Technology Education in the American Elementary School

This article communicates the importance man innovation in action” (p. 16). Wright and of elementary school technology education Lauda (1993) viewed technology as “a body of (ESTE), describes its roots, its current status, knowledge and actions, used by people, to and historical and ongoing research and de- apply resources in designing, producing, and velopment. In today’s technology-based soci- using products, structures and systems to ex- ety it is imperative for all students to be tech- tend the human potential for controlling and nologically literate (Dyrenfurth & Kozak, 1991; modifying the natural and human-made (modi- Technology for All Americans Project [TAAP], fied) environments” (p. 3). Whereas Savage 1996; Raizen, Sellwood, Todd, & Vickers, and Sterry (1990) defined technology as “a Michael D. Wright 1995). Many national reports on the status of body of knowledge and the systematic appli- science and technology education (TE) in the cation of resources to produce outcomes in United States have called upon schools to response to human needs and wants” (p. 7). provide increased experiences with technol- A synthesis of definitions of technology ogy and to focus on technological literacy indicates that it consists of the knowledge, (see, for example, American Association for processes, and ingenuity that have enabled the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1989; humans to conceive, design, and create tools Johnson, 1989; Technology Education Advi- and products as well as the systems that sup- sory Committee [TEAC], 1988; TAAP, 1996). port them. Artifacts are made because people In fact, Strand #8 in the National Council for have needs or wants. They are made from a the Social Studies Standards (1994) specifi- variety of materials, both natural and syn- cally calls for an understanding of technology, thetic, dependent on their uses. They com- not just computers. prise the “built environment” in contrast to the Technological literacy, similar to other lit- “natural environment.” Children need to un- eracy efforts, requires knowledge and practice derstand this built environment, the means by acquired over time. A one-semester course is which it is created, and the many conse- hardly adequate to develop language literacy, quences and by-products associated with its numeracy (Paulos, 1990), or technological development and use. literacy (TAAP, 1996). Indeed, understanding Technology education has been defined as technology and its social and environmental “an educational program that assists people in impacts and consequences should start as developing an understanding and competence soon as students begin attending school. All in designing, producing, and using technol- students, regardless of socioeconomic level, ogy products and systems, and in assessing the race, ethnic background, community, disabil- appropriateness of technological actions” ity, or career aspiration, need to be able to (Wright & Lauda, 1993, p. 4), or as “the study cope with change, identify and solve prob- of technology and its effect on individuals, lems, make appropriate decisions, and em- society, and civilization” (Savage & Sterry, ploy technology in their daily lives. They will 1990, p. 20). Technological literacy, the goal need to apply their education for success at of TE, has been defined as “the ability to use, work and in further education (Secretary’s manage, and understand technology” (TAAP, Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills 1996, p. 6). [SCANS], 1991). All students, then, need TE There is considerable debate as to whether throughout their elementary years as a foun- TE and industrial arts are, in fact, separate dation for developing technological literacy. fields. Industrial arts, as conceived by Bonser and Mossman in 1923, was defined as “a study THE CONTENT AND PURPOSES OF ESTE of the changes made by man in the forms of Definitions of technology, TE, and ESTE are materials to increase their value, and of the helpful to consider the potential benefits of problems of life related to these changes" ESTE. For example, is activity-based applied (p. 5). While the definitions of TE vary, there science or research from Science, Technol- are consistent patterns among them, and they Dr. Wright is an Assistant Professor ogy, and Society endeavors appropriate to are essentially the same in spirit as the concep- of Technology Education in the consider as TE? Is historical industrial arts tion of industrial arts offered by Bonser and School of Information Science and research foundational, comparable, or even Mossman. Conceptually, TE may be viewed as Learning Technologies and relevant to TE? a descendent of industrial arts, although TE is Coordinator of the Initiative for Learning through Integrated In Technology for All Americans: Rationale broader in scope. In this paper, we assume that Technology Education (LITE) at the and Structure for the Study of Technology industrial arts, as defined above and not nec- University of Missouri-Columbia. (TAAP, 1996) technology is defined as “hu- essarily as practiced in most schools, was a

56 precursor of TE. dational text, Teaching Children About Tech- TE in elementary schools may have a num- nology: “industrial arts in the elementary school ber of starting points including science, art, or is an authentic, inclusive study of industry and a technological problem. Through TE, knowl- technology” (p. 7). In contrast to Gerbracht edge of other subjects is gained and applied in and Babcock (1959), she believed that indus- a variety of contexts. TE may therefore be trial arts definitely had content to be learned viewed as an integrator of the curriculum. and experienced in an authentic context; it Some view TE as applied science; one learns was not just a method of teaching other school the science through investigation (e.g., prin- subjects. ciples of structures) and then applies the re- In the content approach typified by Scobey sultant findings to a practical problem (e.g., (1968), technology is viewed as a unique body bridges). of knowledge (including a process for creat- TE may also imply a process through which ing, designing, or modifying one’s environ- children learn. In this process they design and ment) and thus ESTE would have dedicated make a product, test it against identified crite- classroom time during the day or week, and ria, and evaluate the outcome. During the like the content areas of science and social process, children engage in imaginative, cre- studies, would be added as a subject on the ative, critical thinking and they learn about the report card. processes by which they achieve their goals In the content approach to ESTE, technol- (procedural knowledge). ogy is the primary focus. However, from the constructive methodology standpoint, ESTE is PURPOSE YIELDS A DEFINITION a method for teaching other school subjects as ESTE is much more than just a “watered- advocated by Gerbracht and Babcock (1959). down” version of a secondary-level TE pro- This approach implies two beliefs: (a) children gram. Indeed, the purpose of ESTE is different are more motivated via instruction through as well. ESTE may be viewed from at least two ESTE and will learn the other school subjects different perspectives: as content or as a con- better and (b) technological content (knowl- structive methodology (some would argue for edge and processes) will naturally be learned the inclusion of context also). Each approach while students are engaged in constructional contributes to the development of children, experiences, but are not of primary impor- but the underlying philosophies are quite dif- tance. Indeed, pilot projects have suggested ferent. Philosophical considerations are im- that student interest in learning about technol- portant because they determine not only the ogy cannot be stifled, even when the focus is nature of the ESTE instruction, but also the initially on other subjects (Wright & Foster, palatability of a new educational program to 1996). teachers and administrators (Wright, 1997). Because of teachers’ heavy schedules, add- Gerbracht and Babcock (1959) stated that ing a new content area to elementary-school industrial arts in the elementary school “is not classrooms is not likely to succeed in the secondary-school industrial arts reduced in immediate future. Therefore, there is consid- difficulty....Rather, industrial arts at the el- erable agreement among TE professionals (Fos- ementary (K-6) level is a means to an end” (p. ter & Wright, 1996) that ESTE should also serve 1). They suggested that elementary-school in- as a constructive methodology to teach other dustrial arts should include “activities which school subjects. involve constructive endeavor with material Ideally, a complete study of technology things" (p. 1). In a somewhat more controver- would use the content approach to ESTE. But sial statement, they asserted the constructive-methodology approach is probably the most plausible method of intro- industrial arts is not another “subject” to be ducing ESTE into classrooms—at least as a first squeezed into an already bulging curriculum. step. There is no standard content, as such, which must The current push for content integration is be covered. Industrial arts justifies its existence on the basis of the help it gives the school. It helps evident throughout educational literature in the school to do better the things the school is general. At the elementary-school level, this is already trying to do. (p. 1) happening largely through a thematic approach. Integration can and should involve all Thus, they believed that the purpose of indus- subjects, including technology. ESTE has the trial arts at the elementary-school level was to unique ability to help integrate and provide rel- assist the school in teaching other subjects evance to the elementary-school curriculum. better. Because certain content, skills, and pro- Scobey (1968) provided a definition for cesses that are important and technological in elementary school industrial arts in her foun- nature do not fall within the boundaries of

57 ESTE as described above, I have built on the The Hidden Technology Education work reported in the preceding paragraphs to Curriculum produce the following definition of ESTE: An Undoubtedly, there is a great deal of re- educational program in which children en- search, curriculum development, and innova- gage in design and problem-solving, and/or tive practice occurring regularly that TE pro- constructional/manipulative activities to help fessionals are unaware of because it is outside them learn about themselves and the techno- their paradigm of TE as the following are: logical world around them, while critically 1. Especially worth noting because of the assessing the appropriateness and conse- striking similarity to TE is a program Warnock quences of technological actions. and Hudiburg (1984) described as designed to Thus, programming a robot would be in- assist third-grade students in raising funds for cluded within this definition as would learn- a project to construct, launch, and fly their ing to manipulate the technological world. own rockets. The perceived benefits include Similarly, designing a device (which may not heightened confidence and self-perception actually be built) as a solution to a problem among participants, hands-on experience in a would also be included. Learning about im- highly technical area, and increased commu- pacts and consequences of technological ac- nity support and involvement. tions is critically important in the early years of 2. Hearing-impaired children (ages 6 and 7) children’s education. were involved in a special practicum to develop critical thinking skills, including goal INSTRUCTION OF ESTE setting, deciding on necessary materials, de- What are the minimum components for a signing and following a plan to reach the goal, lesson or an activity to be considered TE? Must and producing the product. Strategies included it be designed by a technology educator? Must making flow charts, conducting hands-on ac- it involve wood, metal, drafting, electricity, or tivities, and having students view videotapes printing? Does it have to end with a “take- of themselves at work. The pretest-posttest home” project? results indicated that all children increased No, but it should be constructional, ma- their critical thinking skills (Lins, 1993). nipulative in nature, and authentic. It should 3. Kyker and Curchy (1995) provided a engage students in designing and making, in curriculum guide with step-by-step plans for creatively solving challenges that extend or 25 creative curriculum-based video projects. enhance human capability while critically Equipment and techniques for video projects assessing the consequences of technological were described. The focus was on hands-on endeavors. projects in the areas of social development, Are technology educators the only ones social studies, language arts, science, math- concerned about or qualified to implement ematics, and the like; however, the casual and assess this kind of learning? Does the goal observer could probably not distinguish it have to be “teaching TE content” specifically from a communications technology activity. to count as a technological activity? That 4. Suited for Spacewalking (Vogt, 1994) is depends upon how TE content is defined. a curriculum guide for elementary teachers in I have already pointed out that technologi- physical and life sciences. Activities and re- cal literacy might be addressed in part by lated student projects make use of inexpensive many different people, in various aspects of and easy-to-find materials and tools. children’s lives, not just in school, and defi- 5. Jobin (1991) described a curriculum nitely not just by technology educators. A project focused on rail transportation and its great deal of technology instruction undoubt- effect on the community. Although this geog- edly occurs on a daily basis in many compo- raphy project did not involve actually design- nents of the school curriculum. Out-of-school ing or making a model railroad, the author experiences may also contribute to techno- suggested hands-on activities in order to fur- logical literacy. A few examples of the diverse ther explore the topic. ways children might learn about and have 6. A curriculum project described by Sewall experiences with technology are 4-H activi- (1991) integrated science, environmental edu- ties, scouting programs, playing at home with cation, art, and social studies. Students re- construction kits, tinkering in the garage, base- searched an endangered species and con- ment or kitchen, or through “Inventors Clubs” structed a totem pole depicting the species at elementary schools, organized by teachers using recyclable materials. who have never heard of TE. These projects are consistent with the definition of ESTE used here, including using tools and materials in a constructive activity. They

58 are illustrative of the type of research and servicing classroom teachers and principals. curriculum development, conducted by prac- Also in this category were studies about titioners outside the TE profession, that is teacher education practices which show an clearly related to technological endeavors. interesting pattern. Duncan (1950) found that Although hands-on science is not necessarily there was a relationship between the likeli- TE, there are many types of curriculum projects hood of a teacher using constructional activi- and research conducted by other educators ties and the amount of related education they that also meet the ESTE criteria. This under- had acquired. Scobey (1952) found that teach- lines the importance of establishing param- ers had only a vague conception of industrial eters for ESTE in curriculum and research. arts and needed more training with it. Low (1963) indicated that elementary-school teach- RESEARCH ON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ers recommended that at least one industrial INDUSTRIAL ARTS AND ESTE arts course be required. And Bruce (1964) Downs’ (1974) summary of elementary- found that 143 of 165 university teacher edu- school industrial arts research categorized the cation departments offered elementary-school studies by doctoral, master’s, and nondegree industrial arts courses. That number today is research. Zuga (1997) built on the database likely between one half and one dozen. established by Downs (1974) and extended it Zuga (1997) observed the important role through 1993 (see Table 1). Their work indi- played by ESTE leaders over the years in cates that most doctoral studies related to ESTE influencing adoption of the technological sys- occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. tems model. For example, Hoots (1968), as well as Scobey (1968), recommended study- Table 1 ing communication, construction, manufacturing, transportation, power, and service in Doctoral Dissertations Identified by Downs elementary school programs. At the teacher- or Zuga as Focusing on Elementary School education level, Gilbert (1955) developed a Industrial Arts/ESTE by Decade curriculum for teacher preparation that focused on manufacturing, construction, power, Decade Number of Dissertations transportation, communication, and manage- ment. Similar curricular advances were made 1930-39 3 in the late 1980s with the Mission 21 project 1940-49 3 1950-59 15 at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 1960-69 29 University (Barnes, Wiatt, & Bowen, 1990; 1970-79 19 Brusic, Dugger, & Dunlap, 1990; Brusic, 1980-89 5 Dunlap, Dugger, & LaPorte, 1988). Clearly, 1990-93 2 ESTE researchers were leaders in advocating the change from materials-based programs to Zuga (1997) classified the studies in two a systems orientation. In spite of these influ- broad categories of curriculum and student ences and of those mentioned in the section achievement. She reported that many curricu- titled “Purpose Yields a Definition,” TE is not lum studies were status studies which pro- yet viewed as a core subject in elementary vided historical data, or benchmarks of the schools. profession. The curriculum research has lim- ited value to current researchers and cur- Student Achievement riculum developers because they were lim- The results of the research that focused on ited by specific points of time in describing student achievement are summarized as fol- public school practice and teacher educa- lows: (a) Children’s interest and motivation in tion programs. other subject areas may be increased when TE is combined with or used as a method for Curriculum Studies teaching other school subjects and (b) stu- Early studies documented the importance dents may become more independent learn- of pre-service and in-service education for ers through the inclusion of TE. However, successful implementation of ESTE. The suc- there is no conclusive evidence to suggest that cessful implementation of ESTE has histori- students learn the information better, or retain cally been based primarily on two factors: (a) it longer, as a result of studying technology, its role in supporting the mission of the school with the possible exception of improvements and (b) the individual teacher’s previous edu- in reading comprehension. cation and experience with TE, augmented by While the relationship among science, administrative support. The latter is the stron- mathematics, and technology seems obvious gest argument for increasing efforts with in- to practitioners in the field, the evidence from

59 these studies does not indicate that there is a teacher with minimal ESTE background. These significant gain in either science or mathemat- in-service instructors followed the same script ics achievement as a result of TE. However, in presenting the sessions. preliminary research indicates that career edu- The Stages of Concern (SoC) instrument cation, language use, and reading compre- (Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1986) was used hension may be significantly improved through to measure the elementary teachers’ concerns. TE. But substantial research to support irrefut- No significant difference was found in con- able conclusions at this time is lacking. cerns about implementing ESTE between teach- More recent research studies that utilized ers attending in-service sessions presented by qualitative or ethnographic methods are be- the two instructors. On average, teachers in all ginning to provide explanations about groups had increased SoC scores after the children’s interests, the ways in which chil- second in-service session, which indicates dren interact with technology, and the ben- less concern about implementing the innova- efits of TE to children. tion (Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1986). The results suggest that successful ESTE in- Recent Research and Development service sessions need not be presented by A team of researchers from the University of persons fitting the TE college-professor stereo- Missouri (MU) delivered in-service instruction type (highly experienced and male). They to elementary-school faculty and administra- suggest that with minimal coaching and pre- tors in five school districts in rural central pared materials an elementary teacher can be Missouri and technology-related instruction designated as an in-service provider for schools to approximately 300 second- and fourth- in his or her district. Further, in-service can be grade students (Wright & Foster, in press). A effective in reducing teachers’ concerns about summary of the results of their research fol- implementing ESTE. lows, which is organized around four salient 3. Do elementary students’ interest and questions they sought to answer. engagement in learning change when involved 1. Is there a relationship between educa- in technology education? Two researchers tional achievement and students’ attitudes to- conducted unobtrusive observations during a ward technology? The students’ educational week-long technology unit taught by MU achievement and attitudes toward technology graduate students at a suburban elementary were studied for more than 100 fourth graders school in both a second- and fourth-grade in four of these schools in central Missouri. No class, then re-visited the classrooms during a significant correlation (< - .01) was found be- subsequent week to observe the children in tween achievement in school (based on state- their normal environment (i.e., regular teacher, wide, standardized tests in reading, language content, and schedule). Each faculty member arts, social studies, science, and mathematics) watched two students closely while observing and students’ attitudes toward technology (us- the class sessions. ing percentile scores from the Students Atti- The data suggest that most students do in tudes Toward Technology [SATT] instrument fact respond positively to technology content [Dunlap, 1990] developed at Virginia Poly- and corresponding activities. Technology stud- technic Institute and State University). This ies appear to meet different learning styles and research would tentatively suggest that fourth- address multiple intelligences better than con- graders’ attitudes toward technology cannot be ventional “seat work.” TE activities appear to predicted from their academic achievement. reach a wider range of children, perhaps as 2. Can ESTE in-service training of elemen- many as 75 to 80%, while many of the regular tary teachers be offered as effectively by a classroom lessons and activities appeared to person without an extensive background in captivate only about 20 to 25% of the chil- technology education? The MU researchers dren. It may be possible that the novelty of the also looked at the concerns of elementary subject matter or a new teacher was a factor in teachers about implementing ESTE. I won- the students’ behavior. It is also possible, even dered whether in-service would be more ef- probable, that many students typically not fective when conducted by a person “from motivated by conventional classroom strate- their ranks” (i.e., female and an elementary gies may be reached through relevant hands- teacher) or from an individual with recog- on activities. nized expertise in the field. In order to exam- For example, one of the second-grade stu- ine this, elementary faculty at two schools dents who was previously identified by the received two in-service sessions from a male teacher as “slow” exhibited a great deal of college professor with expertise in TE while enthusiasm and leadership when provided the faculty at the other two schools received two opportunity to work with tools and materials in-service sessions from a female kindergarten in a production setting. Conversely, a girl that

60 was typically at the top of the class in aca- WHAT MORE WE NEED TO KNOW AND demic achievement appeared to have no ad- WHAT WE MAY CONCLUDE vantage over the boy labeled as “slow.” Both The need for additional research is obvi- quickly learned the names of the tools and the ous. Further, the base of existing research that processes presented by the teacher, and both we consider TE should be expanded. There is worked cooperatively in the ensuing activity, a considerable amount of TE research, cur- completing their tasks competently. It would riculum development, and activity occurring appear from this particular episode that both in classrooms that is typically ignored by the students were equally capable. The “slow” TE profession because it is not conducted or student exhibited an uncharacteristically high developed by “technology educators” (e.g., degree of self-esteem and confidence during Caney’s third-grade rocket activity). Also, the the technology lesson (evidenced by eagerly research base should include a mix of experi- volunteering the answer to most questions) mental and qualitative studies. Qualitative and activity (by attempting to assist other studies could be useful to further explain how students and taking pride in his work). As these children benefit from or are affected by ESTE. examples would illustrate, the range of chil- When observations are conducted by technol- dren engaged and on-task through technology ogy educators with preconceived notions of studies covered the spectrum from low to high technology, its value, and its structure, the use academic ability. of triangulation is critically important. Triangulation of observational data is im- Keeping in mind that the value of ESTE is perative, we have learned. Interviewing chil- largely a matter of unsubstantiated opinions, dren and teachers independently, for example, research should include longitudinal studies will reveal much richer understanding when to more precisely identify the benefits students used to supplement classroom observations. derive from TE and to explore what long-term We also learned that educators are preoccu- participation in TE does for children. Further, pied with trying to get children to realize a because the ESTE implementation process is conceptual understanding of technology when, not yet well understood, we need to identify in fact, children view things quite differently. what can be done to facilitate the implemen- The picture of technology in a student’s mind tation of ESTE, assuming that research vali- may be significantly different from the picture dates the value of TE. Finally, the content base in the instructor’s mind. Constructivist learn- for TE has largely been determined by people ing theory would support our observations. who are primarily interested in the upper Finally, our observations reveal that a great grades and with a bias emanating from tradi- deal of technology is being done under other tion. What is important for all boys and girls, banners (science, social studies, and art, spe- K to 12, to know, be able to do, and value cifically) by the regular teacher. about technology has yet to be determined. 4. What are the benefits of TE to children? Why, for example, is processing material (e.g., Claims about the value of ESTE in general or of sawing) imperative for all children to under- specific programs and activities are abundant stand and do? in the literature. Foster (1997) conducted a This being said, I close with four observa- qualitative study in order to identify some of tions that offer considerable challenge: the benefits of ESTE to children. The benefits 1. The TE profession does not have a clear Foster observed included (a) development of understanding about its unique contribution vocabulary, language use, and creative com- to children, about what it does better than munication; (b) improved technological knowl- anyone else in the school. There are many edge and capabilities; (c) practice with per- claims of the benefits of ESTE to children, but ceptual and motor skills, and skills such as no conclusive evidence to support the claims. graphic representation, visualization, design, 2. ESTE does appear to significantly en- and tool use; and (d) improved social and life hance career education efforts and increase skills such as engagement, responsibility, per- students’ interest in other subject areas when sonal growth, and the ability to work with used as a teaching method. However, based others. Foster concluded that TE professionals on the few research studies available, it does could help teachers to include design and not appear to significantly increase student constructional activities in their curriculum, performance in other subject areas. Perhaps thus helping to provide the benefits of ESTE to measures other than standardized tests should children. be used. Indeed, standardized tests may not be designed to assess what children are actually learning or are able to do as a result of technological studies.

61 3. There is little empirical research validat- must be based on the demonstrated need for ing the need for or value of ESTE in the United technological literacy (content) for all, not just States at this time. There are no longitudinal on its ability to teach other subjects better data available, nor are they being collected. A (method). The research base suggests that suc- major research initiative is required to validate cessful implementation will require three com- assertions that all children need or benefit ponents: pre-service education, in-service edu- from technology studies. cation, and administrative support. 4. The successful implementation of ESTE

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