. "1930s, American- Feminist Void?" doughnuts and so forth. And you know any American 20 Nov. 2008
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Talkin’ ’bout South Carolina: Addressing Dialect Diversity in Middle School Classrooms George Reed1 and David Marlow2 1School of Education and 2Languages, Literature & Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract – Discrimination based on dialect is one of the things like "Imma fixin' to" or "She aks for it" are most insidious forms of prejudice in our society. From ignorant and uneducated or, worse, uneducatable. the beginning of history, humans have judged others Sadly, this final, most damaging stigmatization according to how they speak, sometimes knowingly, but of speakers of certain dialects is common not only often without intention. Because change is predicated in society in general, but also in our education upon knowledge, dialect discrimination must be confronted through education. This paper describes a system. Godley, et al comment on this work-in-progress which targets dialect awareness and phenomenon in K-12 schools, citing teachers who tolerance in 8th grade English Language Arts and say things like “Rajid can’t do challenging work— Social Studies classrooms throughout our state. just listen to the way he talks” [4]. Students need teachers who believe they can succeed without Keywords – diversity, dialect, middle school, dialect bias. English, Social Studies DIALECT IN EDUCATION INTRODUCTION Issues of dialect discrimination are not limited to Diversity and tolerance are focal areas for many isolated communities in other areas of the country. social initiatives in the US today. While the work South Carolina is home to high concentrations of progresses through exposing prejudice and openly several highly stigmatized dialects including discussing bias, much room for improvement African American English, Appalachian dialects, remains. This paper addresses one of the most Native American language influence, and Gullah insidious forms of bigotry: dialect discrimination. creole. Additionally, the Upstate region has one of People judge others according to how they speak, the highest immigrant population growth rates in often without awareness of their own prejudice. the United States. Diversity and tolerance need to Wolfram, a prominent dialect researcher, observes be stressed not only in terms of race and ethnicity that “often, people who hear a vernacular dialect but also with regard to dialect. In fact, since dialect make erroneous assumptions about the speaker’s intolerance is more resistant to change than other intelligence, motivation and even morality” [1]. types of prejudice [5], dialect diversity deserves a Although this type of discrimination seldom focal position. appears on the evening news, it is recognized not Perceptions based on dialect not only lead only by scholars but also by the US government's students to associate with some of their peers and bureau of Housing and Urban Development [2]. shun others, but also have a significant impact on Business is also affected as demonstrated in a 1973 self-image and accordingly on students’ likelihood study which found that while employers denied of academic success. In an effort to address these linguistic bias they were actually quite consistent in issues by promoting linguistic tolerance, we are assigning tasks based on people’s speech alone [3]. working to introduce dialect diversity into the For the linguist, dialect is defined simply as a South Carolina middle schools though a set of variety of a language shared by a group of speakers. curricula which teachers can use in their This entails the supposition that no single variety is classrooms. Our model is based on a similar any better or more valuable than another, but project in North Carolina which provides teachers many in our society do not share this view. Most of that state with detailed dialect awareness innocuously for the non-linguist, dialect may refer curricula. Unfortunately, due to differences in both simply to people who speak differently. Less resident dialects and state standards, the North impartially, dialect may refer to a stigmatized Carolina materials are not suitable for our state. conception of the way people speak in a certain Because of the value of cross-curricular region of the country. Southerners, for example, materials and the make-up of South Carolina State are expected to have a drawl and New Yorkers have Education Standards, our dialect diversity the reputation of speaking brusquely. Most materials target an interdisciplinary approach damaging is the perception that people who say involving both Social Studies (SS) and English 124 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Language Arts (ELA) classrooms. While dialect curricular in that it addresses ELA standards diversity should be addressed at all levels, it is involving communication with differing audiences often in middle school that students become most and recognition of bias in a variety sources. aware of dialectal differences, and as the eighth Students also rewrite segments of the primary grade SS curriculum focuses on the history of source in Standard American English and in TXT. South Carolina, we are designing our materials for Demonstration of the mechanisms of changing this audience. language and discussion of the bias some have against TXTing indirectly advocates tolerance and THE PROJECT appreciation of dialect diversity. As part of this project we are soliciting input from members of the Education departments at Furman CONCLUSIONS University and the University of South Carolina Our goal is to have a complete set of lesson plans Upstate, as well as practicing eighth grade teachers developed, reviewed, tested and available to South in creating cross-curricular lesson plans. Our Carolina teachers by May of this year for possible lesson plans include subtle treatment of the integration into eighth grade classrooms by dialects of the people central to the historical August. These materials complement instruction in development of South Carolina. Dialect issues are standard grammar; they do not supplant it. The integrated with other materials in an effort to importance of Standard English for success in induce understanding and tolerance. Our plans are students’ future academic and career goals cannot created as stand-alone units, designed to be be denied, but a student who feels in adequate integrated into teachers’ yearly plans as linguistically is unlikely to succeed in any academic appropriate, and reflect current best practice by area. Hence tolerance of dialect diversity serves not addressing multiple-learning styles and only the community at large, but also the incorporating “living language” via primary individual. By imbedding linguistically diverse documents and multimedia. Our preliminary lessons in the curriculum, we hope to brighten the approach includes five units based on historical future of South Carolina middle school students as periods (dialect foci are noted parenthetically): they grow to understand, tolerate, and even Early Settlement (Cherokee), the Revolutionary embrace the diversity of South Carolina dialects. War (Appalachian dialect), slavery and the Civil War (Gullah), late 20th century immigration ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (ESOL), and modern times (African American We gratefully acknowledge the USC Upstate Office English). Primary goals include increasing student of Sponsored Awards and Student Support as well awareness of the legitimacy and merit of various as the USC Magellan Scholarship program. Both dialects, and instilling an appreciation of the programs have contributed significantly to the flexible structure of English. success of this project. One lesson plan utilizes excerpts from a primary source document first published in 1913: REFERENCES Our Southern Highlanders by Horace Kephart. [1] W. Wolfram and N. Schilling-Estes, American Students examine excerpts from the text exploring English: Dialects and variation, Blackwell, 1998. Appalachian culture and then read a local tale [2] D. Pager and H. Shepard. “The Sociology of presented in the rich dialect of the southern Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. SS Markets,” Annual Review of Sociology: 34, pp. 181- standards are addressed through investigation of 209, 2008. the Highlanders’ contributions to South Carolina’s [3] R. W. Shuy and F. Williams, “Stereotyped Attitudes Revolutionary War efforts and with the conflict of of Selected English Dialect Communities," in R. W. cultures resulting from the migration of these Shuy and R. W. Fasold (eds), Language Attitudes: mountaineers into the developing mill Current Trends and Prospects. Georgetown Univ. communities of early twentieth century. Press, 1973. As they explore the mountain culture in its [4] A. Godley, J. Sweetland, R. Wheeler,A. Minnici, and speakers’ native dialect, students discover both a B. Carpenter, “Preparing teachers for dialectically diverse classrooms.” Educational Researcher, 35, sympathetic portrayal of the Highlanders’ language pp. 30-37. 2006. and the dialect-based bias they faced. The changing [5] W. Wolfram, C. T. Adger, and D. Christian, Dialects nature of language and the potential for dialect- in Schools and Communities, Erlbaum, 1999. based prejudice are examined in this impersonal, socio-historical context. This lesson is cross-
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Race and Class Identity in The Great Gatsby and Passing John Crocker and Celena Kusch Department of Languages, Literature, and Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — During the 1920s, scientific studies that pointed out by James Reinhardt in “The Negro: Is viewed the African American race as biologically He a Biological Inferior” (1927), racial superiority inferior were being contested and replaced by various is assumed by “peoples who happen to occupy, for sociological studies of American society, which the time, a favorable position; and [. . .] these examined American culture and its hierarchical nature, concluding that inferiority was determined not by arguments have had an emotional, rather than a scientific evidence, but rather by the dominant race or scientific and rational, background” [3]. group. This paper uses these scientific and sociological Reinhardt’s comments represent the growing studies to analyze F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby group of early twentieth-century scientists who and Nella Larsen’s Passing, in order to show how these argued that society’s beliefs about racial inferiority texts reflect this changing idea of racial identity, while were not based on science or rationale, but rather also exploring the implications of class identity and its on racial dominance, and it was the white race that relationship to race within these two texts. By had been in control throughout the history of the examining Larsen’s Clare Kendry and John Bellew, as United States. This transition of thought, in which well as Fitzgerald’s Jay Gatsby and Tom Buchanan, this essay highlights the complexities of race, class, and popular notions of racial identity were challenged, cultural identity found during the modernist period. allowed the literature from this period to reflect The focus on the deaths of the “passing” characters of and struggle with these ideas, which is evident in F. Clare Kendry and Jay Gatsby shows the various modes Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925) and of social control that are inherent within the novels and Nella Larsen’s Passing (1929). These texts reflect how they relate to American modernist society. This the scientific and sociological studies on race that paper concludes that white racial dominance proves to were being performed during the modernist be the most explicit form of social control within the two period, allowing us to see the contradiction of works. Fitzgerald and Larsen address this issue by views regarding race, while siding more with the agreeing with sociological studies that viewed African sociological studies that viewed African Americans Americans as biological and intellectual equals, rather than inferiors, while both parodying and critiquing as biologically equal, rather than inferior. characters hostile to these emerging ideas. MODERNIST SOCIOLOGICAL VIEWS OF RACE Keywords — Race, Class, The Great Gatsby, and Modernist sociologists, like Reinhardt, discredited Passing the biological determinism adopted by earlier scientists, pointing out instead that racial INTRODUCTION inferiority is determined by sociological factors. Tom Buchanan, when speaking to Nick Caraway in Similarly, Wilson Wallis argues that differences The Great Gatsby, alludes to the racial fears and among human beings can be attributed to culture, anxieties prevalent during the modernist period. rather than race. Wallis writes that differences Tom states, “Civilization’s going to pieces. [. . . ] the among races fluctuate as the surrounding culture white race will be – will be utterly submerged. It’s changes. Because of this fluctuation of racial all scientific stuff; it’s been proved” [1]. This fear of changes, Wallis insists that there is no reason to the submergence of the white race echoes “Danger believe that “one race differs from another in in Race Mixture,” a study published in The Science innate psychic equipment,” but rather can attribute News-Letter (1927), which states that the “negro- all differences to the particular culture and white” combinations “seem, on the whole, socially environment of a certain group [4]. Sociologists inferior to the parent races,” because they combine found that African American inferiority was “something of a white man’s intelligence and determined, not on the basis of scientific or ambition with an insufficient intelligence to realize rational thought, but by the dominant white race, that ambition” [2]. Therefore, scientific discoveries who had historically been in a favorable position, during the early part of the modernist period allowing them to claim racial superiority by shunned the mixing of races, mostly because maintaining cultural and social power. Because of African Americans were viewed as biologically and this growing trend away from biological intellectually inferior to whites. However, as determinism, early twentieth-century researchers studied a variety of sociological factors, such as 126 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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culture, society, race, and class, in order to better which many African Americans migrated during understand African American identity. the early part of the 20th century. Larsen focuses on this issue in Passing, choosing to set her story BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL within the urban environments of Chicago and IMPLICATIONS OF “PASSING” Harlem, while exposing the absurd logic of Terry’s The issue of “passing,” where a member of one race idea of biological difference being a hindrance in poses as another, combines elements of both race the urban environment of Harlem. Overturning and class, which as Herbert Miller states in his Terry’s warning against African Americans in the essay “Race and Class Parallelism” (1928), became cities, Irene attempts to convince the white- intertwined during the modernist period, due to skinned, “passing” Clare “of the folly of Harlem for the fact that class supremacy became much more her,” stating, “I can’t help thinking that you ought visible. Miller states, “class formulations were not to come up here, ought not to run the risk of developed first, and merely appropriated when knowing Negroes” [6]. This statement from Irene race consciousness in its modern form appeared,” contradicts her earlier statements about racial which means that the “racial cult and the solidarity and the duty that she feels towards Clare. accompanying vocabulary have been built up for Her concerns for Clare’s safety in this passage do the purpose of maintaining class supremacy” [5]. not emanate from the bond of race, but rather from Therefore, class takes precedence over race, and her loyalty to childhood friendship and her racism is simply a means to maintain class simultaneous selfish desire to permanently rid supremacy. In Nella Larsen’s Passing, social class herself of Clare. Irene is setting Clare apart from and privilege take precedence over race for Clare the race, which is ultimately what Clare has done to Kendry, a character who “passes” constantly, even herself, and any ties to race have been severed for marrying a wealthy and racist white husband, John Clare, although Irene believes that Clare cannot Bellew, as opposed to Irene Redfield, who only genuinely sever those ties. passes occasionally and lives in the middle of According to Irene, Harlem would be an Harlem with her very darkskinned husband and unfriendly environment for Clare, a “passing” children. “Passers,” like Clare, were able to gain a African American. The biological differences that desired class identity by subverting their racial allow Clare to “pass” would affect her ability to live identity. comfortably within the urban environment of In addition to showing the class privileges that Harlem, which is the basis of Terry’s argument. result from “passing,” Larsen also puts an However, the real threat to Clare’s survival in emphasis on racial identity, which allows us to Harlem is less biological than it is sociological, question Clare’s decision to “pass” as white. Irene, seeing that the true threat would come from when asking herself why she did not “take up the society, either the African American society of defence of the race to which she belonged” after Harlem, or the white society of her husband. This Clare’s white husband insulted the African dichotomy of sociological threats to Clare is American race, thinks, “She had to Clare Kendry a represented when Irene tells Clare, “Brian and I duty. She was bound to her by those very ties of have talked the whole thing over carefully and race, which, for all her repudiation of them, Clare decided that it isn’t wise. He says it’s always a had been unable to completely sever” [6]. This dangerous business, this coming back. He’s seen passage places racial identity above class identity more than one come to grief because of it. And, by narrating to us Irene’s feeling of racial solidarity Clare, considering everything – Mr. Bellew’s with Clare, as well as showing that Clare too felt attitude and all that – don’t you think you ought to those same feelings of racial solidarity, despite her be as careful as you can?” [6]. Brian’s views of “passing” and desire for class identity. “coming back” as dangerous represent the threat Larsen, by giving Clare and Irene feelings of that would come from African American society, racial solidarity despite their obvious physical while Irene points out that Clare’s husband’s racist differences from darker skinned African attitude could also lead to her ruin if he ever found Americans, is seemingly disputing the modernist out. This debate between the two Harlem-based idea that there is a biological difference between characters, Irene and Brian, illustrates the what Robert Terry, in his essay “The American ambiguous relationship between Clare and the two Negro” (1929), calls the “negro and the brown” [7]. societies in which she belongs, an ambiguity that Because of this biological difference between becomes even more crucial at the end of the novel. African Americans and darker skinned whites, Passing ends with Clare dying after falling six Terry writes that race can impact the African stories from an open window. Her husband, who American’s ability to survive in an urban has found out the truth about Clare’s racial environment, as opposed to the rural areas from identity, arrives at the party, hurling racial insults Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 127
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towards her. Clare’s indifferent “faint smile from to introduce the purportedly scientific evidence of her full, red lips” infuriates Irene to the point that that threat, causing our sympathies to lie with the she runs toward Clare and grabs her arm, with victims of the racist ideologies. Clare’s white husband standing right in front of Based on these novels, Fitzgerald and Larsen them and Brian, Irene’s African American seem to agree with the progressive sociological husband, stepping out from the crowd [6]. What studies that were being performed during the really happens to Clare after that is unknown, 1920s. While both Tom Buchanan and John Bellew because the narrator, who is focalized through agree with the scientific studies that warned Irene, states, “What happened next, Irene Redfield against interracial marriages and relationships, the never afterwards allowed herself to remember. narration, however, does not. By focalizing the Never clearly. One moment Clare had been there, a narrative through Irene, we are able to see John vital glowing thing, like a flame of red and gold. Bellew as a person who hurls racial insults because The next she was gone” [6]. The ambiguity of his extreme racist attitude. The same is true for regarding Clare’s death is related to the ambiguity Tom, in that the narrator, Nick Carraway, of Clare’s relationship with Harlem, in that the two constantly remarks about Tom’s pathetic societies to which Clare belongs are present at the demeanor, presenting Tom as a racist, rather than moment she fell from the window. Her husband a “nativist” hero. These narrators allow us to see represents the white society, while Irene and Brian both novels as disagreeing with the scientific idea represent the African American society, both of that African Americans are biologically inferior to which are hostile to “passing” people in this novel. whites, and instead allow us to see the complexities Therefore, the threat to Clare’s existence in the of race and class inherent in the modernist period. urban environment of Harlem is purely The struggle for an African American identity, sociological, rather than biological, which dictates apart from the given identity as biological and only Clare’s ambiguous skin color. However, it is intellectual inferior, was a primary aim of the the color of her skin that allows her to choose 1920s Harlem Renaissance. By situating both between the two societies, and therefore, biology novels within this important decade of racial plays an important role in the act of “passing.” If thought and liberation, we can see that Fitzgerald Clare had not attempted to move within the two and Larsen are not only struggling with the societies, then she may have been able to survive complexities, but are also making statements that the urban environment in which she found herself, reflect the shifting attitudes towards race and which allows us to view sociological factors as the African American identity. leading cause of her demise. REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS [1] F. S. Fitzgerald. The Great Gatsby, Charles The need for social dominance and control proves Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1925. to be the real threat for both Fitzgerald and Larsen. [2] “Danger in race mixture,” The Science News-Letter, The irrational maintenance of white biological vol. 12(337), pp. 205-206, 1927. [3] J. M. Reinhardt. “The negro: Is he a biological dominance is the fatal force in both books. The inferior,” The American Journal of Sociology, vol. novels address these issues of social control by 33(2), pp. 248-261, 1927. questioning modern scientific studies that viewed [4] W. D. Wallis. “Race and culture,” The Scientific African Americans as biologically inferior, and Monthly, vol. 23(4), pp. 313-321, 1926. instead force us to see the emerging views of race [5] H. A. Miller. “Race and class parallelism,” Annals of as a social construction that were coming to light the American Academy of Political and Social during the 1920s. At the end of both novels, the Science, vol. 140, pp. 1-5, 1928. “passing” characters die, representing the [6] N. Larsen. Passing, Penguin Books, New York, 1997. modernist attitudes towards the racial and [7] R. J. Terry. “The American negro,” Science, vol. 69(1787), pp. 337-341, 1929. socioeconomic “other.” Tom Buchanan and John Bellow, both “nativists,” are threatened by the “other,” and are fearful that the dominant white race will lose control. This same “nativist” thought influenced scientific studies like “Danger in Race Mixture,” which attempted to point out the threats that would arise from interracial marriages and relationships [2]. However, the novels use nativists
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Meg Barnhouse: A Case Study of Discrimination in the Ministry Elizabeth Roberds and Melissa Walker History and Politics Converse College 580 E. Main St., Spartanburg, SC 29302 {Elizabeth.Roberds, Melissa.Walker}@converse.edu
SECTION TWO Abstract — The first women were ordained as ministers Meg Barnhouse is a Unitarian minister at the in the United States in 1955. While some Unitarian Universalist Church of Spartanburg. denominations have approved the ordination of Growing up in a religious family, Meg remembers women, there are still many in which the question is still that they “couldn’t have a conversation without the unsettled. Although many denominations have Lord being in there somehow.”[2] Her father, who approved the ordination of women, women interested in pursuing such a career face discrimination from was the news anchor on CBS news in Philadelphia, family, classmates, employers, and co-workers. This also worked as a preacher on the side. In her case study of ordained minister Meg Barnhouse’s mother’s family, there was a minister in every experience, based on an oral history interview, reveals generation. With religion playing such a large role one woman’s experiences with sexual discrimination in in her childhood, it is not surprising that she would the church in her pursuit of a life in the ministry. pursue a career in the field. According to Meg, Barnhouse has served as a college chaplain. She also what she wanted to do was “write and help people changed denominations in her pursuit of an open with their problems and preach and sing…and all environment for a female minister. of that was encapsulated in the ministry job.”[3]
When she went to Duke University to study Keywords — Women, Religion, Ministry, Sexual psychology, she continued to surround herself with Discrimination. Christian/religious influences, joining a group of
Campus Christian Intervarsity students. She also INTRODUCTION got involved with a singing group, performing in a The role of women in the church has been debated Christian trope group and Christian rock band. since the early days of Christianity and arguments Following graduation from Duke, Meg attended both for and against the ordination of women have Princeton Seminary, where her parents had met been drawn from the Bible. Those who opposed and where she was born. Unlike many women female ministers turned to Paul. Those who interested in ministry who majored in Christian believed that women had the right to preach turned education, Meg got her degree in preaching. This to Acts, where women are listed among those decision would later pose a problem during her job gathered in the upper room when the Holy Spirit search following graduation from seminary. While descended and gave them the ability to prophesy. interviewing for jobs she found that most people Historians argue that the debate over whether or seriously interviewing women were looking for a not to include women in the ministry began to be Christian education minister. Many assumed that raised during the nineteenth century [1]. Not all because she was a woman in ministry, she was a denominations approved the ordination of women Christian education minister. After many at the same time. While denominations such as the disappointing interviews, she saw an Presbyterians and Episcopalians consented to advertisement about an opening for a chaplain at female ordination in 1955 and 1976 respectively, in Converse College, which is an all women’s college. Roman Catholic churches, the question is still At the age of twenty-six, Meg began working as unsettled. Although many denominations have the chaplain of Converse College, where she would formally accepted female ordination, it does not remain for about six years. As chaplain, Meg was mean that the women are not discriminated able to teach and lead worship for the students. against during their pursuit of a career in the While she found most of the students at Converse ministry. One such woman who has experienced to be great, she also found that the more this discrimination is ordained minister Meg conservative students, who thought she was too Barnhouse who graduated from Princeton liberal, didn’t want to associate with her. In Seminary in 1977. A case study of her life reveals recalling her experience at Converse, Meg ways in which women face discrimination within remarked that “‘I had a great time there basically. the church as well as methods some have found for I didn’t have that much discrimination and coping with this discrimination. everybody was very- people in Spartanburg were
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very nice and mostly the discrimination I faced was seminary recruiters. According to Meg, if a man because I was a Yankee.’”[4] expresses an interest in seminary: Although Meg loved her job at Converse, when her first son was born she did not feel that she everybody’s like ‘oh, you’re going to be could bear to leave him in daycare all day and such a great minister, I love your voice, resigned in order to find a part-time job. It was at you have such a lovely voice.’ And they will this point that Meg opened a pastoral counseling push the applications on them. I mean if service, offering her clients marriage counseling. you’re a high school student or a college Although Meg’s husband was a Presbyterian student and you think you might want to minister and she attended his church, she began be a minister, everybody is there to help meeting people in the Spartanburg area who were you. You know they’re like ‘oh yeah let me Unitarians. Upon learning about the get you the application; let me help you fill denomination, she found that she shared many of it out.’[7] its beliefs. Among these were the belief in the inherent worth and dignity of every person and the However, if a female expresses an interest in belief that Jesus was a really great teacher and ministry, Meg went on, “everybody says, ‘Why do good person, who was perhaps enlightened; you want to do this? Justify yourself. What do you however, he was not the only enlightened one [5]. think you- what are you trying to accomplish? Over time, she began attending more and more What are you doing? What are you- who do you Unitarian services, and was even invited to speak think you are?’ And nobody helps you.”[8] on a number of occasions. With her growing While Meg was studying at Princeton, the interest in the Unitarian Church, Meg faced a discrimination continued; however, she found that dilemma. If she joined the Unitarian Church the discrimination came from her fellow students where she felt more comfortable, it would end her and not the professors. According to Meg, the husband’s preaching career because the women in the class ahead of her were “hard-nosed, Presbyterian Church forbade its ministers to be old-school feminists.”[9] In the one year they were married to Unitarians. However, Meg felt more at school before Meg started attending, the women spiritually at home among the Unitarians. At the had gotten all the professors to use inclusive same time, Meg found that her marriage was language, which also opened up people’s thinking coming to an end. She began making the shift to about God. Although professors were making the Unitarian Church. As Meg and her husband changes to include the women in Seminary and began divorce proceedings, she discontinued her appeared open to their attendance, the male counseling practice, finding it too difficult to students were not so accepting. Meg remembered counsel other married couples while going through one student who would approach the women and a divorce herself. As she was ending her say “Does it not concern you that your call is from counseling practice, however, the Spartanburg the Devil?--your call to the ministry is from the Unitarian Church was in search of a new minister Devil?”[10] To this, the women would simply reply, and Meg was offered the job. “‘yeah, yeah whatever- get away.’”[11] Because she was a woman, Meg faced Once out of seminary, women had to find discrimination throughout her life in the ministry. employment. Following graduation in 1980, Meg According to Meg, the denomination she grew up experienced more discrimination in her attempt to in was a conservative Scottish denomination called find a job. According to her, Presbyterian churches the Associate Reformed Presbyterian church, hiring a minister were required to interview a which did not and still does not allow women to be certain number of women. Therefore, she and all ministers. Therefore, when she became a minister, her female classmates would attend interview after her family was a little disconcerted and unnerved interview but would not get hired. She recalled one by her decision. She recalled one instance at a church in Cape May, New Jersey, where she drove family reunion when her aunt on her mother’s side two hours in a snowstorm to interview at the told her that her “grandfather [had] a desk that’s church. Upon arriving, the people conducting the supposed to go to the next minister in the family, interview said, “‘well we heard of your but, [she] just [didn’t] know if [she] (Meg) [would grandfather,’ because my grandfather…was a get] that or not.”[6] Meg’s family were not the only famous radio evangelist… ‘we just wanted to meet people who were uncomfortable with the idea of a you and plus we had to interview a couple of female preacher. women anyway so… we are so glad to of met you- Many women interested in pursuing a life in okay good night!’”[12] On other occasions, she the ministry were also discouraged by college and would go into an interview and say, “‘I’m a
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preaching major.’ And a guy would look at me and they made a practice of expressing their say, ‘that’s what I do; I need an educator.’”[13] disapproval to bring about change. Others simply Even after women manage to secure a position kept pushing past the discrimination as best they as a minister in a church, they still encounter could, laughing off comments and searching for greater difficulties than men. According to Meg, jobs in women’s colleges and among more liberal when a minister is a woman, people have certain denominations. Although much ground has been expectations for a female minister. The minister gained for women in the ministry, today these takes on a motherly role to the congregation, which women still face hardships unknown to their male causes problems if the minister has her own child. counterparts, which leaves much progress still to Although Meg did not express any personal be gained. difficulties of this kind, she did explain that one of her friends, who was also a minister, had a baby ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and while the congregation was happy for her, the I would like to thank Rev. Meg Barnhouse for her birth of the child also created a kind of sibling participation in this case study. I would also like to rivalry between the church and the baby. The thank Dr. Melissa Walker for her help and congregation felt that it would no longer get as encouragement in preparing this case study. much attention because of the baby. Meg remarked that it also created problems because “it REFERENCES means that she’s having sex, which nobody wants [1] For more on debates over the role of women in the to think about.”[14] Therefore, even if a woman church, see Rosemary Ruether and Rosemary does manage to secure a position as a minister, she Keller, eds., In Our Own Voices (Westminster John still might have other problems which are the Knox Press, 2000). And for more on the history of women in the ministry, see Susan H. Lindley, result of her sex. You Have Stept Out of your Place (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996) and Rosemary Ruether and CONCLUSIONS Rosemary Keller, eds., Encyclopedia of Women and In conclusion, women interested in becoming Religion in North America (Bloomington: Indiana ministers are faced with discrimination and University Press, 2006). obstacles throughout their lives. For some, such as [2] M. Barnhouse. "Ordinary Women, Extraordinary Meg Barnhouse, it begins with family members Experiences," Personal interview by Elizabeth who struggle to accept the woman’s decision. Roberds, 22 Oct. 2008. Others get their first taste when they start looking [3] Ibid. [4] Ibid. into colleges and speaking with recruiters. When [5] For more on beliefs and principles of the Unitarian they get to seminary, the women are sometimes Church, see “Visitors.” Unitarian Universalist ridiculed by fellow students and, although not in Association of Congregations, 1996. Unitarian the case of Meg Barnhouse, in some cases perhaps Universalist Association of Congregations. 21 Oct. even discouraged by professors. Following 2008
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Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
From Lighting was Born a Man: Myth, Reality and Chief Pushmataha Cole Cheek Spartanburg Methodist College 1000 Powell Mill Road, Spartanburg, SC 29301 [email protected]
Historians enjoy good stories and especially the between the split in the tree “leaped a mighty debunking them, particularly those about famous man; in stature, perfect; in wisdom, profound; in individuals of the past. Tales of the unbelievable, bravery, unequalled—a fullfledged warrior.” [2] true or not, range from a President named George In reality, Pushmataha had a humble birth on chopping down a cherry tree to another, also the banks of the Noxubee River in Noxubee named George, nearly choking on a pretzel. Often County, Mississippi on what was later named the such myths are considered separate entities, two Howard Plantation. Traditional Choctaw culture unrelated worlds of truth and fiction. For the dictated that individuals of particular lineages Choctaw Indians of Mississippi, myth and reality would receive high status within society, but are intertwined. Such is the case with their most persons might also earn social status, prestige and famous chief Pushmataha, “born from lightning,” power. Pushmataha was unique in this respect. As military hero, and a leader unwilling to relent to a child, a boy did not receive a name until he had political threats from a foreign nation. Ironically, performed some daring deed, often the killing of an the myths and truths that combined to bring enemy male warrior or achieving significant Pushmataha prowess, a political office and respect successes in hunting. [3] Not of royal blood, were forged not only in tradition but also in Pushmataha became a chief. He led multiple cultural change. hunting excursions throughout the Southeast and In December 1824, a few days before west of the Mississippi and killed multiple enemies Christmas, a strong, short man of about sixty years with quick, merciless efficiency. [4] old walked the streets of Washington City. He had Most notably, Pushmataha gained fame as a arrived there as part of the Choctaw Delegation, a powerful, tactful warrior, whose victory on the group of diplomats and headmen who had made battlefield earned him the position of District Chief the arduous journey the previous October to of which there were three. His earliest success negotiate a fair treaty with President Monroe. On occurred during his childhood. During an the 23rd, the old chief contracted a respiratory expedition against the Osage, several fellow illness and passed away before the treaty could be warriors called him a coward and weak, but to their signed. Although a sad end, his funeral honored surprise the boy produced more scalps than any of the life that had been, both the legendary and real the adults. Over the following years, victory one. Buried in the uniform of an American colonel followed in expeditions against the Creek and and followed by a procession of 3,000 persons, Tawakoni, and legend tells that he killed seven of Pushmataha’s remains were laid to rest in the the latter in one skirmish. [5] Congressional Cemetery on December 24th. On his Stories about Pushmataha’s valor disseminated tombstone were carved his final request: “When I throughout villages in Choctaw Territory . Whether am dead let the big guns be fired over me.” At his fiction or truth, the stories themselves funeral, canons fired to honor the late warrior [1]. apotheosized the chief in the eyes of his followers Choctaws in Mississippi and Oklahoma and demanded awe from the neighboring two celebrate this occasion in remembrance of the districts. During the nineteenth century, the chief’s bravery and ideals Pushamataha represented in prestige and stories about him extended beyond life, death and myth. Historians do not know much the borders of the Choctaw Nation for two specific about his birth origins. Andrew Jackson once reasons. First, he was known as great orator. posed the question to Pushmataha, who replied, Second, he honored his people’s allegiance to the “Tell the white chief it’s none of his business.” United States in time of war. One particular event When pressed, the Choctaw leader stated that he portrayed both characteristics. had neither a mother nor a father. A dark cloud In 1811, Shawnee chief Tecumseh traveled arose on the western horizon, blanketing the sky throughout the Southeastern United States with and covering the earth in darkness. Thunder his brother, the prophet Tenskwatawa. The Chief boomed and a bolt of lightning blazed towards a forged a pact with the British government and mighty oak, cleaving it from top to bottom. From agreed to aid in war against the fledgling American 132 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Nation. To the British, the states still were nothing disseminating the story, Choctaws remembered for more than rebelling colonies. Tecumseh traveled to what rights and privileges they fought during the present-day Mississippi, where he met with the Creek War, War of 1812 in general, and throughout leaders and thousands of followers of the Choctaw their history. Pushmataha thus became a symbol Nation, including Pushmataha. Debates arose over for Indian rights in short term and the long one. whether or not the Choctaw should join the Certainly, the Choctaw Chief embodied Shawnee and their allies to push the supposedly traditional ideas, reveled and drew his power as a land-hungry Americans out of North America. leader from them, but he also understood the Headmen and chiefs made speeches. Pushmataha importance of change. By the end of the eighteenth then rose and spoke with eloquence, force, and century, American Indians in present-day conviction. His words carried weight, his prestige Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, and Western obtained through warfare and legend demanded Tennessee had overhunted deer populations respect and attention, and Choctaws listened. He drastically. [9] To solve the problem of food threatened the lives of those who might side with shortages, Pushmataha became a supporter of Tecumseh and noted the agreements of peace acculturation, a process by which one culture takes made with the United States. Tecumseh did not aspects of a foreign “Other” and integrates those obtain allies that day, left, and forged alliances with aspects into one’s own. For example, Pushmataha the Creek instead. [6] promoted the shift from subsistence on hunting, Without Pushamataha’s dedication to honor gathering and horticulture to husbandry and and peace with Americans and his skill in oratory, agriculture. Between 1800 and 1820 with aid of convincing his followers to side with the Americans leaders, including Pushmataha, Choctaws raised would not have been possible, and the Choctaw did cattle and hogs and entered the American market side with Americans. With their Indian allies, economy by selling cash crops to settlers. Cattle including Tecumseh’s pan-Indian alliance, the and hogs replaced deer as the primary meat in British waged another war against Americans, who diets, and individuals used money obtained from had their own Native allies. Under the command of the sale of them to buy other food goods such as General Andrew Jackson, Pushmataha led 500 coffee and sugar, items that Americans had Choctaw warriors against the Creek and British at previously traded to Amerindians for skins. [10] various military conflicts, including those at Holy Taking acculturation a step further, Ground, Pensacola, and Talladega. To some Pushmataha also promoted the establishment and American politicians, Pushamataha became a expansion of Presbyterian missionary schools in legend. To fellow Choctaws, the leader upheld the the Choctaw Nation. These schools taught about values and portrayed the qualities of a traditional American business, literacy, and most importantly warrior. [7] the interpretation of laws. With other chiefs, From the Creek War, which lasted from 1813- Pushmataha hoped that the education of future 1814, emerged a new story that supported generations would create individuals Pushmataha brave. Supposedly in 1814, a soldier knowledgeable enough to fight corrupt business who had been placed under the command of practices and prevent land cessions. In 1819, the Pushmataha insulted Andrew Jackson’s wife. The first Presbyterians arrived and established Eliot, Choctaw Chief knocked the man down, slapped the first mission school to Choctaws. Over the next him with the butt of his sword, and called him an decade other schools appeared throughout “insolent dog.” Jackson asked the chief what he Choctaw Territory, supported by the money, would have done if Jackson himself had insulted resources, and blessings of headmen throughout Pushmataha’s wife. Pushmataha stated that he the Nation. Those same headmen sent sons, would have run the general through because only a daughter, nieces and nephews to Presbyterian fellow leader was truly worthy of being killed by schools to receive educations and learn new Pushmataha’s blade and said he also would have leadership abilities that would aid in the no problem doing so to take vengeance on such an preservation of Choctaw autonomy [11]. insult from Jackson. Jackson, like Pushmataha, For Pushmataha, whose life had been stepped was seen by Choctaws as an important, powerful in tradition, educated Choctaws represented military leader, a strong and vicious warrior in his something new, living tools full of knowledge and own right. Few people would dare threaten necessary in the fight against corrupt American Jackson with such an insult. The story has been political practices, especially treaties. In 1820 at perpetuated through many generations to today. Doak’s Stand located off the Natchez Trace, Despite being a legend from almost 200 years ago, Pushmataha witnessed that corruption when Choctaws still consider it important for teaching Andrew Jackson, serving as a treaty commissioner, others how to live and behave. [8] By threatened to attack the Choctaw if chiefs did not Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 133
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agreed to the terms presented by the United States. WORK CITED Pushmataha himself had signed several treaties to extinguish debts, protect his followers’ welfare, and [1] Gideon Lincecum, Pushmataha: A Choctaw Leader provide education, but he had never experienced and His People, intro. Greg O’Brien (Tuscaloosa: outright threats from Americans. Pushmataha The University of Alabama Press, 2004), 98-100; and Typscript excerpt from the Bureau of American considered a more tactful approach. They would Ethnology regarding the life of Pushmataha and the use the new, educated generation against the Choctaw, Walter Stanley Campbell (1877-1957) United States to negotiate directly with the Collection, Box 117, Folder 21, Western History President. Collections, University of Oklahoma, Norman, In October 1824, the three District Chiefs of Oklahoma (hereafter UOKWHC). the Choctaw created a delegation to travel to [2] Horatio Bardwell Cushman, History of the Choctaw, Washington. Within this delegation were family Chickasaw and Natchez Indians, ed. Angie Debo, members of chiefs who had received American intro. Clara Sue Kidwell (Greenville, TX: Headlight educations. Most important, David Folsom, whose Printing House, 1899; first reprint, Stillwater, OK: Redlands Press, 1962; second reprint, Norman: British father had married into an important University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 263-64 (page Choctaw family in the eighteenth century, and citations are to the second reprint edition). James McDonald, a Choctaw who had received an [3] Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of education in law, traveled with the group to North America, 1751-1762, trans. and ed. Seymour Washington. Through Folsom and McDonald and Feiler (Paris, 1768; reprint, Norman: University of with some aid from the other delegates, the Oklahoma Press, 1962), 163, 166; Grayson Noley, Choctaw negotiated a better treaty. They protected “The Early 1700s: Education, Economics, and their Indian autonomy, extinguished debts, and Politics,” The Choctaw before Removal, ed. Carolyn received the largest annuity ever obtained through Keller Reeves (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985), 74-75; and Margaret Zehmer a treaty. Aspects of the trip also had disadvantages: Searey, “Choctaw Subsistence, 1540-1830: Hunting, more land was ceded, Puckshenubbee (one of the Fishing, Farming, and Gathering,” in Before three district chiefs) had died en route to Removal, 43. Washington, Folsom’s son died in Choctaw [4] Lincecum, Pushmataha, 27. Territory during the trip, and Pushmataha died in [5] Typscript excerpt, Campbell Collection, UOKWHC. Washington before seeing the fruits of labors [12]. [6] Lincecum, Pushmataha, 90, 100-101; Stephen P. For Choctaws, life was changing at the Van Hoak, “The Poor Red Man and the Great beginning of the nineteenth century. Although Father: Choctaw rhetoric, 1540-1860,” Chronicles of Pushmataha only lived through the first quarter of Oklahoma 81:3 (2003): 308; Col. John McKee to George S. Gaines, 16 May 1814, 209, Records of the that era, truth and legend about him live on. His Old Southwest in the National Archives: Abstracts name, deeds, accomplishments made him a of Records of the Choctaw Indian Agency and rallying symbol for Choctaw rights from his death Related Documents, 1794-1841, comp. and ed. in 1824 to present. He is remembered through James R. Atkinson, appendices Jan Hillegas (Cobb myth because he embodied virtues that other Institute of Archaeology, 2005), 209; and Choctaws wanted to embody, and he is Tecumseh’s Visit to the Choctaw Nation, 1811, remembered in history for the deeds he Henry S. Halbert Papers, microfilm copy accomplished. (Montgomery, AL: Alabama Department of Archives If a person visits Mississippi, he or she might and History, n.d.), available at Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson, MS, still see references to the famed leader. On the reel 4294. Choctaw reservation, the lake adjacent to Geyser [7] Lincecum, Pushmataha, 98. Falls family water park boasts his name, [8] Dr. Kennith York, Mississippi band of Choctaw Pushmataha Lake. One of the three districts of the Indians, interviewed by author, 20 March 2008; Oklahoma Choctaw Nation bears his name. In the and Dr. Kennith York, personal communication, 6 silent halls of the Old Capitol Museum, a August 2008. contemporary painting of Pushmataha hangs [9] James Adair, The History of the American Indians: depicting the leader in traditional garb and starring Particularly those Nations Adjoining to the at onlookers with the same patriotism and fiery Mississippi East and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and Virginia, rep. ed., intro. personality he had in life. Regardless of the Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr. (1775; reprint, New York imagery and name, for Choctaws the myth and the and London: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1968), reality are the same, intertwined, connected. 285, 317. Hearing the name Pushmataha, the legend and the [10] Daybooks, Letter from the Secretary of War: List of man, reminds historians, Choctaws, and the goods orders and of whom purchased, 8 April 1805, “average Joe” why humans should and do value the and Invoice, 30 September 1807, Records of the study of individuals of the past. Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian 134 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Trade, 1803-1819, The National Archives and Records Service General Services Administration, Record Group 75 (Washington, D.C., 1960), microfilm publication T500, reel 1. [11] Excerpt from David Folsom to Rev. Elias Cornelius, Chahtah Nation, Pigeon Roost, 3 November 1818, David Folsom to Rev. Byington, Chahtah Nation, Pigeon Roost, 6 July 1822, and David Folsom to Rev. C. Byington, 7 January 1829, Aiikhuna, all in Cushman, History, 292-95; James Taylor Carson, Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 112, 115-17, 119-20; Clara Sue Kidwell, Choctaws and Missionaries, 1818-1918 (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), , 84-85, 87- 88; and Kingsbury to Evarts, Mayhew, July 1829, Papers of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Woodbridge, CT: Houghton Library of Harvard University, 1984-1985), microfilm, reel 756, 224-227. [12] See Gary Coleman Cheek Jr., “Cultural Flexibility: Assimilation, Education and the Evolution of Choctaw Identity in the Age of Transformation, 1800-1830” (M.A. Thesis, Mississippi State University, 2005), 38-68.
Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 135
Fifth Annual SC Upstate Research Symposium
Effect of the 6+1 Trait Writing Model on Student Writing Achievement Nancy K. DeJarnette Elementary Education Limestone College 1115 College Drive, Gaffney, SC 29340 [email protected]
Abstract — The focus of this study was to determine the specific ways in which to improve the overall difference between teaching the 6+1 Trait quality of writing instruction for students. Writing Model to fifth graders and the traditional This study focused on two specific writing workshop method of teaching writing on instructional writing methods for fifth grade overall student writing achievement according to the students. Both methods required process writing data supplied by a writing rubric. The study involved 8 classes of fifth graders in 2 different schools. One school involving prewriting, drafting, editing, revision, provided instruction according to the 6+1 Trait Writing and publishing. The 6+1 Traits Writing Model Model, and the other school provided instruction using provided direct instruction on the craft of writing, the traditional writing workshop method of teaching or specific traits, the writing workshop method did writing. It was hypothesized that students receiving not address. The goal of this study was to instruction using the 6+1 Trait Writing Model would determine if teaching the individual traits would exhibit greater gains in writing achievement and improve overall writing achievement. quality according to the data supplied by a writing rubric. Significant differences were found in two out of BACKGROUND four component areas on the rubric used for scoring student papers. Results indicated that the type of Writing instruction has taken on new meaning in method used to teach writing is not as significant as education over the past two decades or so. Since providing structured instruction as well as time for the emphasis of writing instruction has changed, student writing. many veteran and novice teachers do not have adequate skills to teach the craft of writing. School Keywords — Writing Instruction, Language Arts, districts do not usually purchase a formal writing 6+1 Trait Writing Model curriculum which leaves the choice of how to teach writing to each individual school or each teacher in INTRODUCTION the school. Inconsistencies in instructional methods for There are numerous instructional methods teaching writing abound in elementary schools available and teachers may approach the same across the United States [1]. When elementary method in different ways, creating inconsistencies school schedules get filled with too many subjects, in the methodology for writing instruction in usually writing is the first content area to suffer American elementary schools. This study from benign neglect. Finding quality writing researched two previously-tested writing instruction and time committed for writing instructional methods to see which method yielded instruction and practice are rare in elementary greater student writing quality and achievement. schools. Elementary schools often do not have a The 6+1 Trait Writing Model is a method of designated writing curriculum or a specific method teaching writing and assessing students’ writing mandated by the district. There can be using the distinct vocabulary of a professional inconsistencies within schools and even from writer. The traditional writing workshop method of teacher to teacher in the selection and instruction focuses on sentence and paragraph implementation of writing instructional methods. structure, conventions, and organization, Both veteran and beginning elementary teachers emphasizing a beginning, middle, and an end. The can feel inadequate when deciding how to teach 6+1 Trait Writing Model adds emphasis on writing to their students. In 2008, as a result of the additional writing skills such as ideas, voice, word No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), most states have choice, sentence fluency, and presentation. The adopted demanding writing standards for grades traits introduce new writing vocabulary to students K-12. Teachers are now required to teach writing that will help give them a vision for what “good but rarely are given instruction on how to do so writing” looks and sounds like by using children’s effectively. The goal of this study was to look at literature as a model. This writing model has been
136 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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shown to help students add depth and style to their effective. The goal was to develop a writing writing that would not normally happen alone. program that went beyond grammar and mechanics and holistic grading. NWREL explains STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM that they “compared reams of student work and What is the difference between the 6+1 Trait discussed the qualities or traits that all ‘good’ Writing Model and the traditional writing writing samples shared. Six traits emerged as the workshop method of teaching writing on fifth cornerstones of quality writing: ideas, grade student overall writing achievement as organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, measured by the use of a rubric? and conventions. Later, presentation was added to the list” (para.3). STATEMENT OF THE HYPOTHESIS Considering the 6+1 Trait Writing Model’s There will be significantly higher achievement in growing popularity, it is surprising that there has four component areas (as determined by the rubric not been more research done on the method to utilized for this study) of the treatment group, ensure its effectiveness. Arter, Spandel, Culham, following the 6+1 trait writing model, as compared and Pollard conducted a study very similar to the to the control group, following the traditional one proposed by this researcher [4]. They tested writing workshop model. the 6 Trait Writing Model against traditional methods in six fifth grade classrooms. The study PROFESSIONAL SIGNIFICANCE consisted of a pretest, instruction over six months, The significance of this study emphasized the and a posttest. In this study, a 6+1 Trait Writing importance of instructional methods for teaching Model rubric was used to score student papers. elementary writing. For many children writing These researchers concluded that students in the does not come naturally and can be quite difficult. treatment group (6 Trait Method) received The 6+1 Trait Writing Model provides direct significant gains in only one out of six areas, the instruction in the different crafts of writing. These ideas trait. Two other areas approached crafts, or traits, can be taught and emphasized to significance. However, Jarmer et al. reported in greatly improve the quality of students’ writing. their study at Jennie Wilson Elementary School, This experimental method also closely relates that after 3 years of implementation of the 6 Trait writing to reading. Examples from children’s Writing Method in all the grades, student literature were used to introduce and teach each of standardized test scores increased each the individual writing traits. Using children’s consecutive year [5]. literature provides a model for students and gives them ideas for their own writing. As students study THE STUDY the 6+1 traits in their reading and writing, the traits become part of their vocabularies which give METHODOLOGY them the capability to apply the traits to both This study used a quasi-experimental design with reading and writing. Jarmer, Kozol, Nelson, and cluster sampling. The task of the experimental Salsberry discovered that familiarity and emphasis writing instructional method was assigned on the traits raise student achievement scores on randomly between two different, but similar, writing standardized assessment measures [2]. schools. Four fifth grade classes in each of two This study yielded some useful methodological schools were used for the study. The instrument findings about how the instruction of writing used to evaluate student progress in writing was a should be addressed in schools. The 6+1 Trait rubric consisting of five levels and four elements: Writing Model has not been widely used in content development, organization, voice/word elementary schools in the Eastern United States; choice, and conventions. The rubric for this study however the results of this study may bring was similar to the South Carolina Palmetto attention to this writing method. Achievement Challenge Test (PACT) rubric which is a standards-based accountability measurement REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE of student writing achievement [6]. All students in the study were given a writing pretest that was THE 6+1 TRAIT WRITING MODEL evaluated by three raters. The raters were trained Nearly twenty years ago, the Northwest Regional by the researcher on the use of the rubric for Educational Laboratories (NWREL) launched an evaluation with anchor papers. The anchor papers effort to improve writing in the elementary chosen for training represented each of the rating classroom [3]. The researchers identified six traits levels on the rubric. A pretest consisting of a of good writing. They knew that the writing narrative writing prompt was given to all students programs in the American classrooms were not first. Four fifth grade classes in one school were Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 137
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then instructed according to the 6+1 Trait Writing for the conventions component F(1,128) = 7.828, p Model using a writing unit provided by the = .006. A strong relationship did exist in these two researcher for a total of 22 lessons. Four classes in component areas between the method used and the the second school were instructed according to the posttest scores when pretest scores were adjusted. traditional writing workshop method using a The voice/word choice component area was not writing unit provided by the researcher for a total found to be significant for the treatment method of 22 lessons. A posttest writing prompt consisting F(1,128) = 3.474, p = .065. The organization of a narrative writing prompt was given at the end component area was not found to be significant for of the study and was evaluated by the same three the treatment method used F(1,128) = 2.473, p = raters. These raters used a blind review process .118. All tests were conducted using alpha = .05. when evaluating students’ writing. The researcher looked for differences in means between student CONCLUSIONS gains from pretest to posttest between the two The 6+1 method yielded greater gains in two different method groups using an analysis of component areas, content development and covariance (ANCOVA). conventions. The traditional writing workshop method yielded greater gains in two other PROCEDURES component areas, organization and voice/word Two schools were chosen for this study because choice. Since the gains are evenly split, the they were similar in area, size, student hypothesis cannot be confirmed. However, two out demographics, and proximity according to the of the four component areas for this study did Annual School Report Card produced by the South indicate a difference in instructional method in Carolina Department of Education [7]. Each school favor of the 6+1 Trait Writing Model. had four classes of fifth grade students, averaging Although the hypothesis could not be 20 students in each class. A coin was flipped to confirmed in this study, several implications can be determine which school would be the control group made. Providing time for writing, implementing and teach the traditional approach to writing quality instruction which includes literature, and workshop and which school would teach the using a scoring rubric during instruction all help to manipulated study or the 6+1 Trait Writing increase student writing achievement. The fact that Method. The two methodologies were separated each of these things were provided for both groups into different school buildings to help maintain the may have contributed to the inconclusive findings reliability of the study by preventing teachers from of this study. Both groups experienced similar discussing the content of the instruction. Students gains in writing achievement. were identified by number rather than name. This coding helped maintain validity when the papers REFERENCES were scored by the raters. Both groups began with [1] S. Graham, C. MacArthur, and H. Fitzgerald. “Best a pretest and ended with a posttest writing practices in writing instruction,” The Guilford Press, assignment using a writing prompt. The pretest 2007. topic and posttest topic were different. [2] D. Jarmer, M. Kozol, S. Nelson, and T. Salsberry, “Six-trait writing model improves scores at Jennie
Wilson Elementary.” Journal of School FINDINGS Improvement,1(2), pp 29-32, 2000. [3] Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test of http://www.nwrel.org/. significance for a quasi-experimental design was [4] J. Arter, V. Spandel, R. Culham, and J. Pollard. “The used to show a difference of means between the impact of training students to be self-assessors of two research groups in each of the four component writing.” areas. This test was chosen because a difference in Paper presented at the American Education pretest scores existed between the two schools. The Research Association, New Orleans, LA, 1994. [5] D. Jarmer, M. Kozol, S. Nelson, and T. Salsberry. 6+1 Trait group (treatment group) scored higher “Six-trait writing model improves scores at Jennie on the pretest than the writer’s workshop group Wilson Elementary.” Journal of School (control group). Improvement,1(2), pp 29-32, 2000. The ANCOVA test accounted for the [6] South Carolina Department of Education, Palmetto differences in pretest scores that existed between Achievement Challenge Tests (PACT) Rubric the two groups. The main effect for content information,http://ed.sc.gov/agency/offices/assess development was found to be significantly greater ment/PACT/ERrubric032204.doc. gains for the 6+1 Trait method F(1,128) = 8.877, p [7] South Carolina Department of Education, Annual = .003. Results also indicated that the 6+1 Trait School Report Card, http://ed.sc.gov/topics/assessment/scores. method was significant over the traditional method 138 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Implementation of Learner-Centered Teaching in Higher Education: A “Customer Service” concept for academia? Joseph D. Ongeri Computer Science, Math, and Business Division Spartanburg Methodist College 1000 Powell Mill Road, Spartanburg, SC 29301 [email protected]
Abstract - Improving learning in colleges and SECTION TWO universities has been an objective of both Federal and Guided by the characteristics of the current and State Department of higher education. Given the future student generations, the American changing characteristics of learners over time, learner- psychological association (APA) is one entity that centered teaching has become a method of choice for has been in the forefront in looking for a many colleges and universities in US. Weimer (2002), maintains that in order to be learner-centered, there framework that can improve learning in higher should be at least five key areas’ change to practice, and education. In 1990, APA, appointed a task force for she identifies these areas as; i.) the balance of power, psychology and education, with one of its primary ii.) the function of content, iii.) the role of the teacher, task was to review over a century’s research that iv.) the responsibility for learning, and v.) the purpose was relevant to education. In particular, these and processes of evaluation. An action research was researches were to be mainly addressing the conducted on the implementation of LCT at learning, motivation, development, and individual Spartanburg Methodist College, during the spring learner differences. From this task force, there semester of 2008. The findings of this research emerged the learner-centered teaching (LCT) indicated that students may initially resist the implementation due to the fears of added psychological principles. Initially, the task force responsibilities and the fear of losing subject authority’s had identified twelve principles, which were later guidance. However, with persistence by the revised to fourteen [3]. implementing instructor, building positive student- The fourteen learner centered psychological teacher relationships, caring for the students’ emotional principles pertain to the learner and the learning concerns, respecting and giving genuine voice in process. These principles focus on psychological students’ learning improves learning. factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned Keywords: Learner-centered Teaching in habits by the educator, or physiological factors. Higher Education The principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that INTRODUCTION interact with these internal factors in learning. Reforming the American system of education has Thus, learner-centered teaching may be defined as been in the forefront of most educators, a perspective that couples a focus on individual policymakers and researchers since the “Nation at learner (their heredity, experiences, perspectives, risk” report came out in 1983. Efforts have been backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and numerous in reforming both state and federal needs) with a focus on learning (the best available educational standards to higher levels. The main knowledge about learning and how it occurs and purpose of all these efforts has been to improve about teaching practices that are effective in schools to levels that increase students’ learning promoting the highest levels of motivation, standards [1]. Research has also found that current learning, and achievement for all learners). This students have very different characteristics from dual focus then informs and drives educational the characteristics of their teachers as when they decision-making. The learner – centered were students. Some of the current student expect perspective is a reflection of the twelve learner- to be entertained, and/or get easily bored. They are centered psychological principles in the programs, not into books, not impressed with science, data, or practices, policies, and people that support credentials. They have a consumer mentality and learning for all. [4]. want to negotiate for everything including grades. Many colleges have adapted this teaching style They view education as a commodity to be because it has been argued that there is abundant acquired through purchase; and believe that they and accumulating evidence that motivation, are entitled to good grades [2]. Given these learning, and achievement are highly enhanced characteristics, can learner-centered teaching where learner-centered principles and practices are improve learning in our colleges? in place. These are practices that address the Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 139
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personal domain of the learner, that are often teaching (classroom power sharing, role of the ignored. The benefits of learner-centered practice teacher, contents, learner, and assessment) were extend not only to students, but also to educators, changed and reflected on. Using spiraling cycles of administrators, parents, and all other participants reflecting, planning, and acting, data was collected in the educational system as well. It is also with the for active reflection through journal writing. realization that the changes in our society are necessitating a change in the role and function of FINDINGS schools so that they better meet the needs of the learner as a whole person, regardless of whether The syllabus is one of the first points of contact that person is a student, teacher, administrator, or between a teacher and students. This study found parent. that in setting the appropriate tone for the course, This change requires a total transformation in teachers may benefit in showing the learners how thinking, and thus in the process of learning, that they care about their learning, and share the is transformative and can be facilitated by the humane and warm learning environment that the understanding of the basic principles of learning teacher intends to have. By incorporating the and by the learners. As [5] have eloquently put it, language of LCT into the syllabus, students would “Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not be able to see the type of classroom experiences learn much just by sitting in class listening to they could expect. Building positive student- teachers, memorizing repackaged assignments, teacher relationships was found to help students and spitting out answers. They must talk about feel cared for, respected, and appreciated as what they are learning, write about it, relate it to individuals. Showing students that they belonged past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. and that the learning environment was safe goes a They must make what they learn part of long way in improving learning. This may be themselves” (p. 3). accomplished by fostering a personal and caring relationship with each student. In creating caring IMPLEMENTING LEARNER-CENTERED relationships, teachers help students become TEACHING (LCT) connected to the academic environment. Human beings feel good about themselves To implement LCT, Weimer (2002) [6] when they are appreciated and are recognized for recommends that, there should be at least five key their efforts. Students respond well to positive areas’ change to practice. These areas include; reinforcement, especially when it is for doing balance of power, the function of subject content, something right. Psychologists state that people the role of the teacher, the responsibility for react well when positive things are said about them learning, and the purpose and processes of [4]. Complementing a student for just trying often evaluation. During the spring 2008 semester, I goes a long way towards encouraging future conducted an action research to implement LCT in participation. I always tried to be positive with teaching a principle of economics class at students, even when they were wrong. Spartanburg Methodist College. The remaining Appreciating and accommodating individual section of this paper describes the method, finding developmental differences is very important to and the conclusions drawn from the study. student learning. I tried to adjust my teaching style Method in order to meet the educational needs of my In action research, teachers are provided with students I did this, by focusing my attention on the opportunity to apply traditional research’s learning the students’ names, where they come findings to their own classroom teaching and to from, and what their future goals are. I adjusted apply theory to practice. Action research also assignments whenever students showed a lack of involves teachers as active participants in the understanding. I also encouraged students to work educational process that assists them to improve in study groups, and to use peers as tutors. their critical and reflective thinking for their own instructional improvement processes, with their CONCLUSION learners and colleagues. The implementation of learner-centered teaching This study used action research as the research principles perspective may be made with learner methodology where by the five areas of change resistance initially, but will yield better result as where implemented and learners’ reaction were learners are given control of their learning and take collected through discussions, learners’ journals more responsibilities for their learning. Teachers and interviews to restructure instruction on an need to realize that current and future students are ongoing basis. Thus, changes to areas of teaching not socialized in the same way most of the current that are recommended for learner-centered teachers were socialized when they were students 140 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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themselves. Colleges and Universities are currently competing for a small pool of students. Unless, teachers are able to improve their teaching on the students’ terms, they will lose them to other subject disciplines or all together to other colleges. It is just like a business which does not give good customer service, is likely to lose its customers to competing businesses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It could have not been possible for this study to be conducted if it were not with the support given by the President, Spartanburg Methodist College, Dr. Charles Teague, and the Vice President Academic Affair; Dr. Ann Bowles. I sincerely thank them for allowing me to conduct this research in the institution, and any encouragements that they regularly accorded me.
REFERENCES
[1] H. S. Furhman, & A. Odden. “A Kappan Special Section on School Reform: introduction.” Phi Delta Kappan, September 2001, 83(1), 59-61.
[2] M. Taylor. “Generation NeXt Comes to College Understanding, Teaching and Serving Today's Students”, http://www.taylorprograms.org. [3] APA. Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs. (1997, November). “Learner-centered psychological principles: A framework for school reform and redesign”. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. [4] B. L. McCombs, and J. S. Whisler. “The learner-centered classroom and school: Strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement”. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997. [5] A. W. Chickering, and Z. F. Gamson. “Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate Education”. AAHE, Bulletin, 39(7), 3-7, 1987. [6] M. G. Weimer . “Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice”. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002.
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The Peer Mentoring Program: A Pilot Program for the USC Upstate School of Education Daphne Dawson and Tina Herzberg School of Education University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — Over the last three previous years, and studying for college exams. The mesosystem approximately 30% of freshman at USC Upstate who represents the connections between the settings in had declared education as their major did not return which the student operates. For many freshmen, it for their sophomore year. Thus, in an effort to increase is their first time living away from home and student retention, the Peer Mentoring Program was family, and they become homesick. Others must designed to ease the transition to college by providing freshman with a connection to the School of Education learn to balance social and study time while others through routine contact with an assigned search for part time jobs that will accommodate upperclassmen mentor. When freshmen become their school schedules. involved in the School of Education early, it is hoped Social networks such as church, school and work that more students will be retained to the third that can either positively or negatively impact a semester, be accepted to the Professional Program, and student’s collegiate experience are the components graduate with a degree in education. Although it is too of the exosystem. For some students, participating early in the program to determine if student retention in a school club or organization helps the student will be positively impacted by the program, feedback feel connected to the university and opens the from the mentors and freshmen has been positive. doors to positive friendships. In contrast, work or KEYWORDS – freshmen, higher education, college family demands may force the student into making students, mentoring, success in college a difficult decision between work and school. The outermost circle is the macrosystem which consists INTRODUCTION of society’s social climate, attitudes, programs and laws along with the student’s cultural values and The transition to college is sometimes difficult for customs. Many college students could not continue students. When freshmen initially arrive at a their education without financial aid, affordable college campus, they are confronted with housing, safe neighborhoods, and health care. For numerous changes ranging from adapting to new example, when students do not meet the living spaces and social networks to increased performance guidelines for federal grants, state academic and financial pressures. Additionally, assistance, and/or scholarships, funding may be many freshmen are young adults who are still withheld and the students’ ability to continue to developing their identity and determining how to seek a college degree is affected. Cultural values manage the total rearrangement of their personal also play a significant role in the level of education environment. These contexts do not exist in static attained and which jobs are customary for isolation; instead they are constantly changing. particular ethnicities or sexes [1]. Students are affected by their previous experiences For many students, the shift to a college as well as the current decisions they are making. environment is a sudden and sometimes Likewise, these individuals are influenced by the overwhelming transition that can result in the new world that surrounds them. An excellent breakdown of this ecological system on every level. representation of these complex relationships is To assist freshmen with the process of rebuilding Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. the environment, the Peer Mentoring Program was This system illustrates the interdependent initiated in the fall of 2008. As students develop relationship between an individual and his new personal routines and relationships with their environment by forming concentric circles around professors, fellow college students, and the student. In the center is the microsystem which roommates, a Peer Mentor is available to field consists of individual activities and bidirectional, questions and ease concerns. Brandon Craig, a reciprocal interactions with others in the student’s freshman majoring in early childhood education, immediate environment. When freshmen begin was glad to make personal contact with faculty college, the microsystem is temporarily disrupted. members in the School of Education through the It takes time to build new relationships and adjust Peer Mentoring Program. “I learned how to get to the new activities such as living in a dormitory help from the teachers and that if you're struggling go talk to that teacher outside of class.” Peer 142 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Mentors can also introduce freshmen to campus recommendations of School of Education faculty life, campus resources, and the local community. and via the departmental student newsletter. On Peer mentoring can provide support for the other hand, the recruiting process should have freshmen as they rebuild their personal and social been initiated earlier so it could have been environments. When support is not adequate, completed before the end of the spring semester. there is a possibility that students will drop out Beginning earlier will ensure that the freshmen are within the first few weeks of school, engage in risky matched to their mentor as early as possible and behavior that can lead to an unsatisfying college initial contact can be made over the summer. experience or worse yet, have poor academic Program leaders are also considering measures performance that may result in them leaving such as having mentors register for one credit hour school. Conversely, when there is a positive of service learning through the School of Education influence like a peer mentor, freshmen can build a so the mentors can be held accountable for their connection with the university, discover their sense work with the freshmen. In addition, the program of identity, and increase their confidence which will have a freshman meeting the first week of directly affects their attitude towards school and school where the freshmen will be able to meet life. advisors and their mentors. University officials are hopeful that this METHODS AND RESULTS program will assist freshman navigate the new territory of college life successfully and lead to Once a freshman attends a registration session, improved student retention. “The School of they are assigned a Peer Mentor by the coordinator Education is very excited about the potential of this of the program. Every effort is made to match the program,” said Dr. Charles Love, dean of the freshman’s and mentor’s major. This year, each School of Education at USC Upstate. “By building peer mentor initially made contact via email with connections with freshmen during their first their assigned freshmen the second week of the fall semester at USC Upstate, we believe that more semester. Once a week, the peer mentors email students will be successful in their studies, be their freshmen. The content of the emails varies accepted into the Professional Program, and and includes antidotes from student teaching, ultimately join the teaching field.” registration reminders, teaching jokes, and During the first semester of the program, there thoughtful, reflective stories. During the fall were small victories with freshmen. After sending semester, two Freshman Mixers were held in the a weekly email to her assigned freshmen, one School of Education complex and in the spring the mentor received a reply that indicated the program will sponsor Movie Night. These events freshman was “bummed” about having to drop are designed so that the freshmen can meet their Biology 110. The very next day, the mentor sent her mentor and faculty members as well as foster a a note that read, “Don't be bummed out over sense of community among education majors. dropping a class... especially if it's Biology. We all Eighty eight freshmen enrolled as education have to drop classes at some point. My first one majors in the fall of 2008. At the beginning of was…Physics.” In addition to this encouragement, October, the mentors were surveyed to determine this email also contained information about how many return emails they had received from tutoring and Supplemental Instruction available at the freshmen. Of the 88 freshmen, 34% had USC Upstate. Every freshman is worth saving. emailed their mentors between one and four times, While in this program, peer mentors are 8% had emailed their mentors between five and allowed to use their service to the Peer Mentoring nine times, and nearly 7% had emailed their Program as evidence of meeting the standard mentors more than 10 times. related to fulfilling professional responsibilities but more importantly they grow as educators. CONCLUSION/REFLECTION Recently, the mentors were asked what they have learned from this experience. One mentor It is the philosophy of the USC Upstate School of responded that, “…I began reflecting on the things Education to prepare teachers who are reflective that I have been through during my fours years of practitioners and professionals. Therefore it is college. I realized how far I have come and how imperative to reflect on the program from the proud of myself I should be. I know that I have a perspective of its leaders and consider some of the lot to offer my future students…” She is becoming most important lessons learned. Using a variety of the teacher that she was trained to be. Reflective approaches to recruit upperclassmen mentors and mentors make great teachers. instituting required training for mentors were effective. Mentors were recruited during meetings, Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 143
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This program would not have been possible without the support of many great educators at USC Upstate. First and foremost, we would like to thank Dr. Love, Dean of the School of Education, for his support and his staff who assisted with administrative functions. Dr. Hinton and the TEACh organization played a key role in recruiting mentors, and we appreciate your support. We are also indebted to the First Assistant Coordinator, Kevin Hand, who did a fantastic job training the mentors and the Second Assistant Coordinator, Jessica Hammond, who stood at the helm this spring semester. And, last but not least, we would like to recognize the mentors who made it all possible. They are the ones who brought this program to life, who believe in its mission, and whose effort is practically impossible to measure. Thank you all for a terrific first year.
REFERENCES
[1] L. Berk. “Development through theLlifespan” (4rd Ed), Allyn and Bacon, 2007.
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A Study in Cooperative Group Learning Styles at Spartanburg Community College William K. Gelders Biology Department Spartanburg Community College Spartanburg, SC 29305 [email protected]
Abstract — Most current college communities exhibit a constant at approximately 48 to 51%. [1] My competitive or individualistic interaction between personal withdrawal/failure rate has varied from students that does not adequately promote the 46 to 73 percent in A&P courses, which is not environment necessary to enhance overall learning in statistically significant considering the small student populations. Instruction is for the most part currently deductive-style lectures, despite number of students. overwhelming evidence that shows cooperative based Studies have shown that how well students learning group-work has resulted in significantly learn can be a result of innate ability, prior increased student comprehension and long-term preparation and “the compatibility of his or her retention of required material. In addition, studies also learning style and the instructor’s teaching style” indicate the better a student’s knowledge of their own [2, p 674]. Mismatches inhibit success and other learning styles and personal typology the better chance studies indicate the better the instructor the student has to learn and succeed in their personal understands student differences the better they can career goals as well as in life’s problems and meet the “diverse learning needs of all their relationships. This article presents a current retention problem students” [3, p. 57]. “Instruction designed to faced at Spartanburg Community College in pre- address a broad spectrum of learning styles has nursing students and reviews the literature on consistently proved to be more effective than techniques that could possibly enhance learning styles traditional instruction” [3, p. 59], which the in hopes of decreasing attrition and increasing long- authors consider a deductive style lecture-based term success. To address this, an experiment has been format. Their studies have shown that inductive developed and implemented that could hopefully allow instruction “whether it be called problem-based, students to improve their overall performance in discovery learning, inquiry learning” [4, p. 1] college. Finally the setup and initiation of the appears to be more successful in teaching experiment is briefly presented which will introduce cooperative learning as a class technique. The data is engineering students than does the commonly used currently being collected. deductive instruction. Personality types and learning styles have been Keywords — Cooperative learning, typology, intensely studied for years by numerous authors. A learning styles 20th century psychoanalyst Carl Jung felt people “were born with a predisposition to certain INTRODUCTION personality preferences” [5, p. 281]. He and a student of his, Katherine Briggs and her daughter, Instructors today commonly present their course Isabel Myers classified sixteen personality types material in a lecture-style deductive manner – based on observed preferences people have in their fundamental principles to experimentation and source of energy, gathering information, decision application – which only addresses certain making, and life-style orientation of the world students’ styles of perception and processing of around them. An individual falls on a continuum information. As attrition rates remain high, it within each, but expresses dominant traits seems that many students simply do not measured by testing that can help both the teacher understand how to approach the overwhelming and student better understand an individual’s amount of new material and/or how to adequately behavior as the profiles have been published and learn and process that information. In an attempt made readily available. to understand these issues, instructors must Richard Felder at North Carolina State and explore alternatives that allow more students to Linda Silverman, an educational psychologist in learn and utilize techniques than will allow them to Denver, in the late 20th century developed a model succeed. that divided students into sixteen major groups Retention data at Spartanburg Community based on the different ways students “receive and College of Associate Degree programs from 2003 process information.” [2, p 674]. They divided to 2005 in Arts & Sciences seem to be relatively students based on the type of information they
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preferentially perceive, the sensory technique most No one-size fits-all approach to learning has effective, the way they process, and the way they been successful for all student populations, nor can move towards understanding the information. [2, p it be. But adjustments can be made in our 60] Most current deductive-based instruction approach to meet the needs of a broader range of addresses only certain learning styles, though students that could hopefully improve their students studied fell on a continuum within the retention and overall success in their career- four categories. Their results indicated a large oriented goals. Students working cooperatively is number of students were not being taught using important not only in the classroom, but is the best instruction techniques for their learning style. They wanted to increase success in “the keystone to building and engineering and have addressed the diversity of maintaining stable marriages, families, learning styles within their own classes. They feel careers, and friendships. Being able to instructors must educate students about “their perform technical skills, such as reading, possible strengths and weaknesses and indicate speaking, listening, writing, computing, ways they might improve their academic and problem solving, are valuable but of performance” [3, p. 62]. little use if the person cannot apply those There are three ways students interact within skills in cooperative interaction with the classroom and college. These ways include other people in career, family, and competing to see who is best, working as an community environments. The most individual without paying attention to others, and logical way to emphasize the use of cooperatively “with a vested interest in each students' knowledge and skills within a other's learning as well as their own” [6, p. 1] . cooperative framework, such as they will Competition is the most prevalent today, even meet as members of society, is to spend though over 600 studies in the last 100 years much of the time learning those skills in conducted with diverse populations including cooperative relationships with each many academic subject areas have all other. We need to get back to the basics, demonstrated, “the more one works in cooperative reconcile school practices with current learning groups, the more the person learns, the research, and encourage that a healthy better he understands what he is learning, the portion of instruction is cooperative.” [6, easier it is to remember what he learns, and the p7]. better he feels about himself, the class, and his classmates.” [7, p. 4] EXPERIMENT Cooperative learning techniques involve using small groups of students working together to My hypothesis is that educating students on their optimize their own learning style and reinforcing unique personality type and learning styles and use the learning styles of others. Three types include cooperative base-group instructor-guided learning formal learning groups, informal learning techniques in pre-Anatomy and Physiology groups, and base groups. Formal groups last for courses, I will be able to improve retention and one to many class periods to complete a specific ultimately successful completion of the pre-nursing task or assignment. Informal are temporary ad hoc and nursing curriculum. My hope is to identify groups that last for a single discussion for one individual strengths and weaknesses and educate period. Base groups are long-term with stable students so they have a better self-awareness of membership “whose primary responsibility is to their personality traits and are able to develop provide each student the support, encouragement, study techniques that enhance retention of and assistance needed to progress academically.” information. I also plan to introduce and use [7, p. 3-4] These groups remain together during the cooperative base-group techniques so students can entire course. harvest their own strengths. To be a functioning cooperative group “a The instructor will direct, encourage, and group must have clear positive interdependence, engage students in the corporative team-learning members must promote each other’s learning and techniques and will work to increase interest and success face to face, hold each other personally and excitement in the course material and help ensure individually accountable to do his or her fair share a better and clearer understanding of that material. of the work, use appropriately the interpersonal The students will be engaged in self-teaching and small group skills needed for cooperative techniques that will focus on diversity and effects to be successful, and process as a group how interdependence through team-oriented goals effectively members are working together.” [7, p.3] projects.
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All students take the Myers-Briggs Type Community College, Retrieved from Indicator [8] and the Index of Learning Style http://www.sccsc.edu/IR/, December 8th, 2008 Questionnaire [9] and the results are printed for [2] Felder, R, and Silverman, L., “Learning and the instructor and student [10, different types] to Teaching Styles in Engineering Education, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol 76, No 7 1988, pp increase self-awareness and to allow the instructor 674-681. to assign base-groups in each class based on [3] Felder, R., and Brent, R., “Understanding Student student diversity. Once assigned, objectives will be Differences”, Journal of Engineering Education, presented to each group and they will be allowed Vol. 94, No. 1 2005, pp 57-72. time to learn the objectives in and out of class. [4] Felder, R., Authors preface – June 2002 to Each group will be assigned a checker to ensure “Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering group comprehension of information. When Education, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol completed, base-groups will be randomly divided 76, No 7 1988, pp 674-681. to allow simultaneous explaining to all class [5] Kroeger, O and Thuesen, J, Type Talk: The 16 members within second groups. Once the Personality Types That Determine How We Live, Love and Work, 1988. Dell Publishing, New York, information is exchanged, the base groups will NY. reform and conduct a summation presentation for [6] Johnson, R.T. and Johnson D.W.; An Overview of the entire class. Finally, individual examinations Cooperative Learning, 1994. Creativity and will be given and time allowed for evaluation and Collaborative Learning; Brookes Press, Baltimore reflection of the previous group work. All MD. Retrieved December 24, 2008 from: communication will be positive and groups will be http://www.co- individually rewarded depending on the combined operation.org/pages/overviewpaper.html. performance of all members. The same will occur [7] Johnson, David W., Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional for successful overall class performance. Productivity. Eric Digest. Eric Clearing house on When the semester is drawing to a close, Higher Education, Washington, D.C. 1992. information will be presented to the classes using [8] 1998-2008 Humanmetrics.com , Retrieved the commonly deductive-based PowerPoint lecture December 8, 2008 from: approach. Base groups will be allowed to meet and http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi- learn together before being given individual win/JTypes1.htm examinations on the information. [9] Soloman, B and Felder, R., Index of Learning Styles The experiment was instituted beginning in Questionnaire. Retrieved December 8, 2008 from: January 2009. Data is being collected and http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.ht ml adjustments are being made as necessary, using [10] 1998-2006 BSM Consulting, The Personality Page, suggestions from previous studies, in hopes of Retrieved Personality Types and Careers from guiding the classes to a successful cooperative http://www.personalitypage.com/home.html and learning experience. other pages of same website.
CONCLUSION
The fifty-six students enrolled in the four courses show a great diversity in typology, learning styles, and overall background. The groups are beginning to understand the corporative learning techniques and are for the most part responding positively and seem to be making progress at varying rates in the different classes. However, the experiment remains in its early stages and the results of the first lecture test are not yet available at the writing of this initial summary. Final data collection will not only require a student’s success in this class, but in the subsequent classes that follow with different instructors using different teaching techniques.
REFERENCES
[1] Spartanburg Community College Institutional Research Reports and Results, Spartanburg
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Assessment Beliefs and Practices of South Carolina Teachers Sharon A. Feaster-Lewis Christopher Burkett Department of Education Assistant Director, M. Ed. in Divergent Learning Southern Wesleyan University Assistant Professor of Education PO Box 1020 Central SC 29630 Columbia College [email protected] Columbia SC [email protected]
Abstract — The purpose of this survey was to There is a need to determine whether investigate the assessment beliefs and practices of assessment beliefs and practices are widely held practicing South Carolina teachers who were or had and consistent across teachers. Results will have recently been enrolled in graduate education courses or implications for decision-makers regarding the Program of Alternative Certification for Educators comparison of students grades across teachers, (PACE). This study sheds light on what student grades actually represent, and whether it is appropriate to schools, and districts, e.g., is an “A” for Mr. Jones compare grades across teachers, schools, or districts. the same as an “A” for Ms. Rodriguez, is a GPA The survey questioned respondents about beliefs and from one school equal in weight to a GPA from practices related to non-academic factors which may another school? Results will also relate to the play a role in determining an academic grade. Data question of exactly what a final grade of “A” revealed that teachers hold varying views of what represents – is it clearly representative of mastery assessment beliefs and practices they believe are of state and national content standards, or is it appropriate. These results showed there are differences “flavored” with the effects of effort and behavior? in the assessment practices of traditionally-trained teachers and alternatively-trained teachers. Data also revealed mixed opinions about whether an individual RESEARCH QUESTIONS campus or the district as a whole should enforce consistent assessment beliefs and practices by teachers. 1. What are current teachers’ beliefs and practices Data from the written comments illuminated the related to grading, including: factors teachers use variety of disagreement in assessment beliefs and in determining student grades, practices relating to practices among teachers. work submitted late, practices relating to allowing students to resubmit work for a better grade, the Keywords — student assessment, teacher effect of effort on grades, the effect of behavior on practices grades, the role of peer ratings on grades, and the role of the school and district in addressing teacher INTRODUCTION assessment attitudes and beliefs. Teachers informally describe a wide variety of beliefs and practices related to student assessment 2. Do teachers’ stated beliefs agreed with their and determination of grades. Experiences and stated practices? conversations with PK-12 teachers (and their students) indicate that teachers sometimes “give” 3. Do assessment beliefs and practices differ one or two points to a student who is on the border between traditionally- and alternatively-certified between two letter grades to boost the grade to the teachers? next level (e.g., D to a C). This “gift” is usually provided for students who have “tried hard,” “done DEFINITIONS their best,” or “put a lot of effort” into their work. Some teachers provide “extra credit” work for “Traditionally-certified” means teachers who have students to help them boost their letter grade to completed an approved education program from the next level, especially if the boost is from an F to an accredited college or university. “Alternatively- a D. certified” means teachers who have completed the The purpose of this survey was to investigate South Carolina PACE (Program for Alternative the assessment beliefs and practices of practicing Certification of Teachers) program. South Carolina teachers who were or had recently been enrolled in graduate education courses or the Program of Alternative Certification for Educators REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE (PACE). The survey questioned respondents about beliefs and practices related to non-academic The idea for this study developed from an article factors which may play a role in determining an entitled “Ethics in Classroom Assessment academic grade. Practices: Issues and Attitudes,”[1]. Their ethics 148 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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study consisted of 36 statements of teacher behavior which respondents were to label as METHODOLOGY “ethical” or “not ethical.” The findings suggest that, although there was agreement with many Surveys were distributed to teachers during Spring statements, there is a general lack of consensus 2008. Surveys were sent to instructors of cohorts among educators regarding what’s fair and unfair of currently enrolled graduate education students in assessment (p. 999). at Southern Wesleyan University and its learning Inconsistencies among teachers in grading are centers (Central, Greenville/Spartanburg, not new to the education profession. When Columbia, Charleston, and North Augusta). assigning grades, teachers often include other Surveys were distributed to Columbia College aspects in their decision besides academics. graduate students in two locations (Columbia and Teachers report weighting progress, effort, attitude York). Surveys were also distributed to current and behavior in determining grades [2]. This teachers who are enrolled in the South Carolina creates what has been deemed a “hodgepodge” Program for Alternative Certification for nature of grading [3]. Educators. PACE students attended classes in the Assessment that includes “effort” leads to Columbia cohort. inconsistencies in the way teachers grade. “Why do There were 15 multiple choice questions, plus many, if not most, secondary teachers, against the opportunities for teachers to include written advice of measurement specialists, continue to rely comments and explanations. There were five sets on effort, improvement, and ability as important of “paired” questions in which the first asked if the determinants of grades?” [4]. Brookhart [5] teacher “has ever done” a specific practice; the revealed that low-ability students who worked hard paired question asked if the respondent believed a received passing grades, even if their numeric teacher “should” ever use the practice. The final grade was failing, while average or above-average two questions related to consistency of assessment students received the numeric grade they earned. beliefs and practices at the campus level and at the These findings are consistent with Cross and overall district level. The other three questions Frayer [6] who found in their study of secondary were about additional assessment issues. teachers tend to evaluate students on “ability, effort, and growth,” as cited in McMillan [4]. RESULTS RESEARCH QUESTION 1 Along with effort, behavior can also influence assessment. Guskey (1994) commented that Results showed that teachers believe that grades “teachers’ perceptions of students’ behavior can should reflect effort (Q1 & Q13), that most teachers significantly influence their judgments of scholastic allow students to resubmit unacceptable work (Q2 performance” [7]. There is variation among & Q6) , most teachers have lowered grades because teachers as to what constitutes behavior in terms of of work submitted late (Q3 & Q8), most teachers assessment. It can mean effort, participation, work do not lower a student’s grade because of ethic matched with ability, or a whole host of other inappropriate behavior (Q4 & Q11), and most factors depending on the teacher. “There is great teachers have raised a student’s grade because of variation among teachers in how much different effort (Q5 & Q10). practices are used and the contribution of different factors to determine grades” [8].
Paired Questions on Same Topic: 1 & 13, 2 & 6, 3 & 8, 4 & 11, 5 & 10, 14 & 15 Question #1 What factors do you usually include when determining a student’s grade for a grading period or year? 1 – Acad Only 27% 2 Acad/Effort 40% 3 Acad/Behav. 4% 4 Acad/Effort/Behav 26% Question #13 Should a student’s final grade for a year or a course represent: 1 – Acad Only 30% 2 Acad/Effort 43% 3 Acad/Behav. 1% 4 Acad/Effort/Behav 19% Question #2 Have you ever allowed a student to resubmit work in order to improve his/her grade? 1 – Yes 93% 2 – No 7% Question # 6 Should a teacher allow students to resubmit unacceptable work to earn a better grade? 1 – Yes 91% 2 – No 9% Question #3 Have you ever lowered a student’s grade on work that was submitted late? Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 149
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1 – Yes 67% 2 – No 32% Question # 8 Should a teacher lower a student’s grade on work that he or she submits late? 1 – Yes 52% 2 – No 12% Question #4 Have you ever lowered a student’s grade for a grading period or the year because of inappropriate behavior? 1 – Yes 11% 2 – No 88% Question #11 For students who are on the border between two letter grades, should behavior be considered in determining the student’s final grade for a grading period or the year? 1 – Yes 19% 2 – No 79% Question #5 – Have you ever raised a student’s grade for a grading period or the year because he/she put forth good or extra effort? 1 – Yes 91% 2 – No 8% Question #10 – For students who are on the border between two letter grades, should effort be considered in determining the students final grade for a grading period or the year? 1 – Yes 80% 2 – No 19%
RESULTS RESEARCH QUESTIONS 2 and 3 REFERENCES Results indicate that most teachers within their [1] Green, C., Johnson, R., Kim, D., & Pope, N. (2006). survey group are consistent between their beliefs Ethics in classroom assessment practices: Issues and practices, as indicated by consistency of and Attitudes. Teaching and Teacher Education, answers to the paired questions. The lowest level of (23), 999-1011. consistency for both groups was Q1 and Q13, [2] Boston, C. (2003). High school report cards. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services, No. ED481815; followed by Q3 and Q8. Brookhart, S. (1994). Teachers grading: Practice and Results between survey groups indicated a Theory. Applied Measurement in Education, 7, (4), large difference for answers to Q1 and Q 13. 279-301; Cross, L. & Frayer, R. (1999). “Hodgepodge grading: Endorsed by students and teachers alike.” Quest. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Applied Measurement in Education, 12, (1), 55-72. Pairs & & & & & 4 & [3] Brookhart, S. (1991). Grading practices and validity. Q1 Q6 Q8 Q1 Q1 Q1 Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 10, 3 1 0 5 35-36; Truog, A.& Friedman, S. (1996, April). Evaluating high school teachers’ written grading Tradition 35. 89. 48. 80. 75. 83. policies. Presented at the annual meeting of the al 8 9 9 1 9 9 National Council on Measurement in Education, NY Alternativ 64. 89. 58.1 76. 83. 79. [4] McMillan, J. (2001). Secondary teachers’ classroom e 5 7 9 7 8 assessment and grading practices. Educational Measurements: Issues and Practices, 20, (1), 20-33. CONCLUSIONS [5] McMillan, J., Myran, S., & Workman, D. (2002). Individual teachers are not always consistent in Elementary teachers’ classroom assessment and their assessment beliefs and practices. There is no grading practices. The Journal of Educational clear-cut agreement on what factors should or Research, 95, (4), 203-213. [6] Cross, L. & Frayer, R. (1999). “Hodgepodge grading: should not be included in academic grades. Endorsed by students and teachers alike.” Applied Assessment beliefs and practices differ across the Measurement in Education, 12, (1), 55-72. state and across certification routes. There is a [7] Guskey, T. (1994). Making the grade: What benefits need for statewide discussion about what students? Educational Leadership, 52, 15-20. constitutes “fair” assessment practices in a [8] MERC ( n.d.). Teachers’ classroom assessment and grading practices: Phase 1. Retrieved March, 19, 2008, from classroom. There is a need for discussion about http://www.soe.vcu.edu/merc/briefs/brief38_grading_as whether all teachers in a school (or in a district) sess_pl.htm. should use the same factors in determining academic grades. There is a need for discussion about what role teacher preparation programs have in teaching pre-service candidates about assessment practices.
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Audiation: the Musical Key to a Magical Life Jarrod Haning Petrie School of Music Converse College 580 E Main St., Spartanburg SC 29302 [email protected]
Abstract - Many people can recall a time in their life happening simultaneously while our brain is when listening to music put them in a peak emotional processing musical stimuli. At any given moment state. These states are often described as feeling we are 1) recalling what we have just heard 2) “inspired” or “fully alive.” The process that governs our comparing it to what we are currently hearing 3) emotional experience with music is also available to forming an expectation of what we are going to influence our other experiences in life. Uncovering this phenomenon and applying it to the interactions of our hear next. daily life is the key to experiencing a quality of life that Comparing what we just heard with what we many people only dream about. are hearing begins to give us insight into why music affects us the way it does. The past sets up Keywords — Music, Audiation, Life, Experience the present. What you have just heard creates a context what for you are currently hearing. A THE MAGIC OF MUSIC single note is meaningless if played alone. Imagine leaving work one day after a very stressful However, the same note played after the hearing of and frustrating conversation. As you start your car a series of notes can be the crown jewel. to drive home, the radio is already on. Just when Comparing what we have “heard” with what we are you begin to drive off you hear the opening lines to “hearing” is only a small part of the equation that one of your favorite songs in the whole world. It is governs our experience with music. The most the song that carried you through all the tough important element is what we are expecting to hear times in high school. It is the song that represents next. all the wonderful moments with your friends. It is the song that has always put you in a peak state no THE SURPRISING TRUTH matter how bad your day was going. And just like The note we expect to hear next almost completely clockwork, the stress of your day vanishes within a controls our immediate emotional state. On the few notes of this song and you find yourself in a surface this might seem silly. How can a note we peak emotional state. This emotional state is more haven’t even heard make us feel anything? than just happiness or being stress free. This Shouldn’t what we are actually hearing have the emotional state is empowering. biggest influence? This is one of the great Recall the last time you experienced a similar mysteries of music and life. It is like asking the state of elation as the result of some music you question “why should my thoughts about were listening to. In that state did you feel more tomorrow affect my feelings about today?” alive? Would you say you were more creative? Did When you are familiar with a piece of music, you feel more confident? While feeling these then you are expecting to hear certain things. You things, what was the quality of your workmanship? could have a favorite passage, section, or even a How do conversations go with friends and family favorite note. While you are anticipating the when you are in that peak state? arrival of your favorite section, your emotional Music has an almost magical influence on our state begins to change before your favorite section emotions. In one minute your emotional state can arrives. shift from frustrated to euphoric. This shift is If you have heard a group of musicians before, reliable and predictable. What if you could create then you have formed a set of expectations on how this mysterious effect on purpose, whenever you they will perform. If the group consistently wanted? What would your life be like? What botches your favorite solo, then right before the might you accomplish? solo arrives you start to wince in dreadful expectation. If you have heard a soloist before who THE MYSTERY OF LISTENING consistently delivers the perfect note at the perfect Edwin Gordon from the University of South time, you also bring that expectation into your Carolina coined a term to describe the workings of current listening. Right before the perfect note is our brain while we are listening to music [1]. played, you relax and allow yourself to feel a bit of According to the term audiation, three things are elation. What you think is going to happen causes
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you to feel a certain way before anything actually area. How are you feeling right now? How you are happens. feeling right now is an indication of what you are Even when listening to a piece of music for the expecting to happen next. Are you expecting first time you are still formulating expectations of things to keep on going like they have been? Are how the piece will unfold. In the first couple of you expecting things to be difficult for awhile? Are moments you are comparing the few notes you you hoping for a miraculous change? have just heard with the notes you are currently Getting a handle on what you have put in your hearing. Based on this comparison you create an future takes all of the mystery out of how you are expectation of what you are going to hear next. feeling today. Once you are able to see that you This third element, what you expect to hear, have really “put” expectations in your future, then explains why a song still affects us the way it does you are able to create the life you have always even after hearing it a hundred times. We love wanted. This time your daily experiences will be by knowing what is about to happen. It also explains design and not by happenstance. how we can instantly fall in love with a song even Here is a list of 4 questions designed to act as when hearing it for the first time. We love pleasant primer for creating the life you truly desire. Start surprises that fit with our expectations. But how with a blank card and “put” the answers to these does this musical concept affect our quality of life questions in your future as things you are in other areas? expecting to happen. Think of the blank card as representing your future from the standpoint of THE DIFFERENCE IT MAKES “anything is possible.” Imagine you have just had a car wreck and you are still sitting in the car when someone asks “how are 1. What is something that would make a huge you feeling right now?” Before you answer, difference in your present state? A windfall remember that what has just happened and what is blessing (i.e. a big raise at work, being debt happening now is not the determining factor in free, being healed from a nagging ailment) how you are feeling. The determining factor is 2. What is something that would stretch you what you expect to happen next. If you are feeling as a person? (i.e. going from $100,000 in pretty irritable, then you need to look at the events yearly sales to $5 million, going from store that you are expecting to happen next. manager to CEO, becoming a role model If based on your past experience with cars you for the other marriages in your know that mechanics are a hassle to deal with and neighborhood) charge a lot of money, then you might be expecting 3. What is something that would represent troublesome expenses in your near future. If based the highest and best use of your life? (i.e. on your past experiences with insurance carriers writing a book, taking a mission trip, and court cases you know that you have a 50% starting a business, taking an audition) chance of your insurance company fixing your car, 4. What is something that would leave a then your expectations for what is coming next are legacy for others to follow? (i.e. seeing your going to be pretty grim. grandkids live inspiring lives that impact Sitting in a car that has just been in a wreck the world because of the role model you doesn’t make you feel anything. This bears were for your kids, knowing the children of repeating, what you are expecting to happen in the your employees are experiencing near future will determine how you are feeling meaningful dinner table conversations right now. because of the difference you have made in Have you ever heard of someone who had a car their parents lives) wreck, met the love of their life, married into wealth, and lived happily ever after? Sure you If these things were in your future, how would you have. Now, how would you feel if they were sitting feel today? Would you be feeling inspired? Would in a car that had just been hit, but you were you feel empowered to “take on” some big things in expecting that somehow this would result in life? Would you feel courageous? As a result of meeting the love of your life, gaining access to a these feelings, what kind of actions would you take pile of money, and ending up 10x happier than you today? As a result of those actions, what kind of a have ever been before? future would you be experiencing? You see, there is nothing on that list that you can’t influence and THE OPPORTUNITY FOR YOU bring into your life. Pick an area in life (golf, family, work) and note your past experiences in that area. Now take time to note your current emotional experiences in that 152 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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THE PROVEN RESULTS Probably one of the most famous examples of this principle in action comes from the author Viktor Frankl. He was one of the few people to survive a Nazi concentration camp. While he was there he mastered the art of living into the future. He credits this principle with giving him the strength to endure the horrors of the Holocaust. “It did not really matter what we expected of life, but what life expected of us” [2]. Viktor Frankl explained that while he was presently experiencing the suffering of a concentration camp, he saw himself in the future teaching the principles he learned there. He saw himself with a finished book. He saw himself with classrooms filled with students. He saw himself making a difference and not wasting the experience of being imprisoned. While he was there, he began to share this powerful concept with the other prisoners. For those who understood what he was saying it was the difference between life and death. Some prisoners were able to acknowledge that there were still great works waiting in their future to be finished by them. There were businesses to be started and books to be written. There was a future that was calling them forth. This concept is what empowered many prisoners to rise above their present circumstances and receive the strength to overcome. Sadly there were other prisoners who did not want to answer the “call” of their future. Instead, they focused on surviving their present conditions. Oftentimes these prisoners died in their sleep for no other reason than a lack of purpose or meaning.
THE FUTURE IS NOW In music the term audiation explains the mysterious power that sound has on our emotional state. In life the same term gives us the ability to live powerfully despite any circumstance. The principle is simple: our emotional state is never found in what is presently happening, it is found in the events we are expecting to come. Applying this principle to our daily routine is like using a lever which is capable of moving the future. Those who understand this will be found marching to the beat of a different drum. They will be found dancing through life and showing us the steps to endless possibilities.
REFERENCES [1] Learning Sequences in Music: Skill, Content, and Patterns (1997) by Edwin E. Gordon [2] V. Frankl. “Man’s Search for Meaning, ” Beacon Press, 1959, pg 77.
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Playing the Gig You’re On: Coltrane Knew How Gregg Akkerman Fine Arts and Communication Studies University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract - Aspiring jazz musicians are often tempted to He seems content to confine his tessitura to the display their full arsenal of improvisational abilities in more masculine, vocal-like area of the instrument, settings where restraint would be the wiser choice. especially in the cascading dive in mm. 6-7. Saxophonist John Coltrane is considered one of the most Showing similar restraint, his dynamics technically gifted players on his instrument and yet throughout the improvisation do not stray beyond analysis shows that he was capable of governing his improvisational choices in ways appropriate to the the mp-f range. Coltrane’s idiomatic glisses and performance situation. As an example of this skill, a ghost notes consistently remind the listener that transcription and comparative analysis of the sound, although the song originated as a show tune from harmony, and melody of Coltrane’s solo and the vocals “Annie Get Your Gun,” it has been effectively of Johnny Hartman on their recording of Irving Berlin’s absorbed into the jazz canon. “They Say It’s Wonderful” is provided. SECTION THREE: HARMONY Keywords — jazz, jazz history, John Coltrane, Based in Eb major, the harmony in They Say It’s musicology, music analysis. Wonderful is comprised of standard ii-V-I progressions completing a thirty-two bar AABA INTRODUCTION form. The bridge modulates briefly to Ab major An extended, successful career as a commercial before moving to g minor in the second half of m. musician requires knowing when and where to 20. The bridge finds its way back to the Fmin7 in draw your various improvisational weapons. An the final A section by a clever descending sequence excellent example of this ability to self-edit is the of Gmi7-C7 to F#mi7-B7 (mm. 23-4). playing of John Coltrane on Irving Berlin’s They There are a few notable harmonic differences Say It’s Wonderful from the album John Coltrane between the vocal chorus and Coltrane’s single solo and Johnny Hartman (GRP Records chorus. In m. 5 the vocal melody dictates the need B000003N7K, originally released on Impulse in for a flatted 5th on the Fmi7 but this is ignored 1963) . On this vocal ballad Coltrane (with pianist during the solo. Then in m. 8 the bassist and McCoy Tyner, bassist Jimmy Garrison, and pianist deviate from the original progression by drummer Elvin Jones) does an extraordinary job of extending the tonic chord two beats and playing the gig. Instead of the ten minute “sheets compressing the ii-V of f minor into the end of the of sound” solos or third-relation “matrix” ii-V measure. The flatted fifth of the Fmi7 in m. 10 is substitutions he was capable of, Coltrane finds again ignored both harmonically and melodically. inspiration in the inherent beauty of the original The vocal chorus uses a harmonically interesting melody and chord changes as well as the sinewy Db7(b5) in m. 12 that is replaced by the more velvet phrasing of Hartman’s vocal. Coltrane’s mundane Gmi7 for Coltrane. It is interesting that willingness to act as an equal “second voice” to in m. 13 Coltrane, through the pronounced use of Hartman rather than his improvisational superior the same Cb note as found in the vocal melody, is a testament to the legacy of both artists. makes ignoring the flatted fifth on Fmi7 impossible Recorded in just one take, They Say It’s Wonderful although the rhythm section returns to the is the first cut on the album and analysis of unaltered version in m. 26. Coltrane’s solo when compared to Hartman’s vocal Coltrane is considered a master of reveals a jazz legend willing and able to play the gig reharmonization but on only two occasions does he he’s on. employ that skill in this solo. Beats 3 and 4 of m. 8 outline an F# minor scale including the B natural SECTION TWO: SOUND that creates dissonance with the C7 in the rhythm Coltrane’s timbre on this recording is plaintiff, section. In the second instance he plays a C natural somewhat dry, and greatly complements the on the downbeat of m. 28 against the Db7 chord. It beautiful baritone quality of Hartman’s voice. is notable that both of these reharmonizations Although Coltrane exploits the full conventional incorporate the major 7th pitch against a dominant range of his tenor saxophone, he only just grazes 7th chord. the edges of altissimo on one phrase (mm. 15-16). 154 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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SECTION FOUR: MELODY from the vocals rather than taking the lower road When a jazz quartet accompanies a vocalist during of merely tolerating the presence of a vocalist as a a ballad, it is common procedure for the horn means to fill the spaces between solos. John player to “riff” between the vocal phrases. Coltrane Coltrane knew the gig he was on and played it appears to use this procedure as melodic perfectly. inspiration during his own solo. As noted throughout the following analyzed transcription, NOTES ON THE TRANSCRIPTION Coltrane consistently plays improvised lines that refer to the melody while, in between these Early drafts of this transcription were made by the phrases, delivering riffs that serve as filler. It is as author and only afterwards compared to a if he has cast himself in the roles of both melodist published transcription. Discrepancies were and soloist. A good example is mm. 1-3 where reviewed and, while some edits were made, the several of Coltrane’s note choices are clearly author has decided to differ with the earlier inspired by the vocal melody while m. 4 contains a published version at several points in hopes of riff that fills the space normally left between the providing the reader the most current and accurate vocal phrases. The only deviation from this representation of Coltrane’s solo and Hartman’s procedure throughout the entire solo is m. 6 where vocal. Coltrane plays an extended line featuring the #9 and b9 over the Bb7 chord. But even this line REFERENCES eventually resolves to a sustained Bb note in m. 7 just as heard in the vocal melody. [1] Coltrane, John. John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman. In what serves as the melodic climax of the GRP Records B000003N7K, 1995. CD. solo, Coltrane creates a four-note motif in mm. 14- [2] Coltrane Plays Standards. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard (no year of publication provided). 15 and then transposes it up a perfect 4th in mm.
15-16. Even though this motif is melodically unrelated to the vocal melody, the rhythm and stepwise movement of the four notes would easily accommodate the lyric and it is tempting to assume
Coltrane was aware of this.
A second motif is played by Coltrane in m. 23 during the bridge. This simple three-note figure not only incorporates a vocal melody note but also follows the descending contour of the harmonic sequence when it is transposed down ½ step in m.
24.
The final measures of Hartman’s vocal melody resolves upward from the dominant to tonic notes while Coltrane chooses a different path. Although he plays a dominant note in his cadence, Coltrane resolves his final phrase from the 3rd of the key downward to the tonic. But, once again, his melodic deviation in m. 30 would still accommodate the syllables of the lyric.
CONCLUSIONS
This analysis of the sound, harmony, and melody of John Coltrane’s solo compared to the vocal of Johnny Hartman on They Say It’s
Wonderful demonstrates that this visionary saxophonist knew how to self-edit and use the tools of improvisation appropriate to the gig he was on.
Although technically capable of greatly extended improvisation featuring copious reharmonization and altissimo playing, Coltrane impresses the listener all the more by finding beauty in the original chords, following a proven improvisational procedure used in ballads, and seeking inspiration Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 155
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Fig. 1. Transcription analysis of John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman's recording of "They Say It's Wonderful"
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Fig. 2. Transcription analysis of John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman's recording of "They Say It's Wonderful" cont.
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Parallels of Musical Prosospopoeia in Buxtehude’s Frieid und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt (1674) and Jacopo Peri’s L’Euridice (1600) Ashley Higgins Department of Music Theory Converse College 580 East Main Street Spartanburg, SC 29302 [email protected]
Abstract- Drawing cultural studies into musical turned on its head. The dead talk about life! The analysis, I have paralleled musical prosopopoeia Thirty Years’ War, outbreaks of plagues and between Jacopo Peri’s L’Euridice (1600) and Dieterich shorter life spans caused a widespread Buxtehude’s Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt preoccupation with death known as the ars BuxWV76 (1674). moriendi[2]. Confronted with death on a daily Like much German funeral music of its time, Buxtehude’s Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfarht was basis, individuals became cognizant of their own composed for a singer to personify the deceased: the precarious mortality. Assurance of life beyond rhetorical figure prosopopoeia. Also using death was important. Dieterich Buxtehude’s Fried prosopopoeia, the early Italian opera L’Euridice has und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt (1674) and Jacopo comparable content and themes, it focuses on the Peri’s L’Euridice (1600) express the act of revivification of the dead. Considering that the two resurrection musically using prosopopoeia. works differ in cultural settings, they were an ideal The strong parallels of musical treatment of juxtaposition of works for my purposes. prosopopoeia in Fried und Freudenreiche Figures used prosopopoetically such as anabasis, Hinfahrt and L’Euridice evidence the power of catabasis, gradatio and interrogatio concurred with textual affections in both works that were very similar. musical messages to surpass boundaries of distant The temporal positioning of the musical figures within European cultures. They also shed light on the works was also similar. All correlations between particulars of the infrequently studied device. The Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt and L’Euridice reveal notion of life after death is captivating; the study of more about the nature of musical prosopopoeia. its place amongst pitches and rhythms is revelatory In score study, I used a synthesis of techniques of of the transcendent and evocative power of music. Baroque theorists Joachim Burmeister (1566-1629) and Christoph Bernhard (1627-1692) as my method for SECTION TWO musical/textual analysis. I found parallels between the These two cultures seem to have more in common composers’ tactics to augment rhetorical prosopopoeia, despite cultural differences. Studying the similar musically than previously thought. This is proved function of prosopopoeia in the works provided insight by showing that certain sections of the works have into musically transcendent qualities of the figure. parallel affections and these occur in parallel order within each piece. An affection, in this context, is Keywords- prosopopoeia, musical/textual an emotion or feeling. Each of the affectively analysis, opera, funeral music, culture corresponding sections also has very similar specific musical-rhetorical expression of those INTRODUCTION affections within them. The musical-rhetorical Plenty of music conveys life followed by death. expressions occur at very similar positions within Music of the seventeenth century deals with death each section. The following table shows the quite often using the rhetorical device sections of Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt and prosopopoeia: the actual voicing of a deceased, L’Euridice as they occur in time and the affections absent or even imaginary person[1]. In this device, they share. the notion of life preceding death is completely
Table 1 Affection Fried und Freud L’Euridice Affection lament “Klagelied” “Funeste Piagge” lament comfort Contrapunctus I “Trionfi Oggi” comfort appeal to logos Evolutio I “Quand’al” appeal to logos (reason) (reason) joy Contrapunctus II “Gioite al Canto” joy completeness Evolutio II “Per Quest’aer” completeness
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It is necessary to define the specific musical- were usually chosen by the deceased for the rhetorical figures used within the sections of both ceremony several months in advance of their works. Rhetoric in music governs the arrangement death[9]. Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfarht or and elaboration of ideas in a piece of music [3]. Peaceful and Joyful Journey was music for the The following list provides definitions of the funeral of Dieterich Buxtehude’s father Johannes figures in the musical-rhetoric of Fried und Buxtehude. It was published in Lübeck, Germany. Freudenreiche Hinfahrt and L’Euridice. The first section, “Mit Fried und Freud Ich Fahr Dahin” is four sections of invertible counterpoint. List 1 “Mit Fried und Freud Ich Fahr Dahin was Interrogatio: This expresses a question. In music, originally written for the funeral of the it is a leading tone sonority or a line of notes that superintendent of the churches of Lübeck, Meno rises stepwise at the end. Hanneken, Sr. Buxtehude later incorporated “Mit Saltus Duriusculus: This expresses pain. It is a very Fried” into his fathers funeral in 1674. “Klagelied,” dissonant melodic leap. a grief-centered lied, was published alongside “Mit Catabasis: This expresses burden or woeful human Fried”[10]. Dieterich Buxtehude himself probably emotion. It is a descending musical line. wrote the poetry for “Klagelied”[11]. “Klagelied” Subjectum Catabatum: This is a recurring motive has a monodic texture: a melody accompanied by that contains catabasis. It implies an overall theme simple chord accompaniment. This texture was of lament. quite different from the invertible counterpoint of Anabasis: This is an expression of elevated “Mit Fried.” emotion through an ascending musical line. Invertible counterpoint is counterpoint in Gradatio: This is a sequence of notes in one voice which the intervals or chords may be inverted and repeated either at a higher or lower pitch. It remain correct as counterpoint[12]. In “Mit Fried” indicates growth in intensity of expression. Buxtehude uses the intervals of the soprano in Contrapunctus I in the bass of Evolutio I. He also These musical-rhetorical figures occur with similar switches the intervals of the middle voices. In words and even entire phrases in both works. For Contrapunctus II, Buxtehude reinstates the example, in the last section of both pieces, the soprano from Contrapunctus I, but elaborates the figure gradatio occurs on words describing vision, lower voices. He uses the intervals of the soprano such as “illuminate”, “visibility”, “ mirror” and in Contrapunctus II in the bass of Evolutio II, also “look”. Another example is that words dealing with switching the intervals of the middle voices. movement, such as “go” and “take”, typically occur Buxtehude’s friend, famous theorist Andreas with anabasis. The figures even line up temporally Werckmeister compared the movement of voices to within each section. Also notice that the first a final inversion to the movement of the sections of both works convey sad human emotions planets[13]. The piece remains aurally consonant while the remaining four convey elevated, joyful after all of its voices have been switched. The and heavenly emotions. Composers of concept of the texture of invertible counter point prosopopoetic music typically divided affections in under careful calculation of the composer, runs this manner to balance the two very different, parallel with the idea that one higher force is in somewhat extreme emotions[4]. control of the universe[14]. This is part of what makes the sounds of “Mit Fried” comfort the PROSOPOPOEIA IN GERMAN FUNERAL listener while “Klagelied” simply empathizes with REPERTORY their grief. The individual lines of each part of “Mit Fried” still maintain a sense of individuality in In Lutheran funeral repertory such as Fried und expression allowing for comparison to the Freudenreiche Hinfahrt this division was melodies in L‘Euridice. Transfiguration in the two especially pronounced. The theological purpose of works conveyed through musical-rhetorical figures the prosopopoetic sermon was not only to strike a is strikingly similar. Although the background of chord in the hearts of listeners, but also to solidify L’Euridice is rather different, the musical elements the concept of life after death in their minds[5]. of resurrection are the same. The life desired was a stable, God-ordained state of balance. In Lutheran sermons, this heaven was a PROSOPOPOEIA IN EARLY ITALIAN OPERA place where worldly pain held no bearing[6]. Funeral orators of prosopopoetic sermons In the beginning of the Seventeenth-century, the often modeled their vocal inflections after the prospect of an unfettered melody line arose with deceased’s[7]. Many people prepared parts of their the newly cultivated texture of monody. In own funeral ceremonies[8]. Scripture and music L’Euridice, Peri’s usage of musical-rhetorical Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 159
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figures in the monodic texture combined with ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ottavio Rinuccini’s libretto created a vivid Dr. Leon Couch III was an immense help to me, a characterization of Orfeo and had a new take on first time researcher, in the writing and editing the events surrounding Orfeo’s wife’s demise. processes of this paper. He made himself Peri’s opera, with its themes of everlasting love frequently available for my consultation. He gave and revival, was first premiered at the wedding of many insightful opinions on my ideas and their Henri IV of France to Maria de’ Medici in Florence, organization. He also taught me how to analyze Italy. Some scholars believe the ending of the opera music carefully and how in doing so, much that was meant to pay homage to the marriage[15]. It goes unnoticed can be revealed. I truly value and was common for early Baroque composers to appreciate all of his wonderful knowledge, incorporate favorable allegorical implications of encouragement and assistance. their aristocratic employers into their works. L’Euridice tells an inspiring story of a life renewed REFERENCES regardless. In Peri’s opera, Euridice is resurrected instead [1] G. S. Johnston. “Protestant Funeral Music and of being sent back to Hades on the condition of a Rhetoric in Seventeenth-century Germany: A forbidden backward glance from Orfeo. Rinuccini’s Musical-rhetorical Examination of the Printed Sources,” Ph.D. Dissertation: University of British choice of ending is triumphant in comparison to Columbia, p 187, 1987. the tragic end Euridice finds in most versions of [2] W. Zeller, “Leichenpredigt und Erbauungsliteratur,” the myth, with operas such as Monteverdi’s L’Orfeo in Leichenpredigten als Quelle historischer and Gluck’s L’Anima del Filosofo[16]. Orfeo makes Wissenschaften, ed. Rudolf Lenz pp 67-81 (Cologne, a brave descent to the underworld in order to save 1975). Euridice’s life. [3] The Harvard Dictionary of Music, 4th ed., s.v. The first instance of prosopopoeia in the opera “Rhetoric.” is the poignant moment when Orfeo sings from the [4] D. Yearsley, “Towards an Allegorical Interpretation of depths of Hades in his lament aria “Funeste Buxtehude’s Funerary Counterpoints,” Music & Letters 80, no. 2 ,185, 1999. piagge” Peri’s “Funeste” resonates the grief of [5] See Johnston, “Protestant Funeral Music and death, as does Buxtehude’s “Klagelied.” All sections Rhetoric in Seventeenth-century Germany: A that follow these two exclaim the affection of Musical-rhetorical Examination of the Printed happiness through salvation. The balance of joy Sources,” p 189. with sadness is integral to musical prosopopoeia. [6] M. Luther, Preface to Burial Hymns, ed. Ulrich S. Leupold and Helmut T. Lehmann (Luther’s Works CONCLUSIONS 53) pp 326-327 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, The “Klagelied” and “Funeste Piagge” make 1965). thorough practice of the catabasis or in this case [7] Quintilian, Institutio oratoria, Loeb Classical Library, pp 41-42 (London, 1921). subjectum catabatum, as the device appears with [8] O. Brodde, Heinrich Schütz: Weg und Werk , p 131 an almost motivic surety in denoting the repeated (Berlin, 1985). context. Catabasis and all other figures involved in [9] See Johnston, 198. conveying the depravity of the human condition, [10] Kerala J. Snyder, Dieterich Buxtehude: Organist in such as interrogatio and suspensions, suggest the Lübeck, p 214 (New York, 1987). need for resolution or salvation. We see that [11] See Yearsley, “Towards an Allegorical Interpretation mainly anabasis, along with other figures such as of Buxtehude’s Funerary Counterpoints,” p 187. gradatio, provide the necessary musical [12] The Harvard Dictionary of Music, 4th ed., s.v. deliverance. “Invertible counterpoint.” This interesting symbiosis between the [13] A. Werckmeister, Harmonologia musica oder Kurtze Anleitung zur musicalischen Composition, p affections of earthly lament and heavenly joy 89 (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1702; repr. Hildesheim, resonates in musical prosopopoeia. The strong 1970). parallels of musical treatment of prosopopoeia in [14] See Yearsley, “Towards an Allegorical Interpretation Fried und Freudenreiche Hinfahrt and L’Euridice of Buxtehude’s Funerary Counterpoints,” p 201. evidence the power of musical messages to surpass [15] A. M. Cummings, The Politicized Muse: Music for boundaries of distant European cultures. They also Medici Festivals, 1512–1537, p 15–92 (Princeton: shed light on particulars of the infrequently studied Princeton University Press, 1992). device. The notion of life after death is captivating; [16] E. Barsham, “The Orpheus Myth in Operatic the study of its place amongst pitches and rhythms History” introduction to CW von Gluck: Orfeo, compiled by Patricia Howard, pp 1-9 (New York: is revelatory of the transcendent and evocative Cambridge University Press, 1981). power of music.
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Romare Bearden: Contribution and Contrast to the Harlem Renaissance Mckensie Hall and Rachel Snow 20th Century Art History University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {hallml, rsnow}@email.uscupstate.edu
Abstract - Romare Bearden (1911-1988), a practicing African heritage to emphasize the relationship between artist during the Harlem Renaissance (1919-1934) and African American identity and African culture. Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968), addressed social Although he distanced himself from the movement, one issues in his community and surrounding environment paradoxical aspect of Bearden’s work as an artist is that concerning the African American identity. Through his artwork he recorded and depicted the movement and he came to be a visual historian of the Harlem change of the African-American community from rural Renaissance. He recorded the Great Migration (1916- homesteads in the South to the urban lifestyle in the 1970) of African-Americans from Southern rural life to North during the Great Migration (1916-1970). Northern urban life through his art work in great detail Bearden’s early works in mixed media and painting and provided a commemorative, interesting and his interest in photography and collage led him to interpretation in which he essentially initiated in an develop the style that would lead to his personal fame. ‘outside’ commentary of the entire movement. [2] Through his use of collage and photomontage, Bearden reinvented a medium and brought originality and creativity to photography. Bearden, a successful artist BEARDEN’S CAREER DURING THE HARLEM and innovative thinker of his time, stand outside of the RENAISSANCE Harlem Renaissance and watched it evolve. Though he helped to initiate the new cause for the artwork of the Bearden’s early work in painting shows evidence of Harlem Renaissance, he did not consider himself a Bearden’s Southern upbringing as well as his Harlem Renaissance artist and distinguished himself as interest in African masks. “The Visitation”, 1941 different from other artists of the movement. Later, (Fig. 1) and “Serenade”, 1941 (Fig. 2) are examples during the Civil Rights Movement, his subdued style and use of standard religious themes allowed his of Bearden’s paintings about religious rituals and political content to surpass viewers who would have social interactions between individuals. Both disregarded an aggressively political content. works, are fantastic examples of the style of Social Realism. Social Realism is an artistic movement Keywords — Romare Bearden, Harlem that depicts daily actions of the working class. The Renaissance, Great Migration, Civil Rights first example, titled “The Visitation”, documents an Movement, Collage. occurrence in Bearden’s Southern childhood. Growing up in the Bible Belt, Bearden experienced INTRODUCTION religion in its most popular area in the country. His memories of baptisms, visitations, and church Romare Howard Bearden (1911-1988), a renowned services are essential to some of his most crucial artist born and raised in Charlotte, North Carolina, is imagery. “The Visitation” depicts a typical event known for his works that are full of metaphors from his that occurs in the Southern community. Visitations Southern heritage and North Carolina roots. Bearden’s are commonly known in the South as visits shared work consists of a body of collages, watercolors, oil between people who share the same faith or beliefs. paintings, photomontages, and prints that led him to be Typically, one person might visit another in order known as one of the most versatile and creative visual to speak with him/her about religious matters, artists of the twentieth century. Although Bearden was a consult the other’s knowledge, or pray. In practicing artist during the time of the Harlem conjunction with the previous example, “Serenade” Renaissance (1919-1934) and was fairly close in depicts an African American man serenading an location Harlem Renaissance, Bearden chose not to African American woman in a rural environment. associate his own work with the movement. Like other Commonly known as a form of courting, a man successful artists, poets, and writers of this time, might serenade a woman in order to express Bearden chose to focus more immediately on issues fondness of her or to receive her hand in marriage. surrounding his African American identity rather than Bearden has made this image specific to the his African heritage.[1] Though he did not focus as Southern rural community by placing the figures in heavily on his African heritage as a subject, Bearden did an outdoor setting in which the two figures draw many influences from African culture by using probably worked. This hypothesis can be made by limited amounts of information and imagery about his
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reviewing the figure in the background who of Christ” was highly applauded and recognized appears to be working. featured works such as that of “Golgotha”, 1945 The environments in both paintings are most (Fig. 4) and “He Is Risen”, 1945 (Fig. 5). likely Bearden’s Southern memories. This “Golgotha”, a mixed media work, features Christ’s conclusion can be drawn from the rural setting, the crucifixion in an abstract style. Bearden’s barefooted female figure in “Serenade”, and the inspiration for this series came directly from his style of clothing worn by all the figures. Bearden education at the Art Students League and Christian has depicted the figures in a somewhat primitive beliefs. The work features bright colors style that pays homage to African tribal masks such strategically placed on the sectioned canvas in as “Ngady amwaash”,(date unknown) (Fig. 3). order to show intentional placement. The brightest African masks such as this, are another of color, yellow, is placed strategically behind Christ’s Bearden’s sources for inspiration. These works are body so that the viewer is instantly drawn toward examples of Bearden’s paintings that incorporate the subject matter. The bold, black, linear lines African heritage into the social contexts of the rural indicate the contours of the figures, the spears South. He has depicted very traditional African directed at Christ’s body, and minute details of the figures into environments and social happenings work. “He Is Risen” also depicts the biblical story common to the Southern region of the United of Christ’s resurrection from the tomb. This work is States. characterized by somewhat muted colors and During this time, Bearden also initiated the organic lines and shapes. Bearden has used the creation of an exhibition that would mark the lines to break down the figure’s body into simple 1930’s African-American art scene. “Against All shapes, much like Cubist artists aimed to do. Odds”, the exhibition that essentially defined the The interesting mix of analytic and synthetic purpose of the Harlem Renaissance, inferred that Cubism merged into one work placed Bearden in a the Harlem Renaissance sought to re-conceptualize category all his own. Analytic Cubism, art and expand it to the entire community as well characterized by simplified forms resulting in as to make an impact on visual culture through geometric shapes and a diluted color scheme, can expansion of media. [3] Author, Michel Feith be seen in the body of Christ in “He Is Risen” as comments that Romare Bearden’s criticism of the well as the surrounding figures. Synthetic Cubism, Harlem Renaissance was “the Renaissance was which is more evident in “Golgotha” is obvious in purely imitative of white masters”.[4] Feith is the brighter colors and flatter dimensions of the referring to the European Renaissance of the 14th- foreground and the background as well as the 17th centuries. He said that Bearden opposed being compacted picture plane which involves less planar a part of the Harlem Renaissance because he shifts. Similarities can be seen between the figures wanted to achieve a completely new and innovative in “He Is Risen”, primarily the main figure placed way of thought, rather than recreating a previous in the center of the canvas, and Picasso’s “Les Trois Renaissance’s thoughts and ideas. Bearden wanted Danseuses”, 1925 (Fig. 6) which is a Synthetic to express his ideas about African American Cubist work. The same organic, yet sectioned identity but did not include himself in the body of format for the figure’s bodies can be seen in the artists it would comprise. Bearden’s dedication to three dancers’ bodies in Figure 6. Like Picasso in intellectual thought and innovative ideas proved to his African period, Bearden’s work during the be very valuable in his long career as an artist. 1930’s in somewhat reminiscent of African art. During the late 1930’s and early 1940’s Bearden, while reviewing Picasso’s work, may have Bearden also began to experiment with other been studying another artist’s interpretation of influences. Early on in his career, Bearden’s work African art, primarily masks, unconsciously. was constricted to being a hobby. During his time Bearden is credited with reinventing the at the Art Students League, Bearden also renewed medium of collage which was first developed by his respect for European artists such as Picasso, Japanese calligraphers and later by the Cubists. Braque, and Matisse. Work such as “Golgotha”, Bearden’s collages came later and began to feature 1945 (Fig. 4), reflect his early interest in Picasso more recognizable figures alongside a political or and other Cubists’ work. Bearden’s work at this social theme. These works which constituted time was considered very controversial, bold, and mixing a technological development (photographs daring. and magazine illustrations) that allowed for mass During the late 1940’s and early 1950’s media reproduction, and forms of high art that Bearden’s work took a turn toward the abstract. imply originality, allowed Bearden to create a new After being discharged from the army, Bearden context for art to be created within. created a series of works based on the gospels of Bearden’s work during the 1950’s and 1960’s Matthew and Mark. This series titled “The Passion was at its height. While working almost primarily 162 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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in collage, his work developed an abstract Southern religious ritual is a collage titled approach in the 1950’s in which he began to use “Carolina Shout”, 1974 (Fig. 8) that depicts several layers of paint to create subdued, hidden effects. African American individuals enjoying an uplifted During the 1960’s specifically, his work became moment of praise as they enjoy the salvation of more socially oriented and representational their fellow Christians. The title, which denotes the because of The Civil Rights Movement (1955- location that inspired the work, also gives the 1968). Influenced by his social activist parents, viewer an insight into what he/she is viewing. Bearden’s began voicing his opinion about the Bearden, who tapped into his past for the movement through his artwork. inspiration for this work, said that his intent for the new collages was “establishing a world through art in which the validity of (his) Negro experience BEARDEN’S ART IN RELATION TO THE CIVIL could live and make its own logic”. [6] RIGHTS MOVEMENT CONCLUSIONS In 1964, Romare Bearden presented an exhibition Bearden’s career, an exemplary work in its own titled “Projections”; a collection of 24 black and right, blankets two major movements in the white photomontages and four collages. The African American community and American significance of the black and white color scheme in history. Bearden’s work has discussed issues such the collection relates to the social historical context as black liberation, the importance of self that it was presented in. All over America, tension expression, the artist’s place in the Civil Rights between the black and white citizens created Movement, and the importance of getting one’s hostility between the races. The choice that name into the galleries and exhibitions in order to Bearden made to depict his photomontages and permanently stamp history. The significance of this collages in only black and white reflected this is that Bearden, whether he identified himself with tension sensed between the races. the movement or not, had founded the essential Dore Ashton, an essayist for the exhibition’s cause for the Harlem Renaissance, Spiral, and a brochure, wrote that the facial expressions in one basis for artists of his type during the Civil Rights of the works titled “Mysteries”, 1964 (Fig. 7) were Movement to speak out against the inequality of ‘accusing’ and ‘disquieting’. [5] “Mysteries” depicts opportunity provided for black artists in America. a scene of jumbled African American faces and Again, Bearden’s work as an artist and a social bodies. Each figure faces forward as if it is looking activist was very bold, sophisticated, and radical at the viewer. This makes the viewer feel accused for his time. [7] by the stares/glares and uncomfortable facial expressions some of the figures express. The facial ACKNOWLEDGMENTS expressions add to the tension created by the black I would like to thank Rachel Snow for all her and white contrast relating to the social issues at guidance as well as Mallory Long and Derek hand. Ninneman for their support. Bearden’s involvement as an artist expressing himself during the Civil Rights movement was REFERENCES prompted by his need to create and alliance. “Projections”, Bearden’s afore-mentioned [1] Glazer, Lee Stephens. "Signifying Identity: Art and masterpiece, stemmed from Spiral, the artist Race in Romare Bearden's Projections." The Art alliance Bearden founded. Not only was it the first Bulletin. vol. 76(3), pp. 411-426, 1994. [2] Jordan, Denise. “Artists in Profile: Harlem exhibit he had constructed on African American Renaissance,” Heinemann Library, 2003. themes since the 1940’s but it became one of the [3] Trachtman, Paul. "Romare Bearden: Man of Many most important recordings of African American Parts- From scraps of Photographs, Newspapers and identity formation because Bearden chose to Magazines, the Late African-American Artist represent all aspects of the African American Created Masterful Portraits of Contemporary Black identity. He depicted Northern, Southern, male, Culture." Smithsonian. vol. 34(11), pg. 60, 2004. female, and religious identities in his [4] Bloom, Harold. ed. “The Harlem Renaissance,” photomontages and collages in order to span a Chelsea House Publishers, 2004. broad definition of what it meant to be an African [5] Patton, Sharon F. “African American Art,” Oxford University Press, 1998. American during the Civil Rights Movement. [1] [6] Powell, Richard J. "What Becomes a Legend Most?" Some of the Southern qualities that Romare Transition 55, pp. 62-72, 1992. Schramm, Susan L. Bearden commented on in his work were religious and Rhonda B. Jeffries. "African American Trickster rituals, African American lifestyle in general, Representations in the Work of Romare Bearden." music, and working conditions. One example of a Art Education. vol. 53(5) pp.19-24, 2000. Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 163
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[7] Bearden, Romare and Same Gilliam Jr., Richard Hunt, Jacob Lawrence, Tom Lloyd,William Williams, and Hale Woodruff. "The Black Artist in America: A Symposium." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. vol. 27(5), pp. 245-261, 1969.
Fig. 1. Romare Bearden, The Visitation, 1941, gouache with ink and graphite on brown paper
Fig. 3. Royal Sister and Wife, Ngady amwaash, Kuba Kingdom, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Wood, paint, beads, cowrie shells, fabric
Fig. 2. Romare Bearden, Serenade, 1941, gouache with ink and graphite on brown paper
Fig. 4. Romare Bearden, Golgotha (The Passion of the Christ Series), 1945, watercolor, pen and India ink, pencil on paper
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Fig. 7. Romare Bearden, Prevalence of Ritual: Mysteries, 1964, photomontage
Fig. 5. Romare Bearden ,He Is Risen (The Passion of the Christ Series), 1945, oil on gessoed board
Fig. 8. Romare Bearden, Carolina Shout, 1974, collage with acrylic and lacquer on boar
Fig. 6. Pablo Picasso, Les Trois Danseuses, 1925, Oil on Canvas
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A Preliminary Discussion of Corporate Social Responsibility Lilly M. Lancaster and Megan Creech Johnson College of Business and Economics University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract — This paper briefly defines and documents DRUCKER’S PERSPECTIVE the historical development of corporate social responsibility. Brief examples of efforts in the Upstate Social problems, according to Drucker, are are presented. Future directions for research are opportunities for firms to have positive impacts identified. upon society. It is a “function of businesses to
satisfy a social need and at the same time serve Keywords — corporate social responsibility, themselves by making resolution of a social sustainability, environment problem into a business opportunity.” He further
stated that “None of our institutions exist by itself INTRODUCTION and is an end in itself. Everyone is an organ of Climate change, massive job losses, problems in society and exists for the sake of society. Business the financial markets, population growth, and is no exception. Free enterprise cannot be justified conflict between and among nations, firms and as being good for business; it can be justified only religious groups are common topics in the daily as being good for society” [3]. news. Admittedly, it is a very difficult time. And Drucker suggested that businesses’ negative many may see it as a difficult time for businesses impact issues be addressed to reduce or eliminate and business schools. However, a re-emergence of the effects on the community. Methods to the need for social responsibility in business and minimize negative effects can come either from industry offers both opportunities and challenges. within the company or from external sources. Business schools are re-evaluating curricula and Drucker made a point that, whenever possible, developing research programs that focus upon these methods should produce a solution giving the growth and profit, while respecting the problems, maximum benefit to the community with the and seeking solutions to these problems that are minimum possible cost to the company. Drucker facing not only the USA but our planet. The was a driving force behind such concepts as: (a) the purpose of this paper is to: (1) define and present a balanced scorecard (b) viewing employees as brief history of corporate social responsibility valuable resources and (c) the knowledge-based (CRS) (2) provide brief examples of local CRS economy. efforts (3) identify opportunities for further CRS research in the Upstate. ECONOMISTS- FRIEDMAN, REICH AND SACHS
DEFINITION AND HISTORY Some economists, including Milton Friedman and Corporate responsibility was defined by Bowen in Robert Reich, do not share Drucker’s views. 1953 as “the obligation of businessmen to pursue Friedman stated that corporations not only exist to those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow produce earnings for shareholders, but also argued those lines of action which are desirable in terms of that corporations are only responsible to the objectives and values of our society” [1]. shareholders and not to the community [4]. Robert Furthermore, J.W. McGuire stated that “the idea of Reich echoed Friedman’s ideas stating that “the social responsibilities supposes that the language and practices of corporate social corporation has not only economical and legal responsibility have become a mere tool in the obligations but also certain responsibilities that hands of managers and public relations experts extend beyond these” [2]. Management legend, used to manipulate the beliefs and expectations of Peter Drucker, divided social responsibility into citizens” [5]. two areas: (a) social impact and (b) social problems However, economist, Jeffrey Sachs, discusses [3]. Social impact focuses upon the negative effects the need for a new era of global cooperation to deal of the day-to-day operations of a company in the with the root cause problems of soaring population community. The second area, social problems, and industrial growth [6]. His vision includes a addresses areas of opportunity for positive impact sustainable and equitable future and appears to be by the company. consistent with Drucker’s statement that “every
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single social and global issue of our day is a Spartanburg’s United Resource Recovery business opportunity in disguise” [7]. Corporation will create approximately 100 jobs and recycle food-grade polyethylene terephthalate THE BALDRIGE CRITERIA (PET) plastic. Kate Krebs, Director of Sustainable Resources, Climate, Group, stated, “’ …To see The Baldrige Quality Award 2009-2010 Criteria Coca-Cola take the issue of climate change head-on for Performance Excellence emphasize a growing is wonderful” [11]. responsibility for organizations in the area of Another local example of “green” initiatives is “societal responsibilities.” Corporate stewardship the methane-to-energy- project at Enoree Landfill of environmental and social systems as well as [12]. The National Landfill Methane Outreach economic systems is described. Examples of areas Program cited the Enoree Landfill Gas to Energy of “societal responsibility” include: (a) reduced Green Power as its 2008 Project. The Landfill’s energy consumption, (b) use of renewable energy partners are Greenville Gas Producers LLC and resources and (c) conservation, as well as the (d) Duke Energy Carolinas LLC. Other Upstate firms “global use of enlightened labor practices”. involved in the conversion of methane gas from Although not listed as an area of “societal landfills into electricity include BMW [13] and responsibility”, innovation is also highlighted Milliken and Company [14]. elsewhere in the Baldrige Criteria and appears to Practices to Develop Socially Responsible be an important component of CSR [8]. Community and Business Environments While some authorities may argue that Sustainability is often viewed in the narrow context commerce is governed by the legal and ethical of energy and the conservation of the natural environment in which it conducts business, CSR environment. However, job creation and a feasible offers positive tangible results for ethical concerns. level of production, i.e., “sustainability”, is also an “The difference between ethics and social important goal for CSR. Allied Companies LLC responsibility is the difference between thought president and CEO, Joel Martin, recently and action” [9]. announced a plan to turn a former textile plant in the Upstate into a production facility for slip LOCAL EXAMPLES OF CRS PRACTICES resistant flooring. The raw material for the flooring is recycled flexible polyvinyl chloride Some CSR practices in the Upstate of South (PVC). Not only is the plant using recycled raw Carolina include: (a) business event sponsorship materials, but a production facility in the Upstate is (b) “green” initiatives and (c) practices to develop being “recycled” and approximately 125 jobs are socially responsible community and business being created. As Martin stated, “… we’re in a very environments. good position despite headwinds in the economy… we’ve only just scratched the surface” [15]. BUSINESS EVENT SPONSORSHIP More traditional areas where employers focus upon employees and responsible business AIDUpstate, in Greenville, SC is a non-profit environments include: (a) safety practices (b) organization dedicated to providing medical employee physical and mental health, and (c) assistance, food and supplies to those living with issues such as workplace violence. For example, HIV and AIDS [10]. At their annual fundraising many local industries, such as Wabtec Passenger event, called the Red Party, major contributors Transit, offer free health assessments, blood such as Verizon Wireless and Budweiser are listed pressure screening and yearly flu shots to on the AIDUpstate website as well as in employees [16]. advertisements for the event. This endorsement is A focus upon employees, environment and the beneficial to a firm’s public image and shows a community may not be optional for firms in the commitment to issues affecting both local and future. Grant Thornton’s International Business global society. Report of 2008 states that “while ‘saving the planet’ is a concern, by far and away the main “GREEN” INITIATIVES drivers for action on corporate social responsibility are recruitment and retention issues.” Today’s On January 18, 2009, The Spartanburg Herald knowledge workers are looking at the CSR Journal highlighted a major “green” iniatitive in practices of potential employers as they make the Upstate. Coca-Cola Company announced the career decisions. If a company wants skilled and opening of what may be the “world’s largest knowledgeable workers, they must improve their “bottle-to-bottle” recycling faculty in Spartanburg CSR practices to recruit and retain the best County [11].” This joint venture with employees [17]. Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 167
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CONCLUSIONS Business Report 2008, Grant Thorton, http:// The term “corporate responsibility” was www.grantthornton.com popularized in the fifties and sixties. Throughout [18] “The Drucker School and Institute Announce the th his lifetime, management icon, Peter Drucker, a Celebration of Peter Drucker’s 100 ,” Business Wire. New York: Nov. 7, 2008. strong proponent of systems theory and the interconnectedness of firms and society, advocated that societal problems create business opportunities [18]. The technology explosion, international threats and opportunities, concerns about the climate and environment, as well as the current worldwide economic environment have fostered in a new era of CSR. Indexing CSR efforts in the Upstate, not only for the purpose of developing college coursework case studies, but also for recruiting employers and employees to the Upstate may be an area for further research. As the trend develops, the positive and possible negative impacts of CSR may also be explored.
REFERENCES [1] Bowen H.R., “Social Responsibilities of the Businessman,” Harper and Row, 1953. [2] McGuire, J. W., “Business and Society,” McGraw- Hill, 1963. [3] Drucker, Peter F, “The Essential Drucker,” Harper Collins Publishers Inc, 2003. [4] Gallagher, “A Strategic Response to Friedman’s Critique of Business Ethics,” Journal of Business Strategy, vol.26, no.6, pp55-56, Nov-Dec, 2005. [5] Pava, Moses L. “Why Corporations Should Not Abandon Social Responsibility”, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 83, pp.805-812, 2008. [6] Sachs, Jeffrey, “Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet,” Penguin Press, 2009. [7] Cooperrider, David, “Sustainable Innovation,” BizEd, July/August, pp. 32-36, 2008. [8] 2009-10 Criteria for Performance Excellence, http://www.baldrige.nist.gov [9] Bisoux, Tricia, “The Socially Responsible Curriculum,” BizEd, July/August, pp. 22-30, 2008. [10] www.aidupstate.org [11] Anderson, Trevor, “New Plant will Recycle Millions of Plastic Bottles,” In Spartanburg Herald Journal,
E1-E2, January 18, 2009. [12] Anderson, Trevor, “Methane-to-Energy Project at Enoree Landfill Honored,” In Spartanburg Herald Journal, C4, January 14, 2009. [13] “Gas to Energy Project: Conservation in Action,” http: www.bmwusfactory.com/#/environment/278 [14] “Milliken and Spartanburg County Announce Waste-to-Energy Partnership, 04/21/08”, http://www. Milliken.com [15] Anderson, Trevor, “Floor-covering Plant Opening,” In Spartanburg, Herald Journal, C4, January 13, 2009. [16] www.Wabtec.com/transit [17] MacBeath, Alex, “Corporate Social Responsibility: It’s a Necessity Not a Choice, “International
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Existence of Economies of Scale within Athletic Departments at Private, Four Year Institutions John Frazier School of Business Southern Wesleyan University 907 Wesleyan Drive, Central, SC 29630 [email protected]
Abstract—This study investigates the size-cost RESEARCH QUESTION relationship within college athletic departments using The main research question is as follows: Is there economies of scale as the tool for measurement. It a correlation between athletic department size and examines data from 578 private four-year institutions. average total cost per athlete within college Currently, no information indicates what the optimal athletics of private, four-year schools? size of an institution’s athletic department should be.
The data from the study will allow university decision makers to determine if the athletic department should METHODOLOGY be larger or smaller in an effort to increase efficiency. Revenue and expense data is gathered from 578 The main research question is as follows: Is there a private, four-year schools. Components of revenue correlation between athletic department size and and expenses are verified with several schools’ average total cost per athlete within college athletics of athletic directors to ensure commonality of the private, four-year schools? Expectations are that there revenue and expense component makeup. are economies of scale present within college athletic Information regarding a school’s athletic programs. Generally, the hypothesis is supported. department size is also gathered. The number of It is possible to model the cost structure in college athletes within the athletic department, the athletics with a flexible single-product cost function. Using the data for athletic departments for the number of athletes as a percentage of the school’s academic year 2004-2005, the statistical results of the population, and the number of teams within the study clearly imply the existence of economies of scale athletic department are used to determine size. within college athletics. Many athletic departments can Data is gathered for both men’s and women’s reduce their average total cost per athlete by increasing programs. This data is totaled to represent the the number of participants in the athletic department, entire department. The database used is the US while a few athletic departments may be producing Department of Education Office of Postsecondary athletic output at a diminishing level of returns. Education Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act (EADA) expense and revenue data that Shulman Keywords – Economies of Scale in Athletics and Bowen [2] used in their study. A flexible single-product cost function is INTRODUCTION utilized to analyze the average total cost per athlete “The costs of colleges and universities continue to for each school. The model proposed to define be a topic of great concern on local campuses and average total cost within college athletics is a in legislative and executive agencies of the state combination of a modified version of the model and federal governments. Large or small, complex used by Koshal and Koshal [3] and inclusion of the or single purpose, colleges and universities always three main cost drivers of expenditures in college have greater need for expenditures than they have athletics suggested by Schulman and Bowen [2] in money to spend” [1]. The major purpose of this their book The Game of Life. study is to estimate an average total cost function The average total cost function utilized is for college athletic departments and to investigate defined as follows: ATC = + β UNDUP + the presence and magnitude of economies of scale 1 β UNDUP2 + β ENROLLMENT + within athletic departments of institutions of 2 3 β ENDOWMENT + β SANBODY + β WINPER higher education. It is expected that this study will 4 5 6 + β BREADTH + β SATACT + β FOOTBALL + µ. shed light on economic information that may be 7 8 9 useful in optimizing the size and structure of Where is a constant and β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, β6, β7, β , and β are coefficients college athletic departments. This study provides 8 9 of UNDUP, UNDUP2, ENROLLMENT, pertinent information that will allow athletic ENDOWMENT, SANBODY, WINPER, BREADTH, departments to be sized in a manner that would SATACT, and FOOTBALL. ATC is defined as produce the lowest average total cost per athlete. athletic department operating expense divided by In theory, this would make the operating expense the number of unduplicated athletes. UNDUP is of the athletic department more efficient. the number of athletes that are not counted twice
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for dual sport participation. ENROLLMENT is the increase in average total cost. The coefficient for number of students enrolled at the institution. BREADTH is 175.948, suggesting that for every ENDOWMENT is included as a wealth factor. It is additional team added to an athletic department an the actual value of the institution’s endowment. additional $175.948 in average total cost will be SANBODY is the sanctioning body of the added. The coefficient for FOOTBALL is 1966.129, institution. (NCAA I, NCAA II, NCAA III, NAIA II, suggesting that the presence of a football program NAIA I, or Other). WINPER is the winning within an institution adds $1,966.129 to average percentage of the major sport of the institution (i.e. total cost. Finally, the coefficients for NCAA II, Football or Men's Basketball). BREADTH is the NCAA I, NAIA I and NAIA II were 5398.436, number of different teams representing the 14201.657, 5251.637, and 1291.167 respectively, institution. FOOTBALL is a utilized to indicate the indicating that as a sanctioning body an NCAA II presence of a football team within the institution. affiliation adds $5,398.436 additional to average µ is a random error term. In order to obtain a U- total cost, while an NCAA I affiliation adds shaped average total cost curve, the expected sign $14,201.657 to average total cost, an NAIA I of the coefficients of UNDUP and UNDUP2 are affiliation adds $5,251.637 to average total cost and β1<0 and β2>0 respectively. an NAIA II affiliation adds $1,291.167 to average A correlation research method is used to total cost. analyze the data for this study. Correlation The ATC curve for intercollegiate athletics is research can be relational or predictive in nature. clearly U-shaped, indicating that economies of A regression analysis is utilized to determine the scale and diseconomies of scale are present. From correlation between athletic department size and the data used in the regression and an examination average total cost per athlete. “In general, multiple of the cost curve, the optimal average total cost regression is a highly flexible data analysis minimizing point can be calculated. Calculating procedure that may be used whenever a the cost minimizing point will yield the maximum quantitative variable (dependent variable) is to be size of the athletic department. Athletic studied in relationship to, or is a function of, any departments under 648 athletes are operating in factors of interest (independent variables)” [4]. an area where economies of scale can still exist. The regression analysis is also useful in Athletic departments operating over 648 athletes determining the coefficients for are operating in areas of diseconomies of scale. UNDUP, UNDUP2, ENROLLMENT, Thus, adding more athletes will cause average total ENDOWMENT, SANBODY, WINPER, BREADTH, cost to increase. SATACT, and FOOTBALL. CONCLUSIONS It is possible to model the cost structure in college RESULTS athletics with a flexible single-product cost The regression results for average total cost was as function. Using the data for athletic departments follows: UNDUP and UNDUP2 are both for the academic year 2004-2005, the statistical statistically significant. An examination of the results of the study clearly imply the existence of coefficients for UNDUP and UNDUP2 reveal the economies of scale within college athletics. The presence of economies and diseconomies of scale statistical results of this study also imply that respectively. Other independent variables that are many athletic departments can reduce their statistically significant are ENROLLMENT, average total cost per athlete by increasing the BREADTH, FOOTBALL, NCAA II, NCAA I, NAIA number of participants in the athletic department. I, and NAIA II. Independent variables that were Additionally, the results suggest that there are a not statistically significant were ENDOWMENT, few institutions that may be producing athletic SATACT, WINPER, and OTHER. The Adjusted R- output at a diminishing level of returns, that is, at Square value is .631 suggesting that the formula an inefficient level. accounted for 63.1% of the variation in average REFERENCES total cost. [1] McLaughlin, G., Montgomery, J., Smith, A., Mahan, B., & The coefficient for UNDUP is -31.073, Broomall, L. (1980). Size and efficiency. Research in Higher Education, 12, (1), 53-66. suggesting that each additional athlete added to an [2] Shulman, J., & Bowen, W. (2001). The game of life: College athletic department will decrease average total cost sports and educational values. Princeton: Princeton by $31.073. The coefficient for UNDUP2 is .024, University Press. revealing that for every unit increase in UNDUP2 [3] Koshal, R., & Koshal, M. (1995). Quality and economies of scale in higher education. Applied Economics, 27, 773-778. $.024 is added to average total cost. The coefficient [4] Martella, R., Nelson, R., & Marchand-Martella, N. (1999). for ENROLLMENT is 1.158, indicating that for Research Methods: Learning to become a critical research every additional student enrolled there is a $1.158 consumer. Needham: Allyn & Bacon.
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Pro-Israel Campaign Contributions and Congressional Votes Trevor Rubenzer and Christopher Weidensee Department of History, Philosophy, Political Science and American Studies University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract - To what extent are ethnic minority interest U.S. foreign policy decision-making in Congress. groups able to influence U.S. foreign policy? Current Specifically, we test the impact of campaign case study research has identified several factors that contributions by the pro-Israel identity group on may condition the ability of diasporic groups to congressional foreign policy decisions related to influence foreign policy toward “ancestral homelands.” One set of conditions focuses on the ability of ethnic U.S. foreign policy toward Iran. We are interested identity groups to mobilize the necessary resources to in the pro-Israel group because they are often make significant campaign contributions in the hope of highlighted as the most powerful identity group influencing political outcomes. To this point, existing lobby in the United States. [3] studies have been unable to isolate the impact of campaign contributions from other factors that may THEORY AND HYPOTHESES influence U.S. foreign policy decision-making. The We would argue, based on existing evidence that current study uses a mixture of statistical techniques in the overall role of Congress on U.S. foreign policy an attempt to determine the impact of ethnic minority is strong enough to warrant the serious interest group, specifically pro-Israel political action committee, campaign contributions on foreign policy consideration of the impact of PAC contributions decisions in the U.S. House of Representatives. Results on foreign policy decisions. Meernik argues that from the study indicate that ethnic identity groups do the end of the Cold War created more not have an impact on U.S. foreign policy toward Iran. opportunities for Congressional influence on U.S. foreign policy. [4] Hersman argues that the rise of Keywords — United States foreign policy; foreign individualism and the collapse of pure hierarchy in policy; Israel; political action committees U.S. foreign policy making have cleared the way for increased congressional entrepreneurship. [5] INTRODUCTION Carter and Scott argue that foreign policy In 1959, Lawrence H. Fuchs noted, “Despite entrepreneurship in Congress has become an general awareness of the mutual impact of foreign increasingly important determinant of U.S. foreign affairs and the claims of minority groups, there has policy. [6] Overall, it appears that Congress has a been surprisingly little systematic examination of strong enough role to play in U.S. foreign policy the results of this process” [1]. Several scholars that the relative permeability criterion is worth have since responded to Fuch’s call for the further consideration. advancement of knowledge concerning the impact On the specific issue of diasporic influence, of ethnic minority interest groups on U.S. foreign there are several potential examples of policy outcomes. However, there remains a great Congressional influence over U.S. foreign policy deal of debate concerning the scope and nature of worth noting. Congress initiated the Turkish diasporic influence on U.S. foreign policy. embargo in response to the invasion of Cyprus. In Proponents of ethnic minority influence argue that the Helms Burton Act, Congress removed much of diasporic communities in the United States are the presidential flexibility involved with modifying often successful in their efforts to shape foreign and administering the Cuban embargo. Congress policy. Smith argues that “ethnic groups have has continued to discuss the Armenian Genocide power to influence American foreign policy, and Resolution at various levels, in spite of presidential they have an acknowledged right to exercise this requests for Congress not to even consider the power [2]. resolution based on the fear of angering Turkey. In spite of significant progress in the past Congress has also blocked or allowed the sale of several decades, the systematic study of ethnic weapons to Israel and several Arab states. None of minority influence on U.S. foreign policy remains these examples are designed to prove directly that an incomplete enterprise. The current literature diasporic interests are powerful. Rather, they are lacks a systematic test of any of the criteria that are intended to demonstrate that Congress plays an thought to condition ethnic minority influence on important role on foreign policy issues that matter U.S. foreign policy. The current study is designed to ethnic identity groups. to test the proposition that ethnic identity group Should we expect then that campaign campaign contributions are capable of influencing contributions have an impact on congressional Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 171
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foreign policy decisions relating to diasporic from the Center for Responsive Politics and issues? Smith clearly answers the question of verified with Federal Elections Commission influence via contributions in the affirmative by mandatory filings. arguing, “Through contributing money to the campaigns of candidates for the presidency and FINDINGS Congress, ethnic activists have another valuable Our most surprising finding is a null finding. source of access to decision makers.” [7] While no Specifically, we found that campaign contributions diasporic PAC is among the top ten campaign had no statistically significant impact on the contributors, scholars often argue that diasporic propensity of Representatives to take the pro-Israel PAC money is comparatively easy to acquire position on the two amendments we examined. because of the relatively narrow focus of such PACs The coefficient signs, as expected, were negative, and the lack of competition (or at least the lack of indicating that the direction of any relationship is concentrated competition) on issues of importance in the predicted direction. However, when we to diasporic PACs. [8] In other words, the political examined the percentage chance of a change in cost of compliance with diasporic interest groups is vote for each thousand dollar increase in campaign low compared to the value of their campaign contributions, we found that the increase amounts contributions. to less than one tenth of one percent for each Our research hypothesis draws on the basic thousand-dollar increase in contributions. Clearly, theoretical proposition made by proponents of at least in this case, campaign contributions are not diasporic influence that campaign contributions capable of buying votes directly. are one way to influence congressional voting Amongst our control variables, only political behavior. Specifically, we argue that the probability party affiliation crossed the threshold of statistical that a Representative will act in a manner significance. As one might expect, the votes on consistent with the pro-Israel position will increase both of these amendments occurred, at least in as his/her campaign contributions from pro-Israel part, along party lines. Democrats were more PACs increases. likely to vote to restrict the President, while Republicans were more likely to vote against DATA AND METHOD restricting the President. The level of statistical The current study draws on a logistic (maximum significance for the party variable suggests that it likelihood) regression to test our hypothesis has the single strongest impact on vote choice. We concerning the impact of campaign contributions also included a variable measuring the famous on legislative behavior. The unit of analysis in the freshman effect (the idea that first-term logistic regression for the Cuban embargo is each Representatives vote differently than seasoned Representative's vote on two amendments to the Representatives). Our results suggest that the 2007 Defense Bill. One amendment would have freshman effect has little impact on vote choice on specifically blocked an invasion of Iran without the two amendments in question. prior congressional authorization. The second amendment would have blocked money from the CONCLUSIONS bill for being used to develop contingency plans for Overall, our results suggest that congressional an invasion of Iran. Both amendments were votes may be harder to purchase than is often opposed by the pro-Israel lobby on the basis that assumed in the literature. It is important to their passage would strengthen Iran. Both recognize, however, that our initial analysis for this Amendments failed. [9] The dependent variable in paper only covered two amendments to a single the Cuban analysis is the vote of each member of piece of legislation. Future research must expand the House of Representatives on each of the the scope of this test by examining other pieces of amendments. We code “yea” votes as 1 and “nay” legislation across multiple sessions of Congress. votes as 0. As a result, we expect the coefficient for This is especially true in light of previous findings pro-embargo PAC contributions to be negative. indicating that political action committee money The most important independent variable in can have an impact on votes in the House of the analysis is the amount of campaign Representatives. [11] contributions to each member of the House of Representatives from pro-Israel political actions ACKNOWLEDGMENTS committees during the 2006 election cycle (the last The authors would like to acknowledge the full election cycle before the vote). We measure University of South Carolina, Upstate for providing campaign contributions in thousands of dollars, research assistant funds to further this project. which aids in substantive interpretation of the statistical results. Contribution data are drawn 172 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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REFERENCES [1] Fuchs, Lawrence. H. 1959. “Minority Groups and Foreign Policy.” Political Science Quarterly 74(2):
161-175. [2] Smith, Tony. 2000. Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [3] Mearsheimer, John J. and Stephen M. Walt. 2006. “The Israel Lobby.” London Review of Books 28(6). [4] Meernik, James. 1993. “Presidential Support in Congress: Conflict and Consensus on Foreign and
Defense Policy. The Journal of Politics 55(3): 569- 587. [5] Hersman, Rebecca K.C. 2000. Friends and Foes: How Congress and the President Really Make Foreign Policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. [6] Carter, Ralph G. and James M. Scott. 2004. “Taking the Lead: Congressional Foreign Policy
Entrepreneurs in U.S. Foreign Policy.” Politics and Policy. Vol. 32(1): 34-70. [7] Smith, Tony 2000. IBID [8] Mearsheimer and Walt, 2006. IBID [9] House of Representative Roll Call Votes 364 and 365. May 16, 2007
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Strategic Human Resources Plan for the SWU Marketing Department Diana West, Joan Burgess, Leesa Inabinet, Susan Jones, Kirk Smith, and Lee Kizer School of Business Southern Wesleyan University 907 Wesleyan Drive, Central, SC 29630 {joan.burgess, leesa.inabinet, susan.jones, kirk.smith, Lee Kizer, diana.west}@mail.swu.edu
Abstract - The publication describes a proposed existing department, this decision would provide strategic human resources plan for developing a the greatest efficiency and functionality in the marketing department to serve the needs of Southern short term. Currently, the focus of our marketing Wesleyan University (SWU), a South Carolina based department is on the MBA program but may university with various satellite campuses. The emphasis of the publication is formulation of a plan expand into marketing all programs offered by the which enables Southern Wesleyan University to university in the future. This would require adding transition from an outsourced marketing department to a Vice President of Marketing position and several an internal marketing department. The proposed additional marketing specialist positions. marketing department would be phased in within a 33 week period using a systematic implementation JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN strategy. The first step toward our strategy implementation Keywords – strategy implementation, marketing is job analysis and job design necessary to perform department, organizational structure, human the needs of the marketing department. We will resources plan, employee recruitment take a motivational approach for our job design, focusing on job characteristics that affect INTRODUCTION psychological meaning and motivational potential [2]. The purpose of our work was to guide Southern The nine positions we would create in our Wesleyan University (SWU) in the transition from proposed marketing department include director an external marketing department to an internal of marketing, administrative assistant, marketing marketing department in a way that will provide a manager, creative manager, public relations competitive advantage over regional universities. manager, marketing specialist, campus recruiter, graphic design specialist and public relations STRATEGY FORMULATION specialist. If the marketing department grows large enough to include a Vice President of A SWOT analysis was conducted to determine the Marketing, we will add the following position to current Adult Graduate Student program’s the top of our departmental organizational chart. strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats in The Vice President of Marketing would report an effort to discover potentially untapped markets directly to the University President[3]. for student recruitment as well as untapped professional markets for recruitment of our HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING TIMELINE proposed marketing department employees [1]. In order to ensure our chances for successfully STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION transitioning from outsourced marketing to internal marketing, we will follow a systematic Our strategy is to develop an internal marketing implementation strategy. This systematic department for SWU that will be ready to assume implementation strategy will ensure that we marketing responsibilities for the university’s MBA address our true business needs and have all the program by August 31, 2009. The proposed resources needed to ensure an effective and organizational structure of SWU’s internal sustained implementation[4]. The following marketing department was developed based on timeline is provided to ensure that we have a functional similarity to the current structure. This focused project management approach to our structure reflects our recommendation to place implementation: SWU’s internal marketing department under the Vice President for Enrollment Services and Student Affairs. Beyond being a natural fit within this 174 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
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Weeks 1-8: Develop marketing department other organizational resources in developing our organizational structure, job analysis and design potential marketing department. and job descriptions. Present Human Resource (HR) strategic plan to the Dean of the Business ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS School who will present to upper management for approval. Receive personnel requisition from VP A deep and special thank you to all who of Enrollment Services (hiring manager) and post contributed to the writing of this paper and to Director of Marketing position on SWU website. Dean Royce Caines and Dr. Lee Kizer for the Advertise in related media sources. Screen opportunity to participate in the 5th Annual SC candidates who apply online and forward the top Upstate Research Symposium. ten qualified candidates to the hiring manager[5]. REFERENCES Weeks 9-16: Conduct phone interviews and narrow the applicant pool to the top five [1] Hollenbeck, Noe and Gerhart Wright: Human applicants. Top five candidates come to SWU Resource Management: Gaining a Competitive campus for tour and interviews. VP of Enrollment Advantage. Services selects the top two to three candidates for New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2008. second interview with the peer interview [2] College/University B. Personal Interview, December 17, 2008. committee. Top three candidates return for the [3] College/University A. Personal Interview, December second interview. VP of Enrollment Services 22, 2008. conducts reference checks on top two candidates. [4] HR Consultant A. Personal Interview, January 11, Hiring decision is made for the Director of 2009. Marketing position. VP of Enrollment Services [5] Latham, Debbie – Enrollment Representative, SWU consults with HR on salary offer and makes job Central Office, Personal Interview, offer to top candidate. 15 January 2009. [6] Studer, Quint. Hardwiring Excellence. Florida: Weeks 17-24: The remainder of the positions for Fire Starter Publishing, 2003. the proposed Marketing Department will be filled using the same process as described during weeks five to eight. The Director of Marketing begins development of a marketing strategic plan and works with the Director of Facilities to determine options for office space in Columbia, Greenville, Charleston, and Augusta for each Campus Recruiter. Offices for campus recruiters are confirmed and outfitted with furniture, computers, phones and necessary office equipment.
Weeks 25-33: Department orientation is planned for new employees who will begin work on August 31, 2009. Marketing Specialist, Campus Recruiters, Graphic Design Specialist and Public Relation Specialist begin work with first day of employment in new employee orientation. Implementation of marketing strategic plan begins with focus on marketing and recruitment of students for the next adult MBA program which begins in January, 2010[6].
CONCLUSIONS
During the process of carrying out our implementation strategies, we hope to generate new competitive advantages. We also plan to further capitalize on SWU’s human capital and
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The Classroom of the Future: Global, Interactive, Narrative Liezell Bradshaw1, Tasha Thomas2, and York Bradshaw3 1Office of Academic Affairs, 2Department of Languages, Literature & Composition, 3College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 {LBradshaw, TThomas, YBradshaw}@uscupstate.edu
Abstract — Schools, businesses, and other organizations Internet on a regular basis, well below the are increasingly aware that the world is more world average of 16.9 percent. By contrast, interconnected than ever before. Consequently, they twenty-four countries (primarily in Europe and are looking for ways to educate students, employees, North America) have Internet usage rates that and citizens about global processes, cultures, and exceed 60 percent and five are higher than 70 events. This paper discusses a “global classroom experience” that uses the Internet, digital storytelling, percent[2]. and interactive video conferences to teach students at more than 20 schools in three different countries. The The digital divide results in unequal access to project has produced a number of tangible benefits and resources that promote teaching and learning. also advanced theoretical and pedagogical models Students in developing countries have far less related to future classrooms. And, although the global access to computers, the Internet, software, classroom experience has been utilized primarily in digital cameras, and other technology. Lack of educational settings, it also has application to a wide access makes the digital divide even larger, variety of businesses and other organizations. Teachers, managers, organizational leaders, because so many educational resources are information technology specialists, and social scientists available on-line. This also places teachers in will find the results interesting and important. The developing regions at a disadvantage, as they paper also discusses how the experience can be struggle to gain access to the latest expanded in a way that may overcome some of the information, much of which is available over inequalities (such as lack of Internet access) that the Internet. prevent many citizens in the developing world from participating in the project. “Information poverty” in developing countries
is, according to some scholars, an ethical issue Keywords — Technology, Teaching, precisely because it is correlated with other Globalization, Poverty types poverty and under-development[3,4,5].
Accordingly, solving the problem of INTRODUCTION information poverty (a by-product of the
digital divide) is a matter of social justice. There is no question that information technology has altered the world economy in many ways[1]. This paper discusses a project that is attempting to International capital flows, global trade, education, “level the technology playing field” by including and the exchange of electronic information have under-represented populations in the U.S. and two changed the way that companies, schools, and other countries. businesses operate. Distance and place are less and less important as information technologies THE GLOBAL CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE facilitate connections between people and organizations, regardless of their geographic In 2002, a class at the University of Memphis and a location. The problem, of course, is that not class at the University of Pretoria in South Africa everyone has access to information technology initiated a “global classroom” experience that resources. included instruction through the Internet, digital Global inequalities in information technology photographs, and interactive video conferencing. raise several important issues: The successful project was relocated to the
University of South Carolina Upstate in 2004, Inequality has produced a global digital divide, where a class continued to work with a class at the in which some countries have much more University of Pretoria. Moreover, in 2005, access to information technology than other Spartanburg High School and the Pretoria High countries. Across Africa, for example, only 3.6 percent of the population is able to use the
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School for Girls started a similar project, which has are particularly valuable because they enable also been very successful. students to dialogue about topics that have Then, in an effort to reach even more young emerged during digital storytelling and people, the global classroom experience began in Internet discussions. The video conferences 2008 to add elementary and junior high students also enable students to virtually “meet” their to the list of participating schools. By 2009, the colleagues in other regions, an importance fact project included more than 800 students (grades as we strive to put a “face” on different cultures 3-12) in the following areas: around the world. Many students report that although they enjoy all aspects of the global An elementary school and a junior high school classroom experience, they are especially fond in Rancho Santa Fe, California. of the video conferences. Three elementary schools, two junior high schools, and two high schools in Spartanburg, There three experiences lead to a dynamic South Carolina. multimedia experience that fits into the “standards An elementary school and a junior high school curriculum” required by schools and teachers. in Baltimore, Maryland. Five elementary schools, five junior high LESSONS LEARNED schools, and two high schools in South Africa (in different regions of the country). On the positive side, the global classroom An elementary school, a junior high school, experience has been embraced by a wide variety of and a high school in Nairobi, Kenya. schools. Although our students come from diverse economic, regional, and ethnic backgrounds, the The students participate in several different types majority of students are from under-represented of activities, divided into appropriate age groups populations. This experience has provided (grades 3-4, 5-6, 7-9, high school): important instruction in the fields of writing, technology, critical thinking, global knowledge, and cultural diversity. Again, teachers are pleased Global discussions over the Internet. On that they can fit the global classroom experience dedicated Blackboard sites, the students into the regular curriculum that is assessed by a participate in regular international discussion well-defined set of “standards.” on topics related to academics, politics, All of the students, but especially those from popular culture, entertainment, sports, and economically challenged schools and regions, have similar topics. Each student is encouraged to benefited from the experience because it has participate in such discussions at least once a broadened their horizons. Many young students week. Teachers monitor the discussions and have never been outside of their state or even city, pose appropriate questions. Students learn a much less to another country. This experience has great deal from each other on both academic introduced them to an entirely new world, one that and nonacademic topics. has similarities and differences compared to home.
It has also introduced them to a new set of friends Compose digital stories that are shared cross- and colleagues in different regions of the world. culturally. For a period of 8-10 weeks, the Moreover, teachers have also benefitted from the students formulate digital stories that are experience. Instead of asking students to read shared on the global classroom web site. The about different cultures and lifestyles, teachers and theme of the first round of digital stories was, students alike experience these differences. “The Place I’m From” (mini-autobiographies) The global classroom experience uses and the theme of the latest round is, information technology to disseminate knowledge, “Improving Our World” (looking at different provide new experiences, and, in a very real sense, ways to help the world). The digital stories are shrink the world for young students. The an especially effective teaching tool because experience teaches that people share many they improve writing, facilitate cross-cultural similarities and can appreciate their differences as communication and learning, and promote well. technology literacy. On the negative side, the digital divide
prevents many young people from participating in Participate in interactive video conferences. the global classroom experience. Although we have Once or twice a term, students participate in included large numbers of children from under- live, interactive video conferences with other represented populations, we are not able to include students around the world. These conferences many others. In South Africa, Kenya, and other Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant. 177
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developing countries, the vast majority of schools do not have adequate computer labs and Internet access. Many rural schools do not even have electricity. So, we are working to provide software, hardware, and Internet access for schools. We are trying to narrow the digital divide and thereby reduce information poverty, but we realize that this is a challenge that is far beyond the scope of this project.
CONCLUSIONS
The global classroom experience has introduced a unique learning experience into more than 20 schools across three countries. Information technology has introduced a paradox. On the one hand, it has enabled a number of schools in the U.S. and Africa to become more integrated into the world system. It has also transformed their classrooms, introducing multimedia instruction in a global context. On the other hand, information technology has widened the gap between the “haves” and “have nots” across countries. Schools without access to computers and the Internet are left out, underscoring the information poverty that characterizes the current structure of the world system. This challenge can be addressed through the introduction of critical infrastructure, training, and education, all of which will bring additional opportunity and knowledge to people in developing countries[6].
REFERENCES
[1] S. Sassen. Cities in a World Economy, 3rd edition, Pine Forge Press, 2007. [2] Internet World Stats., 2007, www.internetworldstats .com/stats.htm
[3] R. Capurro, “Ethical Challenges of the Information Society in the 21st Century,” International Information and Library Review, vol. 32(3-4), pp. 257-276, 2000. [4] J. Britz, “To Know or not to Know: A Moral Reflection on Information Poverty,” Journal of Information Science, vol. 30(1),pp. 192-204, 2004. [5] J. Britz and J. Blignaut, “Information Poverty and Social Justice,” South African Journal of Library and Information, vol. 67(2), pp. 63-69, 2001. [6] Y. Bradshaw, J. Britz, T. Bothma, C. Bester, “Using Information Technology to Create Global Classrooms: Benefits and Ethical Dilemmas,” International Review of Information Ethics, vol. 7(09/2007), pp. 1-9), 2007.
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March 27th, 2009
A Descriptive Analysis of Quality Online Practices as Perceived by West Virginia Higher Education Faculty Michael H. Murphy Department of Teacher Education Lander University 320 Stanley Avenue, Greenwood, SC 29649 [email protected]
Abstract — In 2007, a non-parametric study was struggling for classroom space and funding. conducted that examined the extent West Virginia However, this “new frontier” of learning generates higher education faculty agreed their online courses important questions about whether or not the reflected quality online practices. These online Internet can provide the same quality of learning practices were identified by an extensive literature review for the development, delivery and teaching, in and academic standards that are prevalent in the an online educational environment. The identified traditional institutional setting. In fact, many quality practices were: support, collaboration and faculty lament the fact that online educational teamwork, flexibility, feedback, assessment and adult environments are springing up on the Internet are learning techniques. The study incorporated measures not reliable resources for accredited degrees. Thus, of central tendency and the Kruskal Wallace test for due to the onset of numerous online educational significance to analyze the data. The instrument used environments outside of established accredited in the research was a cross-sectional, self-reporting institutions, inconsistencies in the quality online survey. The participants of the study were West education have compelled higher education Virginia higher education faculty who taught in online environments during 2006. Results of the survey accreditation associations to assess online teaching yielded that overall West Virginia higher education environments. As far back as 1998, the Council for faculty agreed their online courses reflected quality Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) [4] made online practices; however, further analysis revealed recommendations for online learning faculty do not agree with all of the quality online environments. In more recent years the Institute practices targeted within the survey. There is evidence for Higher Education Policy (IHEP) [5] and the from the study that indicate the areas of institutional Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) [6] support, collaboration and teamwork and areas of have proposed recommendations for quality online assessment are not well utilized by faculty. These areas practices for Internet based learning. of disagreement with quality online practices provides It is important to note that faculty are valuable information there is an ongoing need for sustainable professional development and mentoring responsible for the delivery of online instruction opportunities for online faculty. and higher education faculty must be rigorous in providing quality educational opportunities to Keywords — Online education, Quality online students. Highly effective instructional practices practices. are and will continue to be faculty roles. An INTRODUCTION extensive review of relevant literature indicates The explosive growth of online degree programs in that a limited amount of research has been the past few years has fundamentally altered the conducted examining faculty experiences in quality practice of distance education and has provided online education. In fact, there has been far more new methods for delivering higher education support and research gathered on student online. The Sloan consortium [1],[2],[3] suggested experiences in online instruction. If faculty that over 2.6 million students enrolled in online members understand that teaching online can education courses in the fall of 2004. As more provide a sound educational opportunity and can college students turn to online educational enhance the learning experience in higher environments, it has become necessary for higher education, then they will value it as a teaching education institutions to adjust their delivery instrument. methods. Educators are redefining the physical This study was conducted to examine the space of the classroom with the World Wide Web extent to which West Virginia higher education and with communities of learning residing within faculty agree their online courses reflect best cyberspace. practices, as identified by the literature, for Thus, instruction is not bound by time and teaching in an online educational environment. physical space; learning opportunities can exist The identified best practices are: (a) support, (b) anywhere, and at any time. This idea can be a collaboration and teamwork, (c) flexibility, (d) cathartic revelation to institutions that are
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feedback, (e) assessment, and (f) adult learning was also disagreement that institutions provide the techniques. infrastructure and policies needed to have a quality This research was non-parametric and online education. Throughout the data, the descriptive in nature. Data were acquired from the respondents to the study appeared to utilize the survey respondents gained from the 12 West quality online practices of feedback, flexibility, Virginia four year colleges that participated in the assessment, faculty support, technological support, study. Of the 545 faculty selected to participate in and adult learning techniques. Nonetheless, there the study, 290 returned the Survey of Online is evidence from the survey results that indicate the Educational Practices in the first mailing. This areas of institutional support, collaboration and represented 53% of the sample population. teamwork and even areas of assessment are not Although the mailings resulted in 290 returned well utilized by faculty. Therefore, although not surveys, the number of responses for each statistically conclusive, it is implied from this study statement on the survey varied due to the nature of that these areas of quality online educational a self-reported survey where some of the practices are not being fully integrated in West participants chose not to respond to every item. Virginia online educational opportunities. The analyses of the data collected from the Even though it is true that no solitary online survey utilized descriptive statistics for measures instructional practice or strategy is superior to any of central tendency for individual statements and other online practice; there are quality online composite groups of statements for testing of the practices that are supported by educational research question. These measurements provided literature [1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]. Furthermore, an overall representation of the extent West within this study, the areas of institutional support, Virginia higher education faculty agreed their collaboration and teamwork and areas of online courses reflected best practices as defined assessment are not well utilized by faculty in by the literature review. higher education facilities in West Virginia. These Furthermore, the demographic data were areas of disagreement with quality online practices analyzed across all grouped years of teaching in provide valuable information that there is an higher education, grouped years of teaching online, ongoing need for sustainable professional job classification (tenured and non-tenured) and development and mentoring opportunities for job status (full time and part-time). The Kruskal- online faculty. There is also a need for institutions Wallis test for significance was used to determine if to provide policies and procedures that are each of these categories yielded significance reviewed and revised by faculty and other higher between groups on the 24 individual statements education stakeholders on a regular basis due to and groups within the Survey of Online the ever-changing nature of technology and online Educational Practices. education. REFERENCES CONCLUSIONS [1] Sloan-Consortium (2002) Elements of Quality Online High quality in online teaching requires more than Education. SCOLE Publishing, Needham, MA. [2] Sloan-Consortium. (2005).Growing by Degrees: Online supplying a set of assignments to students and Education in the United States, 2005. Retrieved on May 5, testing their ability to retain information. Quality 2006 from: http://www.sloan- online practices require practical virtual classroom c.org/publications/survey/pdf/growing_by_degrees.pdf skills and a deep understanding of various [3] Sloan-Consortium (2004) Entering the Mainstream: The quality and Extent of Online Education in the United instructional methods and techniques to help States, 2003 and 2004. Retrieved on January 17, 2005 students learn. Based on the statistical findings, from: http://www.sloan- conclusions yielded that overall West Virginia c.org/publications/survey/pdf/entering_mainstream.pdf higher education faculty agreed with the [4] Council for Higher Education Accreditation [CHEA](1998). Assuring quality in distance learning. statements on the Survey of Online Educational Washing, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy. Practices that their courses reflected quality online Retrived April, 8, 2005 from: practices as supported by the comprehensive http://www.chea.org/untitled_folder/Chronicle/vol1/no11 literature review. The Likert rating scale utilized in /index.cfm. [5] Institution of Higher Education Policy [IHEP] (2000). the study yielded a composite mean of 3.75 and a Quality on the line: Benchmarks for the success in mode of (5) “Agree. Internet-base distance education. Retrieved March 25, Although there is overall agreement that West 2005 from: http://www.ihep.com/Pubs/PDF/Quality.pdf Virginia higher education faculty adhere to quality [6] Southern Regional Education Board (2001). Principles of Good Practice: Educational Technology Cooperative. online practices as delineated in the literature; participants in the study indicated a number of disagreements with the literature concerning their use of quality online educational practices. There 180 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
Undergraduate Community Translators and Interpreters: Professional Foreign Language Practice in Non-Profit, Food Service, and Health Care at Home and Abroad
Douglas A. Jackson, Instructor of Spanish, USC Upstate Kayla Crim, Spanish Education Major William Davis, Biology Major & Spanish Minor Dierrias Booker, English Major & Spanish Translation/Interpreting Minor Eric Guerrero, Nursing Major & Spanish Translation/Interpreting Minor Melissa Trejo, Nursing Major & Spanish Translation/Interpreting Minor Languages, Literature and Composition University of South Carolina Upstate 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303 [email protected]
Abstract - The ever-increasing Spanish-speaking The skills necessary to become a professional population of the Upstate of South Carolina is forcing translator or interpreter are very technical in local enterprises to provide bilingual services for nature. Therefore, additional training beyond the community outreach, customer service, and medical introductory level is truly necessary to purposes. The need for bilingual professionals has never been more in demand. Is your language professionalize our students’ ability to become department addressing this need? Is your nearest employed in this area. Several local and regional competitor doing it for you? Is anyone meeting it? organizations have requested assistance in offering This presentation will focus on how to establish access to their services in Spanish. The presenters practical learning experiences for students while have participated in at least one inter-active simultaneously meeting local demand for community program that serves to perfect the abilities that the interpreters. Through collaborations between local Spanish translator and interpreter must possess. organizations, technical colleges, and other on-campus departments, students at the University of South SECTION TWO Carolina Upstate are serving the Spanish-speaking population, providing bilingual services for businesses, USC Upstate has been involved in Habitat for and gaining practical professional experience while Humanity of Spartanburg for several years. completing coursework. Examples of student Community outreach and service form the basic internships and service projects will be highlighted to elements of our students’ learning experience. exhibit how to develop a sustainable community During the fall of 2008 Melissa Trejo worked five interpreting program. hours per week to provide translation and Spanish language services to Habitat for Humanity of Keywords — Translation, Interpreting, Foreign Spartanburg County. She provided a translation of Languages. the handbook, several applications, and other documentation. Additionally, she initiated the INTRODUCTION process of providing outreach to the Spanish- The University of South Carolina Upstate began speaking population in Spartanburg County. offering a minor in Spanish Translation and Melissa dedicated another 5 hours per week to Interpreting in the fall of 2007 after several one- provide documentation in Spanish for a non-profit time only courses in translation and interpreting organization in Tucson, AZ. Melissa worked with were offered to test the level of student interest in former Peace Corps volunteers to offer services to this area of study. Many upper-level Spanish victims of domestic violence. The non-profit students registered for these developmental organization Safety Connections desperately courses, so the minor coursework was developed to needed to be able to offer applications and diversify professional Spanish course offerings in questionnaires to its users. Melissa completed the Language, Literature and Composition these tasks and her documents are now being used Department. Since its inception, student interest by both organizations. in SSPN 311: Introduction to Non-Literary Translation and SSPN 312: Introduction to SECTION THREE Interpreting has continued to grow. Anyone who has worked in the food service industry has had to watch a video on how to prep
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the dishes served by their restaurant. A regional SECTION FIVE fried chicken chain needed to offer their videos in Studying abroad is key to the success of any Spanish for the increasing number of Spanish student of translation and interpreting. Giving our speaking employees working in the kitchen. A Spanish students the opportunity to attend any local media specialist contacted Douglas A. conference is good, however the opportunity to Jackson regarding the translation of the script and attend and international conference in Spanish in the voice-over for the videos. Mexico is best. In the name of offering a real-life job for the The Organización de Traductores Mexicanos SSPN 311: Introduction to Non-Literary holds its annual conference in Guadalajara, Mexico Translation class in the spring of 2008, the job was each November. During the fall of 2008 William converted into a class project. Students were Davis accompanied Douglas A. Jackson to attend assigned short segments of text in groups of two approximately twelve sessions on the intricacies of translators. A project manager was assigned to working in the international translation and supervise student work, quality control and interpreting field. Some presentation topics organization of the translated script. Melissa Trejo covered Biblical Translation, Quality Control, provided the voice-over and dubbing and Eric Teaching Translation, Teaching Simultaneous Guerrero focused on finalizing document editing. Interpreting, Legal Interpreting, and Media Students gained a valuable experience in project Translation. Few undergraduates get the management, invoicing, and media translation opportunity to participate in international while providing a necessary service to a regional conferences, but USC Upstate has already started company. making these educational opportunities for its students. SECTION FOUR For the last four years Greenville Technical CONCLUSIONS College’s Physical Therapy Assistant program has An additional course entitled SSPN 411: been offering a two-hour intensive Spanish course Professional Translation should be offered as part for its graduates. Douglas A. Jackson began of the sequence for the Minor in Translation and offering this course as a volunteer in 2006 without Interpreting. Not all students of this program have any USC Upstate student involvement. The or will have participated in a professionalization of teacher-student ratio was 1 to 18. The group their skills. For this reason the most logical step is proved to be too large. By 2007, two USC Upstate to progress toward a more advanced course in the students who were participating in an Honors field that requires some sort of internship or section of SSPN 312 assisted in providing language professional practicum. training to the Physical Therapy Assistants. The smaller group activities were much more conducive ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to language acquisition, but were still too large We would like to thank Dr. Sebastian van Delden with a ratio of 7 students to each teacher. of the Center for Undergraduate Research and For the fall semester of 2008, the entire SSPN Scholarship at USC Upstate, Dr. Laura Puckett- 312 class visited the Greer Campus of Greenville Boler of the Student and Diversity Affairs Office at Technical College to provide language training. USC Upstate, Ms. Alicia Dittmar of The Greenville With 12 Spanish students and 24 Physical Therapy Technical College Physical Therapy Program, and Assistant students, the ratio was reduced to two all participating students for their vision, students per teacher; an optimum efficiency professionalism and economic support of these proportion. The feedback from Greenville projects. Technical College students and USC Upstate students was very positive. USC Upstate students Dierrias Booker and Kayla Crim both participated in the event and gained verisimilar experience working as interpreters. This seminar will continue to be offered in this format in the future. By placing students in the role of the instructor they achieve mastery level of the bilingual human anatomy and ambulatory phrases section of the seminar curriculum.
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March 27th, 2009
The Marketing and Enrollment Department for Adult MBA Graduate Studies Strategic Human Resources Plan Barbara Peters, Zeolean Kinard, Deborah Williams, Mamie Whitiker, Howard Green, and Lee Kizer Adult and Graduate Studies Southern Wesleyan University Business Department 907 Wesleyan Drive, Central, SC 29630 {bpeters, lkizer}@swu.edu
Abstract — After recognizing and categorizing the opportunities and threats would be identified and educational needs in the upstate South Carolina area, a prioritized. As part of the SWOT analysis, alumni new initiative was proposed to create a department in and business/industry managers would be order to develop, market and grow the adult MBA surveyed to properly determine the extent of graduate program at Southern Wesleyan University. This research document outlines the Strategic Plan and program interest and the expectations of potential the key points that must be addressed in the areas of students and businesses in the area. Based on the SWOT Analysis, Best Practice Studies and job design. initial analysis, facilities in five counties would need to be in place to support all programs and Keywords —Strategy Formulation, SWOT activities required. A plan to partner with local analysis, best practices, strategy implementation technical colleges for facility and desk use would be implemented as part of the initial strategy INTRODUCTION formulation
Southern Wesleyan University’s Institutional BEST-PRACTICES ANALYSIS Vision and Mission Statements [1] are dynamic documents that provide for a foundation of focus Other area institutions that offer an MBA program on growth in order to meet the educational and to adult learners would be researched to determine spiritual needs of individuals and upstate the “best practices” employed by them in order to communities. After categorizing these needs, a complete a successful recruiting program.[3] new initiative was proposed to create a department Support services from the Human Resources in order to market and grow the Adult Graduate Department will be established in order to reach Studies for the MBA Program. This research implementation at the most effective pace. document outlines the strategic plan and key Attention will be focused on the type of points that must be addressed in the areas of databases that are used by other successful SWOT Analysis, Best Practice Studies and job universities and colleges in order to collect design. information and to identify and track prospects. The types of software support systems used to turn STRATEGY FORMULATION recruitment prospects into enrollees of the MBA program will be researched and compared to the In order to meet this initiative, certain parameters initial goals and needs of each institution. This need to be established and the service area must be software should ideally contain recruiter support in defined to properly access the needs of the project. case management. The goal of the new MBA AGS Recruiting Department is to be fully operational by August 31, STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION 2009. In addition, within the first year, the MBA JOB ANALYSIS AGS program is to increase enrollment by 25%. To enable a successful implementation of this plan, a The Human Resource Department, in conjunction start up budget of $3,700,000 is set for the first with the President’s Cabinet, defines the job year. requirements for the Director of Marketing and Enrollment, MBA AGS Department. The SWOT ANALYSIS knowledge, skills, and other abilities required for this position will be detailed using the data The next step in the Strategy Formulation would be collected through the SWOT analysis and study of to perform a SWOT analysis [2]of the needs in the Best Practices. service area. The strengths, weaknesses,
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The newly appointed Director of the MBA AGS qualified job seeking market. Alumni will be Department will then work with the Human specifically targeted for these career opportunities Resource Department to finalize the human along with recommendations from faculty and resource needs of the department. Similar university supporters. All candidates must positions within SWU will be used as a guide for complete the SWU application of employment and development of the MBA AGS department’s needs. give evidence of a Christian testimony and of a willingness to support the beliefs and practices of JOB DESIGN the campus community. Situational interviews with quantitative ratings will be used. The Based on the data collected through the process of administration of personality tests will be a part of job analysis, the following positions will be this interview process. necessary to create the new department that could The position of Director will be the only function effectively as soon as the implementation position that will be interviewed by the President’s process was complete.[4] council in addition to a six-panel team. The Director of Marketing and Enrollment of the Recruitment Coordinator, Recruiters, and other Master of Business Adult Graduate Studies departmental positions will be interviewed by a Program (MBS AGS Program): This position will six-panel team that will include the newly report directly to the President of the University. appointed Director. This is the key position that will provide direction, The orientation program will consist of a study leadership and guidance for the new statewide of the Southern Wesleyan University’s policies and program. Strong marketing skills are necessary procedure manual and review of the along with a knowledge of technology-oriented Discrimination and Sexual Harassment Policies. operations. Employees are required to attend training in both Recruitment Coordinator: The position will cultural diversity and technology during first year report to the Director of Marketing and of employment. As in all orientations, special Enrollment. The responsibilities will include the attention will focus on the universities Mission supervision of all recruiters. Compiling and Statement, Vision, and Christian Values. Specific reporting recruiting data will be an important job duty training and objectives will be conducted function of this position. Training of recruiters and by Human Resources and the MBA AGS follow-up student interviews will also be among the Department Director. primary duties of this position. This position will ensure a transition from a prospective to an COMPENSATION enrolled student. Marketing Tech Support Administration: This A regular benefit package is a part of the planed position will involve website design and compensation and is the same as offered to all maintenance and will communicate all SWU employees that include a competitive pay advertisements through all media including web structure. Incentive raises are based on meeting advertising as well as the traditional paths. performance objectives and will be reviewed Other Positions may be incorporated into the annually. In addition, a recruiting bonuses [5] will already established support departments within be a part of the performance by objective rewards the university. These positions would include the system. The bonus would only be earned if the accountant, administrative assistant and help desk specific goal set was met and the funding would be support. calculated from the result of meeting that goal. Recruiter bonus will be based on a goal of 250- HUMAN RESOURCE RECRUITMENT, SELECTION student enrollment increase with each tuition AND TRAINING being an average of $16,000.00. The 2.5% bonus
would be calculated from the tuition increase. The first priority is to establish a timeline of activities for the August 31st deadline of full CONCLUSION departmental implementation. Concurrently, the Campuses today are made up of traditional establishment of an internship program with current SWU students will also be implemented in students recently graduated from high school as order to assist in the development of the MBA AGS well as adults returning back to campus, or actually department. beginning their college experience for the first Recruitment methods will be employed on time. There are now a growing number of adults both an internal and external level in order to focused on taking their education to the master’s maximize awareness to a large portion of the level. The focus of these adult students is different 184 Sponsors: Stäubli, Spartanburg Regional Healthcare System, EPSCoR/IDeA RS grant.
March 27th, 2009
from their traditional counter-parts. The university that successfully captures this market and swells its enrollment will be the one that can adapt the teaching methods and curriculum design to fit into an adult schedule and environment, without compromising on the quality of education offered to the adult student. This package must then be successfully marketed to the potential student. SWU’s strategic plan to create a marketing and enrollment Department for the MBA AGS program will place the university at the cutting edge of this growing adult graduate degree market.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.swu.edu/about/history.htm [2] Noe, Raymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, Patrick M. Wright. Human Resource Management Gaining a Competitive Advantage. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2008. [3] http://business.clemson.edu/mba/Career/Guide [4] http://careers.stateuniversity.com/Recruiter.html . [5]http://www.indeed.com/salary?q1=College+Recruite r&l1=South+Carolina+
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