The Development of Technology in the

Bob Booth Wolverhampton Polytechnic

,A review of the history of hand skill experiences in England and Wales. A time new dimensions were added to development, manual training, manual commonly held view purports a ten year drafting, pattemmaking, machine shop, arts, industrial arts and now the challenge gap between the exciting initiatives and foundry and woodwork etc. in order to of technology indicates that change centres of excellent in the UK and those keep abreast of the changing face of occurs and is most logical and in the United States. However, although manufacturing industry. The Russian appropriate in times of ferment. current debate mirrors experiences in system of skill training, the English arts Education today is in ferment and England and Wales the starting points, and crafts movement and the Sloyd changes are being made. It is most critical traditions, philosophy and methods are Movement all influenced the approach to that the technology education profession different. the teaching of hand skills and activity draws on its rich history and wealth of programmes in education. During the last eighty years the United curriculum materials to establish a States has progressed from an economy Manual arts traditions grew from Sloyd; program that can eX~lore, explain and use based on agriculture, through an modem technology' trade and industrial industrial age to a society based grew from more rigid approaches to the ,...we recommend that all students study increasingly on communication, acquisition of manipulative skills. John technology: ...how science and information technology and service Dewey placed the study of industry and technology have been joined, and the industries. The United States is no longer the social implications of industrial ethical and social issues technology has competitive in traditional heavy industry culture as central to the educational raised .... We are frankly disappointed and faces extensive competition from process and declared it to be simply a that none of the schools we visited other nations in developing technologies matter of time before the prevocational required a study of technology. More as well as nursing a continuing trade industrial arts movement developed on disturbing still is the current inclination to deficit. several fronts in schools and towards the equate technology with computers ... 'The 1920's and as a result of legislation, trade For those with a vague knowledge of greater urgency is not computer and industrial vocational education developments in the United States but technology literacy' the need for emerged as a major education programme. paralleling Craft, Design and Technology students to see how society is being I briefly document some of the events. reshaped by our inventions, just as tools A growing dichotomy between 'prevocational' and 'general' education of earlier eras changed the course of During the latter part of the 1800's during the 1930's prevented a clear history. The challenge is not learning how organised systems for teaching hand mandate concerning common objectives to use the latest piece of hardware but skills developed and generally constituted and terminology to describe programmes, asking when and why it should be used,.2 a programme of manual or shop training activities and shop organisation. Several and part of the general education of all 'After the contents and the outcomes of a attempts were made to unify the youth. Manual training in high schools, technology education program have been profession including the formation of the often bearing names such as technical, studied, a structure of what the program American Industrial Arts Association and polytechnic and mechanic arts was will look like must be designed. This the American Vocational Association. The established predominantly in east coast should include course titles, units and post was years brought new efforts in . ,1 states and 'shop work' became an competencIes .. curriculum study and recommendations established subject area for the high and presentations at conference in true These statements typify the determined school curriculum by 1900. From time to and enthusiastic efforts behind an informed Technology Education Figure 1 A Model of Technology movement in the United States. I have recently returned from an extended professional working visit to the United States and during this time I lectured and studied on developing technology education programmes for teacher training in and schools and witnessed interesting and exciting initiatives. There are quite extraordinary similarities between Technology Education subject development at all levels of the education establishment in the United States which parallel American tradition. A Curriculum to Reflect Technology 4 introduced five areas of study which clearly influence current high school teaching programmes. These were communication, construction, power, transportation and manufacturing. Gorden Wilber5 offered a fresh perspective on the style of Industrial Arts adopted in programmes and advanced a broadening of the industrial arts concepts to include mass production, product design and manufacture, business structures and marketing education. Contemporary study of developments in this subject area must include some consideration for the work of Professor Donald Maley of the of Maryland. His initial proposals in the nations. After experiencing teacher higher echelons of university education; 1960's provided a bench mark by which training, state administration and school clearly an advantage for the initiators of others were to measure their successes. life in the United States I appreciate how Technology Education change. Professor Maley is an advocate of pupil this opinion is formed. Our strengths and The definition of Technology Education activities organised as principles of centres of excellence lie with the efforts as with CDT is directly related to the of practitioners in schools and those with investigation, exploration, analysis, nation's level of technological testing and the use of tools and materials responsibility for initiatives who have 6 development, understanding and the rate to solve problems . A wealth of developed acceptable and legitimate CDT of dissemination of technology through curriculum and instructional materials, activity with a meagre consensus of that nation. "The country's level of research projects and programme philosophical guidelines; some would technological development plays a activities were forthcoming resulting in maintain that it is they who are significant role in shaping the meaning further curriculum developments in assembling the philosophy. There is little given by that nation to technology"? various parts of the country notably, New doubt that we excel in creating York, Maryland, Illinois, Ohio and in stimulating practical design activity but Todd maintains that a definition will be Virginia. Inevitably schools in many more than a superficial glance will reveal determined by the operational definitions states cling to vestiges of tradition by a shallow philosophy and an almost of technology a nation has such a: i) tools continuing an "Industrial complete absence of a contextual and hardware, ii) production of goods and Artsrrechnology Education" philosophy; backcloth. We still have time to put a services, iii) systems of construction, a "Design Wood/Design Metal" national act together if we are to remain transportation and communication, iv) a fence-sitting posture and passive the envy of our western friends if only body of knowledge of practical value, v) resistance. because there are problems looming on a philosophy of thinking and doing. Todd the horizon for them if they do not benefit is able to parallel these definitions with At this point that I Jilighlight the from our experiences. levels of national development: fundamental difference in current indigenous, emerging, developing, development terms and draw some There appears to be a tenuous industrialised, cybernetic and describes comparisons with those in England and relationship between technology the United States as cybernetic although Wales. The starting point in the United education protagonists at university and it displays characteristics of earlier levels. States lies firmly with much research and state administration level and the His definition of technology is clearly the embodiment of a philosophy, a traditionally practical industrial acceptable, "Technology is the definition, clear goals and the arts/vocational education classroom application of knowledge, tools and skills dissemination of information; a stance teachers who transform philosophies into to solve problems and extend human action; compared with the situation in from which the latter has much to learn capability,,8. However, there is little since the development of a CDT England and Wales few teachers have consensus on the fundamental issues philosophy has tended to leave teachers been activity encouraged to engage in concerning the nature of technology and short on justification. How astute of our subject development programme and whether it emerges as a concept or as a colleagues to isolate the subject title in-service provision is not as generous as process. "Technology Education"; it need not be in the UK. Consequently, there is a abbreviated; the concept is acceptable at greater gap between theory and practice It is within this national context that I all levels of education; it is easily in the United States than in England and highlight the efforts of the State of explained and justified by its principal Wales since the theory is on a higher Virginia and its attempts to instigate a characters and above all it is synonymous conceptual plane and the practice at a Technology Education programme from with a host of activities without the need lower operational level. There is no doubt five to sixteen. The Commonwealth of for sub-titling. Is there time for us to that the bedrock of vocational and Virginia is making a bold stance in adopt "Technology"? industrial arts is deeper than it was in promoting Technology Education in the handicraft but this vocational millstone face of deep traditions founded on the Teachers and planners from United States has an academic respectability and state's natural resources, consequently with experience of the system on this side greater depth at all levels of education subjects such as 'woodshop' and of the Atlantic maintain the ten year from elementary school through to the development gap between our two 'transportation' are the sacred cows of its An extended search has led to a working resources, technological 'activity industrial arts programmes. definition of technology education: that develops. The notion of excitement technology is the study of the application through discovery and experience and In 1986 the Virginia Department of of knowledge, creativity and resources to accomplishment through hands-on Education attempted to determine what solve problems and extend human applications may sound similar to us and should be reasonable to expect pupils to potential. "This is applied to a systems should not be underestimated in the know by the turn of the century in the model of input, process and output context of the American reputation for context of technological literacy. The paralleling human wants or needs which getting things done through corporate committee charged with this task feed into the inputs of knowledge, effort, consensus and agreement. consisted of representatives from creativity and resources these become business, industry, education and various The 'mission' of the Technology processed through study and solving associations. They were concerned with Education programmes is to ensure that problems which result in an extension of research and planning and to deliver their human potential,,9 citizens are prepared to live in and findings in one year. Implementation of contribute to a competitive and the findings is to be completed in the See Figure 1. technologically based society. The schools by 1990. These efforts were a mission is amplified by goals that lead to Technology is seen as a process direct response to federal criticism which the development of a technologically recognised by its products and their sharply attacked the inadequacy of public literate people. effects on society. Technology education schools in preparing students for the is "the school discipline for the study of "Consistent with their abilities, interests twenty first century. The federal board the application of knowledge, creativity and educational needs pupils completing wamed that pupils were not being and resources to solve problems and a Technology Education programme will prepared adequately to take full extend human potential" 10 achieve the following goals: advantage of the opportunities that will be created in the technological workplace See Figure 2. I. Comprehend the dynamics of of the future. The challenge for technology, including its development, There is a firm belief, lacking in British educators,parents, business people and impact and potential. public officials is to sharpen the education, that every person has the 2. Employ the technological processes of educational focus to meet new needs. potential for reasoning and problem-solving, creating and What follows reflects the findings of the problem-solving, imagining and creating, designing. committee. and for constructing and expressing through the use of tools and materials. 3. Analyze the behaviour of From this combination of ingenuity and technological systems and

Processes ()f Learner Technology Accomplishments

Knowledge from exis£ing curriculum Technological awareness Elementary Learning by doing (K-5) Creativity Psychomotor development Learning reinforcement Tools and materials

Knowledge of technology: Tools • Development Materials • Impact Problem-solving • Potential Middle Processes • Careers (6-8) Energy Creating Note: Teachers should Information continue reinforce- People ment of learner accomplishments, K-S,

Technological application: Tools • Scientific principles High Materials Problem-solving • Engineering concepts Challenging experiences • Technological systems Processes School Creating (9-12) Self-actualization Energy Note: Teachers should Designing Informatio" continue reinforce- ment of learner People accomplishments, K-8. sub-systems, including the tools, PUPil EDUCATIONAL AND MOTIVATIONAL materials, processes, energy, NEEDS information and people involved in Knowledge from systems. existing school curriculum 4. Apply scientific principles, engineering concepts and technological systems in the processes Creatlylty. Inqulrln of technology. Inv.ntlven.", .nd n.turel curiosity of Reinforcement and pupil .nrlchm.nt: 5. Discover and develop personal Mathematics interests and abilities related to a wide language Arts Social Studies variety of technology-oriented Selene. careers.~' II Health rln. Arts The Technology Education curriculum proposed spans grade' K' (pre 5·years olds) to grade 12 (17 year olds) involving elementary, middle and high schools. 3. The use of tools and materials to foster and assess their impact on earth and a personal interest in technology. space. See Figure 3. 4. The development of self-confidence 2. Apply critical thinking to solve Several elementary schools in Virginia through the use of technology. problems. have been cohcemed with developing 'model' Technology Education Technology Education 3. Use tools, materials and processes programmes through research funded by provides 'active learning situations' and safely. national enterprises such as NASA and 'higher order thinking skill development' 4. Strengthen creative abilities, directed by researchers based in for participants. It is at this stage the self-image and personal potential. university teacher education departments. processes of problem-solving and 5. Explore technologically oriented The model for infusion of technology into creating extends pupil understanding of careers. the elementary school is concerned with the development, impact and potential of helping pupils to learn and achieve technology and careers in technology. Typical course titles include 'Introduction educational goals of the complete Again the building blocks are made quite to Technology', 'Inventions and elementary school programme. There is a clear in well-defined, positive objectives. Innovations' and 'Exploring Technological Systems'. strong emphasis on learning by doing, See Figure 5. investigative, creative, problem-solving The high school model expresses a belief activities leading to a technological Pupils should be able to: in self-initiated programmes through awareness in pupils. These experiences I. Identify the historical, current and challenging experiences. Content expose pupils to technology, develop future developments of technology challenges the pupil to apply scientific psychomotor skills and provide the basis for informed attitudes about the influence of technology on society. See Figure 4.

Technology activities are integrated into Problem solving Knowledge of the total elementary curriculum and technology Creallng: •• · Development reinforce learning while pupils gain a • Observation of need .Impact technological awareness and a more or difficulty • Potenllal • Anolysls 01 need • Careers refined attitude towards technology in • Survey of oyollable society. In fact Technology Education Informollon • Formation 01 oil focuses on the development of obJectiya solutions technological awareness and therefore • Analysl, of solutions • Birth 01 new Id•• technological literacy. It is quite clear that • Experlmenloton, test, and selection this is an infusion programme to be • Perfection of final responsibility not of additional teachers embodiment but of existing elementary school teachers. This mandate is reflected in the hypothesis that learning can be reinforced by developing a technological awareness MIDDLE SCHOOL COURSE OPTIONS that explores: GRADES 6-8

Suggested I. How people create, use and control Sequence Course grade technology 2. The application of knowledge in I Inlrodudion to Technology 6 mathematics, language arts, social studies, science, health and fine arts by II Inventions and Innovations 7 solving problems associated with technology. III Exploring Technological Systems 8 principles, engineering concepts and ADOLESCENT EDUCATIONAL AND technological systems. MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS

See Figure 6. Application • Scientific principles Objectives necessitate: • Engineering concepts I. Evaluation of technology's capabilities 15 • Technologlcel and impact. Designing: system. • Analysis of problem Knowledge of • Synthesis of solution technology 2. Application of design concepts to · Evaluation and ·Oevelopment solve human problems. decision ·Impect • Optimization • Polen tiel 3. Employment of resources to analyses • Revision · Car •• r. • Implementatlon Technological the behaviour of technological systems. .warenasa Psychomotor 4. Application of scientific principles, development learning engineering concepts and reinforcement technological systems in the process of problem-solving, creating and designing. Constructs and titles give a number of systems and applications methodology at course options designed to meet the needs the high school. 5. Development of personal interests of three broad ability ranges. related to careers in technology. Many schools are, of course, in the "We believe at the elementary school process of change wisely anticipating Underpinning the high school level the emphasis should be on almost complete implementation by the programmes are three 'constructs': technological awareness and at the mid-1990's. Implementation is to gather I. Servicing - a sequence for pupils middle school level it should be pace at the commencement of the 1989 who enter the service sector and not explorations in technology and finally at academic year in all schools and by the continue schooling beyond high the high school level we should focus in year 2000 all Virginia's public school school. on the advances of the applications of pupils and 1500'secondary teachers in the technology" 12. subject area will be benefiting from 2. Systems - a programme provided for Technology Education programmes. It is the majority of pupils to strengthen the Figure 7. possible to believe that the dissemination individuals ability to live and work of this adventurous plan will be effective successfully in a competitive Dr. Dugger, Professor and Program Area if viewed in the context of the support international society. Leader at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, highlights an materials and resources proposed by a 3. High Technology - provides a infusion methodology at the elementary task force monitoring existing facilities. programme for students who have the school level leading to a global New facilities will reflect the need for potential for future careers in science perspective of technology at the middle less heavy specialised equipment and and engineering. school and a more specific technological more diverse, flexible accommodation. Characteristics of the accommodation

Program Constructs Communication Control Production Design Introduction to Technology Technology Technology Technology Engineering Program Program Program Program Program

HI-Tech Courses

Systems Engineerin~ Courses (Core) Systems

Servicing Courses will be "adaptability, working space, equipment will continue to be utilised in International Technology Education Association, modular units, improved space efficiency subjects such as production, Virginia. and more concern for project and manufacturing and construction but more 2. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching Hil(h School. A Report on Secondary component storage" 1 • The programme emphasis will be placed on how to solve Education in America 1981. funding will be supported by the state. problems, developing creativity and 3. Ritz, J. (1986) Technolol(Y Education in understanding systems. Protagonists The preparation of teachers through Southeast Virl(inia's Puh/ic Schools. Paper given believe these ideas will be more effective at Technology Education Symposium: in-service is recognised as one of the in preparing youngsters for a more "Technological Literacy: an Educational keys to successful dissemination of fresh competitive world and productive life. Mandate". ideas through a foundation summer 4. A Curriculum to Reflect Technolol(Y (1946) U.S. school course in 1988. Summer schools That most Americans are moving Government Report. are of five weeks duration and form part toward" ... virtual scientific and 5. Wilber, Gordon O. (1948) Industrial Arts in of a credit accumulation scheme typical technological illiteracy ..." 14, has fuelled General Education. of those found in most universities. The the fire for the inspired teacher trainer 6. Maley, D., (1986) Prohlem-solvinl( and course will concern itself with and enthusiastic, motivate teacher of Decision-makinl( in the Technolol(Y Lahoratory. understanding philosophy, concepts and Research and Experimentation in Technology Technology Education much as Prime Education. International Technology planning and will be followed by teacher Minister James Callaghan's Ruskin Association, Virginia. preparation courses; it is recognised that College speech did for potential COT 7. Todd, Ronald D., (1985) Techno!rwy Education: courses will be needed which go beyond practitioners in 1976. The fundamental An International Perspective. International initiation stages to enable teachers to differences between the two scenarios are Technology Education Association: develop technology learning activities. typified by the unique thoroughness of 8. Todd, A., McRory, c., Todd D., (1987) Local curriculum councils are the philosophy and depth of foundations Understandinl( and Usinl( Technolol(Y Davis investigating and restructuring teacher and resource bases created through Publications. pre- and in-service education and initiatives, international conference and 9, Dugger, W. E. Prof. (1987) Teleconference 12, 'Technolol(Y jiJr the 21st. Century'. Broadcast providing workshop sessions for key research in the United States but a 13. date 19.11.87 from Richmond Va. teachers who will be the agents of change general underestimation of the reluctance 10. The Technolol(Y Education Curriculum K-12, in schools. Moderation of teacher to change displayed by teachers with II. (1988) Commonwealth of Virginia Department performance, monitoring technological stronger, narrower traditions than many of Education. Curriculum document and model development and the assessment of pupils held in the United Kingdom. From a for state and local planning. endeavour remain topical issues of starting point behind that of the UK a five 14. United States Department of Education and debate. However, what constitutes a year period has been set to one side to National Science Foundation Report (1980). technological literacy and the dramatically adjust the nature of teaching establishment of agreed aims and in a major subject area and deal Further Fales, J., Kuetemeyer, v., & Brusic, S. objectives have presented few major effectively with associated training and Technolo~y Today and Tomorrow (1988) problems for curriculum planners. resource implications. Glencoe. Traditional courses are seen as taking References Maley, O. (1982) Technolo~y Education only a small portion of Technology I. Phillips, K., (1985) A Prol(re.uion oj Technolol(Y in Europe. The journal of Epsilon Pi Tau, Education time in the classroom; for in Industrial Arts Education. Technology 9(2),48-54. example, woodworking processes and Education: A Perspective on Implementation.