Pan Africa News
TheThe Newsletter Newsletter of the of theCommittee Committee for forthe theCare Care andand Conservation Conservation of ofChimpanzees, Chimpanzees, and and the the MahaleMahale Wildlife Wildlife Conservation Conservation Society Society
JUNE 2007 VOL. 14, NO. 1
P. A. N. EDITORIAL STAFF Contents
Chief Editor:
Acknowledgments. We thank the Republic of Senegal and
REFERENCES 1 2 1. McGrew WC, Marchant LF 1997. On the other hand: Tetsuya Sakamaki , Michio Nakamura , 3 Current issues in and meta-analysis of the behavioral laterality Toshisada Nishida of hand function in nonhuman primates. Yearb Phys Anthropol 1. Faculty of International Studies, Meiji Gakuin University, Japan 40: 201-232. 2. Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Japan 2. McGrew WC, Marchant LF 1996. On which side of the 3. Japan Monkey Centre, Japan apes? Ethological study of laterality of hand use. In: Great Ape Societies, McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T (eds), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 255-272. Assessing behavioral diversity is key to investigating 3. Marchant LF, McGrew WC 1996. Laterality of limb the existence of culture in wild chimpanzees and function in wild chimpanzees of Gombe National Park: determining their ability to adapt to various environments1. Comprehensive study of spontaneous activities. J Hum Evol 30: 427-443. However, most evidence of behavioral diversity among 4. Boesch C 1991. Handedness in wild chimpanzees. Int J chimpanzees has come from comparisons of distantly Primatol 12: 541-558. separated populations2. Although a few reports have 5. Sugiyama Y, Fushimi T, Sakura O, Matsuzawa T 1993. suggested differences in social customs between two Hand preference and tool use in wild chimpanzees. Primates 34: 151-159. neighboring unit groups3, 4, these studies were retrospective 6. Byrne RW, Byrne JME 1993. Complex leaf-gathering skills comparisons using photographs. Thus, a need exists to of mountain gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei): Variability and investigate whether any behavioral differences occur standardization. Am J Primatol 31: 241-261. 7. Corp N, Byrne RW 2002. Leaf processing by wild between neighboring groups sharing a similar environment. chimpanzees: Physically defended leaves reveal complex We report preliminary evidence of new feeding habits by manual skills. Ethology 108: 673-696. chimpanzees that we are habituating, habits that differ 8. Goodall J 1963. Feeding behaviour of wild chimpanzees. A preliminary report. Symp Zool Soc Lond 10: 39-47. from those of a neighboring group in the Mahale 9. McGrew WC, Marchant LF 1992. Chimpanzees, tools, and Mountains National Park, Tanzania. termites: Hand preference or handedness? Curr Anthropol 33: 114-119. A new unit group under habituation 10. Lonsdorf EV, Hopkins WD 2005. Wild chimpanzees show Several different unit groups of chimpanzees live in population-level handedness for tool use. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 12634-12638. Mahale Mountains National Park. Intense studies of two 11. Pruetz JD 2006. Feeding ecology of savanna chimpanzees neighboring unit groups, in particular the K and M groups, (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal. In: Feeding have been conducted since 19655. The K group was Ecology in Apes and Other Primates: Ecological, Physical and Social Aspects, Hohmann G, Robbins MM, Boesch C (eds), declared extinct in the 1980s, leaving the M group as the New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 161-182. only habituated chimpanzees in the park6. However, one 12. McGrew WC, Pruetz JD, Fulton SJ 2005. Chimpanzees adult male of the K group, Limongo, was observed in the use tools to harvest social insects at Fongoli, Senegal. Folia Primatol 76: 222-226. former range of the K group in the 1980s and 1990s7. In 13. Altmann J 1974. Observational study of behaviour: the late 1990s, unhabituated chimpanzees were observed sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-265. and heard occasionally in the former range of the K group8. We started habituating these chimpanzees in 2005. After two observational periods (September
4 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007
2005–February 2006 and September 2006–December suggesting that at least some chimpanzees of the Y group 2006), we concluded that the group we were habituating eat the young liana stems constantly and spit out the was different from the former K group because we were wadges. unable to positively confirm individuals from the former K group, such as Limongo. Thus, we named this group the Y group (representing the Miyako group). Judging from some indirect evidence so far, such as vocalizations and food remnants, we assumed that the Y group occupied about the half of the former K-group range. Although the maximum number of individuals directly observed at any one time was eight, we heard loud calls exchanged from other parties. Based on these calls, we estimated a group size of about 50 chimpanzees.
Evidence of feeding on wood-boring ants, Camponotus Fig. 1. A wadge of young stems of Cissus oliveri liana, chewed brutus and spit out presumably by a Y group chimpanzee In October 2005, we noticed Camponotus brutus ants It is only natural to presume that potential food in the feces of Y-group chimpanzees. These large reddish species are not very different among groups, considering ants inhabit the ranges of both the M and Y group; that the range of the Y group is almost identical to the half however, the M group chimpanzees only rarely eat them. of the former K-group range and is adjacent to and partly The ants are extremely aggressive and powerful, making it overlaps M group’s range. We confirmed this with data on difficult to catch and eat them without getting hurt. The the diet of the K and M groups10. Therefore, our findings chimpanzees typically eat a related species, C. vividus, strongly suggest that the Y group has developed a different using a strip of bark fiber or other item as a tool to fish 9 dietary preference that cannot simply be explained by the them out of their tunnels . availability of food species. Moreover, the relative In the 2006 season, however, we identified C. brutus abundance of these new food items throughout the range ants in at least 21 of 41 fecal samples, suggesting that the indicates that they are consumed in common by Y group ants are a common food item for Y-group chimpanzees. members. We have not yet confirmed their feeding techniques, but In future work, we need to confirm (via direct given the aggressive nature of these ants and the large observation) the techniques with which the Y-group number consumed, the chimpanzees may use some kind of chimpanzees harvest and eat these new food items. tool to harvest these ants. Although we are still in the process of habituating and Evidence of eating young stems of liana, Cissus oliveri identifying individual chimpanzees of this group, we In September 2006, we found some unknown fibrous expect to find more behavioral diversity across wadges from chimpanzees. We identified them in the field neighboring unit groups. as a type of vine or liana, but could not specify the species. Acknowledgments. This research was financially supported by a Later, we found half-chewed leaves that were similar to the Grant for the Biodiversity Research of the 21st Century COE wadges (Fig. 1). These were young stems of Cissus oliveri (A14) and MEXT (16255007 and 19255008 to TN and 16770186 liana, which are rarely eaten by chimpanzees of the M and to MN). We thank the COSTECH, TAWIRI, TANAPA, MMNP, 10 and MMWRC for permission to conduct the fieldwork and for K groups , even though the plant is abundant throughout logistical support. most of their ranges. Throughout the remainder of the study period, we found 23 more wadges of C. oliveri, REFERENCES Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 5
1. Boesch C, Hohmann G, Marchant LF (eds) 2002. 40 years1. We noticed a skin disease developing among Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. some members of M group in 2001 and 2002. 2. Whiten A, Goodall J, McGrew WC, Nishida T, Reynolds V, Sugiyama Y, Tutin CEG, Wrangham RW, Boesch C 1999. Table 1. List of chimpanzees that suffered from dermatophytosis Minimum Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399: 682–685. First day Last day duration Individual Age & Sex dermatophytosis dermatophytosis (Days) of 3. McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Scott SE, Tutin CEG 2001. observed observed Intergroup differences in a social custom of wild chimpanzees: suffering The grooming hand-clasp of the Mahale Mountains. Curr Caesar infant male May 10, 2001 May 29, 2001 20 Anthropol 42: 148–153. Ruby adult female May 21, 2001 Jun. 3, 2001 14
4. Nakamura M, Uehara S 2004. Proximate factors of two types Rubicon infant female Jun. 3, 2001 Jul. 2, 2001 29 of grooming-hand-clasp in Mahale chimpanzees: Implication for Michio juvenile male Aug.30, 2001 Oct. 3, 2001 35 chimpanzee social custom. Curr Anthropol 45: 108–114. Alofu adult male Sep. 9, 2001 Oct. 3, 2001 25 5. Nishida T (ed) 1990. The chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains: Sexual and life history Strategies. University of Darwin adolescent male Sep.16, 2001 Oct. 9, 2001 24 Tokyo Press, Tokyo. Jiddah juvenile female Sep.16, 2001 Oct. 2, 2001 17
6. Nishida T, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M, Hasegawa T, Takahata Y Miya adult female Sep.21, 2001 Sep.30, 2001 10 1985. Group extinction and female transfer in wild chimpanzees Cadmus adolescent male Sep.25, 2001 Oct. 3, 2001 9 in the Mahale National Park, Tanzania. Z Tierpsychol 67: 284–301. Aqua infant female Sep.29, 2001 Sep.30, 2001 2 7. Uehara S, Nishida T, Takasaki H, Kitopeni R, Kasagula MB, Ivana juvenile female Nov. 8, 2001 Nov.21, 2001 14 Norikoshi K, Tsukahara T, Nyundo R, Hamai M 1994. A lone Cynthia adult female May 18, 2002 May 18, 2002 1 male chimpanzee in the wild: The survivor of a disintegrated Xmas juvenile male Oct. 4, 2002 Oct. 4, 2002 1 unit-group. Primates 35: 275–281.
8. Uehara S 2002. Evidence of the leaf-clipping behavior by chimpanzee of an unhabituated group at Mahale. Pan Afr News 9: RK observed M group chimpanzees for the whole 3–4. years of 2001 and 2002, SF from June to October 2001, 9. Nishida T, Hiraiwa M 1982. Natural history of a tool-using TM from September 2000 to June 2001, TN from behavior by wild chimpanzees in feeding upon wood-boring ants. J Hum Evol 11: 73–99. September to October 2001 and from September to 10. Nishida T, Uehara S 1983. Natural diet of chimpanzees November 2002, and MS from September 2001 to October (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Long-term record from the 2002. We recorded any observable injuries, disease Mahale Mountains, Tanzania. Afr Study Monogr 3: 109–130. symptoms such as coughing, and abnormalities of the skin,
faces and eyes. On May 10, 2001, we first noticed that an infant
Toshisada Nishida1, Shiho Fujita2, skin disease. Takahisa Matsusaka1, Masaki Shimada3, Table 1 shows the first and last observed dates of the 4 Rashidi Kitopeni disease in 13 individuals. Its occurrence biased to seasons 1. Japan Monkey Centre, Japan with high humidity might suggest a fungal infection, so 2. Yamaguchi University, Japan that the disease may be some form of dermatophytosis. 3. University of Shiga Prefecture, Japan 4. Mahale Mountains Chimpanzee Research Project, Tanzania Victims were from all age-sex classes and no conspicuous age or sex differences were found (1 of 8 adult males, 3 of The chimpanzees of the Kasoje area in the Mahale 20 adult females, 2 of 5 adolescent males, 0 of 2 adolescent Mountains National Park have been studied for more than females, 2 of 2 juvenile males, 2 of 3 juvenile females, 1 of
6 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007
3 infant males, 2 of 10 infant females). These 12 chimpanzees had dermatophytosis on their faces, in particular, upper lip, nose, cheek, and supraorbital ridge (Fig.1). The exception was Michio, who had a white mark on the back of his hand, as well as a white face. Although we could not always check all individuals during the study periods, it was likely that the skin disease lasted several weeks (minimum, median = 14 days) for each victim and the longest span was 35 days. The infectious nature of the disease was inferred from the victims being concentrated to the short period of September to October, 2001 and from the Fig. 1. Dermatophytosis on the faces of the Mahale M-group chimpanzees. See the text for details. close relationships among at least some victims: for example, Miya is the mother of Michio, and 2
The sanctuary was created by their infants, and youngsters who Les Amis des Animaux au Congo had been “weaned” from human (AAC; “Friends of Animals in substitute mothers lived together. Congo”), a Congolese organization The first group, consisting of 15 created in 1994 by Ms André3. She individuals, used one of the large organized the AAC to support enclosures. The second group, animals in the Kinshasa Zoo. Soon consisting of 13 individuals, used afterwards, an illegally owned the other large enclosure. The third bonobo was confiscated in group, consisting of 11 individuals, Fig. 1. A bonobo walking in water. collaboration with the government, used the mid-sized enclosure. The and the AAC began to care for young orphan bonobos. In last group consisted of 6 individuals who were kept in the 1998, the AAC moved the bonobos to the grounds of the small enclosure. American school in Kinshasa and created a All members of the mixed-age groups were kept in nursery-sanctuary, which continued to receive illegally indoor quarters during the night. In the morning (around captured bonobos. In 2002, the sanctuary was moved to its 0600 hr), staff members gave them water supplemented current location and changed its name to Lola Ya Bonobo; with minerals and sugar and visually inspected the health meanwhile AAC also changed its name to Les Amis des of the bonobos. The groups were then released into their Bonobos du Congo (ABC; “Friends of Bonobos in respective enclosures at around 0630 hr after the safety of Congo”). Lola Ya Bonobo now occupies about 30 ha of the enclosures was ensured. Occasionally, the bonobos land previously owned by a French businessman. This area received external applications of anti-parasite medicine is divided into five enclosures for the bonobos: two before being released into the enclosures. At other times, large-sized, one middle-sized, and two small-sized while the bonobos were still in their nighttime quarters, enclosures. The enclosures, surrounded by electric fences, workers mowed the grass near the electric fence to prevent include 20 m tall forest areas, swampy areas, and a small a short circuit. During the day, staff members gave the river; thus, the environment is complex and similar to bonobos various types of fruits, vegetables, sugarcane, natural bonobo habitat. peanuts, breads, eggs, and milk. In addition to caring for In February 2007, we had the opportunity to visit the bonobos, the sanctuary sets a high priority on Lola Ya Bonobo and stay for 3 weeks. At the time of our education4. Educational tours for Congolese children took stay, 53 bonobos lived there, including four infants born in place during our visit, and the children eagerly observed the sanctuary. The following is a summary of our the bonobos and attended the talks given by the staff. observations during the 3 weeks, which we hope will The composition of bonobo members within a group illustrate daily life at the sanctuary. is decided by taking into consideration their compatibility Among the 53 bonobos, eight were 3–5 year olds with each other. Young orphans who are dependent on who were dependent on human substitute mothers. There human mothers will be integrated into a social group and were about 20 local people working for the sanctuary. Of begin to learn necessary skills such as foraging and danger these, four worked as substitute mothers. They took care of avoidance from conspecific group members. We had the the young bonobos from morning to evening, cleaning opportunity to observe the integration of groups during our them, giving them milk and other foods, and letting them stay. Three of the six individuals in the small enclosure play in a play yard. In the evening, the bonobos were were young individuals (approx. 4–5 years of age) who brought to cages to spend the night. had just finished their time of care by human mothers. At the beginning of our stay, the remaining 45 Three subadult (approx. 8–9 years of age), good-tempered individuals lived in four mixed-age groups in which adults, individuals were chosen from the first mixed-age group,
8 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 and these three older and three younger bonobos were behaviors that have not been observed in their wild allowed to spend time with each other in the small counterparts such as stone-tool use to crack open oil palm enclosure. On 12 February 2007, four individuals from the nuts, the use of plant materials to drink water, and the use first mixed-age group were moved to the group in the of probing sticks. One conspicuous feature was their small-sized enclosure as the next step in the integration of familiarity with water. They did not literally swim, but the young individuals. Two of these four individuals were would enter the water to just below their shoulders (Fig. 1). adult females who were expected to protect the young These examples show the flexibility of their behavior and individuals after integration; another was a juvenile, who the great influence of post-natal experience for bonobos. was included as a possible playmate; and the last was a The sanctuary is now considering possible male over 10 years old. The bonobos emitted many reintroductions of bonobos into the natural habitat as vocalizations and engaged in affinitive interactions such as another tool for managing wild bonobo populations4. This embracing and GG-contact during their first encounter; the lone bonobo sanctuary thus plays important roles in excitement ceased within approximately 1 hour, without conservation, education, and research on this endangered any aggressive interactions. On the following day, the closest relative of humans. members of the small-sized enclosure, including the three Acknowledgments. Our study was financially supported by young individuals, were released into the large enclosure to MEXT (18700266 to Satoshi Hirata and 17255005 to Takeshi join the remaining 10 members of the first mixed-age Furuichi). We thank Claudine André for giving us the opportunity group. An adult male performed display behavior and ran to stay at Lola Ya Bonobo and all of the other staff for their support during our stay. We also thank Brian Hare for his around the newcomers, but did not show any aggressive generous guidance concerning our visit. physical contact. All of the members gathered around the newcomers and engaged in numerous vocal and REFERENCES socio-sexual exchanges. Most of the members then 1. Kabasawa A 2006. The current status of chimpanzee sanctuaries: how do we deal with “chimpanzees with no place to climbed a large, 20 m tall tree and continued to make vocal go” (in Japanese). Ecosophia 17: 88–103. exchanges; the event ended peacefully after approximately 2. André C 2006. Une tendresse sauvage (in French). 1 hour. Calmann-Lévy, Paris. The integration of the second and third mixed-age 3. Ihobe H, Idani G, Tashiro Y 2006. Current status of Lola Ya Bonobo (in Japanese). Primate Res 22: 37–41. groups was also carried out over the course of the next few 4. André C, Kamate C, Mbonzo P, Morel D, Hare B in press. The days. The reactions of bonobos during their first conservation value of Lola Ya Bonobo sanctuary. In: The encounters were similar to those described above. They bonobos: behavior, ecology, and conservation, Thompson J, Furuichi T (eds), New York: Springer. engaged in many vocal and socio-sexual exchanges, and the integration ended without harmful interactions after approximately 1 hour. After a series of integrations and recombinations, two new mixed-age groups had formed by
INTRODUCTION While hunting of primates, particularly chimpanzees, is not common in Uganda, hunting of other forest mammals, such as duikers and bushpigs is known to occur. This hunting has an indirect impact on chimpanzees and other primates as most of the hunting in Uganda is done by setting snares or jaw traps. As chimpanzees walk through the forest, their hands or feet may become trapped in the snare made of metal wire1. In two of the forests in Uganda (Kibale and Budongo), researchers have observed up to 25% of chimpanzees with snare-related injuries1, 2, 3. In the Fig. 2. An adult male who lost his foot by snare injury. Kalinzu Forest, half of the adult males in the M group had snare injuries (Fig. 2)4. the beginning of May. Though we are still carrying out this In order to address such a critical situation, we started program, here we report the results from May 2005 to June the snare removal program with the support of Disney 2006. Wildlife Conservation Fund, and continued the program with the support of Japan Ministry of Environment Global METHODS Environment Research Fund. We started recruiting and The Kalinzu Forest Reserve, which covers an area of training staff in April 2005, and started the program from 137 km2, is a part of Uganda’s largest forest block where ecological survey of wild chimpanzees has been undertaken since 19925. There inhabits at least four groups (communities) of chimpanzees (Fig. 1), with an estimated population of 230 individuals (1.67 chimpanzees per km2)6. The main study group, called the M group, comprising of 18 adult males, 24 adult females, and 26 immature individuals in January 2007. We employed four persons to form two teams for the snare removal. Each consists of one ex-hunter who has a deep knowledge on the geography and technique for hunting in this area, and another person who graduated from primary school and is used to speaking and writing English. In order to raise local communities’ awareness of this program, all persons were recruited from the villages adjacent to the Kalinzu Forest Reserve. Kalinzu Forest Reserve consists of 43 compartments (Fig. 1). The northern area of the reserve is better conserved and has higher population of chimpanzees, monkeys and other animals. We have trail systems for research in the northeast: compartments 25 to 30 and 36 to 40. Two habituated groups of chimpanzees inhabit this area, Fig. 1. Forest compartments and ranging areas of chimpanzee groups in the Kalinzu Forest Reserve.
10 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 and we mainly targeted the northern area in the snare employment produced by the research and conservation removal program in this period. activities in the villages adjacent to these compartments. The two teams patrolled different parts of this area On the other hand, snares were most frequently found from Monday to Saturday. When they found a lot of snares in compartment 40, 42, and 43, though we visited there in some areas, they revisit these areas more intensively once a month. There are newly established villages to the than others. It was difficult to cover compartments 43, 42 north of the compartment 43. Because those villages are and 40, due to lack of transportation for the teams. They located far from the main road, people living there are not walked through these compartments once a month from well controlled by National Forestry Authority, the northern edge of the reserve back to the main study governmental organization which is responsible for area. management of Ugandan Forest Reserves. In addition, those people have least opportunity to receive benefit from RESULTS AND DISCUSSION research, ecotourism, and conservation activities. How to From May 2005 to June 2006, we found and control the illegal activities in this area remains the biggest removed 1022 snares and 136 live traps (Table 1). There problem for the conservation of chimpanzees in the were two types of snares: one made of nylon strings and Kalinzu Forest Reserve. one made of metal wire. The former was mainly used for For one year since the beginning of the program, trapping guinea fowls, and the latter was used for trapping there had been no tendency of decrease in the number of bushpigs and duikers and both are harmful to the snares removed. Although the slight increase might be a 1, 7 chimpanzees . result of the increased skill in finding snares, we may need to continue this program for at least a few more years to Table 1. Number of snares found in the Kalinzu Forest Reserve. evaluate its effect. Furthermore, we may need to develop Year Month Snares Live Traps 2005 May 71 6 conservation program, such as education program, at the Jun 53 6 Jul 77 0 villages adjacent to the compartments where snares were Aug 27 0 most frequently found. Sep 54 14 Oct 40 4 Nov 59 27 Acknowledgments. We thank staff of the Jane Goodall Institute, Dec 157 3 the Kalinzu Forest Project, and the National Forestry Authority 2006 Jan 98 6 for technical support. This study was financially supported by Feb 115 35 the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund and Japan Ministry of Mar 152 24 Apr 61 18 Environment Global Environment Research Fund (#F-061 to T. May 105 11 Nishida). Jun 68 17 Total 1137 171 Total per month 81.2 12.2 REFERENCES 1. Waller JC, Reynolds V. 2001. Limb injuries resulting from * Though the snare removal program supported by Animal snares and traps in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) Kingdom was terminated in April, the program is being continued of the Budongo Forest, Uganda. Primates 42:135-139. by the Kalinzu Forest Project. 2. Edroma E, Rosen N, Miller P (eds) 1997. Conserving the Chimpanzees of Uganda: Population and Habitat Viability Among the areas where we made daily patrols, snares Analysis for Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. IUCN/SSC were frequently found in compartments 26, 27, 28, and 40 Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN. that are close to villages and the tea estate. However, not so 3. Muller M 2000. Knuckle-Walking Wounded. Natural History 10/00:44-46. many snares were found in compartments 37 and 38. 4. Hashimoto C 1999. Snare injuries of chimpanzees in the Though we need to wait for further studies, we expect that Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. Pan Afr News 6:20-22. the lower number of snares in these compartments is the 5. Hashimoto C 1995. Population census of the Chimpanzees in results of our effort for conservation education and the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda: Comparison Between Methods with Nest Counts. Primates 36:477-488. Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 11
6. Plumptre AJ, Cox D 2006. Counting primates for conservation: important world spot for the biodiversity. These forests primate surveys in Uganda. Primates 47:65–73. survived after the retraction and division of Pleistocene 7. Stokes EJ, Byrne RW 2006. Effect of snare injuries on the fig-feeding behavior of chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest, forests, partly due to the ice age that dried the climate Uganda: behavioral adaptations and long-term implications. In: cyclically4. Primates of western Uganda, Newton-Fisher NE, Notman H, Paterson JD Reynolds V (eds), New York: Springer, pp.281-297. This forest, Fôret Classée de Diecké, is a protected area of 600 km2, located in the South-eastern part of
Guinea, 50 km west from Bossou, bordering Liberia on the south. The reserve is controlled by the Centre Forestier de
Guinean Forests and integrates the region Fig. 1. One of the satellite views of Diecké Forest covering the surveyed areas in comprised by lowland forests, being one Nonah area and Korohouan area (Credits: S. Carvalho / PRI-Kyoto, 2006).
12 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 metamorphic5. Concerning raw material availability in the hours walking distance from Nonah to NNE direction. primary forest zone, i.e. stone types and nut species, Here it was recorded a total of seventeen tools: eleven enormous granite outcrops were observed and movable hammers and six outcropping anvils. quartz stones were found near waterlines. In March another survey was undertaken over an Nut species of Panda oleosa tree and Coula edulis eight day period. The SB1 place had been visited by tree are inside the integral protected area (per. obs.), as chimpanzees, allowing the recording of tool use. The base these are species from mature forests6. Elaies guineensis is camp was set to Northeast from SB1, crossing Lilaya not present in the primary forest; however it is possible to watercourse. locate natural, or human planted, Elaeis in the peripheral During this trip another nut-cracking place (SB2) of area. Panda oleosa nuts, was identified, located east of SB1. Seven tools were recorded: four hammers and three The etho-archaeological surveys outcropping anvils. Raw materials were, preferentially, In 2006, chimpanzee research continued in this area, granite and quartz (Table 1). combining primatological and archaeological methods, Survey continued in an easterly direction, passing the while new zones were surveyed. The KUPRI work team, Nyé River (Fig.1), four hours walking from the base camp. accompanied by local guides, carried out three survey In this area, mature fruits of Monkey orange or Elephant incursions between January and April 2006 and set two orange tree (Strychnos spinosa) were observed, as well as temporary camps in the core of the forest, one departing Parinari excelsa fruits. from Nonah village (7º 31`50.9``N; 9º 04`27.7``W) and During another survey, the Kolpégue watercourse (7º another from Korohouan village (7º 26`09.6``N; 8º 34`31, 4``N; 9º 01`43, 1``W) was crossed to arrive at the 59`22.2``W) (Fig. 1). Taffa river area (7º 34`26, 5``N; 9º 00`49, 4``W), five A selected survey was performed searching for nut hours walking from the base camp. In Taffa area one trees. Once it was apparent that nut-cracking places were chimpanzee sleeping trace was recorded-an old bed. located near water lines, the survey was directed to these In April, one survey was carried out over a period of points. When one nut-cracking site was found, a radio seven days. The goal was to survey the Korohouan area. centric survey was attempted, 1km around the nut-cracking Moving east, we crossed the Gole watercourse (7º 26`18, area. As a result, six nut-cracking sites were recorded, four 8``N; 8º 58`41, 3``W), Melu watercourse (7º 27`03, 5``N; of them previously unknown. 8º 57`20, 8``W), Gbin river (7º 27`08, 3``N; 8º 57`12, A pilot survey was carried out in January, for three 5``W), Dené watercourse and Sakai watercourse. On the days, departing from Nonah village. The aim was to collect right border of Sakai watercourse, a new nut-cracking site information and to prepare local work teams to enter the (SB 3) of Panda oleosa, was found (Table 1). This site was forest. During this survey, a nut-cracking site of Panda abandoned some years before and showed a large oleosa nuts was detected (SB1) (Table 1). Originally archaeological assemblage. Visible hammers were often 1 discovered by Matsuzawa , SB1 is located around a three fractured and site characteristics were similar to SB1 and SB2. A total of forty tools were Table 1. Location of the six nut-cracking sites recorded during 2006 field season in Diecké forest. The grey colour indicates the new sites. recorded: one hammer, eight outcropping anvils, and thirty-one
fragments of hammers. The base camp was set on the left border of Gbin-bé river (7º 28`14, 6``N; 8º 54`33, 6``W). Fresh traces of chimpanzee feeding of Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 13
Landolphya owarensis were observed in the base camp area. Following to NNE, two new nut-cracking sites of Coula edulis were found (SB4, SB5) (Table 1). These sites had been used about one month before. In SB4 a total of six tools were recorded: three hammers and three outcropping anvils. In SB5 eleven tools were detected: eight hammers and three outcropping anvils. It was also observed that plenty of Cola cordifolia fruits had been eaten in this area. The last survey departed from
Korohouan to the Southwest, outside Fig. 2. The SB 6 site in the Kourouhan area (Mont Medou). Large quartz hammers to open the Diecké protected area. The Mont crack the Panda nuts were found on the top of the outcropping anvil. Refitting of stones was also detected. Medou area - a remaining fragment of primary forest - was surveyed. A Culture of Japan: MEXT-16002001, JSPS-HOPE, JSPS-21COE-Kyoto-Biodiversity, and Global Environment new nut-cracking place (SB6) of Panda oleosa nuts was Research Fund (F-061 to T. Nishida) of the Ministry of found on the right margin of the Kpayan River (Table 1). Environment, Japan. We thank B. Zogbila, H. Gbelegbe, G. Doré, Here, a total of ten tools were recorded: six hammers and P. Goumy, J. M. Kolié, J. Malamu, L. Tokpa, A. Kbokmo, C. Koti, O. Mamy, for the field support. We are grateful to Francisco four anvils. Two hammers were fractured in several pieces Almeida for comments on the manuscript. (Fig. 2). Following the Kpayan River we reached the top of a valley where 25 beds were (7º 24`07, 2``N; 8º 59`03, REFERENCES 4``W). 1. Matsuzawa T, Takemoto H, Hayakawa S, Shimada M 1999. Diecké Forest in Guinea. Pan Afr News 6: 10-11. Chimpanzee feeding, sleeping and travel traces were 2. Humle T, Matsuzawa T 2001. Behavioural diversity among the found in the core and periphery areas of Diecké forest; the wild chimpanzee populations of Bossou and neighbouring areas, latter provided banana plantations and other agricultural Guinea and Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa: A preliminary report. Folia Primatol 72(2):57-68. fields as alternative food resources. Future surveys will 3. Kormos R, Humle T, Brugière D, Fleury-Brugière M, determine the size and the home range of the possible Matsuzawa T, Sugiyama S, Carter J, Diallo MS, Sagno C, different groups. We further expect to continue the Tounkara EO 2003. The Republic of Guinea In: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan West African Chimpanzees, Kormos, R, symbiotic approach between archaeology and primatology Boesch C, Bakarr MI, Butynski TM (eds), IUCN/SSC Primate in order to understand some of the older chimpanzee Specialist Group. Published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and nut-cracking sites regarding technological and typological Cambridge. UK. 4. Caldecott J, Kapos V 2005. Great ape habitats: tropical moist variance among chimpanzee groups. forests of the old world. In: World atlas of great apes and their conservation, Caldecott J, Miles L (eds), California: University of Acknowledgments. We thank the Direction National de la California Press. Recherche Scientifique et Technique, République de Guinée, and 5. Clark JD 1967. The atlas of african prehistory. Chicago & Dr. Kourouma Makan, Director of the Institut de Recherche London: The University of Chicago Press. Environnemental de Bossou for permission to conduct field work 6. White L, Abernethy K 1996. Guide de la vegetation de la at Diecké. We also thank Dr. Werner Grimmelman and Progerfor. reserve de la Lopé. Écofac Gabon. Multipress Gabon. Gabon. The research was supported by Grants-in-Aid for scientific research from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and
14 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007
Gaku Ohashi
Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan
INTRODUCTION Food sharing between non-kin of wild chimpanzees has been reported since Goodall’s initial study in 19601. Chimpanzees are often reported to share meat2, 3, 4, 5, 6. On Fig. 1. Male chimpanzees came back from the village with papaya fruits. the other hand, plant food sharing are rarely reported7, 8, 9, 10, except for studies from Gombe and Mahale where METHODS chimpanzees were formerly provisioned for research and The subjects of this study were wild chimpanzees at observed sharing sugar canes and bananas11, 12. Bossou, Guinea18, 19. The home range size of this group is Most studies discuss food sharing with reference to about 30 km2, but the chimpanzees mainly use 4 km2 of maintenance of alpha status, social relationships and forest around the village of Bossou. Because their home cooperative hunting2, 3, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15. Some studies suggest a range is close to human settlements20, the chimpanzees relationship between food sharing and female choice, but often enter the village to raid crops (Fig. 1). this claim lacks sufficient evidence6, 16 and recent studies Observations were conducted from July 2002 to have tried to refute it with substantial data13, 17. March 2003 (Period 1) and from April to September 2004 I observed the cases of papaya fruit sharing by wild (Period 2). Group size fluctuated between 13 and 19 during chimpanzees at Bossou Guinea. The papaya is the largest these periods. The number of adult or sub-adult males was fruit that Bossou chimpanzees can obtain. Here I discuss 3. The number of cycling females fluctuated between 4 and the food sharing with reference to mating behaviors. 5. I used the focal animal sampling method. The target individuals were one Table 1. Papaya fruit sharing by Bossou chimpanzees. alpha male in Period Case Next The amount of papaya fruits Sharing Date Donor Recipient Estrous No. consortship A B C D E type 1, and three adult 1 1-1 1 Oct 2002 FF Pm No Yes (estimated) 2 1/2 1 /2 1/4 ― Active 1 males in Period 2. 1-2 1 Oct 2002 FF Pm No Yes (estimated) ― 3/4 1 1/4 1 /2 Active 2 2-1 26 Oct 2002 FF Pm No Yes 2 1/3 1 /3 1/3 ― Active When chimpanzees 1 5 2-2 26 Oct 2002 FF Nn Yes ― ― 1/6 1/2 1/4 1 /12 Recovery got papaya fruits, I 3 8 Dec 2002 FF Pm No Yes 2 α 2 - α 1 1 Passive 4 10 Dec 2002 FF Pm No Yes 2 α 2 - α 1 2* Passive recorded the timing 5 16 Dec 2002 FF Pm No Yes 2 α 2 - α 1 1 Recovery of food sharing and 6 13 Jul 2004 YL TA ― ― 2 α 2 - α 1 1 Recovery 7 21 Sep 2004 FF Pm Yes ― 2 α 2 - α 1 - α 1 Passive the amount of fruits Note: FF was alpha male in 2002, and beta male in 2004. YL was alpha male, and TA was gamma male in 2004. Pm and by visual estimation. Nn were cycling females during my study period. When the recipient was a cycling female, her estrous condition was noted. Moreover, if the female who received foods from a male donor was not estrous, I checked whether the donor Sharing attitudes engage in a consortship with the female on the next estrous periods. Case 1-2 and 2-2 occurred after other cases of sharing behavior (Case 1-1 and 2-1, respectively). The amount of fruits was measured by visual estimation: A = The (active / passive) amount of fruits the donor obtained before sharing, B = The amount of fruits the donor ate before sharing (α means a few bite), C = the amount of fruits just before sharing, D = the amount of shared fruits, E = the total amount of fruits were categorized 3 that the donor consumed. ― = not applicable. I categorized sharing type by using definition of a previous study . “Active” under the definition means that “the donor gave part of its food to the recipient after cutting off a piece”. “Passive” means that “the recipient took part of the food that A was holding, and A made no movement to facilitate the action”. “Recovery” means that “the of a previous study3. recipient took part of the food that the donor had placed on the ground”. * After sharing, FF got one more fruit in the village and consumed by himself. Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 15
were not estrous. However, the donor seemed to successfully take the females to a peripheral area as consortship during their next estrous period. I confirmed the consortship by direct observation in 4 cases (Case 2-1, 3, 4, 5), and for the other 2 cases I estimated consortship from daily attendance record (Case 1-1, 1-2). I reported some cases of papaya fruit sharing, however, the chimpanzees did not always share fruits with other individuals. For example, on December 1st, 2002, FF (adult male) started to eat a papaya fruit at 15:36. At 15:43, Ka (adult female) approached FF and stared into his hand. Fig. 2. Pm (an adult female) took a papaya fruit that FF (an At 15:45, FF moved about 10m and Ka uttered a scream adult male) had obtained (Case 7). for about 2 minutes. At 15:49, Ka approached FF but he moved away. At 15:52, Ka approached again but FF RESULTS moved about 5m. Ka uttered a scream. For a minute, FF Seven episodes of papaya fruit sharing were observed continued to eat the fruit, then uttered a pant hoot and in 222 observation days (Table 1, Fig. 2). The donor showed a display behavior. always got 2 papaya fruits in the village before sharing. In two out of the 7 episodes, the possessor shared the fruits DISCUSSION twice in one episode. It means that sharing behavior Bossou is unique, with a chimpanzee habitat occurred 9 times in total. This article reports these 9 cases. surrounded by human settlements. The crops must be very Sharing behavior often occurred just after entering attractive for chimpanzees especially in seasons when food the bush from the village. Especially in five of the 9 cases, is scarce. However, there seemed to be a sex difference in chimpanzees ate only a few bites before sharing. In Case 4, their attitudes toward humans. All male chimpanzees were a chimpanzee gave one papaya fruit to another individual, ready to enter the village and they did not have to beg and he entered the village again to get another papaya. others to share fruit. This means that sharing among males In all of the 9 cases, the recipient approached the seldom occurred, unlike the cases of meat sharing in other possessor first, and then showed begging behaviors such as study sites. On the other hand, some female chimpanzees reaching their arms and uttering a slight grunt voice. I did were too shy to have access to the village easily. Such a not confirm any grimace by the possessor. Three of the difference in accessibility among individuals may be the observed cases involved “active sharing” of fruit3, where cause of fruit sharing behaviors at Bossou. the donor divided it into two (Case 1-1, 1-2, 2-1). Three Nishida and Hosaka reported that chimpanzees tend 19 other cases were “passive sharing”. Recipients took a to pass worse or smaller food when they share food . In portion of the fruits that donors were holding, and the my observation of 9 cases, chimpanzees always shared less donors made no movement either to facilitate or to avoid than equal half of the fruits. However, they shared fruits in the action (Case 3, 4, 7). The remaining three cases were early phase before feeling full. This means that they gave examples of “recovery”. Recipients took a portion of fruits up fruits still of value to them. Why does food sharing that the donor placed nearby (Case 2-2, 5, 6). occur? Do donors just want to avoid begging or 17, 22 In all cases except one, donors shared the fruits with harassment ? Maybe not. Begging is not always cycling females. In two cases, the cycling female was rewarded (e.g., the FF-Ka episode mentioned above). estrous, and I confirmed mating behaviors during this Then why did the Bossou males share such valuable estrous period. In the other six cases, the cycling females fruits with non-kin others? Here I postulate that papaya
16 Pan Africa News, 14(1), June, 2007 sharing contributed to an increase in his chances of 11. Nishida T 1970. Social behavior and relationship among wild chimpanzees of the Mahali Mountains. Primates 11: 47-87. copulations in the future. First, eight out of 9 cases were 12. McGrew WC 1975. Patterns of plant food sharing by wild from adult male to cycling female. Especially Pm (adult chimpanzees. In: Contemporary Primatology, Kondo S, Kawai M, female) was often observed to receive papaya fruit from FF. Ehara A (eds.), Basel: Karger, pp. 304-309. In 6 cases, Pm was not estrous at the time. However, FF 13. Mitani JC, Watts DP 2001. Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat? Anim Behav 59: 915-924. successfully took her to a peripheral area for the next 14. Moore J 1984. The evolution of reciprocal sharing. Ethol estrous period. In the Bossou group, there were 4-5 cycling Sociobiol 5: 5-14. adult females during the study period. However, all but 2 15. Nishida T, Hosaka K 1996. Coalition strategies among adult male chimpanzees of Mahale Mountains, Tanzania. In: Great Ape females had not given birth for more than 8 years. Societies, McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T (eds), Moreover, one of the 2 females is the mother of FF. The Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.114-134. number of sexually receptive females was so limited at 16. Stanford CB, Wallis J, Mpongo E, Goodall J 1994. Hunting decisions in wild chimpanzees. Behaviour 131: 1-18. Bossou. FF may have tried to make a good relationship 17. Gilby IC 2006. Meat sharing among the Gombe chimpanzees: with Pm, even if she was not estrous. harassment and reciprocal exchange. Anim Behav 71: 953-963.
Acknowledgments. I thank Professor T. Matsuzawa for his 18. Matsuzawa T 2006. Sociocognitive development in chimpanzees: a synthesis of laboratory work and fieldwork. In: supervision and advice. Thanks are due to IREB, colleagues of Cognitive Development in Chimpanzees, Matsuzawa T, KUPRI-International team and the local assistants. This study was Tomonaga M, Tanaka M (eds), Tokyo: Springer, pp. 3-33. financed by a grant from MEXT 16002001 to T. Matsuzawa, a grant under Research Fellowships of the JSPS for Young 19. Sugiyama Y, Koman J 1979. Social structure and dynamics of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 20: 323-339. Scientists (#160896) and a grant of the Kyoto University Foundation to G. Ohashi. 20. Hockings KJ, Anderson JR, Matsuzawa T. 2006. Road crossing in chimpanzees: a risky business. Curr Biol 16: 668-670. REFERENCES 21. Nishida T, Hosaka K. 2001. Reichourui ni okeru 1. Goodall J 1963. My life among wild chimpanzees. National syokumotsu-bunpai (Food sharing in primates). In: Hominization, Geographic 124: 272-308. Nishida T (ed), Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, pp. 255-304. 2. Boesch C 1994. Cooperative hunting in wild chimpanzees. 22. Wrangham RW 1975. The Behavioural Ecology of Anim Behav 48: 653-667. Chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. 3. Boesch C, Boesch H 1989. Hunting behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Taï Forest. Am J Phys Anthropol 78: 547-573. 4. van Lawick-Goodall J 1968. The behaviour of free-living chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Reserve. Anim Behav Monogr 1: 161-311. ERRATUM 5. Nishida T, Hasegawa T, Hayaki H, Takahata Y, Uehara S 1992. Hanamura S, Kiyono M, Nakamura M, Sakamaki T, Itoh N, Meat-sharing as a coalition strategies by an alpha male Zamma K, Kitopeni R, Matumula M, Nishida T 2006. A New chimpanzee? In: Topics in Primatology, vol. 1 Human Origins, Code of Observation Employed at Mahale: Prevention against a Nishida T, McGrew WC, Marler P, Pickford M, de Waal FBM Flu-like Disease. Pan Afr News 13: 13-16. (eds), Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, pp.159-174. In page 16, line 12, the grant number of Global Environment 6. Teleki G 1973. The Predatory Behavior of Wild Chimpanzees. Research Fund should have been (F-061 to TN). Lewisberg: Bucknell University Press.
7. Bethell E, Whiten A, Muhumuza G, Kakura J 2000. Active Pan Africa News, Vol. 14, No.1 plant food division and sharing by wild chimpanzees. Primate Rep 56: 67-71. Published in June, 2007 8. Boesch C, Boesch-Achermann H 2000. The Chimpanzees of Address: the Taï Forest: Behavioural Ecology and Evolution. Oxford: Japan Monkey Centre Oxford University Press. 26 Kanrin 9. Nakamura M, Itoh N 2001. Sharing of wild fruits among male Inuyama, Aichi 484-0081 chimpanzees: two cases from Mahale, Tanzania. Pan Afr News 8: 28-31. JAPAN TEL: (+81)568-61-2327 10. Slocombe K, Newton-Fisher NE. 2005. Fruit sharing between wild adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): a FAX: (+81)568-62-6823 socially significant event? Am J Primatol 65: 385-391. E-mail: [email protected]