Environmental Assessment of the Ptarmigan Geophysical Program 2012-2021 Offshore Western Newfoundland Stantec Consulting Ltd. 607 Torbay Road St. John’s, NL A1A 4Y6 Tel: (709) 576-1458 Fax: (709) 576-2126 Prepared for

Ptarmigan Energy Inc. 801 Torbay Road Torbay, A1K 1A2

Final Report

File No. 121510837

Date: July 18, 2012 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE PTARMIGAN SEISMIC SURVEY OFFSHORE WESTERN NEWFOUNDLAND

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Relevant Legislation and Regulatory Approvals...... 3 1.2 The Proponent...... 3 1.3 Benefits to Newfoundland and Labrador and Canada ...... 4 1.4 Project Contacts...... 4 1.5 Document Organization...... 4

2.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION ...... 5

2.1 Spatial and Temporal Boundaries ...... 6 2.2 Project Overview ...... 6 2.2.1 History of Exploration Activities in Western Newfoundland Offshore Area...... 9 2.2.2 Objectives and Rationale...... 9 2.2.3 Alternatives to the Project...... 10 2.2.4 Project Scheduling...... 11 2.2.5 Site Plans ...... 11 2.2.6 Seismic Vessel ...... 11 2.2.7 Seismic Streamers ...... 14 2.2.8 Personnel, Logistics and Support...... 16 2.2.9 Environmental Management...... 18 2.2.10 Health, Safety and Environment Policies ...... 19 2.3 Mitigation...... 19

3.0 CONSULTATION WITH STAKEHOLDERS ...... 20

3.1 Commercial Fisheries...... 20 3.2 Meetings with Government Departments and Agencies ...... 20 3.3 Media Communication...... 21 3.4 Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation Band...... 21 3.5 Issues Identified Through Consultation ...... 21

4.0 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS...... 23

4.1 Methodology Related to Environmental Assessment...... 23

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4.1.1 Issues Scoping and Selection of Valued Ecosystem Components ...... 23 4.2 Environmental Effects Assessment Organization ...... 25 4.2.1 Boundaries ...... 25 4.2.2 Identification of Project Related Environmental Effects...... 26 4.2.3 Existing Conditions ...... 26 4.2.4 Potential Interactions ...... 26 4.2.5 Significance Definition ...... 27 4.2.6 Mitigation ...... 27 4.2.7 Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 27 4.2.8 Accidental Events ...... 30 4.2.9 Cumulative Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 31 4.2.10 Monitoring and Follow-up ...... 32 4.2.11 Change to the Project that could be Caused by the Environment...... 32

5.0 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 33

5.1 Geological Framework ...... 33 5.1.1 Regional Geology of Western Newfoundland...... 35 5.1.2 Hydrocarbon Potential of Western Newfoundland...... 36 5.2 Seismicity ...... 37 5.3 Physical Oceanography ...... 39 5.4 Bathymetry ...... 40 5.5 Ocean Currents...... 41 5.6 Tides...... 43 5.7 Waves ...... 44 5.8 Ice ...... 44 5.9 Climate ...... 46 5.9.1 Wind ...... 48 5.10 Noise/Acoustic Environment ...... 50

6.0 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 52

6.1 Ecosystem...... 52 6.1.1 Coastal Habitats ...... 53 6.1.2 Plankton...... 57

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6.1.3 Benthic Invertebrates...... 59 6.2 Species at Risk...... 63 6.2.1 Status of Species...... 64 6.2.2 Marine Fish Species at Risk ...... 69 6.2.3 Marine Mammal Species at Risk ...... 114 6.2.4 Marine Reptile Species at Risk...... 130 6.2.5 Marine Bird Species at Risk ...... 135 6.3 Marine Fish and Shellfish...... 142 6.3.1 Fish...... 142 6.3.2 Shellfish...... 147 6.4 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles ...... 149 6.4.1 Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises...... 152 6.4.2 Seals...... 157 6.4.3 Marine Reptiles...... 160 6.5 Marine Birds ...... 160 6.6 Sensitive Areas ...... 162 6.6.1 Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs)...... 164 6.6.2 Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society - Special Marine Areas ...... 164 6.6.3 Other Identified Sensitive Areas ...... 165 6.7 Fisheries and Other Ocean Users...... 167 6.7.1 American Plaice...... 170 6.7.2 Atlantic Cod ...... 173 6.7.3 Atlantic Halibut...... 176 6.7.4 Atlantic Herring ...... 179 6.7.5 Atlantic Mackerel ...... 181 6.7.6 Capelin ...... 183 6.7.7 Greenland Halibut...... 185 6.7.8 Lumpfish ...... 187 6.7.9 Redfish ...... 189 6.7.10 Witch Flounder ...... 191 6.7.11 Atlantic Sea Scallop...... 193 6.7.12 Lobster...... 195

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6.7.13 Northern Shrimp ...... 196 6.7.14 Snow Crab...... 198 6.7.15 Other Marine Users ...... 200

7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ASSESSMENT...... 205

7.1 Change to the Project That Could Be Caused by the Environment ...... 206 7.2 Environmental Effects of Project on the Environment ...... 207 7.3 Species at Risk...... 207 7.3.1 Significance Definition ...... 208 7.3.2 Mitigation ...... 209 7.3.3 Marine Fish Species at Risk Effects Assessment ...... 210 7.3.4 Marine Mammals Species at Risk Effects Assessment...... 219 7.3.5 Sea Turtle Species at Risk Effects Assessment...... 229 7.3.6 Marine Bird Species at Risk Effects Assessment...... 235 7.4 Marine Fish and Shellfish...... 240 7.4.1 Significance Definition ...... 240 7.4.2 Mitigation ...... 240 7.4.3 Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 241 7.5 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles ...... 245 7.5.1 Significance Definition ...... 245 7.5.2 Mitigations ...... 245 7.5.3 Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 246 7.6 Marine Birds ...... 249 7.6.1 Significance Definition ...... 249 7.6.2 Mitigation ...... 250 7.6.3 Effects Assessment ...... 250 7.7 Sensitive Areas ...... 256 7.7.1 Significance Definition ...... 256 7.7.2 Mitigation ...... 257 7.7.3 Effects Assessment ...... 257 7.8 Fisheries and Other Ocean Users...... 261 7.8.1 Significance Definition ...... 262 7.8.2 Mitigation ...... 262

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7.8.3 Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 263 7.9 Cumulative Environmental Effects ...... 267 7.9.1 Other Projects and Activities ...... 267 7.9.2 Cumulative Environmental Effects Assessment ...... 268 7.10 Mitigation and Follow-up ...... 270

8.0 REFERENCES ...... 273

8.1 Personal Communications ...... 273 8.2 Literature Cited...... 273

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Location of Ptarmigan Exploration Licenses ...... 2 Figure 2-1 2012/2014 Seismic Survey Project Area ...... 5 Figure 2-2 Location of Study Area (2012 to 2021)...... 7 Figure 2-3 Coverage of 2D Data Acquired by Proponent ...... 8 Figure 2-4 Proposed 2012/2014 Seismic Survey with Strike Direction...... 11 Figure 2-5 Seismic Vessel MV Atlantic Explorer Towing Six Seismic Streamer Array ...12 Figure 2-6 Far-field Signature of Proposed Seismic Survey...... 13 Figure 2-7 Frequency of Proposed Seismic Survey ...... 14 Figure 2-8 Components of Seismic Array Proposed for Project ...... 15 Figure 5-1 The Appalachian Orogen...... 34 Figure 5-2 Simple Geological Zonation of the Canadian Appalachian Region ...... 35 Figure 5-3 Location of Wells and Hydrocarbon Occurrences in Western Newfoundland37 Figure 5-4 Model of Seismic Hazards in Canada ...... 38 Figure 5-5 Historical Seismicity in Canada (1627 to 2010)...... 39 Figure 5-6 Monthly Average Temperature in NAFO Division 4Rc ...... 40 Figure 5-7 General Bathymetry of Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 41 Figure 5-8 Co-amplitude (dashed) and Co-phase (solid) Lines for the M2 Tides in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 43 Figure 5-9 The Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on November 19 (1981 to 2010) in Atlantic Canada ...... 45 Figure 5-10 The Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on December 18 (1981to 2010) in Atlantic Canada ...... 45 Figure 5-11 Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on January 8 (1981 to 2010) in Atlantic Canada ...... 46 Figure 5-12 Principal Summer Storm Tracks...... 48 Figure 5-13 Principal Winter Storm Tracks ...... 49 Figure 6-1 Physical Processes and Major Areas of High Productivity in the Gulf of St. Lawrence...... 52 Figure 6-2 Eelgrass Beds in Newfoundland...... 54 Figure 6-3 Presence and Absence of Cold Water Coral based on DFO Groundfish Survey Trawl...... 61

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Figure 6-4 Interpolated Sea Pen Densities ...... 62 Figure 6-5 Interpolated Sponge Densities ...... 63 Figure 6-6 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Northern Wolffish in the Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008...... 72 Figure 6-7 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Spotted Wolffish from Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008...... 73 Figure 6-8 Spotted Wolffish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence74 Figure 6-9 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Atlantic Wolffish from Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008...... 75 Figure 6-10 Atlantic Wolffish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence 76 Figure 6-11 Cod Distribution in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011..78 Figure 6-12 Distribution of Atlantic Cod in September 2006 R/V Survey in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence...... 79 Figure 6-13 Seasonal Distribution of Atlantic cod in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence...80 Figure 6-14 Winter Skate Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002...... 81 Figure 6-15 Distribution of Winter Skate Catches in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence During R/V Surveys (1971 to 2002) ...... 82 Figure 6-16 Range of the Porbeagle Shark (Northwest Atlantic population) ...... 85 Figure 6-17 Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Catch Distribution in Atlantic Canada from 1990 to 1999 (A) and from 2000 to 2009 (B)...... 87 Figure 6-18 Deepwater Redfish Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002...... 89 Figure 6-19 Deepwater Redfish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011...... 90 Figure 6-20 Acadian Redfish Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002...... 91 Figure 6-21 Acadian Redfish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011...... 92 Figure 6-22 Distribution of Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canada ...... 94 Figure 6-23 American Plaice Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002...... 96 Figure 6-24 American Plaice Distribution in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 97 Figure 6-25 Distribution of Cusk in the Northwest Atlantic...... 99 Figure 6-26 Distribution of Atlantic Sturgeon Designatable Units in Atlantic Canada.....101 Figure 6-27 Distribution of Spiny Dogfish in the Northwest Atlantic...... 102 Figure 6-28 Spiny Dogfish Distribution in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002 ...... 103 Figure 6-29 Distribution of Spiny Dogfish Catches During DFO R/V Surveys in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 104 Figure 6-30 Spiny Dogfish Movements in the Western North Atlantic based on Preliminary Tagging Results...... 105 Figure 6-31 Migratory Routes of Post-smelt (left) and Returning Adults (right) in Atlantic Canada ...... 109 Figure 6-32 Distribution of Blue Sharks in Atlantic Canada based on Known Commercial Catch Records between 1986 and 2004 ...... 110

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Figure 6-33 Confirmed Basking Shark Sightings in Atlantic Canada...... 112 Figure 6-34 Areas Important to Marine Mammals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 115 Figure 6-35 Distribution of Atlantic Population of Blue Whale in Canada ...... 117 Figure 6-36 General Distribution of Blue Whales in Gulf of St. Lawrence based MICS Database (1971 to 2008)...... 118 Figure 6-37 Known Canadian Distribution of the North Atlantic Right Whale ...... 120 Figure 6-38 Location of the Seven Canadian Beluga populations...... 122 Figure 6-39 Present Distribution Area of the St. Lawrence Beluga ...... 123 Figure 6-40 Sightings data of Fin Whales from the Species at Risk Database (1998 to 2003) in Atlantic Canada (survey focus on Nova Scotia) ...... 125 Figure 6-41 Fin Whale Sightings in or Near Newfoundland and Labrador (1979 to 2005) ...... 126 Figure 6-42 Encounter Rates for Harbour Porpoise in Gulf of St. Lawrence During Surveys...... 128 Figure 6-43 Sightings of Leatherback Sea Turtles Voluntarily Rpeorted off Nova Scotia (1998 to 2005) ...... 131 Figure 6-44 Records of Leatherback Sea Turtles in Canadian Waters (1998 to 2005) ..132 Figure 6-45 Distribution of Loggerhead Sea Turtle Catches in the Canadian Tuna and Swordfish Longline Fisheries (2000 to 2009) ...... 135 Figure 6-46 Distribution of Piping Plover (melodus subspecies) in Canada ...... 137 Figure 6-47 Identified Piping Plover Habitat in Western Newfoundland ...... 138 Figure 6-48 Canadian Distribution of Harlequin Duck (Eastern Population)...... 140 Figure 6-49 Eastern Population of Barrow’s Goldeneye in Canada ...... 141 Figure 6-50 Sensitive Areas in Western Newfoundland ...... 163 Figure 6-51 Mean Number and Mean Weight for American Plaice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence...... 171 Figure 6-52 Distribution of American Plaice Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 172 Figure 6-53 Estimated Cod Population Numbers (3+ and Mature Population)...... 174 Figure 6-54 Distribution of Atlantic Cod Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 175 Figure 6-55 Mean Number and Mean Weight for Atlantic Halibut in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 177 Figure 6-56 Distribution of Atlantic Halibut Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 178 Figure 6-57 Probability of Finding Herring in 4R, 1988-2012...... 179 Figure 6-58 Distribution of Atlantic Herring Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 180 Figure 6-59 Distribution of Atlantic Mackerel Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 182 Figure 6-60 Distribution of Capelin Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010...... 184 Figure 6-61 Distribution of Greenland Halibut Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 186 Figure 6-62 Distribution of Lumpfish Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ..188 Figure 6-63 Distribution of Redfish Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010...... 190

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Figure 6-64 Distribution of Witch Flounder Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 192 Figure 6-65 Distribution of Atlantic Sea Scallop in the Northwest Atlantic...... 193 Figur3 6-66 Distribution of Atlantic Sea Scallop Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 194 Figure 6-67 The Distribution of Lobster in Atlantic Canada ...... 195 Figure 6-68 Landing and Total Allowable Catch for Esquiman Shrimp Fishing Area .....196 Figure 6-69 Distribution of Northern Shrimp Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 ...... 197 Figure 6-70 Distribution of Snow Crab Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010 199 Figure 6-71 Atlantic Inbound Vessel Transect Density Map: Inbound Cargo and Tanker Shipments in 2000...... 204 Figure 7-1 Sound Pressure Threshold (dB) for the Onset of Fish Injuries...... 212

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Parameters Related to Proposed 3D Seismic Survey...... 13 Table 3.1 Summary of Issues Raised During Consultation (To Date)...... 22 Table 4.1 Spatial and Administrative Boundaries for each VEC ...... 26 Table 4.2 Example Environmental Effects Assessment Summary...... 29 Table 5.1 Temperature and Precipitation Climate Data (1971 to 2000) in Corner Brook, NL...... 46 Table 5.2 Visibility Data Recorded at Corner Brook Weather Station (1971 to 2000)...48 Table 5.3 Wind Data at the Deer Lake Airport, NL Weather Station (1971 to 2000).....50 Table 5.4 Approximate Source Pressure Levels and Frequency Ranges of Natural and Anthropogenic Sounds in Marine Environment ...... 51 Table 6.1 Common Algal Species that Occur in Intertidal and Subtidal Habitats in Western Newfoundland ...... 56 Table 6.2 Common Meroplankton in the Gulf of St. Lawrence...... 58 Table 6.3 Species at Risk listed on Schedule 1 of SARA that could Potentially Occur in the Study Area...... 64 Table 6.4 Species Assessed as “At Risk” by COSEWIC that May Occur in the Study Area ...... 66 Table 6.5 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles that Occur Within Study Area ...... 150 Table 6.6 Special Marine Areas in and near the Study Area...... 165 Table 6.7 Significant Coastal and Marine Areas as Designated by the Long Range Regional Economic Development Board...... 166 Table 6.8 Important Bird Areas in the Vicinity of the Study Area...... 167 Table 6.9 Species with the Highest Catch Weights during Research Vessel Surveys in NAFO Division 4Rc for 2010 and 2011 ...... 168 Table 6.10 Mean, Minimum and Maximum Catch Depth during DFO Research Vessel Surveys in 4Rc for 2010 and 2011 ...... 169 Table 6.11 Fisheries and Oceans Canada Surveys Proposed for Fall / Winter 2012 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ...... 170

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Table 6.12 Salmon River Catch Data for Western Newfoundland Coastal Areas, 2011 ...... 201 Table 7.1 Potential Project Activity-VEC Interactions...... 205 Table 7.2 Species at Risk of Greatest Concern for Project-Interaction ...... 208 Table 7.3 Project-Related Interactions – Species At Risk ...... 208 Table 7.4 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Fish Species at Risk...... 217 Table 7.5 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Mammal Species at Risk...... 227 Table 7.6 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Sea Turtle Species at Risk...... 233 Table 7.7 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment - Marine Bird Species at Risk ...... 238 Table 7.8 Project-Related Interactions – Marine Fish and Shellfish...... 240 Table 7.9 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Fish and Shellfish...... 243 Table 7.10 Potential Project-Related Interactions– Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles 245 Table 7.11 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles ...... 247 Table 7.12 Project-Related Interactions – Marine Birds ...... 249 Table 7.13 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Birds .....254 Table 7.14 Project-Related Interactions – Sensitive Areas ...... 256 Table 7.15 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Sensitive Areas . 259 Table 7.16 Project-Related Interactions – Fisheries and Other Ocean Users...... 262 Table 7.17 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Fisheries and Other Ocean Users...... 265

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

This document is a screening-level environmental assessment (EA) as required for two- dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) seismic surveys under the Scoping Document dated May 7, 2012 by the Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Petroleum Board (C-NLOPB). The proposed Project involves a seismic program by Ptarmigan Energy (the Proponent) in Exploration License (EL) 1120 and future seismic programs in the adjacent EL 1127 and EL 1128 (Figure 1-1) offshore western Newfoundland. The Project also proposes localized geohazard well site surveys.

The temporal scale of the Project is from2012 to 2021 with seismic surveys (either 2D or 3D) or localized geohazard surveys to occur in either one or all of the three ELs (EL1120, EL1127, EL1128) during this time frame. An initial 54-day seismic survey within EL 1120 is scheduled to occur between October 2012 to January 2013, or between October 2013 and January 2014. It is currently uncertain as to the actual number and scheduling of future seismic and geohazard surveys Ptarmigan Energy may undertake during the 2014 to 2021 period. Further activities will be dependent upon the results of the initial seismic surveys and the results of that undertaking.

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Figure 1-1 Location of Ptarmigan Exploration Licenses

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1.1 Relevant Legislation and Regulatory Approvals

The Project will require authorizations pursuant to the Canada-Newfoundland Atlantic Accord Implementation Act (S.C. 1987, c. 3) and the Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Atlantic Accord Implementation Newfoundland and Labrador Act (R.S.N.L. 1990, c. C-2), collectively known as the Accord Acts. An Authorization to Conduct a Geophysical Program will be required from the C-NLOPB. The C-NLOPB will conduct an environmental assessment of the Project.

The Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012) is particularly relevant to this EA, as it outlines mitigation and monitoring requirements for marine mammals and sea turtles in relation to seismic surveys. The Project will follow DFO’s ‘Statement of Canadian Practice with Respect to the Mitigation of Seismic Sound in the Marine Environment’ which are appended to the Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines. The survey will be conducted in accordance with C-NLOPB requirements.

There is no federal funding of this Project.

The seismic and geohazard undertakings described in this screening level EA may be undertaken at any time over the 2012 - 2021 timeframe. The EA is prepared in such a manner that takes into account the proposed timeframe; however, it is recognized that the EA will have to undergo periodic validation to confirm that information and assumptions are still valid. The EA Validation process will result in submission of documentation to the C-NLOPB which will include information that attests that the scope and nature of activities covered by the EA have not changed. The EA Validation documentation will include:

x updates with respect to Species at Risk (SAR) and whether proposed mitigation measures with respect to SAR are still valid; x validation and updates of the commercial fisheries information and whether proposed mitigation measures with respect to commercial fisheries are still valid; x confirmation that the mitigation measures and commitments made during the EA are being implemented; and x additional Project description details and information pertinent to the current year’s activities.

1.2 The Proponent

Ptarmigan Energy (Ptarmigan) is a privately held oil and gas exploration company that focuses on the offshore Western Newfoundland region. Ptarmigan is headquartered in St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador and maintains a presence in Calgary, Alberta. The company was incorporated November 13, 2009.

Ptarmigan focuses exclusively on exploration and development of their exploration licenses in western Newfoundland. It has its head office in St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), and manages most aspects of its business in Newfoundland, with Newfoundland personnel.

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The company’s vision is to become a responsible industry leader in facilitating the discovery and commercial production of oil and gas resources in offshore western Newfoundland.

The company holds licenses (EL 1120, EL 1127 and EL 1128) within an area generally described as a Cambro-Ordovician platform, similar to the Ellenburger and Arbuckle Petroleum fields along the eastern North American paleo-margin. Ptarmigan has also been a successful bidder at the November 15, 2011 land sale acquiring both concessions posted in western Newfoundland (EL 1127 and EL 1128) allowing for further exploration in the region.

Part of Ptarmigan’s strategy is to invite other companies in to their licenses to undertake exploration (known as farm-in opportunities) of six large and separate features along an emerging sub-crop stratigraphic play that has been identified.

1.3 Benefits to Newfoundland and Labrador and Canada

Ptarmigan is committed to increasing and enhancing the economic development opportunities for Canada, and particularly for Newfoundland and Labrador, as part of the requirements of the Accord Acts.

1.4 Project Contacts

The relevant Ptarmigan contact for the proposed undertaking is:

Craig Boland CEO and President 861 Torbay Road Torbay, NL A1K 1A2 Phone: (403) 861-8686 Email: [email protected]

1.5 Document Organization

The screening EA is organized as follows:

x Section 1 introduces the Project, proponent and regulatory context. x Section 2 provides a detailed description of the proposed Project. x Section 3 describes stakeholder consultation to date. x Section 4 describes the methodology used in the selection of Valued Environmental Components (VECs), and in conducting the environmental assessment itself. x Section 5 provides a description of the existing physical environment. x Section 6 provides a description of the existing biological environment. x Section 7 presents the environmental effects assessment, cumulative environmental effects, mitigation, and follow-up. x Section 8 provides literature cited in the report

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2.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The official name of the proposed Project is the ‘Ptarmigan 2D and 3D Seismic and Geohazard Surveys Offshore Western Newfoundland’, hereafter referred to as the Project. The ELs held by Ptarmigan are located in offshore western Newfoundland (Figure 1-1). The nearest communities to the Project are Corner Brook and Stephenville.

The first stage of the activities proposed by Ptarmigan is to carry out 3D seismic surveys within a portion of EL 1120 (Figure 2-1) during 2012/2014. EL 1120 is 140,100 ha in size. . This area is relatively shallow (40 m), and experiences limited ice cover in the winter (mainly ice rafting in March) and is not known to have icebergs. Ptarmigan is proposing to conduct a 3D seismic survey between October 2012 and January 2013 or October 2013 and January 2014, and estimates to be on site for approximately 54 days. Depending on weather and subsequent downtime, the program could take up to 80 days, although the number of operational days will not change.

Figure 2-1 2012/2014 Seismic Survey Project Area

Potentially, 2D and 3D dimensional surveys may also be conducted in the recently acquired EL 1127 and EL 1128 over the period between 2012 and 2021. Additional seismic surveys may

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be conducted in EL 1120 (pending review of data collected in the initial survey). Localized geohazard well site surveys may occur as part of the proposed Project in one or more years between 2012 and 2021. Therefore, there may potentially be 2D and/or 3D surveys, as well as geohazard surveys conducted in any year, between 2012 and 2021. Information on these potential future surveys for a particular year would be contained within the appropriate year’s EA Validation.

2.1 Spatial and Temporal Boundaries

The Project Area in any given time frame would encompass up to the three EL held by Ptarmigan (EL 1120, EL1127 and EL1128) plus the 10 km turning radii required by seismic vessels and related equipment. The Study Area boundary includes the three exploration licenses with the 10 km turning radii (Project Area) plus a 25 km buffer zone around the Project Area to take into account potential seismic sound propagation. This is also the Affected Area as defined in the Scoping Document, and is referred to throughout this report as the Study Area. The proposed 2012 to 2014 seismic survey Project Area is presented in Figure 2-1. The Study Area is presented in Figure 2-2. The dimensions of seismic survey areas after 2014 will be determined at a future date and provided in the EA Validation documentation.

The temporal boundaries of the Project are 2012 to 2021. Geohazard surveys may occur year- round, although if there are access limitations due to fishery activities in the area, then seismic activities will be confined to the October to May period.

2.2 Project Overview

The ELs are located within a primarily foreland basin setting within the Anticosti Basin. A secondary target includes a triangular thrust zone to the east of the foreland basin. While some drilling has occurred in the region, it has been largely onshore; to date, no wells have been drilled in the foreland basin itself, west of the major thrust zone. Ptarmigan has carried out reprocessing and interpretation of 2D seismic data originally obtained by Mobil Oil in the 1990s in the areas which are now EL 1127 and EL 1128 (Figure 2-3). This work identified six potential well targets, and now requires 3D seismic surveys of selected areas to gain further information. Data collected to date by Ptarmigan, past exploration efforts by oil and gas operators, and research by Memorial University and the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador indicate the potential for considerable oil and gas reservoirs to exist on the Ptarmigan licenses. An assessment of the prospect’s (EL 1120) hydrocarbon potential completed by Martin and Brusset Associates in 2005 and again in 2008, using $35 and $80 per barrel oil prices, respectively, estimated the net present value to be between $2 and $25 billion.

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Figure 2-2 Location of Study Area (2012 to 2021)

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Source: Ptarmigan Energy Note: NL-01 is now known as EL 1127 and NL-02 is now known as EL 1128

Figure 2-3 Coverage of 2D Data Acquired by Proponent

The Project Area for the proposed 2012 to 2014 seismic survey is shown in Figure 2-1. It is estimated that the survey will require 113 sail lines, with an average line length of 29.8 km, and an average streamer depth of 15 m. Ptarmigan is planning to initiate the proposed 3D seismic survey between mid-October 2012 and early January 2013 or mid-October 2013 and early January 2014, provided regulatory requirements are met. These dates were selected in order to avoid substantial overlap with commercial fisheries during spring and summer, and to avoid inshore ice which typically forms in January. The estimated time to complete the survey is 54 days, with operations occurring 24 hours a day and seven days a week during the survey. During bad weather, the vessel may need to return to port (Corner Brook). Alternate survey dates have not been chosen at this time.

The seismic vessel will tow an air gun with solid streamers, if available, that have receiving hydrophones. A major advantage of the solid array technology is that it can sustain external damage without rendering the streamer inoperable, as is the case for liquid-filled streamers. Solid streamers also pose less environmental risk as conventional fluid (oil) filled streamers are prone to discharge fluid into the environment when damaged. Streamer equipment

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specifications will endeavor to use solid streamers but conventional streamers may be used if the contracted seismic company are unable to provide solid streamers.

2.2.1 History of Exploration Activities in Western Newfoundland Offshore Area

Oil and gas exploration in Newfoundland began in 1812, when an oil seep was discovered in the Parsons Pond area. An exploration program initiated in 1867 confirmed the presence of crude oil (LGL 2005). The Newfoundland Oil Company began drilling in this area and found both oil and gas in 1893. Approximately 60 wells were drilled from this early discovery up until the 1960s, most of which were shallow wells concentrated near Parsons Pond and Shoal Point.

Interest in western Newfoundland was renewed in the 1990s due to new information about the geology of western Newfoundland, and the discovery of oil on the Port au Port Peninsula (LGL 2005). Major oil companies including Mobil, Norcen Energy, BHP Billiton and Hunt Oil acquired large land positions in offshore western Newfoundland, and approximately 5,000 km of seismic data were collected. Five deep wells were drilled in Port au Port Peninsula, and this resulted in one discovery well, Port au Port #1, in 1995. The existence of viable oil and gas reserves within the deeper rocks of Western Newfoundland was demonstrated, and found to be consistent with a Cambro-Ordovician source. The Anticosti Basin is one of a number of Early Paleozoic basins that host Cambrian to Ordovician shelf and foreland basin rocks along the Appalachian trend of eastern North America. While extensive oil and gas exploration and extraction has occurred along this margin in the United States, including the Knox and Ellenburger basins in Tennessee and Texas, very little exploration has occurred in western Newfoundland.

EL 1120 is bounded by several other offshore licenses, including two recently acquired parcels by Ptarmigan: EL 1127 (218,468 ha to the northwest) and EL 1128 (135,520 ha square parcel adjacent to EL 1120) (Figure 2-2). In addition, there are several exploratory licenses held by NWest Energy to the north, and by Canadian Imperial Venture Corporation to the south (EL 1070). Further offshore in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Old Harry Prospect (EL 1105) is held by Corridor Resources Ltd. Onshore, Vulcan Minerals is operating within the Bay St. George Sub-basin, and Deer Lake Oil and Gas is operating on its licenses within Deer Lake Basin. Both are exploring the potential of relatively shallow clastic reservoir rocks, and to date, no major discoveries have been made in these shallow areas. In 2010, Nalcor Energy (along with partners Deer Lake Oil and Gas, Vulcan Minerals and Leprechaun Resources) began a three well program in the Parsons Pond area.

2.2.2 Objectives and Rationale

The goals of this Project are to implement a cost-effective 3D seismic program in western Newfoundland, while being aware of the strict policies surrounding health, safety and environmental concerns. The Proponent desires to establish positive relationships with suppliers and contractors which will create longer term benefits to the local community and local infrastructure.

The objective of the Project is to obtain detailed 3D seismic information about the geological structures of the seafloor, and the locations that likely contain oil and gas deposits within

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Ptarmigan’s licenses. These 3D surveys follow detailed analyses of previously acquired 2D seismic data. The information will be used to identify oil and gas prospects and assist with decision making for drilling of the first exploratory well. In the future, 2D and/or 3D seismic surveys and geohazard surveys may be required in the vicinity of proposed well locations.

Three-dimensional seismic surveys allow for a greater resolution and evaluation of potential and existing oil and gas fields. The surveys help to provide a detailed picture of the area and allow for more detailed analyses of the quantity and distribution of hydrocarbons. This information can reduce the number of drilled wells required to define a field and allow for optimal oil and gas production. The 3D program will complement the existing 2D seismic coverage and will definitively confirm and optimize existing knowledge of potential resources in EL 1120. This knowledge will reduce the risk associated with choosing the location for the first offshore exploration well.

Ptarmigan’s overall goals are to increase its position in the Anticosti Basin on the west coast of Newfoundland, which it has recently achieved by acquiring EL 1127 and EL 1128. Ptarmigan may establish a joint venture partner to share in capital requirements to carry the acquisition of a 3D seismic program, and may in future acquire additional 2D data within their exploratory licenses, drill an exploration well and successfully develop and operate the well.

The short- and long-term goals of the Proponent are to:

1. Conduct 3D seismic survey of a section of the three exploratory licenses (EL1120, EL1127 and EL1128) using multiple streamers beginning in mid-October 2012 in EL1120.

2. Use the acquired 2D seismic data (originally obtained in the 1990s by Mobil Oil) by processing and interpreting the data. Acquire additional 2D seismic data if necessary in order to reduce risk in all three exploratory licenses between 2012 and 2021.

2.2.3 Alternatives to the Project

Reprocessing and interpretation of 2D seismic data originally obtained by Mobil Oil in the 1990s has identified six potential well targets, and now requires 3D seismic surveys of selected areas to gain further information. Seismic surveys are standard precursors to exploration drilling as they assist in target definition of subsurface geological features that my contain hydrocarbon resources. Acquisition of 2D and 3D seismic data is required to determine if exploration drilling is warranted.

The alternatives to this Project are to: a) not conduct a 3D survey within Ptarmigan’s licenses prior to drilling; or b) cease exploration of oil and gas in offshore western Newfoundland and Labrador. However, Ptarmigan has been awarded rights to explore on EL1120, EL1127 and EL1128 through a regulated competitive bidding process and seeks to fulfill its commitments made as a part of the licensing process. Industry best practices prefer seismic exploration prior to drilling to avoid drilling in unfavourable locations.

At this time, there are no alternate survey dates for the first seismic survey program (outside the mid-October 2012 to early January 2013 window or mid-October 2013 to early January 2014)

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being considered. Information on potential future undertakings, after the first proposed 2012- 2014 survey will be included in EA Validation Updates as they become known and available.

2.2.4 Project Scheduling

It is anticipated the seismic survey will require 54 days, with 24 hours per day/seven days per week operation. It will occur between October 2012 and January 2013 or October 2013 and January 2014 to avoid interaction with fisheries as much as possible, as well as potential hazards from ice.

2.2.5 Site Plans

The proposed 3D seismic survey will be conducted in the areas shown in Figure 2-1 at an average water depth of 40 m. The orientation and direction of survey lines are shown in Figure 2-4.

Source: Ptarmigan

Figure 2-4 Proposed 2012/2014 Seismic Survey with Strike Direction

2.2.6 Seismic Vessel

Ptarmigan is in the process of contracting a seismic survey company to carry out the seismic program. The seismic survey vessel will travel along a given source line (Figure 2-5) and will be continually moving during the survey. It may require a buffer zone for turning and to avoid

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collisions on entanglement with other vessels or gear. The seismic energy emitted will not remain focused on one location. The energy emitted from the source array will occur for approximately 70 to 115 milliseconds (ms) every six seconds, and be concentrated at 220 dB. The source vessel will implement a ramp-up procedure by gradually increasing the number of sleeves fired simultaneously within an array from the air gun. This ramping up period is included to provide time for marine fauna (marine mammals, sea turtles, and fish) to leave the Project Area.

Figure 2-5 Seismic Vessel MV Atlantic Explorer Towing Six Seismic Streamer Array

The seismic vessel will be approximately 90 m long, with a draught of approximately 8 m, and will be equipped with up to six streamers. The maximum operating speed will be approximately 9 km/s (5 knots) while towing the air gun. Four to ten personnel are expected to be required on the vessel. Seismic operations will be carried out at all hours during the survey, and no port stops are expected. A support/pilot vessel will be required to be used for scouting the area for hazards and communicating with other vessels (i.e., commercial fishing vessels) during the seismic survey, as well as for obtaining supplies if required.

Seismic Energy Source Parameters

The proposed survey sound source will consist of a Bolt LLXT air gun. The air guns will be operated with compressed air at pressures of 13,790 kPa, and will be sequenced together so as to direct the energy downward to the seafloor. The air gun will be fired at intervals of approximately six seconds as the vessel moves along at a constant rate along the source line. The parameters related to the proposed 3D survey are listed in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Parameters Related to Proposed 3D Seismic Survey

Parameter Dimensions Number of Sail Lines 113 Total Area (km2) 1,1014 Shot Interval (m) 25 Streamer Depth (m) 7 Number of Streamers 6 Source Depth (m) 6 Source Volume (m3)0.05 Recording Time (s) 2 Average Line Length (km) 29.8 Pressure (kPa) 13,790

For evaluating the potential environmental effects of an air gun source, the signature is reported at the widest possible bandwidth. The far-field signature and amplitude spectrum for the array in the 0 to 150 hertz (Hz) frequency band are shown in Figures 2-6 and 2-7. The seismic source energy in this survey will be concentrated at 220 dB. Seismic air guns are designed to emit low frequency noise; however, high frequency sound may also be produced up to several kiloHertz (kHz). The total air gun volume and the operating pressure determine the amplitude for the acoustic signal, measured as the output Sound Pressure Level (SPL). Peak SPLs for typical deep water marine arrays are between 240 to 260 dB 1μPa @ 1m; however, for this survey, the peak SPL is expected to be less than 220 dB.

Source: Ptarmigan Energy/PGS Figure 2-6 Far-field Signature of Proposed Seismic Survey

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Source: Ptarmigan Energy/PGS Figure 2-7 Frequency of Proposed Seismic Survey

2.2.7 Seismic Streamers

The proposed air gun (composed of six x 6,000 m GeoStreamer streamers) will be towed behind the vessel at a depth of 7 m. The source array will be comprised of three lines of air guns (Figure 2-8). The overall dimensions of this array are approximately 10 by 15 m. Once a source line is completed, the vessel will then turn and reposition itself to begin acquisition on the next source line in sequence.

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Source: Ptarmigan Energy/PGS

Figure 2-8 Components of Seismic Array Proposed for Project

Transmission Loss and Sound Attenuation

Seismic output from a seismic air gun diminishes with distance from the source point. In general, transmission loss (due mainly to attenuation and spreading loss) occurs more rapidly near the source and becomes more gradual at longer distances. Spreading loss occurs as the sound energy is dispersed from the source. The power or density of the sound then diminishes as the sound spreads out over a progressively larger area. The spreading loss is spherical until the sound reaches the seafloor, the air/sea interface, or some other discontinuity such as thermal layers, at which point the sound waves become more cylindrical and spreading loss slows.

Sound attenuation occurs through several means such as: absorption loss into the sea floor or other features; loss due to viscosity of water; suspended particles; and air bubbles. In shallow waters such as those in EL 1120, scattering may also occur when sound energy is reflected and refracted by various boundaries (Canning and Pitt 2003). Differences in absorption and scattering will result depending on bathymetry, substrate type, temperature, salinity and pressure.

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Geohazard Survey

Well site or geohazard surveys may be used to identify and avoid unstable areas (e.g., shallow gas deposits) or hazards (e.g., shipwrecks) prior to drilling. The well site survey may use a small acoustic array and/or sonar over the well location. Although a variety of seismic sources may be used for such a wellsite / geohazard survey, a typical source is a 160 cu. in. four-gun ladder array of sleeveguns with an estimated source level of 238 dB re 1 Pa @ 1m (zero to peak) towed at a depth of 3 m. This equates to 244 dB re 1 Pa @ 1m (peak to peak). Geohazard surveys may also involve the acquisition of sub-bottom profile, side scan sonar and multi-beam bathymetric data over the proposed drill site. A typical geohazard program will be executed by mobilizing seismic and associated survey equipment to a vessel of suitable characteristics.

Typical data collection conducted during a geohazard survey would include surficial data collection by broadband boomers such as the Huntec Deep Tow System which is a high resolution, broad bandwidth, seismic profiling system. It is designed to collect high-resolution (<1 m) acoustic stratigraphy with as much as 50 m sub-bottom penetration (McKeown, 1975). It can be towed behind a surface vessel, at depths up to 300 m, and speeds to 8 knots. The instrument uses an electrodynamic plate (known as a boomer) to generate the transmitted acoustic pulse, and the hydrophone receivers consist of an internal hydrophone and an external towed hydrophone streamer (McKeown, 1975).

Seabed imagery may also be collected with a side-scan sonar which uses sound waves to find and identify objects in the water. Side scan sonar is typically used in conjunction with a single beam or multibeam sonar system to meet full bottom coverage specifications for hydrographic surveys. An example of a sonar source level for 450kHz nominal operating frequency (430kHz- 470kHz CHIRP) is <210dB re 1μPa @ 1m. Depending upon the type and intended use, commercial sonars typically generate sound at frequencies of 3 to 200 kHz, with source levels range from 150-G%UHȝ3D#P +LOGHEUDQG 

Multi-beam echosounders may be used to acquire bathymetric data from narrow directional beams of sound. These V\VWHPVFDQDFKLHYHG%UHȝ3D#PVRXUFHOHYHOVDQGDUH typically operated at 12 to 15 kHz in deep water, and at higher frequencies (up to 100 kHz) in shallow water (Hildebrand 2004)

In addition to the above acoustical data collection, seabed video and sediment grabs samples may also be collected. Information on potential geohazard surveys that may be undertaken for a particular year would be contained within the appropriate year’s EA Validation.

2.2.8 Personnel, Logistics and Support

The Project will be managed from the Ptarmigan head office in St. John’s, NL. Newfoundland will be the base of operation and support centre for the Project. The Operator will contract a seismic survey company, to provide and operate an appropriate 3D seismic survey vessel. Additional support will be arranged by Ptarmigan on a direct hire or a contractual basis. It is expected that the survey will require eight crewmembers per shift. Personnel on seismic

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vessels typically include: staff from the Proponent (Ptarmigan); the vessel crew; and technical and scientific personnel from the seismic contractor. The seismic vessel will also have a trained Fisheries Liaison Officer (FLO) and Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Observer (referred to as the MMO) on board.

To support personnel, the Operator will acquire telecommunications services, a support/pilot vessel, meteorological and oceanographic services and emergency response services from third-party providers. The support vessel will be used to supply the survey vessel, as well as for communication with fishers, guidance, and for support in case of emergency. The Proponent will ensure that all selected contractors will meet the competency requirements for working in the Newfoundland and Labrador offshore oil and gas sector. Details on communications and emergency response will be outlined in the Emergency Response Plan, to be filed with the C- NLOPB. All Project personnel will have the required certifications for working offshore, as specified by the relevant Canadian legislation and the C-NLOPB.

The port of St. John’s will be used for mobilization, and the port of Corner Brook may be used during the survey as it is both the closest and largest port facility in western Newfoundland. Corner Brook has a weekly container ship service to Halifax and central Canada and is directly connected to the Trans-Canada Highway. The nearest airport, Deer Lake Airport, is a regional airport with daily connections to major centres such as St. John’s, Halifax and Toronto. Stephenville International Airport, a former US Air Force base, offers daily or weekly connections to major centres and may act as an alternate to Deer Lake in incidences of bad weather.

Waste Management

Waste will be managed with applicable regulations and industry best practices and will adhere to Offshore Waste Treatment Guidelines (OWTG) (NEB et al. 2010).

Atmospheric Emissions

Air emissions will be those associated with standard operation for marine vessels including the seismic vessel, any picket vessel and/or supply vessel. The primary air contaminants are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). Vessels will conform to the Canada Shipping Act and MARPOL73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships. There are no anticipated implications for the health and safety of personnel on the vessels.

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Accidental Events

The survey will be conducted using a specialized seismic vessel and towed equipment (array with receivers, air gun). The vessel will be equipped with the proper equipment, systems and protocols in place for prevention of pollution in accordance with the Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012). Prior to the survey, safety checks by the regulatory authorities, the seismic contractor, and Ptarmigan will be carried out.

In the unlikely case of an accidental release of hydrocarbons during the Project, the Operator and its contractor will implement an Oil Spill Response Plan, which will be filed with the C- NLOPB. Any accidental spill of diesel fuel or lube oil will be reported to the C-NLOPB and Canadian Coast Guard Response immediately. To reduce the chance of such accidental events, best management and operation practices will be employed.

2.2.9 Environmental Management

Ptarmigan will act as the Operator for the seismic program. Ptarmigan policies and procedures would apply as well as those of the seismic acquisition contractor and other subcontractors. These policies and procedures will be bridged so that there is clear direction on the requirements for the Project. Such policies and procedures will include:

x fisheries liaison / interaction policies and procedures, such as routine advisories, where appropriate and continued consultation with One Ocean and the Fisheries Food and Allied Workers (FFAW); x use of a qualified observer(s), whom will be capable of liaising with the fishing industry during the seismic surveys, as required by Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012); x species at risk and other marine mammal, sea turtle and marine bird monitoring through the use of a qualified observer(s) during the seismic surveys, as required by Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012); x contingency plans; x compensation of affected parties, including fisheries interests, for accidental damage resulting from Project activities, in keeping with the Compensation Guidelines Respecting Damages Relating to Offshore Petroleum Activity (C-NLOPB 2002); and x Project-specific Health Safety and Environment (HSE) Plan. Note that this document will be prepared in advance of the program and it will serve to link Ptarmigan plans to those of the seismic acquisition contractor and any support vessels subcontractor(s). The plan will outline the specific HSE arrangements for the seismic survey.

Ptarmigan is committed to conducting all Project activities in an environmentally responsible manner and promoting employee, contractor and public awareness of environmental issues. Ptarmigan has and will continue to integrate environmental considerations into early decision

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making in order to identify and wherever practical, mitigate potentially negative consequences of their proposed activities. Ptarmigan intends to implement progressive industry standards, codes and practices, and government policies and guidelines for environmental protection in assessing, planning, constructing and operating all proposed projects as well as preventing and minimizing waste and emissions through throughout the life cycle of Project activities.

2.2.10 Health, Safety and Environment Policies

Ptarmigan is committed to undertaking safe and responsible practices to ensure the health and safety of employees as well as environmental responsibility. Ptarmigan will be establishing its own Health, Safety and the Environment (HSE) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) manuals prior to Project initiation. A bridging document between the contractor and operator (Ptarmigan) will be initiated and agreed upon.

2.3 Mitigation

Mitigation measures are described throughout the document and will follow guidelines outlined in the Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C- NLOPB 2012) and the Statement of Canadian Practice with respect to the Mitigation of Seismic Sound in the Marine Environment. Mitigation procedures may include ramp-ups, implementation of ramp-up delays and shut downs for marine mammals and sea turtle species, dedicated MMOs and FLO. A review of this mitigation can be found in Section 7.10.

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3.0 CONSULTATION WITH STAKEHOLDERS

Ptarmigan is committed to communicating with key stakeholders throughout this process, including fisheries representatives, environmental organizations, engagement with Aboriginal groups, regulators, and all levels of government (municipal, provincial, federal), as well as the media. Consultation will continue through the environmental assessment process. The Ptarmigan website will also be used as a tool to provide information about the Project (http://ptarmiganenergy.com).

Overall, consultation for the Project is designed to provide opportunity for open, two-way dialogue with key stakeholders. The results of the public consultation program, and engagement of the Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation Band are summarized below.

3.1 Commercial Fisheries

Fisheries groups in Newfoundland and Labrador including the FFAW, and other fishers in western Newfoundland were consulted as part of the Project. One Ocean, a liaison organization to facilitate communication between the fishing and oil and gas industries in Newfoundland and Labrador, was also consulted frequently throughout the EA process. Meetings with fishers (FFAW) were held in Lark Harbour and Stephenville in June, 2012. Additional information sessions are scheduled for July 24 to 25, 2012 in Stephenville and Lark Harbour in order to provide an opportunity for greater participation.

Information on the Project was provided to Barry Group, as per their directions after discussion with them. The Barry Group will contact Ptarmigan directly with any questions or concerns they may have.

3.2 Meetings with Government Departments and Agencies

In order to assist in the scoping of the environmental effects assessment, Ptarmigan and its consultants consulted with key regulatory stakeholders, including:

x C-NLOPB; x Government officials and elected representatives; and, x Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Natural Resources.

The Ptarmigan study team have been consulting with key government officials and regulators both formally and informally on an ongoing basis. The objective of these discussions is to provide information and updates on the Project and the environmental assessment, and also to receive input and guidance as appropriate.

The Humber Economic Development Board was contacted but was unable to meet at the time that consultation was underway. At their request, Ptarmigan will contact them at a later date.

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Meetings will be scheduled with the Greater Corner Brook Chamber of Commerce, Stephenville Chamber of Commerce, Deep Lake Chamber of Commerce, the Corner Brook Port Corporation, as well as with representatives from the Western Newfoundland oil and gas symposium during the July 24 and July 25 consultation period in western Newfoundland.

3.3 Media Communication

Ptarmigan responds to media inquiries as appropriate and has provided information about the Project to local and national media. Ptarmigan regularly monitors the provincial and national media, including print, broadcast and electronic news media.

3.4 Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation Band

The Proponent met with Enterprise Qalipu, the Resources and Economic Development Department of the Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation Band to discuss the Project. A meeting was held on July 5, 2012 with Keith Goulding, Director of Work Force Qalipu and a member of the Greater Corner Brook Chamber of Commerce, to discuss the interests and potential concerns of the band. The Qalipu Band currently has 25,000 members, and it is the largest band in Atlantic Canada. Members live from Cape Ray to Woody Point, NL and as far east as Gambo. The Project was discussed in detail and the environmental assessment process described. Mr. Goulding asked about oil and gas work to date on the west coast of Newfoundland and what development is proposed in the region by Ptarmigan and other companies.

Ptarmigan representatives provided an overview of engagement activities to date, and the expected Project schedule. Mitigation measures were outlined for Mr. Goulding, and he was also provided with how to get more Project information from the Ptarmigan website and on the C-NLOPB website. He indicated that Roger Gallant, Aquatic Resource Manager for Enterprise Qalipu, would be a valuable contact for information regarding the undertaking. No specific concerns were raised by Mr. Goulding about the Project Area, though the band is interested in archeological sites further south near Cape Ray. Ptarmigan plans to meet with both Chief Sheppard and Mr. Gallant in July, 2012.

3.5 Issues Identified Through Consultation

Comments raised by stakeholders during the consultation / information exchange process are presented below.

Fish, Food and Allied Workers

Meetings were held with FFAW members in Lark Harbour and Stephenville on June 20 and June 21, respectively. The sessions were held in an informal atmosphere to solicit information, concerns and initiate a dialogue. Ptarmigan committed to hold a follow up meeting once their seismic plans were finalized and before the survey has commenced.

Another series of sessions have been scheduled for July 24 and 25, 2012. Comments from the meetings held in Lark Harbour and Stephenville in June, 2012 are noted in Table 3.1 below.

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Table 3.1 Summary of Issues Raised During Consultation (To Date)

Issue Addressed in Assessment Issue and Follow-up Required Concern was expressed regarding the potential effects of seismic surveys on Section 7.8 commercial fish such as lobster, shrimp and crab in the 4R Division. Mitigations detailed in Section 7.8 and 7.10 Concern was noted about whether seismic surveys would cause fish to leave Section 7.4 the area, and if fish were to leave, if and when they would return. Mitigations detailed in Section 7.4 and 7.10 Concerns were identified related to the incident involving Multi Klient Invest AS Use of Fisheries Liaison Officer (MKI) in NAFO Zone 3K were expressed and it was asked how Ptarmigan (Section 2.2.8) would ensure such an incident did not occur. Mitigations detailed in Section 7.10 Concern was expressed regarding a spill like that of Deepwater Horizon in the Accidental events scenarios Gulf of Mexico because of the sensitivity of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and that it discussed in Section 4.2 is an enclosed area. It was noted thatparticipants understood that the session Potential effects discussed in was about a seismic survey program, but the commenter was aware that it Section 7.0 could lead to further activity including drilling. Mitigations detailed in Section 7.10 Information was provided by fishers with respect to where main fishing areas Fisheries discussed in Section 6.7 are located, species fished and time of year. In particular the following was noted: Lobster is fished from mid-late April until early July; herring is fished in July-August; halibut is fished for a short period in late June/early July with quota often captured in one/two days. Mackerel and cod are the fisheries that tend to end the fishing season with mackerel fishing going sometimes until December, weather permitting. The cod allocation for the area was reduced from 2011 allocation. Scallops are sometimes harvested from one area of EL1120 but not in recent years.Crabs are fished but out in deeper waters along the western edge of EL1120, likely in waters covered by EL1128. It was noted they there were a lot of grey and harbour seals in the area. Marine mammals are discussed in Whales are found in the area in late spring and early summer but are not Section 6.4 normally observed outside of that time frame. It was noted that there are a lot of cormorants in the area. Marine birds are discussed in Section 6.5 Information on species at risk species observed in the area was provided by Species at risk are discussed in locals: wolffish are observed throughout the area; belugas occasionally can be Section 6.2 found in the area and there was one the area for an extended period, two years ago; killer whales occur in the area from time to time but not very often. Ptarmigan identified where the structures of potential interest were found on The Ledges and Long Ledge the nautical charts. It was noted that the shoal area locally known as “the discussed in section 6.6 ledges” is nearby; fishers harvest mackerel and cod in this area potentially up to December. Ptarmigan was asked why they thought there might be oil and gas in the Project described in Section 2.0. region. including a history of exploration activities in area (Section 2.2.1) One member of the general public expressed opposition to oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

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4.0 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

4.1 Methodology Related to Environmental Assessment

Environmental effects methods for this Project are based on the work of Beanlands and Duinker (1983), the CEA Agency (1994, 1999), and Barnes et al. (2000), as well as recent comparable EAs on seismic surveys. The EA methodology for the Project has been developed to satisfy regulatory requirements of a screening level assessment under CEAA. The approach focuses on the VECs identified through issues scoping, as described below.

The specific steps involved in the assessment for each VEC are as follows:

x identify issues through scoping and select VECs on which to focus the EA; x determine boundaries; x develop significance criteria for residual environmental effects; x assess environmental effects and mitigation; x conduct residual effects assessment, considering proposed mitigation, and predicting their significance by applying the residual environmental effects rating criteria; x conduct cumulative environmental effects assessment; and, x identify the need, if any, for follow-up requirements.

Each of these is described in more detail in the following sections.

4.1.1 Issues Scoping and Selection of Valued Ecosystem Components

Project scope encompasses those components and activities considered for the purpose of environmental assessment. The scope of the proposed Project includes all of the components and activities, including accidental events, described in Section 2 of this report.

The components that are affected by environmental effects are known as Valued Ecoystem Components (VECs). To determine the VECs for the proposed Project, an issues scoping exercise was conducted. This involved:

x review of the Scoping Document issued by C-NLOPB; x consultation with relevant regulatory agencies and other stakeholders; x review of available data and literature related to the existing biophysical environment in western Newfoundland, and of other environmental assessments undertaken for similar projects; x review of the Western Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Area Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) prepared by LGL Limited (2005) for C-NLOPB;

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x review of the relevant regulations and guidelines related to seismic surveys and offshore activities; and, x the professional judgment of the study team.

Representatives of relevant government agencies, industry representatives and other stakeholders were contacted as part of the issues scoping process in order to discuss the Project, obtain information on the existing environment, and to identify any potential environmental issues that may be associated with the proposed program.

Based on the results of the issues scoping exercise described above, the following VECs are considered in this screening document: Species at Risk; Marine Fish and Shellfish; Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles; Marine Birds; Fisheries and Other Ocean Users; and Sensitive Areas.

The rationale for the selection of these VECs is provided below.

Species at Risk: Species at risk, including marine fish, marine mammals, sea turtles, and marine and coastal bird species are protected under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Species at risk are considered a VEC in recognition of their protected status under SARA, and to mitigate potential environmental effects this proposed Project may have on protected species and their required habitat.

Marine Fish and Shellfish: Marine fish and shellfish were selected as a VEC due to their intrinsic importance to the commercial fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador. Fish and fish habitat is an important consideration in the environmental assessment of activities that may influence the marine environment. It should be noted that this VEC includes such components of fish habitat as plankton and the benthos. Fish, invertebrates (shellfish) and their habitat are assessed as a single VEC as this method provides a comprehensive, ecosystem-based approach while minimizing repetition.

Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles: Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises) and seals are key elements of the biological and social environments of Newfoundland and Labrador. Marine mammals are important predators in the marine environment. Whales were historically hunted in the Northwest Atlantic, but today are highly valued for their tourism value (i.e., whale watching), as well as valued aesthetically, culturally, socially, ecologically and scientifically. Historically, seals have played an important economic and cultural role in Newfoundland and Labrador due to the annual seal hunt. Sea turtles are seasonal visitors to western Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where they feed on jellyfish and plankton during summer. Although they are relatively uncommon in western Newfoundland, sea turtles are considered a VEC due to their declining numbers globally, and due to gaps in knowledge about the distribution and abundance of sea turtle species.

Marine Birds: Newfoundland and Labrador’s coastal and offshore marine environment is used by marine and coastal birds throughout the year. Marine and coastal birds are ecologically important, and are an important resource for tourism and recreational activities, and for scientific

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study. They are valued socially, culturally, economically, aesthetically, ecologically and scientifically.

Sensitive Areas: Sensitive areas were selected as a VEC due to their importance as unique, special or critical habitat for various species or species assemblages including species at risk. Sensitive areas are important socially, culturally, aesthetically, ecologically and scientifically. Several sensitive areas in western Newfoundland have been identified, though there are no legally protected areas within the Project Area.

Fisheries and Other Ocean Users: The commercial fishery is an important element in Newfoundland and Labrador’s history, as well as its current socio-cultural and economic environment. The fisheries provide direct economic benefits through fishing, processing and transport of products, as well as indirect benefits to communities. Fisheries were selected as a VEC because they are an integral component of the economy of Newfoundland and Labrador and an important renewable resource. Other ocean users include seal and bird hunting, recreation, and tourism.

4.2 Environmental Effects Assessment Organization

4.2.1 Boundaries

Boundaries provide a meaningful and manageable focus for an EA. The setting of boundaries also aids in determining the most effective use of available resources. There are two distinct types of boundaries in an EA:

x temporal and spatial boundaries of the Project and the VECs; and x administrative and technical boundaries of the environmental assessment.

Temporal and spatial boundaries are defined by the characteristics of the Project and the VECs. These boundaries encompass those periods and areas within which the VECs are likely to interact with or be influenced by the Project. These boundaries may extend beyond the physical limits of the Project.

Temporal ecological boundaries consider the relevant characteristics of environmental components or populations, including the natural variation of a population or ecological component, response and recovery times to effects, and any sensitive or critical periods of a VEC’s life cycle (e.g., spawning, migration).

Spatial boundaries consider the relevant characteristics of environmental components or populations and may extend beyond the Project Area, as the distribution or movement of an environmental component can be local, regional, national or international. Population characteristics and migration patterns are important considerations in determining ecological boundaries and may influence the extent and distribution of an environmental effect. The spatial and temporal boundaries for each VEC considered during this assessment are described in Section 2.1. The boundaries for each VEC are listed in Table 4.1.

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Table 4.1 Spatial and Administrative Boundaries for each VEC

VEC Spatial Boundaries Administrative Boundaries Species listed under the SARA are protected federally and administered by DFO, Environment Canada, and Parks Canada. Includes the area in and Species at Risk SARA is designed to protect species at risk in Canada as well as around the Study Area their critical habitat. Only species listed under Schedule 1 of SARA are subject to the permit and enforcement provisions of the Act Marine fish and shellfish and fish habitat are protected federally Marine Fish Includes the area in and under the Fisheries Act and by DFO’s Policy for the Management of and Shellfish around the Study Area Fish Habitat. This policy applies to all projects and activities in or near the water that could alter or destroy fish habitat Marine mammals are protected federally under the Fisheries Act, Marine Includes the area in and and by the SARA (for those species listed under Schedule 1) Mammals and around the Study Area Sea turtles are protected by federal legislation under the Fisheries Sea Turtles Act and by the SARA (for those species listed under Schedule 1)

Includes the area in and Marine birds are protected federally under the Migratory Birds Marine Birds around the Study Area Convention Act, and administered by Environment Canada Includes the area in and The Project Area overlaps with an area defined by DFO as an around the Study Area and Ecologically and Biologically Significant Area (EBSA), as well as Sensitive Areas nearby defined sensitive other areas. areas Includes the area in and Fisheries are managed by DFO. Scientific surveys are primarily Fisheries and around the Study Area, conducted by DFO, and all other surveys are under the jurisdiction of Other Ocean specifically NAFO Division the Canadian Coast Guard and C-NLOPB. Boundaries for Users 4R commercial fisheries have been defined by NAFO

4.2.2 Identification of Project Related Environmental Effects

This step involves the identification of VEC-specific Project-related environmental effects and a description of issues and concerns regarding key interactions.

4.2.3 Existing Conditions

The existing conditions in the Project Area are described for the physical environment as well as for the selected VECs in Sections 5.0 and 6.0. As advised in the Scoping Document, information regarding existing biophysical and socioeconomic conditions have been summarized using environmental reports for western Newfoundland, including the 2005 Western Newfoundland SEA document (LGL 2005) and the 2007 Western Newfoundland SEA Amendment document (LGL 2007).

4.2.4 Potential Interactions

Interactions between Project activities and each VEC are identified and summarized in a tabular format.

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4.2.5 Significance Definition

Definitions of significant adverse residual environmental effect are developed for each VEC. The evaluation of significance integrates factors including: magnitude (i.e., the portion of the VEC population affected); potential changes in VEC distribution and abundance; effect duration (i.e., time required for the VEC to return to the levels observed prior to Project activities); frequency; and geographic extent (CEA Agency 1994). Evaluation of significance also considers the relationships amongst populations, species and habitat, as well as potential for change in the overall integrity of the affected populations. For each VEC, if an adverse environmental effect does not meet the criteria for a significant environmental effect, it is evaluated as ‘not significant’.

4.2.6 Mitigation

Based on the identified potential interactions identified and existing knowledge regarding these interactions, technically and economically feasible mitigation measures to reduce or avoid potential adverse environmental effects are identified. Where possible, this mitigation and environmental considerations have been incorporated into Project planning in order to reduce Project interactions with the environment. Where required and feasible, additional measures are identified in this EA to further mitigate potential environmental adverse effects. These measures are discussed under the appropriate VEC sections and summarized in Section 7.10.

The Statement of Canadian Practice with Respect to the Mitigation of Seismic Sound in the Marine Environment (DFO 2007a) was developed by the federal and provincial governments of Canada to develop a set of standard mitigation measures to minimize the potential adverse environmental effects arising from marine seismic activities. This document outlines mitigation measures developed in consideration of: the planning of seismic surveys; the safety zone and start-up; shut down of air source array; line changes and maintenance shutdowns; and operation in low visibility (DFO 2007a). This mitigation has been adopted by the C-NLOPB (C-NLOPB 2012), and will be applied to the current Project.

4.2.7 Environmental Effects Assessment

The potential environmental effects of Project activities for each VEC are assessed. Environmental effects were considered qualitatively and with the professional judgment of the study team, and using quantitative information where possible. Environmental effects are classified by determining whether they are adverse or positive and take into consideration the potential interactions between Project and VECs in combination with other past, present, and likely future projects (cumulative effects), as well as consideration of the application of mitigation. Existing knowledge concerning these potential interactions is also reviewed and summarized.

The Scoping Document specifies that the scope of this assessment will focus on Project effects to VECs, as well as the potential environmental effects of accidental events. The following includes some of the key factors that were considered for determining adverse environmental effects, as per the CEA Agency guidelines (CEA Agency 1994):

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x loss of rare or endangered species; x reductions in biological diversity; x negative environmental effects on the health of biota; x loss or avoidance of critical/productive habitat; x fragmentation of habitat or interruption of movement corridors and migration routes; x transformation of natural landscapes/seascapes; x discharge of persistent and/or toxic chemicals; x toxicity effects on human health; x loss of, or detrimental change in, current use of lands and resources for traditional purposes; x loss of future resource use or reduced production; and x negative environmental effects on human health or well-being. This EA report includes summary tables (see Table 4.2 for example) for each VEC that summarize the potential environmental effect of each Project activity/component using the following criteria:

x magnitude; x geographic extent; x frequency; x duration; x reversibility; and x ecological context.

Magnitude describes the nature and degree of the predicted environmental effect. For the biophysical VECs (Species at Risk, marine Fish and Shellfish, Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles, Marine Birds and Sensitive Areas), ratings for magnitude were defined as follows (environmental effects include mortality, sub lethal effects or exclusion due to disturbance):

x Negligible Essentially no effect x Low Affects 0 to 10 percent of individuals in the Study Area; x Medium Affects 10 to 25 percent of individuals in the Study Area; and x High Affects greater than 25 percent of individuals in the Study Area.

For the fishery, the magnitude of potential adverse environmental effects is defined as follows:

x Negligible Essentially no effect x Low Affects 0 to 5 percent of fishers in the Study Area; x Medium Affects 6 to 25 percent of fishers in the Study Area; and, x High Affects greater than 25 percent of fishers in the Study Area.

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Geographic extent refers to the area where the particular environmental effect in question will occur. Frequency and duration describe how often and for how long a disturbance will occur. Ranges of quantitative values are provided for geographic extent, frequency and duration. Reversibility refers to the ability of a VEC to return to an equal or improved condition once the disturbance has ended. Predicted environmental effects are rated as reversible or irreversible based on previous research and/or experience. Finally, ecological, socio-cultural and economic context describes the current status of the VEC in the Study Area due to past and/or existing human activities or natural factors.

These criteria are used to provide a common basis for summarizing the potential effects of each Project activity for each VEC (Table 4.2).

The significance of residual environmental effects for each VEC is determined using the pre- defined significance definitions. An environmental effect is significant if Project activities cause adverse environmental effects that alter the status or integrity of a VEC beyond an acceptable level.

In some cases, assessing and evaluating potential environmental effects is difficult due to limitations of available information. The likelihood of the occurrence of any predicted significant adverse effects is indicated, based on previous scientific research and experience. As specified by CEAA, the capacity of any significantly affected renewable resources to meet present and future needs are also considered. This overall determination considers all residual adverse environmental effects, including Project and substantive other-project cumulative environmental effects. As such, this represents an integrated residual adverse environmental effects evaluation. Where significant adverse or positive residual environmental effects are predicted, a level of confidence and likelihood of occurrence rating are also given for each prediction.

Table 4.2 Example Environmental Effects Assessment Summary

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Mitigation Activity Effects and Measures Direction Extent Socio- Context Duration Economic Economic Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological 2D and 3D Seismic Survey (underwater noise) Presence of Vessel Sanitary and domestic waste Lighting Air emissions Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel Loss of Product from

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Streamers Cumulative Effects Marine traffic Fisheries Oil and gas activities KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio-economic L = Low level of N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous Context: confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the 1 = Relatively pristine area not M = Medium level of Study Area Duration: affected by human activity confidence H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 2 = Evidence of existing H = High level of 2 = 1-12 months adverse activity confidence 3 = 13-36 months 3 = High level of existing Geographic Extent: 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity 1 = <1 km radius 5 = >72 months 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest pot

4.2.8 Accidental Events

Potential accidental events that could occur in the course of the Project activities include the potential for the release of hydrocarbons from a vessel or loss of product from streamers, and the potential environmental effects are assessed for each of the VECs under consideration. Mitigation to reduce the likelihood of an accidental event and contingency plans to be implemented in the case of an accidental event are also described.

There is potential for accidental events to occur during the proposed Project. Although unlikely, the most probable scenarios include: the accidental release of hydrocarbons from one of the two Project vessels (e.g., marine diesel spill) and the accidental release of product from a streamer (i.e., streamer break).

Hydrocarbon Spill (Vessel)

Hydrocarbon spills may occur as a result of human error, collision, or equipment failure. The release of hydrocarbons from one of the two vessels involved in the Project is unlikely, but has the potential to cause adverse environmental effects to Species at Risk, Marine Fish and Shellfish, Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles, Marine Birds, Sensitive Areas, and Fisheries and Other Ocean Users, and therefore is considered as part of this environmental assessment.

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The vessels will be using diesel as fuel. In comparison to crude oil, diesel fuel that is accidentally released evaporates much more quickly, and does not persist in the environment over the long-term (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2006). Diesel fuel has a low viscosity and is quickly dispersed in the water column when mixing occurs due to wind (greater than 9 to 13 km/h) or due to breaking waves. Diesel may be dispersed and form droplets that are maintained in suspension in the water column. The storage regulations in place for lube oil minimizes the volume lost during an accident or rupture. An accidental spill from the vessel would likely be of low volume (magnitude), extent and duration.

Spill prevention will be incorporated into the Project activities as part of contingency planning. Mitigation to reduce likelihood of an accidental event include routine maintenance and inspection of vessels and equipment, frequent communication, and adherence to standard navigation procedures, Canadian Coast Guard requirements, and employee awareness training. Vessels will adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78). An oil spill response plan will be in place prior to initiation of the seismic survey.

Loss of Product from Streamer

It is currently planned to use solid streamers, thereby avoiding the potential for loss of product in fluid-filled streamers. However, in the event the vessel uses fluid-filled streamers, the release of streamer product is considered as an accidental event in this assessment. The fluid in fluid-filled streamers is Isopar, a floatation liquid that is a de-aromatized diesel. Isopar is similar to kerosene, and as it is a light hydrocarbon, readily evaporates, leaving a thin slick on the water surface. Typically, streamers use self-contained 100 m long fluid-filled units; a single leak could result in a spill of approximately 200 L of Isopar at maximum. Floatation fluid could be released if the streamer became damaged. To mitigate this, inspections of the streamer and other equipment will be performed routinely, and there will be frequent communication with nearby vessels.

4.2.9 Cumulative Environmental Effects Assessment

Individual environmental effects are not necessarily mutually exclusive of each other but can accumulate and interact to result in cumulative environmental effects. The assessment of Project effects includes consideration of this type of cumulative effect for each VEC.

The region’s natural and human environments have been affected by past and present human activities including oil and gas industry activities, commercial fishing and marine transportation. The description of the existing (baseline) environment reflects the effects of these other actions. The evaluation of cumulative environmental effects considers the nature and degree of change from these baseline environmental conditions as a result of the proposed Project in combination with other past, present and future planned projects and activities

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4.2.10 Monitoring and Follow-up

As part of the environmental effects analysis, appropriate monitoring and follow-up are described where appropriate or warranted. Follow-up will be considered where: there is a high level of uncertainty about environmental effects predictions; significant adverse environmental effects are predicted; or in areas of particular sensitivity. The purpose of a follow-up program is to verify the effects prediction and to determine the effectiveness of mitigation measures.

Follow-up programs are typically associated with longer-term projects, but are considered for discussion purposes in this assessment.

4.2.11 Change to the Project that could be Caused by the Environment

It is necessary to consider those changes to the Project that may arise as a result of the environment. For example, natural phenomena such as severe weather, ice, presence of predators or seismic activity can result in changes to the Project (i.e., delays). These effects of the environment on the Project are discussed in Section 7.1.

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5.0 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The physical environment of the region has been described in the Western Newfoundland SEA and amended SEA (LGL 2005, 2007). A summary of the environment, based on those reports and supplementary literature is presented in the follow sections.

5.1 Geological Framework

Geological formations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are an essential component of its marine habitats, as they influence oceanic circulation. The geological formations that form the foundations of the Gulf of St. Lawrence are millions of years old and straddle three major geological regions, including the Canadian Shield, the St. Lawrence Platform and the Appalachians. Some of these geological formations lay exposed to the ocean, while others are covered by sediment layers varying in depth from a few to hundreds of metres. Four glacial and interglacial periods have transformed these geological formations as a result of erosion and sediment deposition (DFO 2005a). The general geology of western Newfoundland is described in detail in Subsection 2.1 of the Western Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Area SEA (C-NLOPB 2005).

The Island of Newfoundland began to form approximately 620 million years ago as the continental and oceanic plates collided. Compressive forces in three separate events (Taconic orogeny, Salinic orogeny, Acadian orogeny) resulted in the forming of the Appalachians in western Newfoundland (Figure 5-1). Western Newfoundland falls into the Humber zone (which is the onshore section of the Anticosti Basin), one of four distinct geological zoneson the Island of Newfoundland (Figure 5-2), and the westernmost of five tectonostratigraphic zone of the northeast Canadian Appalachians (Humber 1979; Stockmal et al. 1998). The Humber zone includes western Newfoundland and the northern Gaspe Peninsula in Quebec.

The Study Area occupies a portion of the Gulf of St. Lawrence that is underlain by a thin veneer of glacial sediment covering the adjacent, relatively thick, Paleozoic aged sedimentary Anticosti Basin (Enachescu 2006). The Anticosti Basin of Ordovician to Silurian age is approximately 415 to 510 million years old and covers the area between Anticosti/Mingan islands and Newfoundland/Labrador to the east, the Gaspé Peninsula to the southwest and an location in the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the south. The Anticosti Basin is composed of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks including sandstones and carbonates that were deposited along the continental shelf and slope that bordered the ancient continent of Laurentia. The Iapetus Ocean was located to the south of the Laurentia margin. The closing of the Iapetus Ocean and resulting continental collision between Laurentia and Gondwana, as well as other geological events, ultimately resulted in the formation of the Appalachian Mountains (Enachescu 2006).

The northeast Appalachians are a geological area that has been affected by several orogenic events, punctuated by the opening and closing of the Iapetus Ocean (Cooper et al. 2001). The majority of sediments in western Newfoundland were deposited during this interval and as such associated with the eastern margin of the ancient North American continent of Laurentia, and

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are correlated with other parts of the Appalachian region in eastern Canada and the U.S. (Williams and Burden 1992). Important petroleum areas including west Texas, Anadarko and Michigan basins have developed along this mountain system. The area is characterized by a Cambro-Ordovician platform accession, underlain by Grenville age crystalline basement, which was initially overridden and deformed during the early to middle Ordovician Taconian (Stockmal et al. 1998). The Grenville basement is partially overlain by clastic sediments, lava and Cambrian-Ordovician carbonate platform sequence. Around exposed Grenville, the carbonate platform is disturbed and overlain with tectonically transported (allochthonous) sequences stacked in slices that dip in an eastern direction. The slices are composed of continental sediments, shale mélange and ophiolitic suites of mantle periodites and oceanic crust volcanics.

Source: LGL 2005 (adapted from Williams 1995a)

Figure 5-1 The Appalachian Orogen

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Source: LGL 2005 (adapted from Williams 1995a)

Figure 5-2 Simple Geological Zonation of the Canadian Appalachian Region

5.1.1 Regional Geology of Western Newfoundland

The Geology of western Newfoundland consists of seven distinct packages formed under different conditions and having different tectonic pasts. The earliest rocks in western Newfoundland are the Precambrian gneisses, schists and granites which make up the core of the Great Northern Peninsula which were formed during the Grenvillian Orogeny and are Precambrian basement (Grenville basement) rocks (Williams and Burden 1992). Terrestrial red conglomerate and sandstone (Bateau Formation) and the Lighthouse Cove Volcanics, also from the Precambrian period overlay the Grenville Basement except for instances where the Lighthouse Cove Volcanics overlie the Bateau Formation as a result of geological processes such as faulting and dyke intrusions. The Grenville Basement with the overlaying Bateau Formation and Lighthouse Cove Volcanics form the basal portion of the Labrador Group (Williams and Burden 1992).

During the Cambrian to middle Ordovician Period, sediments in western Newfoundland were formed either in relatively shallow nearshore areas (autochthonous strata) or from deep oceanic conditions, approximately 100 km to the east (allochthonous strata). The lower Cambrian to middle Ordovician autochthonous sequence sediments form the upper Labrador, Port au Port, St George, Table Head and Goose Tickle Groups. The earliest sediments of the upper Labrador Group (Bradore, Forteau and Hawkes Bay formations) are the continued deposition of the Labrador Group during initial rifting and opening of the Iapteus Ocean and are predominately siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (Williams and Burden 1992).

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A change from predominately siliciclastic sedimentary rocks to carbonate-dominated sediments which were formed in shallow shelf settings are characteristic of deposition associated with the Port au Port and St. George Groups. The upper most portions of the St. George Group consist of crystalline grey peritidal dolostones with interbedded limestone. The Table Head group is limestone dominated sequences that were formed during the submergence and breakup of the continental margin during the middle Ordovician period and relates to the first stages of the Iapetus Ocean closure. The Goose Tickle Group was formed from sediments composed of transported and obducted oceanic material and are composed of packages of shale, siltstones and sandstones overlying the Table Head Group (Williams and Burden 1992).

The lower Cabrian to middle Ordovician allochthonous sequence sediments from the Humber Arm Supergroup consisting of the Cow Head and Curling Groups. The Cow Head Group forms the lower structure package consisting of marine limestone, shale, carbonate conglomerates and megabreccias. The Curling Group forms the upper structural package with lithologies similar to the Cow Head Group. The Humber Arm Supergroup was trust over the autochthonous strata that had formed on the neighboring carbonate platform during the Taconic Orogeny. The bay of Islands and Little Port complexes are remnants of the oceanic crust and mantle that obducted over the autochthonous and allochthonous sediments during the Taconic Oregeny. It is postulate that this area represents isolated parts of the Dunnage Zone.

The middle to upper Ordovician parautochthonous sediments of the Long Point groups consists of carbonate dominated lower section (Lourdes Formations) and the siliciclastic dominated upper (Winterhouse Formation) section (Williams and Burden 1992). Shallow marine carbonates associated with the late Silurian and Devonian period are found in the west side of Bonne Bay and the western tip of Port au Port peninsula (Williams and Burden 1992).

5.1.2 Hydrocarbon Potential of Western Newfoundland

The potential for petroleum resources in Newfoundland was first realized in the Paleozoic rocks of the Humber zone, when oil was observed floating on Parsons Pond in 1812. An exploration program was initiated in 1867, and since then, approximately 60 shallow wells have been developed, over half of which found oil or gas (Figure 5-3). The Port au Port Peninsula is within the Magdalen Basin (a Carboniferous Basin), and adjacent to the Anticosti Basin (a Paleozoic Basin) according to the Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Mines and Energy (NLDME 2000). Wells drilled previously in the area indicate that high quality oil consistent with a Cambrio-Ordovician source rock (shale) is present. For a summary of the current status of knowledge on the potential for hydrocarbons in the region refer to NLDME (2000), Stockmal et al. (2004), Lavoie et al. (2005; 2009), and Dietrich et al. (2011).

Oils from western Newfoundland collected from old well and seeps have a signature consistent with Devonian Type I/II source rocks. Source rocks containing total organic carbon concentration up to 10% are found within the Green Point Formation of the Humber Arm Allochthon are the richest potential source rocks (Cooper et al. 2001). Fingerprinting of oil shows at Parsons Pond and for the Port au Port has identified the Green Point shale as the likely source rock (Enachescu 2006).

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Late Ordovician McCasty Formation is the source rock on Anticosti Island that may be present in the undrilled offshore foreland basin in western Newfoundland. Another potential source of source rock is the middle Ordovician Black Cove-Cape Cormorant Formation which is part of the autochthonous suite. Another possibility for source rock may be the Carboniferous strata that contain numerous interbedded coals, lacustrine shales and algal limestones (Enachescu 2006).

Source: Cooper et al. 2001

Figure 5-3 Location of Wells and Hydrocarbon Occurrences in Western Newfoundland

5.2 Seismicity

Seismic hazard maps obtained from Natural Resources Canada show the calculated expected ground motions, showing peak horizontal ground accelerations (Figure 5-4). Historical seismic events in Canada (1627 to 2010) are also presented (Figure 5-5). This information is obtained from both historical earthquakes and from advances in knowledge of Canada’s geology, and are designed as part of the National Building Code. These maps are also useful for assessing seismic hazards for offshore structures.

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From these data it is evident there has been very little seismic activity in western Newfoundland or the Gulf of St. Lawrence to date, though there was a major earthquake (7.2 on Richter Scale) in 1929 near the continental slope south of Newfoundland, and there has also been activity in New Brunswick and southern Quebec.

Source: Natural Resources Canada 2010 Note: Model illustrates peak ground acceleration at a probability of 2 percent / 50 years for firm ground conditions (NBCC soil class C)

Figure 5-4 Model of Seismic Hazards in Canada

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Source: Natural Resources Canada 2010

Figure 5-5 Historical Seismicity in Canada (1627 to 2010)

5.3 Physical Oceanography

The Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea (Koitutonsky and Bugden 1991), having two openings to the Atlantic Ocean, the Cabot Strait and the Strait of Belle Isle. The Gulf has a surface area of approximately 240,000 km2, a volume of 3,553 km3, an average depth of 152 m and maximum depths up to 535 m (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The Gulf exchanges salt water with the North Atlantic Ocean and receives considerable input of fresh water from the St. Lawrence River and other nearby rivers. As a consequence, the Gulf acts like a large estuary where Coriolis effects (from force generated by the Earth’s rotation), geostrophic currents, baroclinic processes, formation of eddies and wind stress effects are all important.

Present within the Gulf are numerous shallow areas and deep troughs. One particularly well known trough, called the Laurentian Channel, is a long, continuous trough that has a maximum depth of 535 m and extends approximately 1,500 km from the Continental Shelf in the Atlantic Ocean to its end point in the St. Lawrence Estuary. The Gulf is also characteristic of two secondary troughs, the Esquiman and the Anticosti Channels. Another predominant feature is

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the Magdalen Shallows, which is a plateau located in the southern Gulf (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The physiographical features of the Gulf greatly influence the circulation, mixing and characteristics of water masses within this area (Dufour and Ouellet 2007).

There are large, seasonally-variable runoffs of freshwater into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, mainly from the St. Lawrence River and rivers of the northern shore of Quebec. The result is a higher temperature, low salinity surface layer of water that then begins to flow out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean. Additional freshwater runoff occurs in the fall, driving circulation patterns in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and causing the area to show properties of an estuarine environment (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). Temperature varies seasonally throughout the Gulf and monthly averages are shown for NAFO Division 4Rc (in which the Study Area occurs) (Figure 5-6).

Source: LGL 2005

Figure 5-6 Monthly Average Temperature in NAFO Division 4Rc

At the start of winter, the warmer, low-salinity surface layer flowing into the Atlantic Ocean sinks in the water column. Once spring arrives, a new summer surface layer is created, causing the winter layer to be trapped below. This is referred to as the Cold Intermediate Layer (Dufour and Ouellet 2007).

5.4 Bathymetry

The bathymetry of western Newfoundland has been revealed in recent decades by side-scan sonar and multi-beam mapping data. It is underlain by the continental shelf (less than 200 m) and continental slope (200 m to 500 m) (Figure 5-7). The Laurentian Channel bisects the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Appalachian Front lies offshore except at Port au Port Peninsula.

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Source: Josenhans (2007)

Figure 5-7 General Bathymetry of Gulf of St. Lawrence

5.5 Ocean Currents

Knowledge of ocean currents is essential to the planning of oil and gas related operations in any area. Currents in the Gulf are influenced by a number of factors, including tides, regional meteorological events, freshwater runoff and water exchange through the Strait of Belle Isle and the Cabot Strait.

Driven by wave and tidal movement, cold, dense water flows into the Gulf through the Strait of Belle Isle from the Arctic via the Labrador Current. Waters from the Atlantic Ocean enter the Gulf via the Cabot Strait, in the Laurentian Channel. The surface circulation of the Gulf exhibits strong features such as coastal currents, gyres, large eddies in the Estuary and tidal fronts (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The St. Lawrence River outflow produces a strong coastal current that flows along the length of the Gaspé Peninsula (the Gaspé Current), flowing seaward and dispersing the St. Lawrence runoff in the northwestern and the southern Gulf (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The waters of the southern Gulf (between the Magdalen Islands, Prince Edward Island and the western side of Cape Breton) form the main outflow of the Gulf on the western side of Cabot Strait. On the eastern side of Cabot Strait, an inflow from the Atlantic flows northeastward along the west coast of Newfoundland (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The waters from the Strait of Belle Isle move westward along the northeastern shore (Dufour and Ouellet 2007).

The surface circulation is cyclonic, that is, the surface current moves in a counter-clockwise fashion. The similarities between this cyclonic circulation pattern and the surface salinity distributions in the Gaspe and Magdalen Shallows regions indicate that the surface currents are

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a result of the geostrophic balance between the horizontal pressure gradient field and Coriolis effects (Koutitonsky and Bugden 1991) and are indicative of a complex circulation pattern.

Oceanographic conditions in the Gulf are complex. Masses of water with acutely contrasting temperature and salinity come together and mix. The Gulf can be considered a three-layer system during summer (surface layer, cold intermediate layer and deep water layer); the two upper layers undergo seasonal variations and become one during the winter months (DFO 2005a; Dufour and Ouellet 2007).

Surface temperatures typically reach maximum values in mid-July to mid-August (Galbraith et al. 2011). Gradual cooling occurs thereafter, and wind mixing during the fall leads to a progressively deeper and cooler mixed layer, eventually encompassing the cold intermediate layer. During winter, the surface layer thickens as a result of buoyancy loss (due to cooling and reduced runoff) and brine rejection associated with sea-ice formation. However, the primary force driving the surface layer thickening is wind-driven mixing prior to ice formation (Galbraith 2006).

The surface winter layer reaches an average depth of 75 m with depths up to 150 m and deeper in the northeast Gulf, where waters from the Labrador Shelf at the Strait of Belle Isle may intrude into the Gulf and extend the surface winter layer from the surface to the bottom (>200 m) in Mecatina Trough by the end of March. The surface winter layer exhibits temperatures near freezing (-1.8 to 0oC) (Galbraith 2006). The warmer, low salinity surface layers produced during the spring when an increase in freshwater flow enters the Gulf via the St. Lawrence River, the Saguenay River and other smaller rivers along the shores. The surface layer flows out of the Gulf into the Atlantic. Additional freshwater runoff occurs in the fall, driving circulation patterns in the Gulf, and causing the area to show properties of an estuarine environment (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). At the start of winter the warmer, low salinity surface layer flowing into the Atlantic becomes less buoyant, due to the drop in air temperature and ice formation, and moves downward in the water column. Once spring arrives, a new summer surface layer is created causing the winter layer to be trapped below. This is referred to as the Cold Intermediate Layer (Dufour and Ouellet 2007).

Currents are strongest in the surface mixed layer, generally 0 to 20 m, except in winter months when the 20 to 100 m averages are almost as strong (the surface layer and cold intermediate layer have merged as one layer) and the deep layer (100 m to the bottom) averages are very high. Currents are strongest along the slopes of the deep channels. The Anticosti Gyre is always evident but strongest during winter months, when it even extends strongly into the bottom-average currents (Galbraith et al. 2011).

Maurice Lemontagne Institute, Canadian Hydrographic Service and DFO issue ocean forecasts for the Gulf (St. Lawrence Global Observatory (SLGO) 2011). The surface current forecast is extracted from a three-dimensional numerical model computing the oceanic circulation under the influence of tides, the St. Lawrence River fresh water runoff, atmospheric forcing and the sea ice drift, growth and melt (SLGO 2011). This model has been validated under a series of scientific and operational research and development programs within DFO. The validation process was done against a number of oceanographic observations including currents, water

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level, water temperature and salinity (SLGO 2011). This online program allows for daily forecast of surface currents.

Vertical mixing is an important process affecting water masses as it plays an important role in marine habitats, thereby having a direct effect on productivity and biodiversity. Tides propagating over the sills at the head of the Laurentian Channel produce strong mixing of the different water masses that converge in this area (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). Tidal mixing is also a permanent and dominant modifier of the intermediate and deeper waters near the head of Jacques Cartier Strait and in the Strait of Belle Isle (Lu et al. 2001; Saucier et al. 2003). The wind-driven mixing coupled with the tidal regime and the local stability of the surface waters will determine the deepening of the summer and winter surface layers (Saucier et al. 2003). A water mass can reside in the Gulf for a few months near the surface or up to a few years in the colder, bottom waters.

Atmospheric conditions in the Gulf also play an important role in the circulation of water, as they have an effect on cloud cover, precipitation, evaporation and air temperature.

5.6 Tides

Tides in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are characterized as semi-diurnal in the northeast with a period of 12.4 hours, and are characterized as mixed tides in the central Gulf of St. Lawrence (Pingree and Griffiths 1980). The phases and amplitudes of the M2 component are shown in Figure 5-8. The amplitude varies between 0.46 m and 0.53 m in the Project Area.

eg

Source: LGL 2005

Figure 5-8 Co-amplitude (dashed) and Co-phase (solid) Lines for the M2 Tides in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

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5.7 Waves

The wave climate is driven by both swell and wind waves. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the wave climate is dominated by extra-tropical storms that occur from October to March. Tropical storms may occur during early summer, but typically occur between late-August and October. Hurricanes have typically been reduced to tropical-storm strength by the time they reach the Gulf of St. Lawrence and western Newfoundland, but do occasionally reach Newfoundland with hurricane-force winds (LGL 2005).

The highest waves occur between October and January, with a maximum significant wave height of 9.43 m recorded in January. Significant wave heights greater than 5 m occur in each month except June, July, and August.

5.8 Ice

Sea ice formation in the area is infrequent during winter. Sea ice cover originates from two main sources along western Newfoundland: sea ice formed off Labrador, which drifts through the Strait of Belle Isle; and ice that forms in Gulf of St. Lawrence (LGL 2005). The initial survey is scheduled for a 54-day period between mid-October 2012 and early January 2013, or mid- October 2013 to early January 2014. Averages obtained from Environment Canada indicate that September, October and November have not had ice coverage in the Project Area over the past 30 years (Figure 5-9), but sea ice begins to develop (1 to 15 percent) in coastal areas of the Bay of Islands by mid-December and in January (Figure 5-10 and 5-11). Based on pack ice in the Port au Port region, the ice-free season is typically May to December (C-CORE 2005). There is considerable inter-annual variation in ice conditions, extent, and time of year when sea ice forms and melts. For example, in 2000 sea ice disappeared earlier than usual and did not reach the Scotian Shelf (Drinkwater et al. 2001), but in 2003 sea ice extended further south and persisted longer than usual (Canadian Ice Service 2003). Information about icebergs was primarily obtained from the International Ice Patrol (IIP) Iceberg Sightings Database (National Snow and Ice Data Center, 1995, updated annually) and Environment Canada. The proposed seismic program will occur during the ice-free season as ice will interfere with data collection.

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Source: Environment Canada (Sea Ice Climatic Atlas for East Coast 1981-2010). Figure 5-9 The Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on November 19 (1981 to 2010) in Atlantic Canada

Source: Environment Canada (Sea Ice Climatic Atlas for East Coast 1981-2010). Figure 5-10 The Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on December 18 (1981to 2010) in Atlantic Canada

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Source: Environment Canada (Sea Ice Climatic Atlas for East Coast 1981-2010).

Figure 5-11 Frequency of Presence of Sea Ice on January 8 (1981 to 2010) in Atlantic Canada

5.9 Climate

The climate of the Project Area is driven by the cycle of low and high-pressure systems characteristic of westerly-wind dominated areas in mid-latitudes. This prevailing westerly wind is a function of the temperature gradient from the tropics to the poles, and the intensity of the wind increases in winter months, when the gradient difference is greatest (LGL 2005). The climate is also influenced by the effects of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, particularly in the area from Deer Lake to Port aux Basques. The average monthly temperature and precipitation for Corner Brook is presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Temperature and Precipitation Climate Data (1971 to 2000) in Corner Brook, NL

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC Temperature (oC) Daily -6.1 -7.2 -3 2.7 7.7 13.1 17.3 16.9 12.7 7.2 2.3 -2.8 Average Daily Max -2.5 -3.2 1.1 6.4 12.1 17.7 21.8 21.1 16.7 10.5 4.9 8.9 Daily Min -9.7 -11.2 -7.1 -1.1 3.3 8.4 12.6 12.6 8.6 3.8 -0.3 -5.7

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JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC Temperature (oC) Precipitation Rainfall 37.5 23.4 39.2 45.6 72.2 83.9 91 98.6 104.2 115.7 84.6 53.1 (mm) Snowfall 110.8 76 56.6 25.1 5.3 0.2 0 0 0.1 7.9 41.1 98.8 (cm) Days with Precipitation >= 0.2 mm 22.8 17.2 15.7 14.4 14.8 13.6 14.8 14.5 16 19.2 20.1 23.1 >= 5mm 11.5 7.1 7.1 5.1 5.1 4.9 5.5 5.9 7 7.7 9 11 >= 10 m 4.5 2.7 2.8 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.5 3.3 3.6 4 4.2 5.3 >= 25 mm 0.72 0.37 0.33 0.17 0.33 0.50 0.60 0.57 0.60 0.62 0.37 0.63 Source: Environment Canada 2012 (www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/)

There are three basic weather patterns that occur frequently in the winter in Newfoundland: low pressure systems passing to the south or southeast of the island; low pressure systems passing to the west or northwest of the island, and high pressure systems approaching Newfoundland from the west (Robichaud and Mullock 2001). Low pressure systems that approach Newfoundland from the south result in winds that gradually increase from the east or southeast. Flurries will tend to develop ahead of the primary snowfall, usually cease before the onset of the snow. Low pressure systems approaching from the southwest and passing over the west or northwest of Newfoundland often result in a trajectory that keeps the low pressure system over land for much of its track. These low pressure systems generally do not become as deep due to the absence of the water to provide energy to develop (Robichaud and Mullock 2001).

Most summer low pressure systems will track across southern Labrador or the North Shore of Quebec and then cross north of Newfoundland with a secondary track carrying lows south of the Newfoundland and then out to sea. The fronts associated with the summer low pressure systems are diffuse with little contrast existing between air masses resulting in precipitation that tends to be rain showers, although steadier rains may occur with the slower, more developed low pressure systems (Robichaud and Mullock 2001).

Newfoundland has a Maritime temperate climate, with minimum mean temperatures at the Corner Brook weather station occurring in February (-7.2oC) and maximum mean temperatures occurring in July (17.3oC) (Table 5.1). Sea surface temperatures reach the minimum average in February and March (approximately -0.8oC) and reach the maximum average in August and September (approximately 15oC) (LGL 2005). Precipitation is typically rain or drizzle. During winter, the Port au Port area is affected by cold Arctic air from the Quebec North Shore, as well as heat and moisture from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and consequently this area experiences freezing rain and high amounts of snow (average 4 m per year at Stephenville airport). Recorded precipitation is greatest in December and lowest during March.

A phenomenon known as the “Anticosti Shadow Effect” occurs when winds are from the west- northwest (Robichaud and Mullock 2001). Anticosti Island may acts as a barrier for the development of snow shower activity with an area of predominant clear skies found downwind that is approximately the width of Anticosti Island and can extend as west far as Newfoundland.

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The Anticosti Shadow Effect can result in the Stephenville area exhibiting better weather than north and south of Stephenville area (Robichaud and Mullock 2001).

Fog is common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence from mid-spring until late summer due to mixing of warmer air masses from the south with cool air over the Gulf of St. Lawrence (where the water remains cold); as the warm moist air is cooled, thick fog spreads out. Southeast winds tend to move the fog into coastal areas along the west coast, including into St. George’s Bay and Stephenville area. Fog data for Corner Brook is presented in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Visibility Data Recorded at Corner Brook Weather Station (1971 to 2000)

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

Visibility (hours with) <1 km 17.7 8.2 6.8 3.2 2.6 2.4 3.8 6.9 10 5.1 5.4 12.6 1 to 9 158.2 113.7 100.7 66 49.6 44.6 39.1 45.9 42.7 46.9 87.1 150.3 km >9 km 568.1 555.1 636.5 650.8 691.9 673 701.1 691.2 667.3 692 627.5 581 Source: Environment Canada 2012 (www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/)

5.9.1 Wind

Wind is the dominant factor in driving local weather conditions in Newfoundland with the predominant wind direction being from the northwest in the winter and southwest in the summer (Figures 5-12 and 5-13). The wind patterns are such that the weather in Newfoundland can be extremely variable and can change rapidly (Robichaud and Mullock 2001).

Source: DFO 1999a

Figure 5-12 Principal Summer Storm Tracks

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Source: DFO 1999a

Figure 5-13 Principal Winter Storm Tracks

Wind is an important aspect related to operations planning for the Project due to its role in current and wave generation. From autumn through the winter and spring, many storm disturbances pass through or near the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Due to an upper level trough that tends to lie over central Canada, and an upper ridge that lies over the North Atlantic, three main storm tracks affect Atlantic Canada: from the Great Lake Basin; from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; and from the Gulf of Mexico. These storms can produce gale-force winds that may persist for many hours and in some cases, for several days. During the summer months when the tracks of cyclonic activity are displaced farther north, the persistent strong winds become less frequent over the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The occurrence of high wind speeds in the Project Area is most common during November, December and January, and the lowest maximum winds occur in July (Table 5.3). Strong winds also occur in late summer and autumn due to passing storms, but the frequency of high winds in lower than during winter. Storm-force winds (24.5 to 32.6 m/s) have occurred in January and February and gale-force winds (17.2 to 24.4 m/s) have occurred in all months except July and August (LGL 2005). According to climatology data obtained from the nearby Grid Point 5817 (48.75oN; 59.17oW) from the AES 40 data set (Swail et al. 1999), there are strong annual cycles in the wind. Winds blowing from the west to northwest were most common from November to March, from the southwest to northwest in April, from the south to southwest from May to August; and from the southwest to west in September and October. Data from AES 40 Grid Point (5817) recorded gale-force wind in all months except May, June, July, and August. Storm- force winds have been recorded in December and January. No hurricane force (>32.7 m/s) winds have been recorded at the grid point. The highest wind speeds generally occur from November to January, however, the passing of tropical systems can result in high winds in late summer and fall.

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Effects from ‘mountain’ waves occur and are known locally and by the Meteorological Service of Canada as Wreckhouse Winds. Wreckhouse, NL is situated at the southern end of the Long Range Mountains at the mouth of the Codroy Vally. Although elevations in this area are only slightly above 500 m, winds can attain hurricane force due to the effects of funneling and channeling of down slope winds in the valley (McIldoon and Pilon 2008). Air from southeasterly winds is funneled down several long valleys, and when the winds reach the ends of these valleys it is no longer trapped walls and quickly spreads outward. This causes a sudden drop in air pressure, increases wind speeds and creates sudden and severe wind gusts.

Table 5.3 Wind Data at the Deer Lake Airport, NL Weather Station (1971 to 2000)

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC Wind Speed 16 15.8 16.6 16 14.9 14.6 13.5 13 13.1 13.5 15 15.4 (km/h) Most Frequent SW SW SW NE NE SW SW SW SW SW SW SW Direction Maximum Hourly 93 65 72 64 64 59 59 65 56 74 78 70 Speed (km/h) Maximum Gust Speed 133 111 105 102 97 96 111 107 89 129 107 102 (km/h) Direction of Maximum SW SW SW SW SW S SW W W S W S Gust Days with Winds >= 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.9 52 km/h Days with Winds >= 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 63 km/h Source: Environment Canada 2012 (www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/)

5.10 Noise/Acoustic Environment

Noise in the marine environment can originate from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources of noise include wind, rain, waves and marine life. Anthropogenic sources of noise include vessel traffic, fishing equipment, engines, and sonar. The dispersion or amplification of sound varies by location and with time depending on local oceanographic conditions, bathymetry of seafloor, meteorology, season, and time of day. In deeper waters, sound typically diverges spherically, whereas in shallow water it spreads cylindrically (C-NLOPB 2005).

There are no measurements of ambient sound levels in the Project Area. Typical sound levels in the marine environment are reported in the range of 80 to 120 dB re 1 μPa2/Hz (OPG/IAGC 2004). Approximate source levels and frequency ranges are presented in Table 5.4.

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Table 5.4 Approximate Source Pressure Levels and Frequency Ranges of Natural and Anthropogenic Sounds in Marine Environment

Source level (dB re 1 uPa –m, Frequency Band of Normal Sound Sources as provided in Directionality Reference Major Amplitude Duration original reference) Naturally Occurring Sounds Sperm Whale 10’s of Møhl et al. 236 rms* 5 to 40 kHz Focused Click microseconds 2003 Very broad band in 70 Nachtigall et al. Bottlenose Dolphin 225 peak to peak Focused kHz range microseconds 2003 80 to 120 Killer Whale 224 peak to peak 12 to 80 kHz Focused Au 2004 microseconds Baleen whale 10’s of 190 rms 10 to 25 Hz Omni-directional NRC 2003 sounds seconds Anthropogenic Sounds 7900 Cubic-inch Richardson et 259 Peak 5 to 500 Hz 30 ms Vertically focused Air Gun al. 1995 USA Federal Multibeam Sonar 237 rms 15.5 kHz 50 ms Vertically focused Register 2003 US Navy 53C Mid- Variable, NOAA and US Centre Frequency of Horizontally range Sonar 235 rms 0.5 s over 2 s Dept. Navy 2.6 and 3.3 kHz focused period 2001 Variable 1.5 to Strongly vertically Clay and Echosounders 235 Peak A few ms 36 kHz focused Medwin 1977 GLORIA-type 28 Peak 6 to 7 kHz Continuous Vertically focused SCAR 2002 Sidescan Sonar Gordon and Acoustic Variable 1.5 to 205 rms 8 to 30 kHz Omni-directional Northridge Deterrence Device 500 ms 2002 190 Peak @ 6.8 Omni-directional Richardson et Supertanker 6.8 Hz Weeks Hz in vertical plane al. 1995 135 Peak @ 1 30 to 40 Hz, and 100 Richardson et Pile Driving Days Omni-directional km Hz al. 1995 Source: OGP/IAGC, 2004; C-NLOPB 2005. *Where rms is the root mean square, and provides a measure of magnitude

Marine mammals are known to have acute hearing and use sound to communicate, particularly in the frequency range of 5 to 50 kHz for odontocetes (e.g., toothed whales, dolphins, and porpoise), and lower frequency ranges (10 to 31 kHz) for mysticetes (e.g., baleen whales). Sea turtles and fish are also affected by underwater noise. Potential environmental effects from noise due to the Project are discussed in Section 7.3.

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6.0 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

6.1 Ecosystem

The following sections provide an overview of existing knowledge of the biological environment in the Project Area. The information presented regarding the biological environment was obtained from Section 3 of the Western Newfoundland SEA and SEA Amendment (LGL 2005, 2007), as well as supplementary literature.

The western Newfoundland ecosystem is greatly influenced by the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The unique features of the Gulf of St. Lawrence drive areas of enhanced plankton production and biomass that support diverse benthic communities and attract fish, marine birds and marine mammals to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. These enhanced biological areas are a result of physical factors related to the unique topography of the seafloor, oceanographic currents and winds. Combined with chemical factors such as nutrient-rich waters, these characteristics give rise to physical processes such as upwelling of bottom water, horizontal or vertical fronts between two distinct circulation patterns and water masses, and zones of convergence and gyres. Known areas of high productivity in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are indicated in Figure 6-1.

Source: Josenhans 2004

Figure 6-1 Physical Processes and Major Areas of High Productivity in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

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6.1.1 Coastal Habitats

The shoreline of western Newfoundland is predominately rocky and can be classified as a primary coast, with the primary geomorphology determined by natural processes including glacial erosion and tectonic forces. Many organisms are dependent upon coastal habitats, both within the intertidal and subtidal zones for feeding, refuge, and reproduction. Algal communities are a critical component of these coastal and subtidal communities (Sears 2002), with various species of cyanophyta, macroalgae, and lichens present. In addition, in some areas salt marsh plant species and eelgrass beds (Zostera marina) (Rao 2007; DFO 2009a) occur and form important habitats for marine species.

Eelgrass Beds

Eelgrass, the local species of seagrass, is a true flowering plant adapted to the marine environment, and is of ecological importance (Orth et al. 2006, DFO 2009a). Eelgrass occurs in shallow, protected areas, primarily in soft bottom substrate (such as at the head of St. Georges Bay in western Newfoundland) (LGL 2005) with water currents less than 16 cm/s (DFO 2009a). Temperature, salinity, currents, nutrient loading, and bioturbation rates must be optimal for successful habitation for eelgrass (Vandermeulen 2005) as eelgrass has a narrow ecological niche delineated by its tolerance for these biotic and abiotic factors (DFO 2009a).

Eelgrass is considered an ecologically significant species as it has met the criteria of an ecologically significant species as established by DFO (DFO 2009a). Eelgrass rank among the most productive ecosystems globally (DFO 2009a), and in addition support high diversity locally, provide refuge and nurseries for invertebrates and fishes, supports a diverse epifloral community appendages, stabilize sediments, provides water filtration and enhanced water column light availability, buffers shorelines, provide a valuable food source for migrating and overwintering waterfowl and play a role in the nutrient cycle and gas exchange. Essentially, eelgrass is the base of coastal food chain, contributing to broad scale nutrient cycles (DFO 2009a).

Loss of eelgrass habitat has been observed in many coastal areas, including along the eastern US seaboard and Atlantic Canada, and is frequently associated with anthropogenic stressors, including eutrophication, sediment run-off, pollution and invasive species (Duarte and Chiscano 1999, Orth et al. 2006, DFO 2009a). The distribution of eelgrass (Figure 6-2) is generally constrained by coastal features and the extent of ice scour (DFO 2009a). In Newfoundland, there appears to be a general increase in eelgrass abundance in the last decade and this may be as a result of improved conditions, primarily milder temperatures and more favorable sea ice conditions (DFO 2009a).

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Source: Rao 2007

Figure 6-2 Eelgrass Beds in Newfoundland

Studies by DFO in Newfoundland (Morris et al. 2011) found that loss of eelgrass in coastal areas resulted in dramatic declines in fish abundance and biomass as well as changes in community composition. Eelgrass is a preferred habitat of juvenile Atlantic and Greenland cod. Eelgrass loss is also due to the presence of the invasive green crab (Carcinus maenus), which acts as a seabed habitat modifier.

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Salt Marsh Habitat

Salt marshes are typical of the mid-littoral zone of coastal marine areas where soft sediments occur and the terrain is gently sloping. The distribution of vegetation in terms of abundance, diversity and species composition is driven by climate, latitude, sediment, tidal range, and the immersion period during high tide (Bertness 1991; Chmura and Hung 2004).

Cord grass (Spartina spp.) is a dominant species of salt marshes in Atlantic Canada (Roberts and Robertson 1986), and colonization by this species plays an important role in the accumulation of sediments through the reduction of currents and stabilization of the substrate with their large root structures. Salt marshes are distributed among estuaries, protected bays and sheltered areas inland of spits, bars or islands. Salt marshes are generally divided into two types, low marshes and high marshes, each with a distinct plant community. The low marsh is topographically lower than the high marsh and the plant community is comprised mainly of cord grass (Spartina alterniflora), rockweed (Ascophyllum nodosum), glasswort (Salicornia spp.), sea-blite (Suaeda linearis), seaside sand spurrey (Spergularia villosa) and orach (Atriplex spp.). These species tend to be more tolerant to tidal fluctuations. Within the high marsh, conditions are drier and marsh hay (Spartina patens) dominates, with other halophytes, such as sea- lavender (Limonium spp.), arrow grass (Triglochin spp.), seaside plantain (Plantago maritima) and milkwort (Polygala spp.) also occurring.

Salt marshes are highly productive systems and also carry out valuable ecosystem functions and services including water filtration, recycling and storage of contaminants, sediment stabilization and providing habitat and food to fauna, particularly as a nursery for larval and juvenile stages of fish (Beck et al. 2001; Dufour and Ouellet 2007; Geden et al. 2009). Salt marshes have been thought to be driven primarily by bottom-up factors, but increasingly there is evidence that consumer control of salt marshes driven by changes in climate and human disturbance (e.g. nitrogen fertilization, overharvesting of predators, invasive species) is affecting these systems (Bertness and Silliman 2008). Loss of salt marshes in Atlantic Canada and globally can be attributed to human activities including dyking and conversion to farmland, urban development, and salt works; introduction of non-native species; alteration of coastal hydrodynamics; and pollution (Gedan et al. 2009).

Salt marshes in closest proximity to the Ptarmigan licenses include those found in the Magdalen Islands, western Newfoundland and Cape Breton. In Newfoundland, the topography of the west coast limits the creation of salt marshes along the southwestern coastline; 2,200 ha have been identified in the region. These marshes were concentrated in St. Georges Bay, Port au Port Bay and Cox’s Cove.

Algal Communities

Seaweed taxa are differentiated by colour and fall within one of three main groups: red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyta), or green (Chlorophyta). Apart from being important benthic primary producers, macroalgal species provide habitat/refugia for marine fauna as well as a food source for many species. Areas with dense coverage of macroalgae in coastal Newfoundland are commonly termed kelp beds and support a high diversity of species as well

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as serve as important nursery grounds for larval and juvenile stages of many fish and invertebrates. South (1983) summarized the typical species that occur within the tidal and subtidal zones in western Newfoundland based on depth and wave exposure and these species are listed in Table 6.1. The Northeast Algal Society (NEAS) published a key to the benthic marine algae of the northeastern coast of North America (Sears 2002) which provides important updates to the status of knowledge and also documents the spread of non-native algal species. The geographic distribution of marine algae is described by Hooper et al. (in Sears 2002) and they note that there are four main biogeographic barriers to marine algae in northeastern North America: Cape Hatteras, NC; Cape Cod, MA; Strait of Belle Isle, NL; and at Cape Dyer, Baffin Island. The number of species of algae decreases along a south to north latitudinal gradient; of the 350 to 400 algal species identified from Long Island Sound to the Strait of Belle Isle, an estimated 150 species occur further north in the arctic. However, algal biomass increases north of Cape Cod until Newfoundland and Labrador (northward of Labrador, the biomass curve drops steadily) (Hooper et al., in Sears 2002). Increases in biomass are largely due to populations and extreme sizes of fucoids, kelp, coralline, foliose and wiry red algae (Hooper et al., in Sears 2002).

Table 6.1 Common Algal Species that Occur in Intertidal and Subtidal Habitats in Western Newfoundland

Wave Typical Algal Invertebrate Species Exposure High Water Mark to 5 m 5 to 20 m >20mA Cyanophyta Laminaria longicruris Phyllophora sp. Bangia atropurpurea Phyllophora sp. Agarum cribrosum Fucus vesiculosus Agarum cribrosum Lithothamnium tophiforme Low Balanus balanoides Laminaria solidungula Phymatolithon laevigatum Ascophyllum nodosum Laminaria longicruris Bonnemaisonia hamifera Laminaria solidungula Maritime lichens Lithothamnium glaciale Phylophora sp. Pilayella littoralis Desmarestia sp. Lithothamnium glaciale Bangia atropurpurea Agarum cribropsum Chordaria flagelliformis Laminaria longicruris Moderate Chorda filum Phyllophora sp. Phyllophora sp. Alaria esculenta Saccorhiza dermatodea Cyanophyta Clathromorphum circumscriptum Ptilota serrata Pophyra sp. Lithothamnium glaciale Phyllophora sp. Bangia atropurpurea Laminaria longicruris Pilayella littoralis Agarum cribrosum High Chordaria flagelliformis Phyllophora sp. Alaria esculenta Sacchorhiza dermatodea Lithothamnium glaciale Source: South 1983 A 20 to 40 m for low exposure; 20 to 25 m for moderate and high exposure.

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Within each of the four biogeographic areas that occur along the eastern North American coast, local macroalgal diversity, abundance and distribution is shaped by a variety of physical and biological factors including hydrography, tidal range, temperature, solar irradiance, substrate, latitude and herbivory. Hooper et al. (2002) note that the Strait of Belle Isle represents a thermal barrier to algae, and consequently the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence is the northern limit for several species of warm-water macroalgae including Dasya bailouviana, Chondria baileyana, Gracilria tikvahiae, Lomentaria baileyi and Stilophora tenella. Similarly, cold-water species adapted to Labrador and areas further north are often absent in the southern Gulf.

The west coast of Newfoundland and eastern Gulf of St. Lawrence are considered to be warm- water areas due to the influence of Gulf of St. Lawrence water (in contrast to eastern Newfoundland which is a cold-water area influenced by the Labrador current). Sheltered habitats along the Newfoundland west coast are comparable to those in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence and coastal Prince Edward Island. As such the west coast represents an area where many temperate algal species reach their northern limit in warm pocket areas, and also represents the southern limit for approximately a third of the algal species (boreal) that occur in this region (Hooper et al., in Sears 2002). Several fjords and deep bays also occur along the west coast of Newfoundland which experience strong stratification during summer or year- round. In the cold-water benthic habitat that occurs below these stratified waters, more northern macroalgal species can occur (e.g., Laminaria solidungula; Fimbrifolium dichotomum; Dilsea integra; Omphalophyllum ulvaceum; Pantoneura fabriciana) (Hooper et al., in Sears 2002).

6.1.2 Plankton

Plankton are small (often microscopic), free-floating organisms that live suspended in the water column. Physical processes often control the distribution of plankton. Plankton are the productive base of marine ecosystems (bottom trophic level) and composed of both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton (often unicellular algae) are the autotrophic component of plankton, whereas zooplankton are the heterotrophic component of plankton. The relative primary production of an area is driven by the availability of both nutrients and sunlight, with major biomass blooms occurring in the spring, and to a lesser extent in the fall. Phytoplankton are consumed by herbaceous zooplankton (secondary production), which are then consumed by larger organisms such as fish, jellyfish, benthic filter-feeding invertebrates and baleen whales. Zooplankton is the main link between primary producers and higher trophic levels in the offshore marine environment (Head and Pepin 2008). This food web is also linked to the benthic system through particulate matter from the surface waters, bacterial degradation, and filter feeding/predation by benthic organisms on plankton (Graf 1989; Grebmeier and Barry. 1991; Dale et al. 2002; Benoit et al. 2006).

Phytoplankton

The annual cycle of phytoplankton development is generally well understood, and is governed by a small number of controlling factors such as vertical stability, nutrient supply, solar irradiance, and grazing pressure (Longhurst 1995). Western Newfoundland has a highly productive marine ecosystem, although it has lower rates of primary production than recorded for other parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (LGL 2005; Dufour and Ouellet 2007; Starr et al.

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2002). Bérard-Therriault et al. (1999) list 499 species of plankton (mainly phytoplankton) that have been recorded in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The timing and extent of the spring bloom is critical to the overall biological production of marine ecosystems. Dufour and Ouellet (2007) summarized the seasonal pattern of phytoplankton growth throughout the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The spring bloom for the western Newfoundland area occurs in late April or early May and is characterized by rapid growth of large diatoms (Thalassiora sp. and Chaetoceros sp.). As nutrients are depleted, the abundance of larger diatoms decline, and several important dinoflagellates (e.g., Peridinium sp., Alexandrium sp. and Ceratium sp.) become dominant (Dufour and Ouellet 2007). The diversity of phytoplankton remains high during summer, however chlorophyll concentrations and related primary productivity remain low. While a fall bloom may occur from September to November the chlorophyll concentrations remain low and are not much higher than observed during summer.

Zooplankton

Zooplankton reproduction concides with or immediately follows phytoplankton blooms. The importance of zooplankton in the marine ecosystem cannot be understated as they servce as the conduit between primary production and higher trophic level organisims. Copepod (Calanus spp.), krill (Meganyctiphanes norvegica, Thysanoessa inermis, Thysanoessa raschii), amphipod and euphausiid species dominate the zooplankton community, which is most abundant between mid-April and mid-June.

Zooplankton also includes meroplankton (Table 6.2), the eggs and larval stages of fish and invertebrate species. The dominant ichthyoplankton of the region include: herring, capelin, snailfish, shanny, sandlance, redfish and sculpin (de Lafontaine et al. 1991; White and Johns 1997). It should be noted that high densities of ichthyoplankton have been observed on the west coast of Newfoundland (DFO 2009b). The area adjacent to western Newfoundland has a meroplankton component which is considered to be of maximum uniqueness, average to maximum concentration, and to have average to maximum adaptive value (DFO 2007b). In spring, there is a high concentration of Atlantic cod eggs found within the area and since 1993, the area offshore from St. George’s Bay is regarded as Atlantic cod’s principal area for early spawning (DFO 2007b). Capelin and Atlantic herring larvae are also abundanct in this area, especially in the coastal area north of the Port-au-Port Peninsula.

Table 6.2 Common Meroplankton in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

Pelagic Spawning Species Benthic Spawning Species Atlantic Mackerel Scomber scombrus Atlantic Herring Clupea harengus Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua Rainbow Smelt Osmerus mordax Hippoglossoides Microgadus American Plaice Tomcod platessoides tomcod Enchelyopus cimbrius Pseudopleuronect Fourbeard Rockling Winter Flounder es americanus Hake Urophycis sp. Capelin Mallotis villosus Cunner Tautogolabrus adspersus Snailfish Liparis sp. Yellowtail Flounder Limanda ferruginea Shanny Lumpenus sp.

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Pelagic Spawning Species Benthic Spawning Species RedfishA Sebastes sp. Stichaeus sp. CrustaceansB Ulvaria sp. Snow Crab Chionoecetes opilio Myoxocephalus sp. Rock Crab Cancer irroratus Icelus sp. Sculpins American Lobster Homarus americanus Hemitripterus sp. Boreal Shrimp Pandalus borealis Artediellus sp. Sandlance Ammodytes sp. A Give birth to live young. B Eggs attach to the underside of female abdomen until the following year; larvae drift in surface waters. From: White and Johns 1997. Sources: de Lafontaine 1990; de Lafontaine et al. 1991.

Data collected annually (2000 to 2007) by DFO during the Atlantic Zone Monitoring Program (AZMP) indicate that along the Cabot Strait section and elsewhere surveyed in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the average copepod abundance generally increases from late spring to late fall (Harvey and Devine 2008). The plankton assemblage at Cabot Strait is dominated by the mesozooplankton, comprising of small copepod species (Oithona sp., Pseudocalanus sp. and Temora spp).

It should be noted that plankton is abundant, widespread, and has short generation times. No effects from the proposed seismic program on phytoplankton and zooplankton organisms is anticipated, though potential effects on the larval stages of commercial species and species at risk (e.g., snow crab, Atlantic cod) will be discussed.

6.1.3 Benthic Invertebrates

Benthic invertebrates are bottom-dwelling organisms that live within (infaunal), attached to (sessile), or in close association with (epibenthic), the seafloor. Benthic communities are potentially the most affected by disturbances to the seabed, as they are the most abundant and diverse marine taxa, and form an important link to higher trophic levels. The response of soft sediment macrofaunal communities to anthropogenic disturbance has typically been loss of habitat complexity, reduced diversity and biomass, structural and functional changes and changes in community composition (Auster et al. 1996; Watling and Norse 1998; Jackson 2008; Templeman 2010). The main source of anthropogenic disturbance existing in western Newfoundland is commercial fishing, particularly the effect of mobile fishing gear (i.e., trawls) (Thrush and Dayton 2002; LGL 2005), although studies have also found evidence that deep- water soft sediment macrofauna communities are well adapted to disturbance (Vass et al. 2001).

To date, the study of benthic invertebrates has been very species-specific and often limited to commercial species or to a specific area of interest. The vast majority of invertebrate species have only had limited study, and this lack of information regarding benthic communities remains a major knowledge gap. The use of visual surveys by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) provide important knowledge to reduce this gap (e.g. Gilkinson and Edinger 2009); however, the surveys remain expensive and the area to be surveyed expansive and as such there have been limited surveys to date. An important consideration is that benthic invertebrate communicates are highly spatially variable. Distribution is often driven by a multitude of factors including

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physical factors (e.g., depth, sediment size, salinity, slope), local and large-scale hydrography patterns, biological factors (e.g., predation, herbivory), disturbance (i.e., ice scour, anthropogenic activities) and local productivity and recruitment (Seitz and Lipicus 2001; Bourget et al. 2003; Heaven and Scrosati 2008).

Corals and Sponges

Two important habitat-forming benthic taxa are deep water corals and sponges. In recent years, deep water coral have been found to be relatively widespread in cold temperate waters, including Atlantic Canada (Figures 6-3) (Gilkinson and Edinger 2009). These corals are long- lived species, and considered to be an important habitat component in deep water (Buhl- Mortensen and Mortensen 2005; Wareham and Edinger 2007; Wareham 2009; Gilkinson and Edinger 2009; Baker et al. 2012). Cold-water corals increase habitat complexity and provide important deep-water habitat to several species of demersal fishes and benthic invertebrates (Mannino and Montagna 1997. Deep water corals are generally found attached to hard substrate such as bedrock, boulders and rubble, and occasionally on gravel beds, but are not known to occur on soft sediment such as the sand, silts, clays and mud. Deep water corals also require relatively high water current speeds locally where plankton supply is enhanced, and are therefore generally found along continental slopes and shelves (particularly on the flanks of banks) (Campbell and Simms 2009). A review of geological features supporting deep water coral habitat in Atlantic Canada (Edinger et al. 2010) found that coral are concentrated on shelf- crossing troughs, and trough-mouth fans associated with glacial ice streams. Cold water coral have been found to be long-lived and have slow growth rates. Work on coral in Newfoundland and Labrador has estimated coral growth rates at approximately <2 cm/year vertically, and radiocarbon age studies showed lifespans of coral collected regionally ranged from 40 years to 270 years (Sherwood and Edinger 2009).

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Source: Colpron et al. 2010

Figure 6-3 Presence and Absence of Cold Water Coral based on DFO Groundfish Survey Trawl

Data collected in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, particularly within the Project Area, are sparse (Kenchington et al. 2010). Some species that may be found in or near the Project Area (based on a 2003 research vessel survey within NAFO Division 4R) include Gersemia rubiformis, Capnella florida, Pennatula acculeata, Flabellum alabastrun and Paramuricea spp (Kenchington et al. 2010). Sea pens and (Order Pennatulacea) and large gorgonians are considered to be components of a vulnerable marine ecosystems. Significant sea pen catches tended to be Pennatula borealis or Pennatulacea O. spp and the significant sea pen fields occur along the slope at 300 to 400 m in depth, which is ouside of the proposed Project and Study Area (Kenchington et al 2010). Bottom currents in the Project Area are relatively weak, and the seabed relatively flat and shallow, quite a distance from the slope of the Laurentian Channel. These factors suggest that the area for which the Project is planned is not a favourable habitat for deep water corals or sponges, since sponges are also suspension feeders preferring hard substrates. Figure 6-4 provides interpolated sea pen densities for the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence region; the Project and Study Area does not have significant sea pen densities, if any, based on data from 2004 to 2009 DFO research vessel trawls using Campelen trawl gear.

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Source: Kenchington et al 2010

Figure 6-4 Interpolated Sea Pen Densities

Though little is currently known about cold water coral reproduction, studies to date have found that some species (Lophelia pertusa in northeast Atlantic) have separate sexes and external fertilization (Sun et al. 2009), whereas others, such as Nephtheid soft corals in the Northwest Atlantic, have internal fertilization, with peak reproduction between November and February (Sun et al. 2009). Asexual reproduction also occurs in some coral species.

Recently, researchers used DFO groundfish survey data, fishery observer records and interviews with 28 west coast Newfoundland fishers to determine the likely distribution of deep water coral in the previously unstudied area northern and western Newfoundland, as well as the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Colpron et al. 2010). The research confirmed that Nephtheid soft corals are common to the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and western Newfoundland. Large gorgonians including Primnoa resedaeformis, Keratoisis ornate and Acanthogorgia armata were reported from interviews with fishers but missing from trawl and observer records, which may be due to the survey gear used (trawl vs. longline) (Colpron et al. 2010).

Sponges also provide important marine habitat. Based on research conducted by Kenchington et al. (2010) sponges are found throughout the Gulf of St. Lawrence but may be sparse at the

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bottom of the Laurentian Channel (Figure 6-5). Like coral, sponges are long-lived and slow- growing. At least 34 species of sponge have been identified in Atlantic Canada and of these, 25 have been identified as habitat-forming by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Taxa often associated with sponge habitat include marine worms, bryozoan and crustaceans, as well as cuttlefish eggs, and rockfish (Sebastes sp.). Adult sponges are sessile and often attached to firm substrate such as bedrock and boulders. Sponges use both sexual and asexual reproduction (budding or fragmentation) (Kenchington et al. 2010).

Source: Kenchington et al 2010

Figure 6-5 Interpolated Sponge Densities

6.2 Species at Risk

A number of marine species are listed as endangered, threatened or special concern (or extirpated or extinct) under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) and/or are assessed by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) for the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence populations, or for marine populations that migrate to the Gulf of St. Lawrence during a stage of their life cycle.

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Schedule 1 of SARA lists species that are protected. Only species on Schedule 1 of SARA are subject to the permit and enforcement provisions of the Act.

For the purposes of this assessment, Species at Risk (SAR) is defined to include both SARA- listed and COSEWIC assessed species that are considered to be endangered, threatened or of special concern. Species at Risk are considered as a VEC in this assessment because:

x this VEC includes ecologically, commercially and culturally important marine fish, marine birds, marine mammals and marine reptiles that are considered at risk; x of requirements of Canada’s Fisheries Act and SARA, which are administered by Environment Canada, Parks Canada and Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO), as well as those species that are considered at risk by COSEWIC; x of requirements of the Project-specific Scoping Document (C-NLOPB 2012); and x the potential for interactions between Project activities and SAR.

The objective of SARA and recommendations of COSEWIC is to prevent Canadian indigenous species, subspecies and distinct populations of wildlife from becoming extirpated or extinct, to provide for the recovery of endangered or threatened species, and to manage species of special concern to prevent them from becoming endangered or threatened.

6.2.1 Status of Species

The species listed on Schedule 1 of SARA that could potentially occur in the Study Area are listed in the Table 6.3. Species that are not on SARA Schedule 1, but which have been assessed as endangered, threatened, or special concern by COSEWIC, and could potentially occur in the Study Area are listed in Table 6.4.

There are 16 SARA-listed species, and 21 species (33 populations) assessed as “at risk” by COSEWIC that could potentially occur in the Study Area which is part of the Anticosti Basin in Western Newfoundland. The likelihood of occurrence is provided in Tables 6.3 and 6.4. Detailed descriptions of the biology, ecology, distribution, and conservation status, of each species are provided in following sections.

Table 6.3 Species at Risk listed on Schedule 1 of SARA that could Potentially Occur in the Study Area

SARA Scientific Common Name Schedule 1 Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Name Status Marine Fish Low potential for occurrence. Rare in Canadian waters (32 White Shark Carcharodon records in 132 years). Most records are located within the (Atlantic Endangered carcharias Bay of Fundy. Extremely rare as far north as Gulf of St. population) Lawrence. Low potential for occurrence. May occur along the slope of Northern Anarhichas the Laurentian Channel. Most commonly found inhabiting the Threatened Wolffish denticulatus seafloor in water depths ranging from the surface and 1,000 m at temperatures below 5oC. In Newfoundland waters,

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SARA Scientific Common Name Schedule 1 Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Name Status northern wolffish are common in northeastern Newfoundland, on Flemish Cap, and in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Moderate potential for occurrence. May occur along the slope of the Laurentian Channel though populations were thought to be declining, evidence suggests they are rebounding. Most Anarhichas Spotted Wolffish Threatened commonly found inhabiting the seafloor in water depths minor ranging from 50 to 750 m. Distribution is most concentrated in the deep shelf area off northeastern Newfoundland and Labrador. High potential for occurrence. Most commonly found inhabiting the seafloor in water depths ranging from the Atlantic (striped) Anarhichas Special surface to over 900 m, but most commonly occur at depths of Wolffish lupus Concern 100 to 150 m. Widely distributed in Atlantic Canada in Fall. Atlantic wolffish undertake short migrations to shallow waters to spawn. Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles Low to moderate potential for occurrence. Forage for krill in Balaenoptera both coastal and offshore areas of the Gulf of St. Lawrence Blue Whale Endangered musculus during spring, summer and fall. May remain in Gulf of St. Lawrence during winter. Low potential for occurrence. Occurs in low numbers in the North Atlantic Eubalaena Endangered Gulf of St. Lawrence during late summer (north shore and Right Whale glacialis east of Gaspé), where it forages for copepods. Northern Low potential for occurrence. Deep water species that occurs Bottlenose Hyperoodon in waters greater than 800 m. Scotian Shelf population occurs Whale (The Endangered ampullatus very occasionally in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Concentrated Gully on the Scotian Shelf near The Gully. population) Beluga Whale Low potential for occurrence. The St. Lawrence Estuary (St. Lawrence Delphinapterus represents the southern limit for the beluga whale; however, Threatened Estuary leucas individuals are occasionally sighted in Gulf of St. Lawrence, population) including waters of western Newfoundland. Moderate potential for occurrence. Concentrated in the Fin Whale Balaenoptera Special Northwest Atlantic during summer and fall feeding along (Atlantic physalus Concern oceanic fronts, including in Gulf of St. Lawrence. May occur population) at other times of year. Low potential for occurrence. The distribution of beaked Sowerby’s Mesoplodon Special whales such as this species are not well known, but tend to Beaked Whale bidens Concern be concentrated in deep waters along the edge of continental (Atlantic) shelf and slope. Leatherback Dermochelys Moderate potential for occurrence. Forages in Atlantic Endangered Sea Turtle coriacea Canada waters from June to November. Marine Birds Low potential for occurrence. May occur in the Gulf of St. Pagophila Ivory Gull Endangered Lawrence during in winter and spring on pack ice, both eburnean offshore and in coastal areas. Very low potential for occurrence. Likely extinct and Numenius Eskimo Curlew Endangered extremely unlikely to be encountered in the Gulf of St. borealis Lawrence.

Piping Plover Charadrius Endangered Low potential for occurrence. Shorebird that breeds and subspecies melodus forages on Atlantic Canada beaches during summer.

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SARA Scientific Common Name Schedule 1 Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Name Status melodus melodus Unlikely in offshore. Low potential for occurrence. Forage in nearshore marine waters during summer, fall and winter. Prefer offshore Harlequin Duck Histrionicus Special islands, coastal headlands and exposed rocky coastlines (Eastern histrionicus Concern during winter and move inland to rivers during spring for population) breeding. Occur off western Newfoundland and in coastal areas of the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round. Barrow's Bucephala Special Low potential for occurrence. Breeds on high altitude lakes. Goldeneye islandica Concern In the non-breeding (summer) season, occur in coastal areas.

Table 6.4 Species Assessed as “At Risk” by COSEWIC that May Occur in the Study Area

COSEWIC Common Name Species Name Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Designation Marine Fish High potential for occurrence. Benthopelagic species Atlantic Cod that inhabit coastal waters as juveniles. Adults prefer (Laurentian North Endangered deeper waters up to 500 m. Resident populations are population) located within the coastal waters of Newfoundland. Atlantic Cod Moderate potential for occurrence. Benthopelagic (Laurentian South Endangered species that migrates from the southern Gulf to the population) waters of Cape Breton between May to October. Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua Low potential for occurrence. Atlantic cod from this (Newfoundland population inhabit waters from the northern tip of Endangered and Labrador Labrador to the southern Grand Banks. population) Low potential for occurrence. Atlantic cod from this Atlantic Cod population inhabit waters from the Bay of Fundy and (Southern Endangered Southern Nova Scotia to the southern extent of the population) Grand Banks. Low potential for occurrence in Study Area. Atlantic Atlantic Bluefin bluefin tuna may occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence Thunnus thynnus Endangered Tuna following food stocks in July through December but concentrate in southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Moderate potential for occurrence. Located within the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Closely associated Winter Skate with the seafloor and commonly inhabits waters from (Southern Gulf of Endangered shallow to over 300 m, and is most common at St. Lawrence depths of less than 150 m. Occurs year-round. Non- population) migratory spawning occurs in fall. Eggs and larvae may be present up to 22 months after spawning. Low potential for occurrence. Located on Eastern Winter Skate Leucoraja ocellata Scotian Shelf. Closely associated with the seafloor (Eastern Scotian Threatened and commonly inhabits waters less than 100 m in Shelf population) depth. Low to moderate potential for occurrence. Limited Winter Skate data on this population but appears to be a small (Northern Gulf- Data Deficient population in northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Closely Newfoundland associated with the seafloor and commonly inhabits population) waters less than 100 m in depth.

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COSEWIC Common Name Species Name Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Designation Low potential for occurrence. Closely associated with Roundnose Coryphaenoides the seafloor and commonly found inhabiting waters Endangered Grenadier rupestris 800 to 1,000 m in depth. Could occur year-round. Non-migratory spawning occurs in fall. Moderate to high potential for occurrence. May occur Porbeagle Shark Lamna nasus Endangered in Gulf of St. Lawrence from May to December. Occur most commonly in water less than 100 m. Deepwater Low potential for occurrence. Closely associated with Redfish (Gulf of the seafloor and commonly found inhabiting waters St. Lawrence - 350 to 500 m in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Spawning Endangered Laurentian Sebastes occurs in fall. Channel mentalla population) Deepwater Low potential for occurrence. Closely associated with Redfish (Northern Threatened the seafloor, commonly found inhabiting waters 350 population) to 500 m in depth Moderate to high potential for occurrence. Closely Acadian Redfish associated with the seafloor and commonly found Sebastes (Atlantic Threatened inhabiting waters 150 to 300 m. Mature individuals fasciatus population) may occur in Study Area from May to October. Spawning occurs in fall. Low to moderate potential for occurrence. A pelagic species that migrates north following food stocks may Shortfin Mako Isurus oxyrinchus Threatened occur in Study Area. Most common in Gulf of St. Lawrence in summer and fall months. High potential for occurrence. Closely associated with the seafloor and commonly found at depths of 37 American Plaice to 700 m where soft sediments are present. The (Maritime Threatened Maritime population is common to the Gulf of St. population) Lawrence and may be present within Study Area. Hippoglossus Spawning occurs in April/May. Larvae may be platessoides present in the water column between May and June. Low potential for occurrence. Closely associated with American Plaice the seafloor commonly and found at 37 to 700 m (Newfoundland Threatened where soft sediments are present. The Newfoundland and Labrador and Labrador population is located from the Grand population) Banks north to the northern tip of Newfoundland. Low potential for occurrence. Commonly found between the Gulf of Maine and southern Scotian Cusk Brosme brosme Threatened Shelf. Uncommon along the continental shelf off Newfoundland and Labrador and within the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Atlantic Sturgeon Low potential for occurrence. Highly migratory (Great Lakes/Gulf species capable of travelling great distances. Occur Threatened of St. Lawrence over the continental shelf regions to at least 50 m populations) Ancipenser depths, and may occur in Study Area oxyrinchus Low potential for occurrence. Highly migratory Atlantic Sturgeon species capable of travelling great distances. Occur (Maritimes Threatened over the continental shelf regions to at least 50 m populations) depths, and may occur in Study Area Low to moderate potential for occurrence. Commonly Spiny Dogfish Special found from the intertidal zone to the continental slope (Atlantic Squalus acanthias Concern in water depths up to 730 m. Most abundant between population) Nova Scotia and Cape Hattaras, North Carolina. Moderate potential for occurrence. Adult American American Eel Anguilla rostrata Threatend eels migrating from freshwater streams to the Sargasso Sea, or rearing on the continental shelf.

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COSEWIC Common Name Species Name Potential for Occurrence in Study Area Designation Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (Anticosti island Endangered adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (South adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. Endangered Newfoundland population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (South adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. Threatened Newfoundland population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (Gaspé-Southern adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. Special Gulf of St. Concern Lawrence Salmo salar population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (Quebec Eastern Special adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. North Shore Concern population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (Quebec Western Special adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. North Shore Concern population) Atlantic Salmon Moderate potential for occurrence. Juvenile and (Inner St. Special adult Atlantic salmon occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence. Lawrence Concern population) Blue Shark Low potential for occurrence during summer and late Special (Atlantic Priomace glauca fall, very unlikely at other times of year. Commonly Concern population) found in pelagic waters in water depths up to 350 m. Moderate potential for occurrence from May to Basking Shark Cetorhinus Special September, otherwise very low potential. Occurs in (Atlantic maximus Concern offshore waters and coastal waters of Gulf of St. population) Lawrence. Low potential for occurrence in Study Area. Most Special common in northeastern Newfoundland and on Thorny Skate Amblyraja radiata Concern Grand Banks and commonly ccurs at depths from 200 to 600 m. Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles Harbour Porpoise Moderate potential for occurrence. Occurs in both (Northwest Phocoena Special offshore and coastal waters of the Gulf of St. Atlantic phocoena Concern Lawrence. Occurs regularly in coastal bays and inlets population) during summer. Low potential for occurrence. Distribution is not well documented, but killer whales are a widespread, far- Special Killer Whale Orcinus orca ranging species. Sightings in this region are reported Concern occasionally in Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Low potential for occurrence. Widely distributed in pelagic (greater than 200 m) waters. Juveniles Loggerhead Sea Caretta caretta Endangered concentrate along the edge of the Gulf Stream. Turtle Occurs occasionally in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in summer months.

A description of the physical environment of the Study Area is provided in Section 5. Species profiles for species not considered SAR including Marine Fish and Shellfish, Marine Mammals

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and Sea Turtles, and Marine Birds are described in Sections 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5, respectively. While there is some overlap with these other report sections, the descriptions presented in this section focus exclusively on SAR. This section summarizes information provided in the Western Offshore Newfoundland SEA (LGL 2005) and also includes relevant updated references.

6.2.2 Marine Fish Species at Risk

There are four marine fish species listed under Schedule 1 of SARA, including the Atlantic wolffish, northern wolffish, spotted wolffish and white shark, which could potentially occur within the Study Area. In addition to the four Schedule 1 listed SAR species (Table 6.3), there are 18 species of marine fish that have been assessed by COSEWIC and are considered at risk (Table 6.4). In the following descriptions, the likelihood of occurrence is discussed in terms of seasonal distribution within the Gulf of St. Lawrence and depth range. It should be noted the Study Area is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 40 m.

White Shark

The white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), Atlantic population, was recently listed as endangered under Schedule 1 of SARA (Registry 2011). This species is a top predator that is globally distributed and occurs in both temperate and sub-tropical waters. It occurs from the nearshore to as deep as 1,280 m, and is most common over the continental shelf (COSEWIC 2006a). White shark appears to inhabit waters with temperatures ranging from 5 to 27°C (Boustany et al. 2002). White sharks are highly mobile and undertake extensive migrations that have only recently been fully realized by using satellite tagging technologies (Bonfil et al. 2005; Weng et al. 2007).

This species is considered uncommon throughout its range, and has been rarely sighted in Atlantic Canada (32 records over 132 years) (COSEWIC 2006a). Many of these sightings occur in summer, including in the Bay of Fundy, coastal Nova Scotia, northeastern Newfoundland Shelf, Strait of Belle Isle, St. Pierre Bank and Laurentian Channel, suggesting Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence are at the northern limit of its range (Mollomo 1998; COSEWIC 2006a).

As the species is rare and data limited, there is little known about reproduction and life history of white shark, although inferences are drawn from other closely related species. Males reach sexual maturity at an age of 8 to 10 years (length of 3.5 to 4.1 m) and females reach maturity at an age of 12 to 18 years (length of 4 to 5 m) (Compagno 2001). White sharks are able to swim long distances with an average cruising speed of 3.2 kph (Compagno 2001).

As the species is rare and data limited, there is little known about trends in abundance over time. However, in other areas of the Northwest Atlantic, the species is estimated to have declined by 59 to 89 percent between 1986 and 2000 (less than one generation) (COSEWIC 2006a). This species is long-lived and has low reproductive rates, and consequently, it is unable to withstand increases in mortality rates. White sharks are subject anthropogenic mortality (e.g., sport fish, commercial bycatch) (Compagno et al. 1997). Bycatch in pelagic

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longline fisheries (particularly in the southern US) is considered to be primary threat to the Atlantic population (average of more than 400 captures annually between 1986 and 2000) (DFO 2006a).

The white shark is extremely rare in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and is highly unlikely within the Study Area.

Wolffish

Wolffish are a large, long-lived and slow-growing species. Three species of wolffish are listed under Schedule 1 of SARA: spotted (Anarhichas minor); northern (Anarhichas denticulatus); and Atlantic (or striped) wolffish (Anarhichas lupus). These three species declined considerably in abundance in the 1980s and 1990s (Kulka et al. 2007). The northern and spotted wolffish have been listed as threatened under SARA Schedule 1 (COSEWIC 2001a; 2001b). The Atlantic wolffish is listed as special concern (COSEWIC 2000a). As wolffish species were not the target of directed fisheries in Canada, there was no management plan for wolffish until the three species were listed under SARA. Bycatch of wolffish is thought to be the leading cause of human-caused mortality. There are limited catch data collected (i.e., NAFO data) to allow for species-specific analyses of wolffish landings or to investigate spatial distribution of landings; however, data compiled from NAFO and Zonal Interchange File Format (ZIFF) files for Divisions 4RST (1960 to 1998) suggest wolffish are mainly caught by cod-directed fishing activities and by flatfish fisheries to a lesser extent. A high proportion of the catches occurred in NAFO Division 4R and have been landed mainly in Newfoundland (Ouellet et al. 2011). There is also a directed fishery for wolffish in Greenland, where it is caught using longlines (COSEWIC 2001a, 2001b).

There are substantial data gaps in the knowledge of all three wolffish species including important life history aspects (Simpson et al. 2012). A national recovery plan was established in 2003 for northern and spotted wolffish, and a management plan was developed for the Atlantic wolffish, such that the long-term viability of these species is achieved (Kulka et al. 2007; Ouellet et al. 2011).

Distribution appears to be driven in part by temperature preferences. In surveys of wolffish during the last decade, there have been positive signs of stock recovery for all three species, with indices of relative abundance and distribution increasing in most areas surveyed (Simpson et al. 2012). During information session held in June 2012, fish harvesters indicated that wolffish are abundant within the Study Area. All three wolffish species occupy habitat within narrow temperature ranges; analyses of survey data indicated northern wolffish were caught in waters with temperatures ranging from -0.8 to 7°C, spotted wolffish were caught in temperatures ranging from -1 to 6°C, and Atlantic wolffish were caught in waters ranging from -0.45 to 6.5°C (Simpson et al. 2012). During periods of low abundance (i.e., 1980s and 1990s), distribution was reduced and restricted mainly to warmer waters along the outer shelf edge (Simpson et al. 2012). Consequently, temperature may be a limiting factor for the recovery of Newfoundland and Labrador populations (Simpson et al. 2012) and these species be susceptible to environmental effects from climate change in the Northwest Atlantic (Reid and Valdes 2011).

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Species-specific information is provided in the following sections.

Northern Wolffish

The northern wolffish is a benthic and bathypelagic predator that preys on variety of prey including gelatinous zooplankton, pelagic and benthic fish (Simpson et al. 2012). This species commonly occurs at depths from surface to 1,000 m, depending upon time of year and location (Dutil et al. 2011Simpson et al. 2012). Northern wolffish observed at their northern distribution tend to occupy shallower and narrower water depths (100 to 400 m) as compared to more southern distributions (150 to 1,000 m) (Simpson et al. 2012). Habitat associations are partially related to temperature preferences. Northern wolffish are known to inhabit a wide range of substrate types ranging from mud to hard bottom (Kulka et al. 2008).

Tagging studies suggest this species is non-migratory and does not form large schools (LGL 2005). Northern wolffish reaches maturity at five to six years (Simpson et al. 2012). There is limited or no information on fecundity and spawning time of northern wolffish, but based on Barents Sea information (Barsukov 1959), fecundity is thought to be low (Simpson et al. 2012). Spawning behaviour and spawning site characteristics are unknown for northern wolffish (Simpson et al. 2012) however, this species is thought to typically spawn late in the year (Kulka et al. 2008). Critical habitats for all wolffish species including spawning grounds, nursery and feeding areas remain unidentified for Canadian areas (Simpson et al. 2012).

Northern wolffish is most abundant in northeastern Newfoundland, and occurs in low numbers or as a stray elsewhere in Newfoundland and Labrador waters, including the Laurentian Channel, Labrador shelf and Grand Banks (Kulka et al. 2004; COSEWIC 2001a). McRuer et al. (2000) reported that northern wolffish occasionally occur in the deeper parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The spatial distribution from the annual DFO research surveys for 1995 to 2008 (Dutil et al. 2011) is provided in Figure 6-6. The number of locations where the species occurs has declined (COSEWIC 2001a), however since 2005 the occurrence of Northern Wolffish has increased over the historical catch areas, suggesting a reversing trend from population decline displaying distributions patterns similar to those observed during periods of high abundance (Simpson et al. 2012). Based on the historical research vessel surveys that began in 1990, the catches of northern wolffish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence have been rare, being limited to one specimen per survey on four times on CCGS Alfred Needler, between 1993 and 2000 (Archambault et al. 2011).

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Source: Dutil et al. 2011 Note: Data represents number of sets in which species is present divided by fishing effort. The data are aggregated by 100 km2 cells. No trawling took place in areas where the grid is not shown.

Figure 6-6 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Northern Wolffish in the Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008

Based on the known occurrence of northern wolffish and low concentrations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is predicated that there is low to moderate probability of occurrence of northern wolffish in the Study Area during the Project.

Spotted Wolffish

The spotted wolffish is a bottom-dwelling predatory fish that occurs in cold temperate shelf waters, at depths ranging from 50 to 750 m (COSEWIC 2001b). Spotted wolffish feed on shrimp and echinoderms (Simpson et al. 2012). The spotted wolffish appear to prefer sandy or muddy bottoms, and occur frequently in association with boulders (COSEWIC 2001b). Surveys suggest that distribution in the western North Atlantic is concentrated off northeastern Newfoundland, though it occurs occasionally in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Trends amongst these surveys suggest a 96 percent decline has occurred in the Canadian population over 21 years (COSEWIC 2001b). The spatial distribution of the relative occurrence of spotted wolffish from the annual DFO groundfish research surveys for 1995 to 2008 (Dutil et al. 2011) is provided in Figure 6-7. The 2011 Spotted wolffish catches obtained by DFO during the annual

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summer trawl surveys conducted in August 2011 onboard the CCGS Teleost (Archambault et al. 2011) is presented in Figure 6-8. The current spatial and temporal patterns of the spotted wolffish suggest a reversal of population declines over the past decade (Simpson et al. 2012). The spotted wolffish is not common enough to support a commercial fishery in Canada, though it does occur as bycatch in other offshore trawl fisheries. The spotted wolffish is a directed fishery in Greenland, where longlines are used, and directed fisheries also occur in the eastern North Atlantic (COSEWIC 2001b).

Source: Dutil et al. 2011 Note: Data represents number of sets in which species is present divided by fishing effort. The data are aggregated by 100 km2 cells. No trawling took place in areas where the grid is not shown.

Figure 6-7 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Spotted Wolffish from Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-8 Spotted Wolffish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence

Spotted wolffish reaches maturity at five to six years old (Simpson et al. 2012). Consequently, the effects of increased mortality, decreased range, or decreased size are of concern. Spawning occurs in summer (Kulka et al. 2007) in July and/or August (Simpson et al. 2012). Spawning behaviour and spawning site characteristics are unknown for spotted wolffish (Simpson et al. 2012). Large eggs are deposited in a mass on the sea floor, and after hatching, larvae associate with the benthos and remain in the area where they were deposited. Adults make limited (possibly seasonal) migrations (Templeman 1984). Critical habitats for all wolffish species including spawning grounds, nursery and feeding areas remain unidentified for Canadian areas (Simpson et al. 2012).

Based on the known occurrence of spotted wolffish and abundance in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is predicated that there is moderate probability of occurrence of spotted wolffish in the Study Area during the Project.

Atlantic Wolffish

The Atlantic (or striped) wolffish inhabits cold, deep waters with hard bottom habitat along the continental shelf. Within the Atlantic Canada region, this species is known to occur in the Strait of Belle Isle and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Adults migrate to shallow waters during September to spawn; however, juveniles remain in deep water year-round (Kulka et al. 2007). It is suggested Atlantic wolffish may undergo seasonal movements during the spring and fall seasons (Simpson et al. 2012). Diet is composed of hard-shelled benthic invertebrates

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(primarily crab), echinoderms and smaller fish (Kulka et al. 2007; Simpson et al. 2012). Atlantic wolffish occur in greater abundance and further south than the northern and spotted wolffish (i.e., south coast and St. Pierre Bank, Labrador shelf, northeastern Newfoundland shelf and on the Grand Banks) (COSEWIC 2000a, Kulka et al. 2004). Available data indicate populations in Canadian waters declined by 87 percent from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, although catches in Newfoundland suggest a decline of 91 percent occurred over two wolffish generations (COSEWIC 2000). Mean size also declined. However current indications are that since 2000 the occurrence of Atlantic wolffish has increased over the historical catch areas, suggesting a reversing trend displaying distributions patterns similar to those observed during periods of high abundance (Simpson et al. 2012). Of the three listed wolffish species, the abundance and distribution of Atlantic wolffish has had least variation (Simpson et al. 2012).

The spatial distribution of the relative occurrence of Atlantic wolffish from DFO annual research surveys from 1995 to 2008 (Dutil et al. 2011) is provided in Figure 6-9. Atlantic wolffish catches obtained by DFO during the annual summer trawl surveys conducted in August 2011 onboard the CCGS Teleost (Archambault et al. 2011) is presented in Figure 6-10 and closely matches data patterns presented in Figure 6-9.

Source: Dutil et al. 2011. Note: Data represents number of sets in which species is present divided by fishing effort. The data are aggregated by 100 km2 cells. No trawling took place in areas where the grid is not shown.

Figure 6-9 Spatial Distribution of the Relative Occurrence of Atlantic Wolffish from Annual DFO Groundfish Research Surveys from 1995 to 2008

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-10 Atlantic Wolffish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence

Based on the known occurrence of Atlantic wolffish and estimated abundance in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is predicated that there is high probability of occurrence of spotted wolffish in the Study Area during the Project, particularly as they move to shallower waters in fall. During consultations, local fishers commented that based on the amount of wolffish incidentally caught they appear to be abundant in 4R; the majority of those caught are likely Atlantic wolffish.

COSEWIC-Assessed Species

Atlantic Cod

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) have been very important economically and culturally in the Northwest Atlantic, particularly in Newfoundland and Labrador. The decline and eventual collapse of the cod fishery (Hutchings and Myers 1994; Myers et al. 1997; Dutil et al. 1999), as well as its limited recovery over the last two decades (Rose 2004; COSEWIC 2010a; Lambert 2011), deeply affected the region in terms of unemployment, loss of livelihood, sustainability of small coastal communities and the loss of a valued food source (Milich 1999). The decline of cod also appears to have coincided with profound physical and ecological changes in this system that are only beginning to be understood (Christensen et al. 2003, Drinkwater et al. 2003; Choi et al. 2004; Bundy and Fanning 2005; Frank et al. 2005; Shackell et al. 2012). All four Atlantic cod populations (Laurentian North population, Laurentian South population, Newfoundland and Labrador population and Southern population) that occur in Newfoundland

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and Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence have been assessed as endangered by COSEWIC (COSEWIC 2010a) but are not as yet, protected under SARA.

The main cause of decline historically has been overfishing, which appears exacerbated by changes in life history and environment. Today, threats to recovery include directed commercial fishing, recreational fishing, bycatch, habitat changes and increased natural mortality of older cod in some populations (Lindholm et al. 1999; COSEWIC 2010a). The influence of inter- annual and long-term changes in ocean climate on cod productivity is not well understood but deserves consideration (Choi et al. 2004; Drinkwater 2005).

The Study Area is located within NAFO Division 4R. Four populations of Atlantic cod occur in Newfoundland and Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence: Laurentian North; Laurentian South; Newfoundland and Labrador; and Southern; with the Laurentian North population having a spatial distribution that is most likely to overlap with the Study Area. The Laurentian North population of the Atlantic cod includes two DFO identified stocks: St. Pierre Bank (NAFO Division 3Ps); and the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (NAFO Divisions 3Pn4RS) (COSEWIC 2003a). The status of this population was re-examined in April 2010 and assessed as endangered by COSEWIC. Population estimates the Laurentian North population has declined in abundance by 76 to 89 percent over three generations, and there is no indication of recovery to date (COSEWIC 2010a). Exploitation rates from 2000 to 2009 appear to have been too high in comparison to productivity rates to permit any substantial rebuilding of the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence stock (DFO 2010b).

The distribution of Atlantic cod in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence Estuary in 2011 is depicted in Figure 6-11. Between 1990 and 2011, the largest cod catches during R/V summer trawl surveys were consistently along the west coast of Newfoundland in Division 4R (Archambault et al. 2011).

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-11 Cod Distribution in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011

Atlantic cod undertake an annual migration between southwestern and southern Newfoundland in winter, to Port au Port Peninsula in spring; and along the west coast of Newfoundland and middle and lower North Shore of Quebec during summer (DFO 2009b). In winter, cod aggregate off southwestern and southern Newfoundland in 3Pn, 3Ps and 4Rd in water depths greater than 360 m (DFO 2012a; Castonguay et al. 1999). They then migrate to 4R in April and May near the Port au Port Peninsula where spawning commences (DFO2012a; DFO 2005b). A Cod Spawning Area was established by DFO in 2002 in the area west of Port au Port Peninsula (48°15’N, 59°20’W; 49°10’N, 59°20’W; 49°10’N, 60°00’W; 48°15’N, 60°00’W). This area is closed to all groundfish fishing between April 1 and June 15 to avoid the peak spawning period (DFO 2005b). During summer their migration continues along 4R and into 4S along Quebec’s north shore due to warmer waters and the presence of capelin (Mallotus villosus). The results from tagging studies indicate that this stock is generally isolated from adjacent stocks, with occasional mixing with 4TVn cod in the northwestern part of the Gulf, and in the Strait of Belle Isle with 2J3KL cod (DFO 2012a). Mixing in the Burgeo Bank area (with 3Ps cod) is considered to occur every winter, and it has be determined that 75% of cod present on the Burgeo Bank (3Psa and 3Psd) in winter might come from the northern Gulf stock (DFO 2012a).

The most recent assessment of the northern Gulf of St Lawrence (3Pn, 4RS) cod stock (DFO 2012a) reported that the 2010 to 2011 TAC was set to 4,000 t and 3,567 t were landed; and for the 2011 to 2012 season, the TAC was set to 2,000 t and 1,742 t were landed (preliminary) for the commercial fisheries. Recreational fishery landings are unknown. Catch rates from DFO R/V surveys have been low and shown no trend since 1994. The sentinel trawl survey which

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began in 1995 has also shown no trend, although catch rates were the highest to date (DFO 2012a). Natural mortality appears to have increased over the past fifteen years, possibly due to increased predation by seal or due to increased mortality in fisheries that is unreported (e.g., discards or recreational fishery) (DFO 2012a). The spawning stock abundance is considered to be very low.

Although outside the Study Area, the cod of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence are also considered. The distribution of Atlantic cod in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2006 is displayed in Figure 6-12, and general patterns of seasonal distribution and migratory patterns in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence are shown in Figure 6-13. Data from recent DFO R/V bottom- trawl surveys of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence indicate that the abundance of cod in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence remains very low in comparison to observed abundances in the late 1970s and 1980s (DFO 2008a). Cod density has been observed to be highest in Shediac Valley off Miscou Island, north of Prince Edward Island and of northwestern Cape Breton (DFO 2008a).

Source: Swain et al. 2012 Note: Circle size is proportional to catch rate (kg/tow)

Figure 6-12 Distribution of Atlantic Cod in September 2006 R/V Survey in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence

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Source: DFO 2012a

Figure 6-13 Seasonal Distribution of Atlantic cod in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence

Females reach sexual maturity at about six years of age with first spawning varying between five and eight years (depending on the stock) at sizes from 45 to 60 cm (DFO 2011a). Males mature earlier and at a smaller size than females. Cod are highly fecund; the number of eggs produced is dependent upon the size of the female at spawning, but millions may be produced. Fertilized eggs rise to the surface when they are ready to hatch. Eggs and hatched larvae are subject to advection and predation pressures resulting in a very high natural mortality rate. Newly hatched larvae feed off the yolk sac for approximately two weeks after which time they begin a demersal lifestyle for a period of one to four years (DFO 2011a). The diet of cod shifts from primarily zooplankton (copepods, amphipods, and other small crustaceans) as juveniles to benthic and epibenthic prey (e.g., capelin, shrimp, flounder, halibut, crab, brittle stars) as they mature (Grant and Brown 1998; DFO 2011a). Pelagic juveniles often rely on coastal habitats such as eelgrass beds, macroalgal habitat, sandy bottoms, cobble and rocky reefs (Keats et al. 1987; Tupper and Boutilier 1995a, 1995b, Laurel et al. 2005; Warren et al. 2010) for shelter and feeding.

Data from DFO R/V surveys and tagging studies suggest cod occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round and that cod in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence undertake a migration between southwestern and southern Newfoundland (winter), to Port au Port Peninsula (spring); and concentrate along the west coast of Newfoundland and North Shore of Quebec during summer. Cod that reside in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence overwinter off Cape Breton in the Cabot

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Strait. Based on these known distributions, it is anticipated that there is a high probability of occurrence of Atlantic cod in the Study Area.

Winter Skate

The winter skate (Leucoraja ocelatta) is an epibenthic species endemic to the Northwest Atlantic from the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence to Cape Hatteras, NC. Winter skate generally occur over sand and gravel habitat (Swain et al. 2009). This species tends to be concentrated in three areas: the southern Gulf; the eastern Scotian Shelf; and the Canadian portion of Georges Bank. Winter skate are most common at depths less than 150 m, although they can range from shoreline to over 300 m (McEachran 2002; Swain et al. 2009). In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, winter skate are primarily distributed in the southern Gulf and not common in the northern Gulf. Winter skate concentrate in shallow inshore areas in summer in the southern Gulf, and migrate to offshore areas during winter.

The abundance of winter skate has declined by 96 percent between 1971 and 2002 in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, with sharp declines since the 1980s (DFO 2005c). Canada’s population is divided into four Designatable Units which have been assessed by COSEWIC: the Georges Bank-Western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy (special concern); the southern Gulf (endangered); Eastern Scotian Shelf (threatened); and northern Gulf-Newfoundland population (data deficient) (COSEWIC 2005a). The latter three Designatable Units all have boundaries near the Study Area. The northern Gulf-Newfoundland population is the most likely population to occur within the Study Area, however all are considered to have low potential as they are uncommon in western Newfoundland waters (COSEWIC 2005a; Simon et al. 2003). The distribution of winter skate in the Estuary and northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (based on survey data from the CCGS Alfred Needler from 1990 to 2002) is depicted in Figure 6-14. The species is more common in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence and distribution during DFO R/V surveys is shown in Figure 6-15.

Source: http://slgo.ca/app-guidesp/en/poiss/sp/l-ocellata.html

Figure 6-14 Winter Skate Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002

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Source: DFO 2005c

Figure 6-15 Distribution of Winter Skate Catches in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence During R/V Surveys (1971 to 2002)

Winter skate in the Gulf of St. Lawrence differ from those on the Scotian Shelf and areas further south in terms of size at maturity, maximum size and in morphology related to feeding (e.g., shape of upper jaw) (DFO 2005c). They grow slowly and reach sexual maturity between 7 and 13 years and may live to 30 years. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence winter skate mature at a length of approximately 42 cm, though elsewhere they are known to mature at a larger size (75 cm). Age and growth data for the Gulf population is unknown, but it is thought a length at maturity of 42 cm may correspond to age of six years based on growth rates of little skate (which is comparable to Gulf of St. Lawrence winter skate) (DFO 2005c). Spawning occurs during late summer to early fall. Winter skate are oviparous and deposit one egg is a capsule (purse) which adheres to the bottom with a mucus film.

Reported landings of skates in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence fisheries is low (much of which is likely thorny skate) (DFO 2005c). However, some winter skate are caught as bycatch in fisheries (e.g., groundfish, shrimp) and discarded at sea, (Benoît 2011). Bycatch was estimated

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for winter skate and was found to be highest in 1971 at 2,000 t and to have declined since then, particularly in the early 1990s when the cod fishery closed. The median estimated bycatch was under 50 t in most years between 1993 and 2001, and to less than 10 t between 2001 and 2004 (DFO 2005c). Relative to natural mortality levels, mortality caused by bycatch in fisheries today is estimated to be a very small proportion.

Winter skate are expected to have a low potential for occurrence within the Study Area as current data suggests this species is uncommon in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in western Newfoundland waters.

Roundnose Grenadier

The roundnose grenadier (Coryphaenoides rupestris) is widely distributed, and in the Northwest Atlantic inhabits the continental slopes from Baffin Island and Greenland to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (COSEWIC 2008a; Simpson et al. 2011). There are no data to suggest the species is composed of multiple populations, and it is treated as a single Designatable Unit in the Northwest Atlantic (Simpson et al. 2011). This species occurs at depths between 180 m and 2,600 m, but is most common between 400 to 1,200 m (Simpson et al. 2011). Roundnose grenadier is a deepwater specialist and has adapted swim bladders that can function under increased pressure at depth (Simpson et al. 2011). They migrate vertically to feed on squid, small fish and crustaceans (Atkinson 1995; Simpson et al. 2011). Juvenile grenadiers mainly feed on copepods and amphipods, and become more predatory as they grow. There is some evidence that feeding shifts seasonally, with greater feeding occurring in autumn, perhaps when grenadiers move to the upper continental slope where prey is more abundant (Simpson et al. 2012). In the Northwest Atlantic, roundnose grenadiers appear to have a narrow temperature range and prefer waters between 3.5 and 4.5°C (Atkinson 1995), and to also show preferences for areas with weak or absent current (Zaferman 1992). Given depth and temperature preferences, roundnose grenadier is unlikely to occur in shallow waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence such as the Study Area.

Grenadier are long-lived, slow-growing, and have low fecundity; generation time is estimated to be 17 years (DFO 2010b). In the late 1980s and early 1990s, roundnose grenadier was reported to be shifting its distribution to deeper waters. This was coincident with cooling water temperatures; however, it is not clear if temperature drove the shift since the temperature at deep depths occupied by roundnose grenadier changes little between years (Simpson et al. 2011). COSEWIC assessed the roundnose grenadier in 2008 as endangered, based on declines in abundance from 1978 to 2003 in NAFO Division 2J3K (COSEWIC 2008a); however, the species has not been listed under SARA to date. Roundnose grenadier is no longer a directed fishery (since 1997) but is caught as bycatch inside and outside Canada’s Economic Exclusion Zone, particularly in the Greenland halibut fishery (DFO 2010n; Simpson et al. 2011). Recent analyses of data from DFO R/V surveys report that catch rates are increasing in recent years, which may indicate increases in abundance, a shift in distribution, or increased catchability (Simpson et al. 2011). Modelling suggests bycatch levels must be kept consistently low to allow for a slow recovery (Simpson et al. 2011).

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This species is considered to have low potential to occur in the shallow waters that characterize the Study Area, as it prefers deep water and stable temperatures between 3.5 and 4.5°C.

Porbeagle Shark

The porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) is a pelagic shark that occurs in temperate waters, and is the only representative of the genus Lamna is the North Atlantic. It occurs over continental shelves, and has been found both offshore and in the nearshore. In Canadian waters, the porbeagle shark can be found from northern Newfoundland into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and as far south as the Scotian Shelf and Bay of Fundy (O’Boyle et al. 1998; Campana et al. 2001; Compagno 2001) (Figure 6-16). Distribution of the porbeagle appears to be driven largely by temperature, with a preference for water temperatures of 5°C to 10°C in Canadian waters.

One of three main mating grounds of porbeagle is at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where mating occurs between August and December each year (Jenson et al. 2002). This species exhibits size and sex segregation, with mature porbeagle undergoing annual migrations, and immature individuals residing mainly on the Scotian Shelf. Catch data suggest males migrate to mating grounds off southern Newfoundland, on the Grand Banks, and at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in spring, and are followed by females. Pregnant females are present in this area from late September to December (mating season), but seldom seen from January to June, and may undertake a return migration south (at least as far as Massachusetts) in winter (COSEWIC 2004a). Porbeagle are ovoviviparous, meaning that pregnant females retain embryos in an egg inside until ready to hatch, when young are born live (between early April and early June). Litter size is typically one to six pups (Compagno 2001; Jensen et al. 2002). Tagging data suggest the Northwest Atlantic and Northeast Atlantic populations are distinct (DFO 1999b; Kohler et al. 2002).

Porbeagle support the only directed shark fishery in Canada, and has been considered a valuable species in the past (Campana et al. 1999). Current participation in the fishery has dropped due to a small total allowable catch (TAC), and there are an estimated five to eight active vessels fishing each year (DFO 2005d, 2006b). Like other elasmobranchs, the porbeagle are long-lived (estimated 25 to 46 years) (O’Boyle et al. 1998; Campana et al. 1999), have low natural mortality, late sexual maturity and low fecundity, with a long gestation period, all characteristics which make the porbeagle vulnerable to increased mortality (Jensen et al. 2002). Fisheries data and population models suggest the abundance of this species has declined considerably, by 89 percent in the period from 1961 (before porbeagle fishing began in Canada) to 2001 (Campana et al. 2001). There have also been size changes and declines in the proportion of mature porbeagle on the mating grounds (Campana et al. 2002; COSEWIC 2004a). It is uncertain if reductions alone in fishing will allow for recovery. Porbeagle sharks are also caught as bycatch in other fisheries (Campana et al. 2011). In 2004, COSEWIC assessed the species as endangered in Canada. However, the species has not gained federal protection under SARA.

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Source: COSEWIC 2004a (compiled from data from O’Boyle et al. 1998; Compagno 2001; Campana et al. 2001) Note: Dark grey indicates range of population within Canadian water and light grey indicates range outside Canadian waters

Figure 6-16 Range of the Porbeagle Shark (Northwest Atlantic population)

Distribution data reviewed above suggests that there is high potential for occurrence within the Study Area between August and December, when porbeagle concentrate in the opening to the Gulf of St. Lawrence for mating, but low potential of occurrence at other times of year.

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is a highly-migratory pelagic species that is distributed on both sides of the Atlantic. In the western Atlantic, this species is distributed from Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far south as the Caribbean Sea and coastal waters of Venezuela and Brazil (COSEWIC 2011a; DFO 2011b). The species is iconic for its speed and size and very high value, as well as its ability to thermoregulate and use both warm and cold waters. Atlantic bluefin tuna are active predators that feed on both pelagic and

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demersal fishes. Adult Atlantic bluefin have few predators (mako shark, killer whale) but are highly sought after by commercial fisheries.

This species was assessed as endangered by COSEWIC in 2011; but has not yet received federal protection under SARA. Declines in abundance are largely due to historical and current overfishing, as well as bycatch in other fisheries, and also may be due to changes in abundance and distribution of their pelagic prey (i.e., herring, mackerel, capelin) (COSEWIC 2011a). The current abundance of spawning individuals is the lowest observed, and the abundance of spawning fish has declined by 69% over the past 2.7 generations or approximately 40 years (COSEWIC 2011a; DFO 2011b). Additionally, the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is also of concern to the management and conservation of this species because the spill overlapped in time and space with the only known spawning area for the western stock of Atlantic bluefin tuna. As this species is highly migratory and straddles several international boundaries it is difficult to manage and to enforce measures to reduce declines. It is also highly valuable on the international market (COSEWIC 2011a).

There are two recognized stocks of Atlantic bluefin tuna based on their high site fidelity to distinct spawning areas: the Eastern Atlantic (Mediterranean spawning) population; and the Western Atlantic (Gulf of Mexico spawning) population. Atlantic bluefin are seasonal migrants to the Canadian waters, where they follow pelagic prey and may form schools of less than 50 individuals. Adults are known to forage on herring in late summer and switch to mackerel in the fall (Walli et al. 2009) and occur in Canadian waters as a result of a feeding migration that cocurs between July and November (DFO 2011b). Their spatial distribution varies from year to year and is influenced by factors such as prey availability and oceanic conditions (DFO 2011b). Individuals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence originate almost entirely from the Western Atlantic stock (Schloesser et al. 2010) and are typically older, large fish (‘giants’).

The western stock of Atlantic bluefin tuna spawn between mid-January and late March. Sexual maturity is thought to occur around age eight (DFO 2009c); however, there is considerable uncertainty for the western Atlantic population (COSEWIC 2011a). The spawning stock biomass and numbers for the western Atlantic stock have declined since the early 1970s to mid- 1980s, remaining stable and low ever since (DFO 2011b). Atlantic bluefin tuna are commercially fished in Canada from July to December in four main areas: Bay of Fundy; Scotian Shelf; southern Gulf of St. Lawrence; and off Newfoundland. The Canadian fishery includes commercial harvest (tended line, rod and reel, electric harpoon and trapnet) and charter boats (rod and reel), as well as offshore longline vessels. There is also a new recreational fishery for Atlantic bluefin tuna in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence that may expand.

The distribution of the catch of Atlantic bluefin tuna in the Canadian Atlantic between 1990 and 2009 is presented in Figure 6-17. No catch is reported from western Newfoundland waters. This species has a low potential for occurrence within the Study Area, as it is seasonal, highly migratory, and concentrates in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence.

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Source: COSEWIC 2011a Note: Red circle indicates hook line and black triangle indicates harpoon

Figure 6-17 Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Catch Distribution in Atlantic Canada from 1990 to 1999 (A) and from 2000 to 2009 (B)

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Redfish

Redfish are very long-lived (approximately 75 years), late-maturing and slow-growing (Campana et al. 1990). Redfish are deepwater species typically ranging from 100 to 700 m (COSEWIC 2010b), and commonly found on the slopes of banks and deep channels, and at northern latitudes.

Two SAR species of redfish occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence: Acadian redfish (Sebastes fasciatus) (Atlantic population); and deepwater redfish (Sebastes mentella) (Gulf of St. Lawrence-Laurentian Channel population); and a third redfish species (S. marinus) also occurs (DFO 2010c). There is a latitudinal gradient, with only S. mentella occurring in the far north (Davis Strait), and only S. fasciatus in the far south of their range (Gulf of Maine) (DFO 2004a). The ranges of S. mentella and S. fasciatus overlap in the Laurentian Channel and the Grand Banks (Gascon 2003). These species are very similar in appearance and are managed together in the fishery using redfish management areas (DFO 2004a), and redfish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are part of Redfish Unit 1. The distinction of species is further complicated by a S. fasciatus and S. mentella genetic hybrid that has been found to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and southern Newfoundland (Morin et al. 2004). The introgression between the two species is geographically limited to Redfish Unit 1, Unit 2 and the Flemish Cap, where hybrid individuals persist alongside non-hybrid individuals of S. mentella and S. fasciatus.

In the early 1990s, the landings in Redfish Unit 1 dropped from 60,000t in 1993 to approximately 19,500 t in 1994 (DFO 2001). The directed redfish fishery was closed in 1995 as a result of low stock levels (DFO 2001). In April 2010, the status of both species of redfish was re-examined by COSEWIC and the deepwater redfish was assessed as endangered and the Acadian redfish was assessed as threatened (COSWIC 2010b). The deepwater redfish has declined by 98 percent since 1984 and the Acadian redfish has declined by 99 percent, in areas of historical abundance over two generations. The major threats to both species are directed fishing and bycatch (COSEWIC 2010b). Bycatch in the shrimp fishery has been substantially reduced since the 1990s, but may still be considerable in other fisheries (COSEWIC 2010b).

The known distribution of the deepwater redfish and Acadian redfish in northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence Estuary (based on DFO survey data from 1990 to 2011) is shown in Figures 6-18 and 6-20, respectively. The pattern of redfish catches observed during the annual summer trawl surveys conducted in August 2011 onboard the CCGS Teleost are presented in Figures 6-19 and 6-21 for deepwater redfish and Acadian redfish (respectively) (Archambault et al. 2011) and confirm the long-term pattern observed in Figure 6-18 and 6-20. Distribution data presented in these figure support findings that Esquiman Channel is the main migration corridor used by redfish occurring in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (DFO 2007b). Redfish also are known to concentrate in the Cabot Strait (southern 4Rd) (DFO 2004a).

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-18 Deepwater Redfish Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-19 Deepwater Redfish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-20 Acadian Redfish Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-21 Acadian Redfish Catches in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence in 2011

Reproduction varies among species in terms of timing, however all redfish made in fall and have internal fertilization. Larvae then hatch from the eggs inside the female, feed upon the yolk sac, and are eventually released (spawned) sometime between April and July for deepwater redfish (Ollerhead et al. 2004), and between May and August for Acadian redfish. Juvenile fish aggregate at night in surface waters, but during the day they are found at or below the thermocline (approximately 10 to 20 m) (Devine and Haedrich 2011). Distribution is also size- related, with larger redfish occurring at greater depths, and smaller individuals occurring in shallower waters (Steele 1957). Redfish are pelagic predators, feeding mainly on copepods, amphipods and euphausiids, and occasionally on capelin. Evidence suggests redfish undertake regular vertical migrations, likely in response to prey movement (Gauthier and Rose, in Gascon 2003).

Redfish are known to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round, although typically at depths below 100 m in channels; redfish have low likelihood of occurring in the relatively shallow (average 40 m) waters of the Study Area.

Shortfin Mako

The shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) is an apex predator that occurs globally in temperate and tropical waters and is highly migratory. Shortfin mako are long-lived (estimated 24 to 45 years), with a long gestation period and few offspring. Shortfin mako are fast swimming predators and feed primarily on tuna, mackerel, bluefish, swordfish and marine mammals.

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The distribution pattern of shortfin mako is largely driven by water temperature (preferring waters 17°C to 22°C), but this species can withstand substantial changes in temperature as it is capable of maintaining an internal body temperature that is 1°C to 10°C above the surrounding marine environment (Campana et al. 2006). Migration to Canadian waters, including the Gulf of St. Lawrence typically occurs in late summer and fall, however only a small percentage of the North Atlantic population is within Canadian waters at a given time (estimated to be two to three percent at maximum) (Campana et al. 2006). Few mature individuals occur in Canadian waters. This species is uncommon north of the Gulf Stream, Gulf of Maine and Scotian Shelf (Templeman 1963; COSEWIC 2006b).

The species has been assessed as threatened owing to the population’s status in the North Atlantic Ocean, high mortality in fisheries (bycatch) and due to its life history traits (long-lived, slow-growing, low fecundity) (COSEWIC 2006b). There is limited information on the population trends or mortality rates since it is not subject to a directed fishery, however a Recovery Potential Assessment by Campana et al. (2006) used data from Canadian, US and international fisheries to show that abundance in the North Atlantic declined since the 1970s, but has been relatively stable since the late 1980s. Catch rates from the Canadian pelagic longline fisheries also indicated that bycatch rates had been relatively stable since the 1980s (Campana et al. 2006), but length-frequency data indicate there may have been a decline in the number of large adults caught in Canadian fisheries since 1998 (Campana et al. 2006). Similarly the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) carried out analyses of large pelagic longline catch rates in the North Atlantic, and data suggested a decline from the 1970s to the mid-1980s, but that rates stabilized since then (Campana et al. 2006). Analyses of US pelagic longline logbook data (Baum et al. 2003) suggest that catch rates of mako (likely mostly shortfin mako) declined by nearly 41 percent between 1986 and 2000, with reported catches of 65,795 individuals over the same period. In Canadian waters, all catch of shortfin mako is non-directed and mainly attributable to bycatch in pelagic longlines. Distribution in Atlantic Canada based on catch rates is shown in Figure 6-22.

Shortfin mako are highly migratory, are considered seasonal visitors north of the Gulf Stream species and typically only occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in summer and fall. For these reasons, this species is considered to have a low to moderate potential of occurring in the Study Area during the Project.

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Source: Campana et al. 2004 Note: Based on recorded catch (kg) from the International Observer Program Database (1986 to 2004)

Figure 6-22 Distribution of Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canada

American Plaice

American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides) is a widely distributed demersal flatfish occurring across a broad depth range (36 to over 700 m), with the greatest catches occurring between 125 and 200 m (Archambault et al. 2011; Chouinard and Hurlbut 2011; DFO 2011c). This species occurs in both the eastern and western North Atlantic, and in the Northwest occur from Baffin Bay to the Gulf of Maine and George’s Bank. It is considered a cold-water species (-1.5°C to 13°C), and is most abundant at temperatures from -1.5° to 1.5°C (DFO 2011c). American plaice may undertake migrations to slightly deeper, warmer waters in winter

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(DFO 2011c). American plaice is a slow-growing, moderately long-lived species, with females reaching sexual maturity at 4 to 15 years, and males at 3 to 7 years (DFO 2011c).

American plaice were historically very abundant in the northwest Atlantic but have since experienced declines (COSEWIC 2009a). COSEWIC assessed the population that occurs in NAFO Divisions 4RS (the Maritimes Designable Unit) as threatened (COSEWIC 2009a; DFO 2011c), based on an estimated rate of decline in abundance of mature individuals of 86 percent in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 67 percent on the Scotian Shelf, over 2.25 generations (36 years). Currently, this northern Gulf stock is exploited at a low level, with a small directed fishery as well as some bycatch in other fisheries (DFO 2011c).

Catch rates of American plaice in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence Estuary (based on DFO R/V survey data from 1990 to 2011) is depicted in Figure 6-23 and 6-24 (Archambault et al. 2011). DFO R/V data from 1990 to 2011 indicate that in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence catches of American plaice are concentrated in waters less than 250 m, with the highest consistent catches at the head of the Laurentian, Esquiman and Anticosti channels and also in St. Georges Bay in western Newfoundland (near the Study Area) (Archambault et al. 2011). Data show that mean abundance and mean weight per tow fluctuated without a clear trend between 1990 and 2003, were stable between 2004 and 2008 and have shown an increasing trend in recent years; length distributions have remained relatively stable throughout the survey years (Archambault et al. 2011).

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-23 American Plaice Distribution in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011; distribution data presented as catch rate (kg/15 minute tow)

Figure 6-24 American Plaice Distribution in the Estuary and Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence

In the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence American DFO R/V surveys indicate plaice are widely distributed and appear principally on the Magdalen Shallows, on the north coast of Prince Edward Island (P.E.I.), on the western coast of Cape Breton, and between P.E.I and Nova Scotia. Surveys of American plaice in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (Hurlbut et al. 2008) suggest that catch rates have declined and reached the lowest levels observed in the survey time-series (1971 to 2007) in recent years. Abundance of plaice varied between 104 and 149 fish per tow (13 to 21 kg per tow) between 1997 and 2007. The modal length has ranged between 22 and 26 cm since 2002, and there are now fewer American plaice that are larger than the legal size (30 cm) than occurred historically (Hurlbut et al. 2008). American plaice that occur on the Magdalen Shallows in summer move into deeper waters of the Laurentian Channel during winter (Chouinard and Hurlbut 2011).

Information from the a meeting to carry out a science peer review on the Recovery Potential Assessment of American plaice (DFO 2011c) indicate that for NAFO Division 4RS American plaice, female spawning stock numbers were projected to increase slightly and then stabilize based on modelling. The probability of a decline of plaice in 4RS of 30 percent or more (relative to 2009 levels) was estimated to be 19 percent, assuming current levels of fishing remain the same (DFO 2011c).

Spawning occurs throughout American plaice’s range; however certain areas are associated with greater spawning activity. For example American plaice in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (NAFO Division 4T) migrate to deeper channels in fall and then return to shallower

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waters to spawn in spring. American plaice reproduce synchronously in groups, and are batch spawners; a female may spawn for more than a month (DFO 2011c). Spawning and fertilization of the eggs (1.5 - 2.8 mm diameter) occurs near the bottom from early spring to summer with the number of eggs produced depends on body size (DFO 2011c). Fertilized eggs become buoyant and float near the surface, hatching after 11 to 14 days at approximately 4ºC (hatching time is temperature dependent). Upon hatching, American plaice are pelagic until they reach a minimum length of 18 mm, when metamorphosis occurs and they become benthic (DFO 2011c). American plaice are highly opportunistic feeders that will feed on variety of prey items including polychaetes, echinoderms (e.g., sea stars, brittlestars), molluscs, crustaceans, capelin and sand lance, with diet varying by size and region (DFO 2011c).

As American plaice occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round and distribution studies suggest American plaice concentrate in southwestern Newfoundland waters (Figure 6-24), there is predicted to be a high likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area.

Cusk

Cusk (Brosme brosme) is a slow-growing, large, solitary fish that is most common on hard bottom in relatively deep waters. Cusk typically occurs at depths of 150 to 400 m and appears to prefer water temperatures ranging from 6ºC to 10ºC (COSEWIC 2003b). Cusk is estimated to have declined by 90 percent since 1970 (three generations) based on trawl survey data (COSEWIC 2003b), and has been assessed as threatened by COSEWIC but not yet listed under SARA. A recent assessment by DFO (Harris and Hanke 2010) indicates that there is evidence of a decline in abundance of cusk since the 1970s, however, data are insufficient to determine the rate of decline, and there is conflicting evidence as to whether cusk have continued to decline since the late 1990s (Harris and Hanke 2010). There is no evidence of a reduction or shift in the range of cusk in Atlantic Canada. Fishing is the only known major source of human-caused mortality of cusk, with the majority of landings occurring in NAFO Divisions 4VWX in groundfish longline fisheries (Harris and Hanke 2010).

Cusk has a limited distribution in the Northwest Atlantic, with abundance concentrated in the Gulf of Maine and southern Scotian Shelf. While uncommon, it also occurs in the deep waters along the edge of the continental shelf off Newfoundland and Labrador. There are few reports of cusk in Gulf of St. Lawrence (COSEWIC 2003b; Harris and Hanke 2010) Distribution data (Figure 6-25) indicate that cusk are very uncommon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and therefore this species is considered to have very low likelihood of occurring in the Study Area.

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Source: COSEWIC 2003b

Figure 6-25 Distribution of Cusk in the Northwest Atlantic

Atlantic Sturgeon

Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus) are a large-bodied and slow-growing, anadromous fish that occurs in rivers (preferably with deep channels), estuaries (with relatively warm and partially saline water), nearshore marine environments and shelf regions to at least 50 m (COSEWIC 2011b). Atlantic sturgeon are amongst the oldest groups of living fishes, and are characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, upturned snout, bottom-oriented mouth and having bony plates called ”scutes”’ rather than scales (COSEWIC 2011b). The species is highly migratory, and can travel large distances. Like other anadromous fishes in the region, Atlantic sturgeon are vulnerable to changes in both the freshwater (i.e., damming, pollution, river alteration,

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acidification) and marine (i.e., temperature changes, shifts in prey) habitats, and as such, are at increased risk for population declines. There are few detailed data available on this species in Canada and therefore its distribution, abundance and sustainable harvest levels are associated with high uncertainty. There were two periods of heavy fishing for this species: during the 1880s to 1890s; and from the 1980s to 1990s (Dadswell 2006). In both cases, landings declined dramatically following heavy exploitation. The recreational fishery today is catch and release, and most of the human-induced mortality is attributed to bycatch in commercial fisheries. It is prohibited to retain Atlantic sturgeon caught as bycatch.

There are management areas recognized by COSEWIC, and both are assessed as threatened (COSEWIC 2011b): the Maritimes Designatable Unit has an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 adults (minimum), with spawning occurring within the lower Saint John River in New Brunswick; and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Designatable Unit, which is estimated to have 500 to 1,000 adults and breeds in the St. Lawrence River and possibly other nearby tributaries (COSEWIC 2011b). The Canadian range includes records from as far north as Ungava Bay, and includes the Newfoundland and Labrador coast (no known rivers), the Gulf of St. Lawrence and coastal Nova Scotia and Bay of Fundy (Figure 6-26).

Both the Maritime Designatable Unit and St. Lawrence Designatable Unit are known to occur in Gulf of St. Lawrence, and both may occur in the Study Area; however, likelihood is low given the absence of known spawning habitat proximal to the Project and the low numbers of adults over a very large range.

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Source: COSEWIC (2011b)

Figure 6-26 Distribution of Atlantic Sturgeon Designatable Units in Atlantic Canada

Spiny Dogfish

The spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) is widely distributed over the continental shelf of temperate and boreal regions, preferring waters 6°C to 10°C in Atlantic Canada (DFO 2008b; COSEWIC 2010c). The Atlantic population extends from Labrador to Cape Hatteras; the distribution in Atlantic Canada based on data from 1975 to 1994 is shown in Figure 6-27. The distribution (based on DFO R/V data) in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and southern Gulf are shown in Figures 6-28 and 6-29 respectively. The population in the Northwest Atlantic is known to be broken into several well-defined ”groups”, with concentrations in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, around Newfoundland, on the eastern and central Scotian Shelf, the Bay of Fundy, an southwest Nova Scotia, as well as in Massachusetts and North Carolina. These groups undertake seasonal migrations (Figure 6-30) and it is not well understood how much mixing occurs.

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Source: Brown and O’Boyle 1996

Figure 6-27 Distribution of Spiny Dogfish in the Northwest Atlantic

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Source: http://slgo.ca/app-guidesp/en/poiss/sp/s-acanthias.html

Figure 6-28 Spiny Dogfish Distribution in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1990 to 2002

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Source: Hurlbut et al. 2008

Figure 6-29 Distribution of Spiny Dogfish Catches During DFO R/V Surveys in Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence

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Source: TRAC 2010

Figure 6-30 Spiny Dogfish Movements in the Western North Atlantic based on Preliminary Tagging Results

DFO R/V data suggest that spiny dogfish is coastal in summer, but occur in deeper waters during the annual spring survey. Tagging studies have clearly demonstrated that this species undertakes migrations inshore and offshore seasonally (Figure 6-30) (TRAC 2010). Abundance and biomass are greater in spring surveys than in summer, although more juveniles are caught in summer than spring, which may be related to differing catchabilities (i.e., dogfish behaviour) and distribution between these two survey periods (DFO 2008b). DFO R/V surveys carried out in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in September began recording presence of spiny dogfish in catches in 1984. Catches peaked in the 1990s and have been declining since (DFO 2008b). There have been no trend in abundance of spiny dogfish from Newfoundland R/V surveyed conducted in spring between 1972 and 2005 (DFO 2008b). Overall, data suggest spiny dogfish abundance in Atlantic Canada increased from the 1980s to 1990s (estimated 500,000 t), and then declined to its present level but remain relatively abundant (estimated 300,000 t). Of greatest concern is a decline in mature female abundance. A recent increase in US waters of spiny dogfish has not been observed in Canadian waters. There is no evidence of population structuring based on genetic samples and mark-recapture studies suggest that most spiny dogfish tagged in Canadian waters are recaptured in Canadian waters (94 percent) and those tagged in US

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waters are primarily recaptured in US waters (90 percent), although there is some mixing of the stocks in the Gulf of Maine (DFO 2008b).

Spiny dogfish have been assessed as a species of special concern by COSEWIC, they are not listed under SARA. The population remains relatively abundant in Canadian waters, and is most abundant in southwest Nova Scotia (COSEWIC 2010c). Large amounts of dogfish have been caught in groundfish trawls, longlines and gillnets, and bycatch of dogfish is estimated to be 2,000 to 3,000 t per year in recent years, although it was up to 10,000 t in the 1990s (DFO 2008b). Discard mortality is unknown but estimated to be approximately 850 t per years since 1986 (DFO 2008b).

Spiny dogfish have an extremely long gestation period (18 to 24 months), long generation time (23 years) and low fecundity (average of six pups every two years). Mature and pregnant females are present in southwest Nova Scotia in summer and fall and move offshore in winter; mature females are also present in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland waters (DFO 2008b). Pregnant females give birth in winter and early spring. Pupping grounds of dogfish that occur in Atlantic Canadian waters are unknown at this time but may be located in deep waters off the continental shelf, in deep basins along the central Scotian Shelf and Georges Bank (where juveniles have been observed); or alternatively occur US waters (DFO 2008b). There is likely several pupping grounds. Atlantic spiny dogfish grow faster than the Pacific population but do not live as long, and the Atlantic population is considered to be more productive (DFO 2008b).

Distribution data suggest spiny dogfish may occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round and take seasonal migrations to shallower waters in summer, but occur in deeper waters and further offshore at other times of year. The spiny dogfish is predicted to have a low probability of occurrence in the Study Area in fall and winter.

Atlantic Salmon

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are primarily an anadromous species, living in freshwater rivers for the first two years of life before migrating seaward to the ocean (although not all individuals do). Atlantic salmon are large predators and an important prey source, and are ecologically important in both freshwater and marine systems. This species is also valued and traditionally used by Aboriginal groups, commercial fisheries and recreational fisheries in Canada (DFO and MRNF 2009). Atlantic salmon inhabiting freshwater rivers require waters that are clear, cool and well-oxygenated, and prefer bottoms substrates with gravel, cobble and boulder (COSEWIC 2010d). Older juvenile and adult Atlantic salmon generally return annually to their natal river or tributary for spawning, though some do stray and not all adults are anadromous (Hendry and Beall 2004). Most Atlantic salmon in insular Newfoundland remain in freshwater for two to five years and then migrate to sea. Atlantic salmon overwinter on the Grand Banks, Labrador and west Greenland.

While at sea, adult and post-smolt salmon have been found occupy the upper portion of the water column most of the time, though post-smolts also undergo deep dives, likely in search of prey (Reddin 2006). While at sea, Atlantic salmon consume euphausiids, amphipods and fishes

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such as herring, capelin, small mackerel, sand lance and small cod. Salmon are consumed by many species throughout their lifecycle. Juveniles and adult salmon at sea are prey of seals, otter, seabirds such as Northern Gannet, harbour porpoise, beluga whale, porbeagle shark, Greenland shark, skate, halibut, tuna and gadoids (Scott and Scott 1988). Eggs and smolts are preyed upon by birds (Common Merganser, Belted Kingfisher, Common Loon and Double- crested Cormorant) (Chaput and Cairns 2001) and fish, including Atlantic salmon, brook trout and American eel. Salmon migrating through rivers and estuaries are preyed on by Osprey, Bald Eagle, otters and mink.

There are five at-risk populations that may occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have the potential to interact with the Project: the Anticosti Island population, assessed by COSEWIC as endangered; the South Newfoundland population, assessed by COSEWIC as threatened, the Gaspé-Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence population assessed by COSEWIC as special concern; and the Quebec Eastern North Shore population, assessed by COSEWIC as special concern; and the Inner St. Lawrence population, assessed by COSEWIC as special concern (COSEWIC 2010d). The two populations closest to the Study Area are the Southwest Newfoundland population, which breeds in rivers from Cape Ray northward along the west coast, and the Northwest Newfoundland population, which breeds in rivers along the west coast beyond 49°24’N, 58°15’W as far north as the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula. Both these populations have been assessed by COSEWIC as not at risk (COSEWIC 2010d).

The observed declines in Atlantic salmon that occurred in the late 1980s and 1990s were widespread, and the main source of mortality has been thought to occur during the ocean phase (Reddin and Friedland 1993); however, more recently, the main causes of population decline for Atlantic salmon have been recognized to be interrelated and complex (Cairns 2001; Russell et al. 2012). Of the many factors proposed for the declines in survival, experts consider predation, changes in life history, fishing, historical and current changes to river habitat (i.e., dams, culverts, deforestation, low water flow, pollution, changes in sedimentation), large-scale climate change that alters temperature, productivity, shifts prey, and causes regime shifts, and changes in freshwater quality due to acidification, to be the main causes. Aquaculture and interactions between farmed and wild stocks is also a concern (Carr et al. 1997). Efforts to mitigate these problems have been attempted: for example, fish passage structures have been found to be highly effective; riparian habitat has been restored in many areas, and emissions of SO2 has been greatly reduced in North America allowing rivers to recover somewhat. Dramatic declines in Atlantic salmon abundance in the late 1980s and 1990s were unprecedented and because they were so widespread, it is thought the main source of mortality occurred in the ocean phase (Reddin and Friedland 1993). Natural mortality appears to have increased in comparison to modelled historical salmon runs.

Restrictions on commercial Atlantic salmon harvests were first initiated in the 1970s to reduce the observed declines, and additional measures were implemented in 1980s to conserve the species (COSEWIC 2010d). Commercial fisheries were closed in 1984 in the Maritimes and portions of Quebec, and a moratorium on commercial fishing for insular Newfoundland occurred in 1992, followed by Labrador fisheries in 1998, and finally all commercial fisheries for Atlantic salmon were closed in eastern Canada in 2000 (COSEWIC 2010d). Measures have also been

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put in place for recreational fisheries including daily and seasonal bag limits, mandatory catch and release of large (in some cases all) individuals, and direct closures in parts of Maritimes.

Within Newfoundland and Labrador there are 15 Atlantic salmon management areas, known as Salmon Fishing Areas (SFAs) 1-14B. The west coast of Newfoundland includes SFA 13 (Southwest Newfoundland) and 14A (Northern Peninsula West), with the boundary between the two located north of the Bay of Islands (DFO 2010d). Catches of small and large salmon in SFA 13 continued to fluctuate in 2010 and catch rates were similar to the previous five year mean. Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) for SFA 13 increased greatly from 2009 and was above the previous five year mean. In SFA 14A catches of small and large salmon in 2010 increased considerably in comparison to the previous five year mean. CPUE also increased dramatically and remains above the long-term average (DFO 2010d). Overall, surveys in 2005 to 2010 of abundance of small and large salmon in insular Newfoundland indicate considerable variation from year to year, with 2010 being a stronger year than the previous five year mean (DFO 2010d). The number of recreational salmon fishery licenses sold in Newfoundland and Labrador has increased to 2007; the average number sol following the commercial moratorium (1992 to 2010) is 19,350 (24,493 licenses was the average number sold from 1987 to 1991 prior to the moratorium) (DFO 2010d).

Molecular genetic variation and tagging studies have been used to identify population structure and genetic differentiation amongst Canadian Atlantic salmon (Vespoor 2005; Palstra et al. 2007; Dionne et al. 2008). Redding (2006) summarized known information about salmon migration in Atlantic Canada (Figure 6-32); Cabot Strait appears to be an important migratory route for returning salmon. Recent unpublished studies by the Atlantic Salmon Federation used acoustic pingers to learn about migratory patterns, and results indicated that post-smolts from a variety of Gulf of St. Lawrence rivers pass through the Strait of Belle Isle during a short period in early July (http://www.asf.ca/projects.php?id=4). Although the relative importance of the Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait as salmon migration routes is not clearly understood, it seems likely that use of the Belle Isle route would be greatest for salmon from the northern Gulf, including those from Anticosti Island, while populations from the southern Gulf may use Cabot Strait.

Based on known distribution and migratory patterns, Atlantic salmon populations (include SAR populations) are considered to have a moderate potential for occurrence within the Study Area during their post-smolt and returning adult migrations (Figure 6-31).

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Source: COSEWIC 2010d (modified from Reddin 2006).

Figure 6-31 Migratory Routes of Post-smelt (left) and Returning Adults (right) in Atlantic Canada

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Blue Shark

The blue shark (Prionace glauca) is widespread and highly migratory. In Atlantic Canada, blue shark occurs primarily in summer and fall along the continental shelf break from northeastern Newfoundland to the Bay of Fundy, including the Gulf of St. Lawrence (COSEWIC 2006c) (Figure 6-32). This species occurs offshore in pelagic waters from the surface down to a depth of approximately 350 m. In Canadian waters, immature individuals are encountered most frequently. Water temperature appears to drive depth and latitudinal distributions (COSEWIC 2006c).

Source: COSEWIC 2006c

Figure 6-32 Distribution of Blue Sharks in Atlantic Canada based on Known Commercial Catch Records between 1986 and 2004

The Atlantic population was assessed as a species of special concern by COSEWIC (2006c). In Canadian waters, it is difficult to estimate amount of discards of blue sharks since they are often not recorded (particularly prior to 1999). However, observer records in recent years have

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accounted for the number of sharks caught and not landed (Campana et al. 2011). Based on available data, the tuna/swordfish fishery accounts for an estimated 99 percent of the 12,414 t of blue shark discards in 2010 in Canadian waters (Campana et al. 2011). This amount accounts for a small fraction of the total fishing removals in the North Atlantic (and globally) each year. The bycatch of blue sharks far exceeds other pelagic sharks and the majority of this bycatch is discarded (Campana et al. 2011). The fins have low value but due to the abundance and distribution of blue sharks globally, this species may account for considerable proportion of fins traded internationally (Clarke et al. 2006; Dulvy et al. 2008). The Atlantic recreational blue shark fishery is catch and release only.

The blue shark is more productive than most other shark species, as it sexually matures at ages four to six, is able to produce litters approximately every two years, and has a 9 to 12 month gestation period, with litters of 25 to 50 pups. However, like all elasmobranchs, their life history makes them vulnerable to increased mortality. Blue sharks are opportunistic feeders and diet includes fish, squid, birds and marine mammal carrion (COSEWIC 2006c).

This species is considered to have a moderate potential for occurrence in the vicinity of the Project during summer and late fall, and low potential at other times of year.

Basking Shark

The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) occurs in the western North Atlantic in coastal waters from northern Newfoundland south to Florida. The basking shark is the second largest fish in the world, and is a conspicuous member of this ecosystem owing to its large size and behaviour of ‘basking’ (feeding) at the surface. Despite this, very little is known about the species.

The species is common in Atlantic Canadian waters during summer months (May to September) but rarely seen at other times of year (COSEWIC 2009b). During summer, the species concentrates in the Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Maine and Scotian Shelf where it feeds. Basking sharks feed upon plankton and frequently is occur in areas where zooplankton are concentrated. They appear to be highly migratory (DFO 2008c). Studies to date suggest basking sharks live at least 50 years, with males reaching sexual maturity between 12 and 16, and females between 16 and 20. Reproduction is only known from one female who had a litter with six pups. Gestation is estimated to be 2.6 to 3.5 years, with time between litters of two to four years. The Emerald Basin on the Scotian Shelf is suspected to be a mating area (DFO 2008c). There are an estimated 10,125 individuals in the Atlantic Canada population; this figure is based on aerial and shipboard surveys and is associated with high uncertainty (DFO 2008c; COSEWIC 2009b). The sightings are depicted in Figure 6-33.

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Source: DFO 2008c Note: Sightings are from aerial and shipboard surveys of Right whales as well as phoned reports to the Bedford Institute of Oceanography between 1997 and 2007

Figure 6-33 Confirmed Basking Shark Sightings in Atlantic Canada

The Atlantic population of basking shark was assessed as special concern by COSEWIC (COSEWIC 2009b); it has not yet gained federal protection under SARA. Bycatch in fisheries is the greatest threat in the Northwest Atlantic, and ship strikes may also pose a threat. Historically, the directed hunting of this species occurred, and as recently as 1981 to 1982 there was a Faroese fishery in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (COSEWIC 2009b).

This species is rarely recorded in the Gulf of St. Lawrence as it concentrates elsewhere in Atlantic Canada. Basking shark is considered to have a low potential for occurrence in the Study Area during May to October, and is not expected to occur at other times of year.

American Eel

American eel (Anguilla rostrata) are distributed from northern South America to Greenland and Iceland, and historically occurred in all accessible freshwater, estuaries and coastal marine waters connected to the Atlantic Ocean, up to the mid-Labrador coast in the north, and as far inland as Niagara Falls in the Great Lakes. Historically, this species had the largest range of any fish in the western hemisphere and was very abundant. Eel are catadromous; they breed at

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sea and return to fresh water to feed and grow. All spawners are considered part of a single breeding unit, though five Freshwater Ecological Areas that are used by eels are recognized in Canada: Great Lakes-Western St. Lawrence; Eastern St. Lawrence; Maritimes; Atlantic Islands (Newfoundland island); and Eastern Arctic (Labrador). Female silver eels leave Newfoundland freshwater systems between August and October (COSEWIC 2006d).

Spawning and hatching takes place in the Sargasso Sea and spawning occurs only once per adult (semelparous). The larval stages are physiologically dissimilar to the adult eel. The life stages are: egg; leptocephalus (larval form); glass eel (upon reaching the Continental Shelf; unpigmented); elver (progressively pigmented as they approach shore), yellow eel (the growth stage of the life cycle); and silver eel (the spawning stage of the life cycle) (COSEWIC 2006d). Eels use the continental shelf prior to and following their migration to the Sargasso Sea, and occupy all salinity zones (marine, estuarine, freshwater). Eels are primarily benthic and hibernate in mud during winter. Growth is more rapid for eels reared in marine habitats than in freshwater habitats. Large eels are highly fecund and may account for a large proportion of the entire reproductive output. American eel are a long-lived species, and generation time is 22 years on average, although much less (approximately nine years) for those reared in salt water due to their rapid growth.

There are no long-term data for the Scotia/Fundy, Newfoundland, or Labrador populations; however, indices of abundance in the Upper St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario suggest a decline of 99 percent in that population since the 1970s. The population abundance in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence has had a generally increasing trend between 1997 to 2008, while population abundance in Newfoundland is deemed to be variable, but stable in recent years (DFO 2010e). A recent assessment of the status of this species in Newfoundland and Labrador (Veinott and Clarke 2011) report that there is evidence of declines in abundance from the 1980s to 1990s, but more recent independent fisheries independent data are lacking; data from salmon counting fences and commercial catch data suggest the abundance of eel is now stable or improving.

COSEWIC (2006d) has assessed the species as special concern in Canada. Due to its long lifespan, semelparous reproductive system, and long migrations between freshwater and marine systems, the American eel faces a gauntlet of natural and anthropogenic threats today. Natural threats include large-scale climate changes that effect productivity and transport of the larval stage, and relatively high disappearance rates (natural mortality and emigration of larval stage in Sargasso Sea). Anthropogenic threats include barriers preventing migration, habitat loss and fragmentation (i.e., hydroelectric dams, turbines), directed fisheries for both elver and adult stages, and pollution (COSEWIC 2006d).

The American eel occurs in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and rivers in western Newfoundland; there is moderate potential for occurrence in the vicinity of the Study Area.

Thorny Skate

Thorny skate (Amblyraja radiata) are a demersal fish distributed from Greenland to South Carolina. In Canada this species is concentrated on the southern Grand Bank

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(Kulka and Miri 2003; Simon et al. 2011) but occurs from Davis Strait to the Gulf of Maine, typically at depths of 200 to 600 m (Simon et al. 2011). Egg cases (e.g, ‘mermaid’s purses) are reported throughout their range year-round suggesting spawning occurs year-round (Templeman 1984; Simpson et al. 2011), but may peak in fall and winter.

Thorny skate have experienced severe population declines over the southern part of their Canadian distribution and their range has shrunk over time according to DFO survey data (Simpson et al. 2011). Bycatch may be a potential cause of these observed declines, however estimates of bycatch of thorny skate are not well known because skate bycatch is typically reported without specifying species (however see Simon and Frank 2000; Gavaris et a. 2010). Declines in thorny skate have continued in their southern range despite reductions in fishing mortality in recent decades. In contrast, abundance of thorny skate has been increasing in their northern range to population levels observed in the 1970s; changes in temperature in part of their range may be a second factor driving observed declines (Simpson et al. 2011). Thorny skate (Northwest Atlantic) was assessed as Special Concern by COSEWIC in May 2012, but has not been listed under SARA.

As thorny skate are concentrated on the Grand Banks and prefer deeper water than occur at the Study Area, this species is expected to have a low potential for occurrence in the Study Area.

6.2.3 Marine Mammal Species at Risk

Both cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and true seals (i.e., phocids) occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round. The importance of the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence to marine mammals has long been recognized, as humans have traditionally hunted both cetaceans and seals in this region, and today support a seasonal commercial seal hunt and multiple marine mammal watching tours (Lesage et al. 2007; O’Connor et al. 2009). The abundance of marine mammals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence may be due to the seasonal presence of abundant food resources, as well as sheltered haul-out areas and presence of stable ice for seals (Lesage et al. 2007). DFO used data from aerial surveys, satellite telemetry, and existing published literature to identify areas of concentrations for marine mammals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and (Lesage et al. 2007) and included the following recommended Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas for marine mammals (Figure 6-34): Pointe-des-Monts to Sept-Îles; West of Anticosti Island; Jacques-Cartier Strait; Strait of Belle-Isle/Mecatina Plateau; Western shelf of Newfoundland; Entrance of St Georges Bay (Newfoundland); Cape Breton Trough; Offshore Gaspé; North margin of the Laurentian Channel to the south of Anticost; the St. Lawrence Estuary; and the Shelf of southern Gulf (during ice-covered period). Of these, the western shelf of Newfoundland, entrance of St. Georges Bay and Cape Breton Trough are most relevant to this assessment.

There are eight species of marine mammals and ten populations that occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence that are considered at risk. The status of these species was presented in Tables 6.3 and 6.4, and descriptions are provided below.

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Source: Lesage et al. (2007)

Figure 6-34 Areas Important to Marine Mammals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

Blue Whale

The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is the largest animal ever known on Earth (maximum recorded length 30 to 33.5 m). It is a cosmopolitan, wide-ranging species that concentrates in highly productive waters (coastal and offshore), where they feed primarily on euphausiids. Blue whales give birth to a single calf every two to three years, after a 10 to 11 month gestation period, and are long-lived, slow-growing mammals with high parental investment by females (Beauchamp et al. 2009).

Blue whales have a wide distribution in Atlantic Canada but tend to concentrate in a few main areas. During spring, summer and fall (the ice free period), the blue whale can be found along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and off eastern Nova Scotia, sporadically off Labrador and Newfoundland and on the Scotian Shelf, and occasionally in the Gulf of Maine (Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Ramp et al. 2006; Lesage et al. 2007) (Figures 6-35). The Mingan Island Cetacean Study has monitored blue whale sightings in the Gulf of St. Lawrence since the

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1970s (Comtois et al. 2010); their data (Figure 6-36) suggests that more than 400 individuals have been identified to date, and that the Gulf of St. Lawrence represents only a portion of a wide feeding range in summer. Results also indicate that site fidelity varies considerably among individuals, with some being very occasional and cosmopolitan, and other being very regular visitors and occurring in specific areas (Comtois et al. 2010). Although the St. Lawrence Estuary is where blue whales are most frequently sighted in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the number observed in the Mingan Island area has decreased over the period of the study. Observations from the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Sears and Calambokidis 2002; Reeves et al. 2004) suggests that during winter at least a portion of the blue whale population remain in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lesage et al. 2007) rather than migrating to lower latitudes. There were reports of ice-entrapment of blue whales in St. Georges Bay in Newfoundland up until the 1990s, which also suggests blue whale aggregations occur in the Gulf during winter (Lesage et al. 2007).

The Atlantic population of the blue whale was assessed by COSEWIC as endangered (COSEWIC 2002) and listed as endangered under Schedule 1 of SARA in 2005. The size of the Atlantic population is unknown, but 20 to 105 individuals are identified annually in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Sears and Calambokidis 2002), and COSEWIC estimates that no more than a few hundred individuals remain in the northwest Atlantic (COSEWIC 2002). The major cause of the reduction in abundance from historical levels was the intensive commercial whaling that occurred worldwide up until a ban on hunting blue whales by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) in 1966, and a moratorium on whaling in 1986. It has been estimated that whaling reduced the blue whale population by approximately 70 percent, and that at least 11,000 blue whales were harvested in the North Atlantic alone, with an estimated 1,500 killed in eastern Canadian waters between 1898 and 1951 (COSEWIC 2002). There are estimated to be 250 mature blue whales present in the Northwest Atlantic population (Beauchamp et al. 2009). As blue whales are long-lived (at least 70 to 80 years), intensive hunting may have long- lasting effects. Details of the recovery plan to try to facilitate population increases can be found in the Blue Whale Recovery Strategy Report (Beauchamp et al. 2009). The blue whale relies heavily on sound to find mates over large distances, and produces one of the loudest animal sounds on the planet (calls of 186 dB); increasing underwater noise may disrupt their ability to communicate.

The probability of occurrence of blue whales in the Study Area is unknown, but is likely higher in the spring and fall when blue whales migrate through Cabot Strait and nearby areas. Blue whales can occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round (more common May to December), and the Gulf of St. Lawrence is known to be an overwintering area for a portion of the northwest Atlantic blue whale population.

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Source: Sears and Calambokidis 2002

Figure 6-35 Distribution of Atlantic Population of Blue Whale in Canada

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Source: Comtois et al. 2010 Note: Data from Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS) Database

Figure 6-36 General Distribution of Blue Whales in Gulf of St. Lawrence based MICS Database (1971 to 2008)

North Atlantic Right Whale

The North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) is a baleen whale that typically inhabits coastal waters and spends summer months in temperate waters feeding primarily on copepods (Calanus finmarchicus), and winter months in warmer months where reproductive females calve (DFO 2007c; Brown et al. 2009); however, the winter distribution of males and non-reproductive females is not well known. This stock occurs primarily in the western North Atlantic (Florida to Newfoundland and Gulf of St. Lawrence), and low numbers also occur in the eastern Atlantic (Fujiwara et al. 2001; Kraus and Rolland 2007; Brown et al. 2009). This species is distributed throughout Atlantic Canada, however much of the western North Atlantic population concentrates in the lower Bay of Fundy/Gulf of Maine and in the Roseway Basin on the western Scotian Shelf from spring through fall (COSEWIC 2003c) (Figure 6-37). They also occur in lower numbers elsewhere on the Scotian Shelf and into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland and Labrador (Lien et al. 1989). Movements between the northwest Atlantic and northeast Atlantic as well as preliminary genetic studies suggest that there is mixing of the two stocks and that they may belong to the same population (Rosenbaum et al. 2000; Jacobsen et al. 2004; Kraus et al. 2005).

This species earned its name because whalers considered it the ‘right’ whale to hunt – it occurs in coastal waters, contains high amounts of ‘oil’, is slow-moving, and floats when killed. As such, the species was the first to be targeted by whalers and hunting persisted for centuries.

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Consequently, this species has been greatly reduced, and is amongst the most endangered species in the world (estimated 350 to 450 individuals remain). Today, mortality from ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear are the two main threats, as well as habitat reduction and disturbance (Kraus et al. 2005; Brown et al. 2009). It is estimated individuals commonly live beyond 30 years, and the oldest known individual was 70 years old. Right whales give birth to a single calf, and typically have a calving interval of two to seven years. It is estimated that juveniles account for 26 to 31 percent of the population. The current population size is estimated to be 322 to 400 (COSEWIC 2003c; Kraus et al. 2005). This species has been listed as endangered under Schedule 1 of SARA. Details regarding the strategy in place to facilitate recovery can be found in the North Atlantic Right Whale Recovery Strategy Report (Brown et al. 2009).

Whaling data indicate that right whales were once present in both the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Mitchell and Reeves 1983), however right whales were nearly absent from the Gulf by the 1850s. However in recent decades, North Atlantic right whales have been sighted in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Figure 6-39), typically between June and September. A right whale stranded in 2001 on the Îles-de-la-Madeleine, and satellite-tracked individuals have also entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lesage et al. 2007). The Gulf appears to support a low number of individuals in summer (Hamilton et al. 2007; Lesage et al. 2007). The presence of North Atlantic right whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during winter is undocumented (Lesage et al. 2007).

Right whales occur in very low numbers in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during summer months; as the seismic surveys are scheduled to occur between October and January it is highly unlikely that Project activities will overlap in time and space with right whales in the Study Area.

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Source: Brown et al. 2007 Note: Sightings from 1951 to 2005

Figure 6-37 Known Canadian Distribution of the North Atlantic Right Whale

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Northern Bottlenose Whale

The northern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) is a beaked whale that occurs in deep waters (up to 800 m) of the North Atlantic Ocean. There are two genetically distinct populations within Canada (Whitehead and Wimmer 2005): Scotian Shelf; and Davis Strait-Baffin Bay- Labrador Sea. COSEWIC recently assessed the Davis Strait-Baffin Bay-Labrador Sea population as special concern (COSEWIC 2011c), and the Scotian Shelf population has been assessed endangered and listed under SARA. This species is difficult to observe as it is able to submerge for long periods (up to 70 minutes) (Hooker and Baird 1999), feeding mainly on squid. The whale’s life history is poorly known and most records from Newfoundland are based on carcasses washed ashore. Northern bottlenose whales have a life span of at least 37 years, with a generation time estimated of 15.5 years (COSEWIC 2011c). The major threats to the abundance of the northern bottlenose whale include effects from historical whaling, entanglement with fishing gear, acoustic disturbance, contaminants, changes to food supply and ship strikes (COSEWIC 2011c).

Currently, there is no estimate for the entire North Atlantic population of the northern bottlenose whale, and it is believed that the Scotian Shelf population represents an extremely small portion of the entire North Atlantic population. The Scotian Shelf population is also considered to be an isolated population with localized movements. This population is centred in the area of “The “Gully” area north of Sable Island, Nova Scotia (a designated Marine Protected Area under the Oceans Act), as well as on the Shortland Canyon and Halidmand Canyon, but otherwise is not commonly observed throughout the southern part of its range. Sightings data indicate that this population may have 150 to 164 individuals (Whitehead and Wimmer 2005; DFO 2010f; COSEWIC 2011c). The Davis Strait-Baffin Bay-Labrador Sea population of northern bottlenose whale is concentrated off the Davis Strait/northern Labrador region, and is genetically linked to populations in Iceland and Norway (Reeves et al. 1993), which suggests the population may migrate. There are no size trends nor abundance estimate for this population owing to lack of survey effort and low rates of sightings of beaked whales (COSEWIC 2010a). Based on whaling records, it appears this population was large historically. Between 1969 and 1971, whalers report taking 818 individuals from the Davis Strait-Baffin Bay-Labrador Sea population, and in contrast, between 1962 to 1967, whalers took 87 individuals from Scotian Shelf (COSEWIC 2011c).

It is uncertain to which population the individuals sighted in the Gulf of St. Lawrence belong. There are few documented sightings and few stranding reports (five since 1940) (Lesage et al. 2007) which suggests the species is an occasional visitor to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and may only occur in the deep waters of channels (Lesage et al. 2007). The Study Area is within the known range of the northern bottlenose whale, however there are very few sightings in the Gulf or St. Lawrence. There is low likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area as it is a shallow (average 40 m) area.

Beluga Whale

The beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) is a medium-sized, toothed whale that is currently managed as seven populations within Canada (Figure 6-38) (DFO 2011d, 2011e). The St.

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Lawrence Estuary population occurs at the southern limit of this species’ range, in a heavily trafficked and industrialized region, and has been listed as threatened under Schedule 1 of SARA (COSEWIC 2004b). Genetic studies reveal that the St. Lawrence Estuary belugas are genetically isolated from other Canadian beluga populations which occur in the Arctic (Murray et al. 1999; de March et al. 2002). They are presumed to be a relict Arctic population, but are thought to have no extant connection with the Arctic, as few belugas are found along the north shore of the St. Lawrence or the south Labrador coast (Reeves and Mitchell 1984). This population is concentrated near the outflow of the Saguenay River (Figure 6-39).

Source: DFO 2011d

Figure 6-38 Location of the Seven Canadian Beluga populations

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Source: DFO 2011d

Figure 6-39 Present Distribution Area of the St. Lawrence Beluga

Their habitat is generally ice-covered in winter, and centred around river estuaries after ice break-up. In summer, belugas congregate along coastlines in shallow waters, in river estuaries and glacier fronts. It is unclear whether these summer aggregations are for feeding, moutling, or calving, or all three (COSEWIC 2004b). In autumn they migrate to deeper water areas, where they may feed intensively (COSEWIC 2004b), and then travel to their wintering areas. Aerial surveys suggest belugas prefer areas with loose pack ice or polynas; however, little is known about wintering grounds, feeding during winter, or behaviour. Current threats to the beluga population include long-term contaminant exposure (Hammill et al. 2003), marine traffic, noise and other disturbance, and habitat degradation. Individual belugas in this population may also experience mortality due to ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear.

Occasional sightings, along with aerial surveys, suggest that the winter distribution of the St. Lawrence Estuary population extends downstream into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is likely that the winter distribution varies from year to year, depending on ice conditions. A 2007 survey resulted in an estimated abundance of 893 beluga whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lawson and Gosselin 2009), considerably reduced from historical levels (estimated to have been between 7,800 and 10,100 whales) (Hammill et al. 2007). While the range of this species is generally considered limited geographically to the St. Lawrence River and Estuary, sightings of individuals also occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland waters (Curren and Lien 1998; Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009). At a public consultation in Lark Harbour, NL in June 2012 locals reported seeing a single beluga whale that spent several weeks in the area, a few of years ago.

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As beluga whales concentrate in the Estuary and St. Lawrence River and are considered strays to western Newfoundland waters, it is anticipated that there is a low probability that beluga whales could occur in the Study Area.

Fin Whale

The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) is the second largest animal (mean length 24 m) and is distributed globally in temperate and polar regions, and occasionally in tropical waters (Aguilar et al. 2002). In the Northwest Atlantic, fin whales occur from Davis Strait to Cape Hatteras, NC (COSEWIC 2005b). This species is known for its streamlined body and fast swimming speeds (Reeves et al. 2002). This species is generally assumed to make seasonal migrations from low latitude areas during the winter to high latitude summer feeding areas; however, evidence suggests migrations are more complex. Fin whales are sighted across a range of latitudes throughout the year, and to date no calving or breeding wintering grounds have been identified (Agilar et al. 2002; Waring et al. 2007; Lesage et al. 2007). A possible explanation is that fin whales do perform north-south seasonal migrations, with fin whales from a northern stock occupying the summer grounds of a southern stock during winter (when the southern stock migrates further south). It is also possible that a number of fin whales migrate to offshore waters during winter (Sergeant 1977; Aguilar et al. 2002; Lesage et al. 2007). Fin whales reach sexual maturity at age 5 to 15 years, and physical maturity at approximately 25 years. Mating and calving are believed to occur during winter in the tropics, after a gestation period of 11 to 12 months.

In Atlantic Canada, fin whales concentrate during summer and fall in the Bay of Fundy, Scotian Shelf, and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Figure 6-40) as well as in nearshore and offshore waters of Newfoundland and Labrador (Figure 6-41) (COSEWIC 2005b). Fin whales are associated with oceanic fronts and low surface temperatures, areas where euphausiids and small schooling fish (i.e., capelin, herring) concentrate in summer. Some individuals may occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round.

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Source: SAR database, COSEWIC 2005b

Figure 6-40 Sightings data of Fin Whales from the Species at Risk Database (1998 to 2003) in Atlantic Canada (survey focus on Nova Scotia)

The Atlantic population of fin whale is listed as a species of special concern under Schedule 1 of SARA. This species was reduced by whaling during the 20th century, up until their protection in 1971. Historical numbers are uncertain, but it is thought fin whales existed on the order of 30,000 to 50,000 in the North Atlantic, although genetic analyses suggest there were once as many as 360,000 fin whales in the entire North Atlantic (Roman and Palumbi 2003). Fin whales may be comprised of several stocks in the North Atlantic, and their abundance and range vary depending on the area surveyed (Sergeant 1977; Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Coakes et al. 2005; Waring et al. 2007; Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009). Lawson and Gosselin (2009) estimated abundance to be 270 to 791 individuals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf and 1,352 total in eastern Canada. Kingsley and Reeves (1998) had previously estimated abundance to be 380 (s.d.= 300) in 1995 and 1996 in the Gulf of St Lawrence. Most recently, DFO completed a large-scale aerial survey to count megafauna on the continental shelf in Newfoundland and Labrador, Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence waters (Lawson and Gosselin 2009) and reported 1,360 fin whales (95% CI: 825 to 2,241) in the survey area (estimate uncorrected for perception and availability biases) (Lawson and Gosselin 2009). Sightings are relatively common in Atlantic Canada in summer months. Genetic and photo-identification studies suggests that fin whales occurring in the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the Scotian Shelf, and in Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine may belong to the same stock, whereas fin whales in eastern Newfoundland may be part of a distinct stock (COSEWIC 2005b). Current threats include ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear, as well as pollution, reduced prey availability and noise disturbance. A draft management plan will be available for comment in 2012 as part of the SARA recovery process for this species.

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Fin whales occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in relatively large numbers (hundreds) during summer and fall and some individuals occur year-round. There is high likelihood of occurrence within the Study Area during the Project.

Source: COSEWIC 2005b

Figure 6-41 Fin Whale Sightings in or Near Newfoundland and Labrador (1979 to 2005)

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Sowerby’s Beaked Whale

Sowerby’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens) is a small to medium-sized toothed whale that belongs to the beaked whale group (Family Ziphiidae), a rarely-sighted group about which little is known. Sowerby’s beaked whale occurs only in the North Atlantic, although their distribution is poorly known as they are rarely observed at sea. It is a deep-diving species that is found mainly in deep, offshore cold waters, where they feed primarily on squid and fish (MacLeod et al. 2003).

Sightings and stranding data suggest this species ranges from offshore Cape Cod to Davis Strait in the western Atlantic (Lien and Barry 1990; COSEWIC 2006e). There are no estimates of population size. There have been occasional recordings of Sowerby’s beaked whale along eastern Newfoundland and there is the possibility of these whales entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence whiling pursuing concentrations of squid; however, they would be very occasional visitors. This species was assessed by COSEWIC (2006e) and determined to be special concern, and was listed under Schedule 1 of SARA in 2011.

Sowerby’s beaked whale is unlikely to occur in the Study Area because they prefer deep water habitats near the continental slope; there is little record of this species occurring in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lesage et al. 2007). However, due the nature of the Project, the sensitivity of beaked whales to noise, and how little is known about their distribution this species is included in the assessment for completeness.

COSEWIC-Assessed Species

Harbour Porpoise

The harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is a small cetacean that occurs in temperate waters over continental shelves, and is frequently sighted in coastal areas (e.g., bays, harbours) during summer (Gaskin 1992; Read and Westgate 1997; Waring et al. 2001). The Northwest Atlantic population ranges from Greenland to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and in Canada, evidence suggests it is made up of three discrete sub-populations (Gaskin 1992; Read and Hohn 1995; Read and Westgate 1997; Rosel et al. 1999): Newfoundland and Labrador; Gulf of St. Lawrence; and the Bay of Fundy/Gulf of Maine. The populations mix to some degree outside of the breeding season (late spring/early summer).

Information about the distribution of the Newfoundland and Labrador subpopulation is limited, although bycatch records in groundfish gillnets show that porpoises occur around the entire island of Newfoundland, particularly on the west coast, southern coast, and in Notre Dame Bay (Lien et al. 1994; Lawson et al. 2004). In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, studies to date of harbour porpoise have used anecdotal and strandings reports, bycatch rates, small scale observations and a few systematic large-scale surveys to estimate abundance and distribution (Gaskin 1984; Tournois 2003; Gosselin and Lawson 2004; Lesage et al. 2007). A 2007 survey resulted in an estimated abundance of 3,629 harbour porpoise in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf combined (Lawson and Gosselin 2009); 15 individuals were sighted in the survey portion of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. However, aerial line transect surveys of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in

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summer 1995 and 1996 estimated the populations of harbour porpoises in the Gulf to range from 36,000 to 125,000 (Kingsley and Reeves 1998). During surveys by Lesage et al. (2007) harbour porpoise were widely distributed in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but appeared to be more abundant in the northern Gulf and along western Newfoundland than in the southern or southwestern Gulf (Figure 6-42). It is unclear how this trend varies seasonally. There were particularly large concentrations of harbour portpose in the Jacques Cartier Strait, west of Anticosti Island, from Pointe-des-Monts to Sept-Îles and along western Newfoundland (Lesage et al. 2007). No information is available on the winter distribution of harbour porpoises in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Source: Lesage et al. 2007 Note: Encounter rates baesd on three surveys combined that were carried out from late July to mid September in 1995, 1996 and 2002. Grey areas represent survey areas where no blue whales were encountered

Figure 6-42 Encounter Rates for Harbour Porpoise in Gulf of St. Lawrence During Surveys

Harbour porpoise are often associated with oceanographic features that concentrate prey. Satellite tags suggest harbour porpoises have very large home ranges, and are able to move

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rapidly between suitable habitat patches in search of prey (Read and Westgate 1997). In comparison to other cetaceans, this species sexually matures relatively early; however, harbour porpoises have a short life span, and produce a single calf per pregnancy (Read and Hohn 1995; Caswell et al. 1998).

The Northwest Atlantic population of harbour porpoise has been assessed as of special concern by COSEWIC (2006f) and is listed under Schedule 2 of SARA. The rates of natural mortality due to predation, disease and lack of food sources are unknown. Human caused sources of mortality in the region include very high rates of bycatch (Waring et al. 2001; Trippel et al. 2004; Lawson et al. 2004; Lesage et al. 2006) as well as noise and pollution. The bycatch rate in the Atlantic cod gillnet fishery was estimated for the 2002 fishing season (a year when the fishery was already severely reduced) and ranged from 1,324 to 12,646 small cetaceans (virtually all of which were harbour porpoise), with the majority caught between July and September (Lesage et al. 2006). The confidence interval was large due to variation in levels of bycatch reported among fishers and locations. However based on net days as a measure of effort, the estimate is reduced to 1,500 to 3,000 harbour porpoises.

Killer Whale

The killer whale or orca (Orcinus orca) is a distinctive, large apex predator that occurs globally, particularly in coastal, temperate productive waters (Baird 2001). In Canada, the species is concentrated in Pacific coastal and offshore waters, and a small population also occurs in the Northwest Atlantic and Eastern Arctic. This population occurs from the Bay of Fundy to Lancaster Sound (or possibly further north), and is known to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and around the island of Newfoundland, including in St. Georges Bay (Lien et al. 1988; Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson et al. 2008).

While orcas were historically considered common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence Estuary, they are now sighted only occasionally (Lesage et al. 2001; COSEWIC 2008b). The Northwest Atlantic/Eastern Arctic population of the killer whale has been assessed as special concern by COSEWIC (2008b), but has not gained protection under SARA (considered data deficient); however, they are protected under the Marine Mammal Regulations of the Fisheries Act.

Little is known about the Northwest Atlantic population, which is highly transitory. The abundance and distribution of this population is unknown, but there have been many sightings in coastal waters of Newfoundland, and in 2006, DFO began large-scale surveys and a cataloguing program (COSEWIC 2008b). At least 63 individuals have been photo-identified in Newfoundland and Labrador (Lawson et al. 2008). Orca are seen in coastal waters of Newfoundland and Labrador, particularly in the Strait of Belle Isle (Lawson et al. 2007). No orcas were sighted during the summer surveys in the Gulf of St. Lawrence by Lesage et al. (2007).

Orca occur occasionally in coastal and offshore waters of Newfoundland or Gulf of St. Lawrence at all times of year, and the likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area is low, although seasonal distributions are not well known.

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6.2.4 Marine Reptile Species at Risk

There are two species of sea turtles that occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and that are considered at risk in Canada. The status of these species is presented in Tables 6.3 and 6.4, and described in greater detail below.

Leatherback Sea Turtle

The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is a large, highly migratory, marine turtle that reproduces on beaches in tropical and subtropical regions, and feeds in temperate waters. The species was considered an unusual migrant in Canadian waters (but see Bleakney 1965; Goff et al. 1994) until researchers recruited fishermen and tour operators to report sightings in Atlantic Canada (James 2006). Over 850 geo-referenced leatherback sightings were reported through this program between 1998 and 2005 (Figure 6-43 and 6-44), supporting the idea that the Canadian Atlantic provinces are within the normal range of distribution for this species (COSEWIC 2001c; James 2006; James et al. 2006). Sightings data were consistent with the results of concurrent satellite telemetry studies; leatherback turtles are broadly distributed on the Scotian Shelf throughout the foraging season, and regularly occur in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence in late summer and fall. (James et al. 2006). The results also suggest there is variation among years in abundance in Canadian waters, though in all years’ abundance peaks in late July and early August. Sea surface temperature (SST) has been found to be correlated to leatherback abundance, with most turtles reported inshore from the continental shelf break at a mean SST of 16.6°C (sd = 2.3 °C) (James et al. 2006). Studies to date provide evidence that the Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence support critical summer and early fall foraging habitat for Leatherback sea turtles (James et al. 2006).

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Source: James et al. 2006

Figure 6-43 Sightings of Leatherback Sea Turtles Voluntarily Rpeorted off Nova Scotia (1998 to 2005)

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Source: James et al. 2006 Note: Solid circles represent locations outside James et al. primary study area. Triangles represent records from Canadian pelagic fisheries observer program and squares represent turtles sighted from aerial surveys for right whales in 1998 an 1999).

Figure 6-44 Records of Leatherback Sea Turtles in Canadian Waters (1998 to 2005)

Leatherback turtles spend the majority of their life at sea but females nest and lay eggs on beaches. Leatherback turtles nest from November to April and are typically present in Canadian waters from June to November to forage on soft-bodied pelagic invertebrates (Atlantic Leatherback Turtle Recovery Team 2006). Habitat for this species in Atlantic Canada may be largely determined by temperature and prey availability. Tagging studies from 25 leatherbacks captured off Canada reveal that females nested in areas throughout South and Central America and the Caribbean, and that these females will often migrate to Canadian waters to forage in the same year as nesting at lower latitudes (James et al. 2007).

Size-class distribution of dead and live captured turtles collected in Atlantic Canadian waters between 1998 and 2006 suggest that the population occurring in summer and fall is mainly represented by large sub-adults and adults with a mean curved carapace length of 148.1 cm and a mean body mass of 392 kg (191 to 640 kg) (James et al. 2007). In addition, collected specimens suggest the foraging population has a greater proportion of females than males (1.86 females: 1 male) among mature turtles.

The Leatherback turtle was assessed as endangered by COSEWIC (2001c) and has been listed under Schedule 1 of SARA. Leatherbacks are undergoing severe declines globally (more than

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70 percent in 15 years) (COSEWIC 2001c). It is difficult to estimate the abundance of the population in Atlantic Canada as dedicated transect surveys have not occurred, and much of the information is related to fishers recording sightings; there are few data from areas with little or no fishing activity. In Canada, bycatch and entanglement in fishing gear is a major cause of mortality, as well as ocean debris (i.e., plastic, nets, rope). However, elsewhere they are also threatened by loss and degradation of beach nesting habitat, disturbance of nests, predation and harvesting of eggs. As leatherbacks have a long lifespan, late sexual maturity, and very high rates of mortality amongst eggs and hatchlings, sea turtles are particularly vulnerable to increases in mortality as adults (e.g., bycatch). Details regarding the strategies that are in place to achieve recovery are outlined in the Recovery Strategy for Leatherback Turtle in Atlantic Canada (Atlantic Leatherback Turtle Recovery Team 2006).

Leatherback sea turtles occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, typically between June and November with peak abundance in July and August. There is a low to moderate potential for occurrence in the Study Area during the Project.

COSEWIC-Assessed Species

Loggerhead Sea Turtle

The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) is a large, hard-shelled turtle that occurs in temperate and tropical regions globally. In the western Atlantic, loggerheads range from Newfoundland to Argentina (Harris et al. 2010). Distribution is largely constrained by water temperature and loggerheads do not generally occur where the water temperature is below 15°C (Brazner and McMillan 2008). Loggerheads can migrate considerable distances between tropical and subtropical nesting areas and temperate foraging areas, including individuals travelling with the Gulf Stream into Atlantic Canada waters (Hawkes et al. 2007; Harris et al. 2010). Loggerheads have been sighted somewhat commonly in Atlantic Canada on the Scotian Shelf, Scotian Slope, Georges Bank, the Grand Banks and in offshore waters in spring, summer and fall (McAlpine et al. 2007, Harris et al. 2010). No nesting occurs within Atlantic Canada. Although no genetic studies have been done on the loggerhead sea turtles in Atlantic Canada, preliminary data from loggerhead bycatch caught in offshore Newfoundland (LaCasella et al. 2006) suggests that the majority of turtles caught as bycatch originated from south Florida, with a small portion from the northeastern US and Mexican breeding areas.

There is evidence that the Grand Banks may represent important foraging grounds for loggerhead sea turtles migrating from Atlantic nesting beaches (Bowen et al. 2005; Bowen and Karl 2007). Most loggerhead records from offshore Newfoundland have occurred in deeper waters south of the Grand Banks and sightings have extended as far north as the Flemish Cap (COSEWIC 2010e). Loggerhead sea turtle bycatch rates are highest in the summer and fall (Witzell 1999, McAlpine et al. 2007), which suggests that this is when the animals are most abundant in Atlantic Canada. There are few records of loggerhead sea turtles in inshore Atlantic Canada, likely due to cold temperatures (Brazner and McMillan 2008). Any occurrence inshore may result from turtles remaining in warm-core rings of water that break off from the Gulf Stream and move inshore (McAlpine et al. 2007). Satellite-tagged individuals have been

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found to occur mainly south of the zone where the warm Gulf Stream meets the 10 to 15°C isotherm (Mansfield et al. 2009).

Twenty-five loggerhead sea turtles were captured and measured during the Central North Atlantic Bluefin Tuna survey (2001 to 2002) in international waters off Atlantic Canada. Turtles ranged in size from 42 to 69 cm SCL with a mean length of 53 cm. Based on this size information, these individuals appear to be stage 2 juveniles (Harris et al. 2010). Juveniles may represent a large portion of the loggerhead population that occurs in Atlantic Canada. Loggerheads are opportunistic feeders and consume a variety of prey including gelatinous zooplankton and squid and fish, though there is no diet information specific to Canadian waters (DFO 2010g).

The loggerhead sea turtle was assessed as endangerd by COSEWIC in April 2010, but has not yet gained protection under SARA. This species is threatened throughout its range by commercial fishing activities (bycatch and entanglement), loss and degradation of nesting beaches, marine debris, chemical pollution, and illegal harvesting of eggs and nesting females (COSEWIC 2010e). In Canada, the primary threat is bycatch in the pelagic longline fisheries. Between 1999 and 2006, 709 loggerhead sea turtles were reported to be caught as bycatch within the Canadian Atlantic pelagic longline fishery, and most of these were concentrated in the offshore south of the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks (COSEWIC 2010e). However, the pelagic longline fisheries of the entire Atlantic Ocean were estimated to have caught between 150,000 and 200,000 loggerhead sea turtles in 2000 (Lewison et al. 2004). Efforts are being taken among Canadian pelagic longline fisheries to reduce the bycatch of loggerhead sea turtles in Atlantic Canada (Harris et al. 2010). Distribution from catches of loggerhead sea turtles in the pelagic tuna and swordfish longline fisheries are shown in Figure 6-45 (Harris et al. 2010).

The loggerhead is very uncommon in shallow waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence) due to a preference for warmer waters and strong association with the Gulf Steam. In addition, it has a very low likelihood to occur in the Study Area between October and January when loggerheads occur further south.

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Source: Harris et al. 2010

Figure 6-45 Distribution of Loggerhead Sea Turtle Catches in the Canadian Tuna and Swordfish Longline Fisheries (2000 to 2009)

6.2.5 Marine Bird Species at Risk

There are five coastal or marine bird species listed under Schedule 1 of SARA that occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and/or western Newfoundland (see Table 6.3).

Ivory Gull

The Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea) is an Arctic, medium-sized, long-lived (approximately 15 years) gull species. It is circumpolar in distribution but occurs in patchy, small colonies. The wintering grounds are poorly known but are generally along the southern edge of pack ice (Davis Strait, Labrador Sea, Strait of Belle Isle, northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and occasionally, Lower North Shore of Quebec and northern Newfoundland) and often near polynyas.

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In Canada, nesting grounds only occur in Nunavut. Ivory Gull nest near marine waters that are partially free of ice in late May and early June. The Ivory Gull breeds after their second year, and typically lays one to two eggs. Intensive aerial surveys of breeding colonies from 2002 to 2005 suggest that 9 of the 31 colonies previously identified in the 1970s and 1980s remain in use, and that abundance had declined at the existing colonies. This and reviews of Aboriginal traditional knowledge suggest the breeding population has declined by 80 percent over last 20 years (COSEWIC 2006g). The Ivory Gull is listed as endangered on Schedule 1 of SARA and is protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act 1994 and Migratory Bird Regulations.

Known threats include hunting, human disturbance of breeding colonies, habitat degradation, changes in ice cover, vulnerability to oiling, noise and pollution. The goals of the Ivory Gull Management Plan (Stenhouse 2004) is to promote the recovery of the ‘Canadian breeding population to historic levels and to expand the breeding range to historically occupied areas’. The objectives aim to facilitate recovery.

There is low likelihood of Ivory Gull occurring in the Study Area; any occurrence would likely occur in late winter if the pack ice was to extend as far south as the Port au Port Peninsula.

Eskimo Curlew

The Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) is a formerly abundant shorebird that historically migrated east from western and northern Canada during fall toward the Ungava Peninsula and then south through the Labrador Strait toward the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where they staged in Atlantic Canada, Quebec and sometimes Ontario, before migrating to South America for the winter. There has been no positively identified Eskimo Curlew nests or breeding individuals since 1866, and no record (photograph or specimen) since 1963 despite survey efforts. It is likely this species has become extinct or is near extinction (COSEWIC 2009c). The Eskimo Curlew is listed as endangered on SARA Schedule 1. They are under management jurisdiction from the federal government and are covered under the Migratory Birds Convention Act.

The Recovery Strategy for Eskimo Curlew (Environment Canada 2007a) notes that it is not aware of the existence or location of any Eskimo Curlew and as such, recovery is not technically or biologically feasible for this species at this time. The primary causes of the rapid decline of Eskimo Curlew are not well known but likely include overhunting, habitat alteration, and loss of critical habitat (native grasslands) and associated prey (e.g., grasshoppers). The lack of recovery was likely due to very low numbers (allee effects) and the conservative life history traits of this species (thought to be long-lived and have few offspring) (COSEWIC 2009c).

As Eskimo Curlew is likely extinct, it is not carried forward in the assessment.

Piping Plover

The Piping Plover melodus subspecies (Charadrius melodus melodus) is a migratory shorebird that breeds along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to South Carolina, and winters in the southwest US and Caribbean (SARA Registry 2011). Piping Plover migrate east and arrive on breeding grounds in late April or May. They nest in western and southern Newfoundland, the

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Magdalen Islands and St. Pierre and Miquelon, as well Nova Scotia (including Cape Breton Island), Prince Edward Island and eastern New Brunswick (Figure 6-46). They prefer sand, gravel, or cobble, in open, elevated areas of the beach (Haig and Elliot-Smith 2004), on barrier island sand spits, or peninsulas in marine coastal areas. The Piping Plover melodus subspecies is listed as endangered on Schedule 1 of SARA, endangered under the Newfoundland and Labrador Endangered Species Act and is protected under the Migratory Bird Convention Act. Piping Plover habitat is protected under SARA (SARA 2005). Main threats to this species include human-caused disturbance (walking, fishing, camping, unleashed pets, ATVs, oil spills), predation (by foxes, gulls, crows, minks, dogs), vehicle traffic, habitat loss and degradation and environmental factors (erosion, sedimentation, hurricanes) (SARA Registry 2011).

Source: SARA 2005

Figure 6-46 Distribution of Piping Plover (melodus subspecies) in Canada

The proposed Piping Plover Recovery Strategy identifies Critical Habitat, which includes those beaches where breeding pairs have been recorded at least one season since 1991 (Environment Canada 2012). There is no Critical Habitat within the Study Area. The identified Critical Habitat identified nearest to the Study Area (Figure 6-47) includes five beaches near Stephenville Crossing, and Shallow Cove Beach in Gros Morne National Park, where a breeding pair has been recorded the last four breeding seasons (E. McKee, Parks Canada, Pers. Comm.).

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Source: Adapted from Environment Canada 2012

Figure 6-47 Identified Piping Plover Habitat in Western Newfoundland

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The North American breeding population consists of approximately 5,900 birds, 2,100 breeding in Canada (Haig et al. 2005). The eastern Canadian population was estimated at 481 adults in 2001. A 2006 census in Newfoundland identified 48 nesting adult Piping Plovers, an increase from 39 birds in 2001. Piping Plover have not been found on the northeast coast since 1987. Nesting sites for this species in western Newfoundland include Big Barasway, Sandbanks Provincial Park, Little Barasway, Seal Cove and areas around J.T. Cheeseman Provincial Park, Grand Bay West and Little Codroy. Piping Plover that nest in Newfoundland generally overwinter along the southern Atlantic Coast of the United States. One of its largest breeding areas in Newfoundland and Labrador is the beach at Big Barasway Piping Plover Wildlife Reserve near Burgeo (Protected Areas Association of Newfoundland and Labrador 2000), in addition to the adjoining Sandbanks Provincial Park in Burgeo.

This species is not expected to occur in offshore areas of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, such as the Study Area, but does occur in summer in coastal areas of western Newfoundland. However, the likelihood of encountering the species in the Study Area is low, as the Project occurs offshore and will take place between October and January, a time of year when Piping Plover migrate south.

Harlequin Duck

The eastern population of Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus), a sea duck, was first assessed as endangered in 1990 by COSEWIC based on low estimates of abundance and localized declined at several known wintering areas (Environment Canada 2007b). The species was re-assessed and downgraded to special concern in 2001, as the population had increased at several locations and an additional wintering population in southwest Greenland was discovered (Environmenta Canada 2007b). The eastern North American wintering population is considered to be one population. They are listed under Schedule 1 of SARA. There is a Management Plan for Harlequin Duck conservation for Atlantic Canada and Quebec (Environment Canada 2007b). Based on counts, the entire eastern North American wintering population is estimated to be less than 3,000 birds.

Harlequin Duck nest along fast-flowing inland rivers and streams during spring from northern New Brunswick to Newfoundland and Labrador, and north to Nunavut (Environment Canada 2007b). This species first breeds at age two or three, and have few offspring (three to eight), which makes recovery from population decline difficult. In summer, they return to coastal marine habitat. Wintering habitat includes rocky coastlines, exposed headlands and subtidal ledges, as well as offshore islands. Harlequin Duck are known to overwinter on the coast of the Island of Newfoundland, near Ramea, Burgeo, Connoire Bay and near the Penguin Islands; they also winter along the St. Pierre and Miquelon (France) coast and have site fidelity to wintering sites. Gros Morne National Park is a known breeding, moulting and staging site and Cape St. Mary’s Ecological Reserve is an important wintering area. Half the population overwinter in New England, and other wintering grounds include southeastern Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, Gaspe Peninsula, Anticosti Island and Prince Edward Island.

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This species occurs off western Newfoundland year-round, although they tend to occur inshore, and to be located at sites further north and south than the Study Area (Figure 6-48). There is low likelihood of interaction with the Project.

Source: Environment Canada 2007b Note: Red area shows breeding habitat, green circles indicate moulting sites, and the dark blue indicate Canadian winter grounds

Figure 6-48 Canadian Distribution of Harlequin Duck (Eastern Population)

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Barrow’s Goldeneye

Barrow's Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) is a medium-sized sea duck that primarily breeds and winters in Canada (90 percent of global population) (Robert et al. 2000). There are estimated to be 4,500 Barrow’s Goldeneye (or approximately 1,400 pairs) in the eastern North America population (Robert et al. 2000).

Barrow’s Goldeneye undertake three major migrations each year: 1) from wintering to breeding areas; 2) from breeding to moulting areas (at least for males); and 3) from moulting areas to wintering areas. The eastern population breeds only in Canada, with known breeding sites in Quebec (Robert et al. 2000); and possibly in Labrador (Figure 6-49). Nesting occurs in tree cavities near lakes and ponds. The majority of this population winters in the inner Gulf of St Lawrence and the north shore of Quebec, preferring coastal habitats (bays, inlets, harbours), where they congregate over sandy, gravel, and mud bottom. Small numbers (approximately 400 birds) of this population winter elsewhere in Atlantic Canada and along the New England coast (approximately 100 birds in Maine) (Robert et al. 2000; Schmelzer 2006). Only a small number of birds have been documented at six sites in Newfoundland, including Traytown Bay, Port Blandford, Spaniard’s Bay, St. Mary’s Bay, Stephenville Crossing and at the mouth of the Humber River near Corner Brook (Schmelzer 2006). This species leaves wintering areas in late April to early May, for their breeding lakes (high plateau of north shore of St. Lawrence Estuary and Gulf) of St. Lawrence. Males then eventually migrate to moulting areas, located north.

Source: Environment Canada 2011

Figure 6-49 Eastern Population of Barrow’s Goldeneye in Canada

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Specific population trends are unknown, but it is believed that the eastern population may be declining. The eastern population of Barrow’s Goldeneye is listed as a species of special concern under Schedule 1 of SARA (COSEWIC 2000b). It is also protected by the Migratory Birds Convention Act and is listed as vulnerable on the Newfoundland and Labrador Endangered Species Act.

This species is unlikely to occur in offshore areas of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including the Study Area, as it is not common in western Newfoundland, and wintering grounds are typically inshore.

6.3 Marine Fish and Shellfish

The following subsections provide a description of the fish and shellfish present in the Study Area, with a focus on those species harvested commercially. Listed species are discussed separately in Section 6.2.

A description of the physical environment in the Study Area is provided Section 5. In addition, aspects of the biological environment that form the habitat for fish and shellfish, including the water column, plankton, and benthos, is described in Section 6.1. Commercial harvesting of the fish species present in the Study Area is provided in Section 6.7.

6.3.1 Fish

Atlantic Halibut

Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) is the largest of the flatfishes and occurs in deep water along the slopes of the continental shelf, preferring water temperatures greater than 2.5°C. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Atlantic halibut are most abundant in deepwater channels occurring at depths greater than 200 m the northern Gulf and less than 100 m in the southern Gulf (DFO 2009d). Halibut can be found in depths from less than 50 m to more than 1,250 m, but typically occupy depths of 200 and 450 m (Trzcinski et al. 2011). Young halibut are more common at 37 to 55 m, whereas adult fish are more abundant at 165 to 229 m.

Knowledge of spawning grounds and time of year for this population is limited, but observed to occur in the Esquiman Channel during surveys in January and May (DFO 2009d), synchronous within a group. Females are batch spawners able to ovulate several batches of eggs during one winter. Atlantic halibut eggs are some of the largest in the fish community, measuring up to 4 mm. The eggs are neutrally buoyant in salinities ranging from 35 to 37 ppt, meaning that Atlantic halibut eggs would sink towards the seafloor.

There is limited knowledge regarding the distribution of the eggs and larvae in the Northwest Atlantic (more knowledge is available about the northeast Atlantic area) but it is thought that spawning may occur in deep water off the continental shelf. Knowledge regarding larval development and metaphorphosis is based on captivity rearing (Trzcinski et al. 2011). Incubation of the eggs lasts for up to 20 days and the yolk sack provides energy for 1.5 to -2.0 months. Upon hatching into a larval state, the larvae are 6 to 7 mm long and have no pigment,

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functional eyes, or mouth (DFO 2011f) with pelagic early life history stages that last 6 to 7 months (Trzcinski et al. 2011). Juveniles are known to inhabit distinct nursery grounds for three to four years before migration to spawning habitat (DFO 2006b).

Small halibut feed primarily on hermit crabs, prawns, small crabs, shrimp and mysids, while larger halibut feed on fish including flatfish, redfish, cod, haddock, hake, herring, sand lance and pollock (Trumble et al. 1993; Trzcinski et al. 2011).

Atlantic Herring

Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) are a schooling pelagic fish that perform annual migrations associated with spawning, feeding, and wintering (Beaulieu et al. 2010). In Atlantic Canada, herring may spawn between April and October but tend to be concentrated in May (spring spawners) or September (fall spawners). Spawning by this species occurs both offshore and inshore; however, most populations spawn in shallow water (less than 20 m), and Newfoundland populations appear to only to spawn in coastal waters (LGL 2005). Herring return to the same spawning, feeding and wintering sites year after year based on a homing phenomenon that is attributed to a learning behaviour with the recruitment of young year- classes in a population (DFO 2012b). Individual herring can spawn for up to 15 to 20 years (Wheeler et al. 2009).

The west coast of Newfoundland herring are characterized by two spawning stocks with the spring spawning occurring in April and May (4Ra, 4Rd), and fall spawning (4Ra) in August and September (Beaulieu et al. 2012). Herring eggs attach themselves to the sea floor, forming a carpet of a few centimetres thick (DFO 2012) in high-energy environments thereby providing an environment that has good aeration and reduce siltation and accumulation of metabolites (Reid et al. 1999). The time associated with egg incubation and larval growth is linked to environmental characteristics. As Atlantic herring within the Newfoundland region are at the northern extent of their geographic range, ideal environmental conditions seldom exist and as a consequence, strong recruitment is very sporadic. Good survival of young spring-spawned herring (i.e., recruitment) is largely influenced by suitable environmental conditions, principally warm overwintering water temperatures and high salinities prior to spawning (Winters and Wheeler 1987).

The larval stage lasts from four to eight months depending on the time of spawning and the associated water temperatures. During this time, the larvae survive on the attached yolk sac and feed opportunistically on zooplankton (DFO 2010h). The planktonic herring larvae make vertical migrations daily or semi-daily. The purpose for these migrations is not completely understood (DFO 2010h).

The larval stage ends in early spring (April to May), when Atlantic herring larvae metamorphose into juveniles. Juveniles form large schools in coastal waters and in the fall and in early winter, move to deep bays or near the seafloor in offshore areas to overwinter (DFO 2010h).

Most herring reach sexual maturity at four years of age. Adults have a diet consisting of euphausiids (krill), chaetognaths and copepods, with the juvenile diet similar to that of the adults

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(DFO 2010h). Juveniles undergo complex north-south and inshore-offshore migrations during their lives for spawning, feeding and overwintering (DFO 2010h).

At a meeting with FFAW members in Lark Harbour and Stephenville on June 20 and June 21, 2012, fishers indicated they fish herring in July and August, which is outside the Project timeframe.

Atlantic Mackerel

Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) is a pelagic species common to the temperate waters of the northwest Atlantic. Distribution seems to be driven by a preference for temperatures between 9°C and 12°C. During spring and summer, mackerel are found in inshore waters after which (late fall and in winter), they are found deeper in warmer waters at the edge of the continental shelf. Within the Gulf of St. Lawrence this includes migration to the Magdalen Shallows, between mid-June and mid-July (LGL 2005; DFO 2007d), approximately 230 km southwest of the Study Area.

At the peak of the spawning period, water temperature varies between 10°C and 12°C, resulting in egg incubation time of approximately one week at these temperatures (DFO 2007d). Spawning occurs near the surface with eggs floating in water layers above the thermocline during incubation. Mackerel go through a larval stage where the yolk sac is absorbed into the body over the course of a couple months while fins are being developed. Once the fins are developed and the yolk sacs absorbed, the juvenile mackerel form schools and remain in coastal waters (DFO 2007d).

Mackerel are a very fast-growing species with growth varying between years and year classes (DFO 2007d). Mackerel reach sexual maturity early in life with less than 40 percent of mackerel mature by age one and all mature by age 4+. Mackerel from the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, including the Study Area feed mainly on small and large zooplanktion including copepods, euphausiids, hyperiid amphipods, and chaetognaths. Their diet has changed over time, and has in the past included shrimp and capelin. The main predators include cetaceans, large cod, and other large demersal fish (DFO 2007d).

There have been changes to mackerel migration and distribution since 2004, resulting in increased landings from 3KL and decreased landings in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is hypothesized that cooler oceanographic conditions in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence may have resulted in changed distribution, migration routes and spawning locations as the spring migration may be delayed or occur elsewhere in response to cooler water temperatures (DFO 2008d).

Capelin

Capelin (Mallotus villosus) is a small pelagic forage fish that generally occurs between 30 and 100 m. It is the main link in the food chain facilitating the transfer of energy between trophic levels from primary and secondary producers. Capelin has been the principal forage species of the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence marine ecosystem over the last 20 years (DFO 2011g).

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Capelin spend winter in offshore waters, and spring and summer in coastal waters where they spawn on sandy or fine-grained beaches, or in coastal waters with similar substrates. Spawning appears to be related to water temperature, occuring at water temperatures of 6 to 10°C, and predominantly at night. The eggs attach to the substrate, with the incubation period varying based on ambient temperature (approximately 15 days at 10°C) (DFO 2011g).

Larvae are planktonic and remain near the surface until the arrival of winter. The most substantial growth period occurs during the first year and capelin can spawn at 2 years of age with nearly all males dying following reproduction (DFO 2011g).

There is one identified capelin beach within the Study Area (Bay St. George/Port au Port Peninsula Marine and Coastal Resources Steering Committee 2011). This is further discussed in Section 6.6.

Greenland Halibut

Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), also known as turbot, are deepwater flatfish distributed in the northwest Atlantic as far south as the Scotian Shelf, and found at depths ranging from 90 to 1,600 m, with a preference for water temperatures of 0°C to 4.5°C. They are similar in appearance to Atlantic halibut, but are not as large. In summer, the main populations are found in the St. Lawrence Estuary, the areas west and northeast of Anticosti Island, and near the west coast of Newfoundland in the Esquiman Channel (DFO 2010i).

Spawning generally occurs in the winter (November to February) within the Cabot Strait and can occur in depths of up to 1,000 m (DFO 2000). Eggs are fertilized externally and float low within the water column. Eggs incubate for up to 12 weeks until metamorphosis into the larval stage. Early larval stages are also buoyant and found within the water column. Once the yolk sac has been absorbed, the larvae have been observed to rise in the water column. This is thought to correspond with the onset of feeding. Larval development lasts for up to 15 weeks and results in larval drift and dispersal from spawning areas (Chiperzak et al. 1995). In August or September and nearly one year post-spawning, the larvae settle to the seafloor, at which time the left eye has migrated to the right side of the fish. Unlike most flatfish, the migrating eye stops at the dorsal margin of the head (Alton et al. 1988). Greenland halibut populations were thought to migrate annually to Davis Strait to reproduce via external spawning; however, genetic research suggests that the Gulf of St. Lawrence stock may complete its entire lifecycle in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (DFO 2005e). Sexually mature males are smaller than mature females. Females make up the majority (more than 80 percent) of landed commercial catches.

Adults reach maturity sooner in the Gulf (on average in 7.8 years). This species spends more time in the pelagic zone than most flatfish, and is an important predator of cod, capelin, young Greenland halibut, grenadier, redfish, sandlance, barracudina, crustaceans, squid and various benthic invertebrates. Predators of Greenland halibut include whales, Greenland shark, hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), cod, salmon and other Greenland halibut (DFO 2008e).

Surveys suggest Greenland halibut have become more abundant in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in recent years, with a concentration during winter in the Laurentian Channel southwest of St.

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Georges Bay, and a summer concentration near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Patterns of Greenland Halibut distribution based on during the annual summer trawl surveys conducted in August 2011 is similar to those observed since 2000 (Archambault et al. 2011).

Lumpfish

Lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) is a demersal species that lives in cold, temperate waters on rocky bottoms, but also occur offshore as pelagic species as adults. In the northwest Atlantic, lumpfish occur from Greenland and James Bay south to Chesapeake Bay. However, population-specific information for the Gulf of St. Lawrence is limited (DFO 2011c).

In early spring (May and June), lumpfish undertake a migration to coastal areas for spawning. Males arrive first, establishing individual spawning territories. Eggs are laid in large masses attached to rocks. After spawning, males remain in coastal areas to guard the eggs, while the females return to deeper waters (DFO 2011i).

As larvae and juveniles, lumpfish are commonly found in coastal areas under floating algae, or attached to rocks and other solid object with a pelvic adhesive disc (DFO 2011i). At release from the egg masses, larvae are approximately 5 mm in length, reaching 30 mm by age 5. Based on a tagging study completed between 2004 and 2008, adult female lumpfish in Newfoundland waters have an average size between 35 and 45 cm, with larger fish occurring in Division 3Pn (southwest coast of Newfoundland) than in Divisions 4R (western Newfoundland) and 4S (Quebec coast) (DFO 2011i).

Witch Flounder

Witch flounder (Glyptocephalus cynoglossus) occur in deep waters and range from the lower Labrador coast to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in the Northwest Atlantic. Witch flounder are particularly slow growing and late maturing and because of this low productivity, they are vulnerable to overexploitation. Population models for the species indicate a 90 percent decline in commercial biomass (fish larger than 40 cm in length) since 1961 (DFO 2012c).

Spawning witch flounder congregate in the lower Esquiman Channel and eastern Laurentian Channel in January and February, and spawning is believed to occur in deep water in the spring. Spawning occurs in deep waters and females are highly fertile, releasing as many as 500,000 eggs in a single spawning event. The fertilized eggs float in the water column and hatch after several days. Juveniles are then pelagic for as long as a year and then settle to the benthos.

During winter, the Gulf of St. Lawrence population and other northern stocks appear to migrate into deeper water and stop feeding, and consequently are more slow-growing than stocks further south in the Gulf of Maine and George’s Bank, where waters are warmer and feeding occurs year round (DFO 2012c).

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6.3.2 Shellfish

Atlantic Sea Scallop

Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) is a bivalve mollusk that lives in communal beds on the seafloor and is found from North Carolina to Newfoundland. It occurs on the Atlantic Continental Shelf and typically occurs in relatively shallow water at depths of less than 100 m; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence they are found at water depths of 10 to 25 m. Scallop occur in groups or beds that may be sporadic or last for numerous years. These beds correspond to areas of suitable temperature, food availability and substrate. Adults are filter feeders, using gills to capture phytoplankton and other suspended particulate material from the water. Scallop beds are typically located on clean bottom such as gravel and where gyres occur, keeping larval stages in the vicinity of the spawning population (Stewart and Arnold 1994).

Spawning occurs in early fall (August to October), prompted by decreases in water temperature. In western Newfoundland a second spawning season occurs in June and July (Stewart and Arnold 1994).

Males and females release gametes synchronously and fertilization is external in the water column. Eggs develop in one to two days into the first of three larval stages, which all together last approximately five weeks. In the first larval stage, the sea scallops are planktonic but can swim freely and have been shown to undergo daily vertical migration (DFO 1996). During the planktonic stage, a shell, eye spot and foot develop. Scallop larvae are omnivorous planktonic feeders. The sea scallop larvae then settle to the bottom and develop the remainder of features. Planktonic larvae usually settle on suitable benthic substrates, including existing scallop beds or sand (DFO 1996). Newly settled larvae attach to suitable substrate by secreting threads, which aid against movement from bottom currents. As young scallop age, they become less mobile and show less of a tendency to attach to the bottom.

Within the Study Area there are nearshore scallop spawning and nursery beds in Port au Port Bay (Bay St. George/Port au Port Peninsula Marine and Coastal Resources Steering Committee 2011).

Lobster

American lobster (Homarus americanus) is a benthic crustacean distributed in localized reefs in nearshore areas around the four Atlantic Provinces and eastern Quebec. The spring fishing season removes individuals from the population prior to moulting and spawning. Adult female moulting and mating occurs during one summer, whereas the second summer is dedicated to laying the eggs. With proper conditions, some young females could moult, spawn and lay eggs in the same summer (DFO 2009e).

Moulting, spawning and larval hatching occurs between mid-July and mid-September (DFO 2009e) with the eggs extruded approximately a year later. The eggs are carried in clutches on the underside of the female's tail where they are protected and maintained for a period of 9 to 12 months. Hatching occurs during a four month period extending from late May through most

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of September. Upon release, the larvae become planktonic undergoing a series of three molts during a 6 to 10 week period characterized by high mortality. A metamorphosis occurs after the third moult and the larvae transition from being pelagic to benthic (DFO 2009e).

The diet of adult lobster is comprised of benthic species including rock crab, polychaetes, molluscs, echinoderms, and various finfish. Commercial harvesting accounts for almost all adult mortality as the lobster has few natural predators (DFO 2009e).

The area between Port au Port Bay and Shag Island to the north has been identified by fishers as a lobster spawning ground. Lobster nursery areas occur near Shoal Point, Outer Bay of Islands (above North Head) and at Trout River Bay. Lobster spawning and nursery areas within the Study Area are discussed in Section 6.6.

Northern Shrimp

Northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence typically occupy depths of 150 to 350 m, perferring habitat with mud and silt substrate (DFO 2011j).

Northern shrimp are a species which practices sequential hermaphroditism, meaning they change their sex over the course of their life cycle (DFO 2012d). Shrimp achieving male sexual maturity at about two and a half, then becoming female between four and five years old.

Shrimp migrations are associated with breeding with the egg-bearing females migrating to shallower water in winter where they feed at night, rising off the seabed to feed on small planktonic organisms in the water column. Mating takes place in the fall and the females carry their eggs for eight months, from September until April, when larvae are released into the water column. Larvae are initially pelagic, but settle to the seabed by late summer (DFO 2012d).

Snow Crab

Snow crab (Chionocetes opilio) is a decapod crustacean that occurs over a broad depth range (50 to 1,300 m) in the Northwest Atlantic, but is not abundant beyond 200 m depths (Archambault et al 2011). The distribution of snow crab in waters off western Newfoundland and southern Labrador is widespread but the stock structure remains unclear. Snow crab have a tendency to prefer water temperatures ranging between -1.0°C and 4.0°C.

Snow crab migrate to shallower waters to mate, with the increase in temperature speeding up embryonic development. Mating takes place after the female has moulted and fertilization is internal. The fertilized eggs are extruded within 24 hours and are attached to the female’s pleopods (DFO 2010j). Subsequent clutches of eggs can be fertilized by spermatophores stored ventrally. The eggs are incubated for up to 27 months, with embryonic development occurring more quickly in warmer waters (DFO 2010k). Hatching occurs during early spring (April to June), where the larvae, known as zoea, spend 12 to 20 weeks as zooplankton feeding on microzooplankton in the water column (DFO 2010j). There are a total of three larval stages before the snow crabs settle to the bottom.

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It takes on average eight years for snow crab to be large enough (minimum carapace width of 95 mm) to be retained by the fishery (DFO 2010e). Commercial-size snow crab can be found on a variety of substrates but are most common on mud or mud / sand bottoms, while smaller crabs are found within the interstitial spaces of harder substrates. Adult snow crab typically feed on finfish, clams, polychaete worms, brittle stars, shrimp and crustaceans, including smaller snow crab (DFO 2011k).

Surveys of the Northern Gulf completed in between 1990 and 2011 found that the highest catches of snow crab were generally at the head of Esquiman Channel and along the southwest coast of Newfoundland in St. George’s Bay (Archambault et al. 2011).

6.4 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

Marine mammals and sea turtles were selected as a VEC for several reasons. These groups play important ecological roles, are vulnerable to increases in mortality due to historical exploitation and life history traits, and are of considerable economic, cultural and aesthetic value. Specifically, marine mammals and sea turtles were selected as a VEC in this assessment because of:

x regulatory requirements of the Fisheries Act and SARA; x requirements of the Project-specific Scoping Document (C-NLOPB 2012); x the direct interaction between marine mammals and sea turtles and routine Project activities (particularly seismic noise), as well as accidents and malfunctions; and x the ecological, recreational, and commercial importance of marine mammals to society.

The environmental assessment focuses on relevant aspects of marine mammals and sea turtles including life history, conservation status, and known distribution in Atlantic Canada, particularly near the Study Area. The assessment of marine mammals includes baleen whales, toothed whales, porpoises and dolphins, and seals. Sea turtles are also considered in this section. Species of marine mammals and sea turtles that are listed under SARA or considered at risk by COSEWIC are assessed separately in the Species at Risk VEC (Section 6.2). Those species that are not considered at risk but that may interact with the Project are described within this section.

Twenty species of marine mammals and three species of sea turtles are known to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (LGL 2005; Lesage et al. 2007). A list of the species of marine mammals and sea turtles potentially present in the vicinity of the Study Area is provided in Table 6.5; this list includes species at risk that are addressed in Section 6.2. (see Tables 6.3 and 6.4).

Much of the information on distribution and abundance in the Study Area is based upon information form the Western Offshore Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Area Strategic Environmental Assessment (LGL 2005), as well as from recent surveys and reviews of marine mammals (Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009) and sea turtles (James et al. 2006, 2007; Harris et al. 2010) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

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Table 6.5 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles that Occur Within Study Area

Potential Presence Common Name Latin Name Conservation Status in the Study Area During Project Baleen Whales North Atlantic Right Whale Eubalaena glacialis Schedule 1, SARA Low Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata -- Moderate to High Fin Whale Balaenoptera physalus Schedule 1, SARA Moderate Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus Schedule 1, SARA Low Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae -- Moderate Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis -- Low Toothed Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises Harbour Porpoise Phocoena phocoena Special Concern, COSEWIC Moderate Atlantic White-sided Dolphin Lagenorhynchus acutus -- Moderate to High

White-beaked Dolphin Lagenorhynchus albirostris -- High

Long-finned Pilot Whale Globicephala melas -- Moderate to High

Killer Whale Orcinus orca Special Concern, COSEWIC Low Beluga Whale Delphinapterus leucas Schedule 1, SARA Low Northern Bottlenose Whale Hyperoodon ampullatus Schedule 1, SARA Low

Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus -- Low Common (short-beaked) Delphinus delphis -- Low Dolphin Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba -- Low

Sowerby’s beaked whale Mesoplodon bidens Schedule 1, SARA Low Seals Harbour Seal Phoca vitulina -- High Grey Seal Halichoerus grypus -- Low to Moderate

Harp Seal Phoca groenlandica -- Moderate to High

Hooded Seal Cystophora cristata -- Moderate to High Mustelids

North American River Otter Lontra Canadensis -- Moderate Sea Turtles

Leatherback Sea Turtle Dermochelys coriacea Schedule 1, SARA Moderate

Loggerhead Sea Turtle Caretta caretta Endangered, COSEWIC Low

Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle Lepidochelys kempii -- Low Source: LGL 2005; Lesage et al. 2007

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The low, moderate and high ratings for potential presence in the Study Area during the Project are defined as follow:

x Low: based on known life history and distribution, the species is not likely to occur within the Study Area from October to January x Moderate: based on known life history and distribution, the species may occur within the Study Area from October to January x High: based on known life history and distribution, the species is likely to occur within the Study Area from October to January

Marine mammal species that are considered not at risk are discussed below; this includes two baleen whales (minke and humpback), six toothed whales and dolphins (sperm whale, long- finned pilot whale, Atlantic white-sided dolphin, common dolphin, white-beaked dolphin and striped dolphin, and four seal species (grey, harbour, hooded and harp seals). Most baleen whales use the Gulf of St. Lawrence seasonally as feeding grounds, although some individuals are present year-round and it may be an important overwintering area for some species (Lesage et al. 2007). A cetacean distribution study conducted by DFO in the summer of 2007 (Lawson and Gosselin 2009) found dolphins (species unknown) to be the most abundant cetaceans sighted in the Cape Breton, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf survey area. As such, dolphins (four species) are likely the most common cetaceans to be encountered in the Study Area. Research on cetaceans in the Gulf of St. Lawrence has occurred for several decades, although there have been relatively few large-scale systematic surveys. Most previous studies have focused on a particular location and species, and there is little data published in primary or secondary literature; however, some excellent surveys have been carried out in the region, particularly in recent years (Lien 1980; Sears and Williamson 1982; Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009).

Both the harp and hooded seals are migratory species, whereas the harbour and grey seals are resident year-round (DFO 2005a). Research on seals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence has mainly occurred in the Îles-de-la-Madeleine and in the southeastern Gulf (near St. Georges Bay) since the late 1970s; however, more recent research has included the northern Gulf and Estuary.Many of these studies have focused on diet, population size, harvest management and reproduction, with relatively few studies on at-sea movements of seals (Hammill 1993; Goulet et al. 2001; Lesage et al. 2004; Robillard et al. 2005; Lesage et al. 2007; Harvey et al. 2008; Benoît et al. 2011). In addition, the North American river otter, a mustelid, may occur in western Newfoundland waters, including coastal marine waters. Although not strictly speaking a marine mammal, it has adapted a marine lifestyle in the northern portion of its range (Estes and Bodkin 2002; Melquist et al. 2003). Their abundance is in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is unknown, but they prefer river and rugged coastal areas and have moderate potential to occur in the Study Area.

It should be noted that although not included in the list of potential species, ringed seals (Phoca hispida), bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus), and walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) also have occurred historically in the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ringed seals have not occurred since the mid-1960s when ice-breaking began in the Saguenay River (Lavingne and Kovacs

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1988), bearded seals are rare in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Gosselin and Boily 1994), and walrus were exterminated from the Magdelan Islands in the 1700s but may occur very rarely as strays from Arctic regions (Kingsley 1998). These species will not be considered further in the assessment.

Kemp’s ridley sea turtle is the species of sea turtle that could potentially occur within the proposed Study Area that is not considered at risk, it is described in the sections below.

6.4.1 Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises

Minke Whale

Minke whales are a cosmopolitan species that occur in all oceans and in tropical, temperate and polar waters (Brownell et al. 2000). In the Northwest Atlantic, minke whales range from Davis Strait and Baffin Bay to the Caribbean (and possibly further south), and are typically observed in waters less than 200 m. Minke whales are thought to undertake a migration from feeding grounds in the north to calving grounds in the south, although the location of these breeding areas is unknown. Sightings in eastern and southern Newfoundland during winter suggest that some minke whales may remain in Atlantic Canadian waters year-round (Lynch 1987; Lesage et al. 2007).

In Atlantic Canada, minke whales occur ubiquitously throughout Gulf of St. Lawrence, Scotian Shelf, Gulf of Maine-Bay of Fundy, and Newfoundland waters (Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007). The number of minke whales on Canada’s east coast is estimated to be 4,000 individuals, of which 25 percent or more occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Waring et al. 2007). Minke whales in the Gulf show preference for areas with sandy bottoms, which may relate to concentrations of their preferred prey (e.g., sand lance and capelin) (Naud et al. 2003). Minke whales are more common in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence than in the south (Lesage et al. 2007). However, minke whales are less common in western and southern Newfoundland waters than in other areas around the island, a pattern that is also reported for other baleen whales (Lynch 1987; Lawson and Gosselin 2009). Based on long-term studies since the late 1970s, minke whales are known to occur regularly during the ice-free season along the Pointe-des-Monts to Mingan Islands area (Naud et al. 2003). Minke whales also occur in the Strait of Belle Isle, Jacques Cartier Strait, west of Anticosti Island, along the Gaspé, along the west coast of Newfoundland (including Esquiman Channel) and in St. Georges Bay (Lesage et al. 2007). Information is very limited on the occurrence of minke whales in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence but they are known to be common near Cheticamp, Cape Breton between May and October (Hammill et al. 2001).

Although often sighted as single individuals, minke whales also congregate in small groups (i.e., 2 to 3) and can occur in groups of up to 100 individuals in areas where food is concentrated (Perrin and Brownell 2002). Recordings of minke sounds in the St. Lawrence Estuary suggest that the most common call is a 0.4 second downsweep at a frequency that begins at 100 to 200 Hz but ends at 90 Hz; this call may be used to allow for sufficient spacing between individuals while feeding (Edds-Walton 2000).

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Based on the known distribution and abundance of minke whales during the ice-free season in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is anticipated that there is a moderate to high likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area during the Project.

Humpback Whale

Humpback whales occur in all oceans. They undertake long migrations between high latitude feeding areas and lower latitude breeding/calving areas, although some individuals may remain in temperate waters year-round (Clapham 2002; Barco et al. 2002). Humpback whales in the Northwest Atlantic range from the Davis Strait and West Greenland to as far south as the Caribbean Sea, and are known to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009).

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, humpback whales concentrate mainly in the northern Gulf (Lien 1980; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007), but are also reported regularly in western Newfoundland (Lynch 1987; J. Lien, DFO, unpublished data) during the ice-free part of the year. Historically, humpback whales were harvested in the Sept-les/West Anticosti and Belle Isle areas (Mitchell and Reeves 1983). During three summer marine mammal surveys carried out in the Gulf by Lesage et al. (2007), humpback whales were observed to aggregate in the Strait of Belle Isle, at the head of Esquiman Channel, and along the northwestern coast of Newfoundland, with a few sightings also occurring east of Pointe-des-Monts, to the west of Anticosti Island, and in St. Georges Bay. Although humpback whales are abundant in many areas around Newfoundland, they are much less common off the west and southwest coast of the island. It is unclear if humpback whales remain in the Gulf of St. Lawrence year-round or whether they leave during winter to return in spring (Lesage et al. 2007). The number of humpback whales that occur regularly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence has not been resolved.

Stock structure in the North Atlantic is complex and different feeding stocks share breeding/calving areas in low latitudes before returning to their feeding grounds. Humpback whales exhibit relatively strong site fidelity to feeding areas, though some movement among feeding areas has been documented (COSEWIC 2003d). There is no evidence of genetic variation among humpbacks occurring in the four western North Atlantic feeding areas (i.e., western Greenland, Newfoundland and Labrador, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Gulf of Maine/Scotian Shelf (Palsbøll et al. 1995). Total abundance of humpback whales in the North Atlantic has been estimated to be greater than 11,500 individuals; approximately 2,500 individuals are estimated to occur in Canadian waters (COSEWIC 2003d). The western North Atlantic population of humpback whales is considered by COSEWIC to be not at risk (COSEWIC 2003d).

Humpback whales often occur in small groups of two to three individuals but will also aggregate in larger groups (Leatherwood and Reeves 1983). They are well known for their vocalizations and produce sounds in the frequency range of 20 Hz to 8.2 KHz, although the complex songs produced by males have dominant frequencies of 120 to 4,000 Hz (Thomson and Richardson 9XHWDO ZLWKVRXUFHOHYHOVUHSRUWHGWRYDU\EHWZHHQDQGG%UHௗȝ3D (Au et al. 2001).

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Based on the known distribution and abundance of humpback whales during the ice-free season in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is anticipated that there is a moderate likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area during the Project.

Sei Whale

Sei whales have been reported near the Gaspé in the 1970s, and more recently in southwestern Newfoundland (J. Lawson, DFO Newfoundland, unpublished data), but are considered very occasional visitors to the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lesage et al. 2007). They are not considered further in the assessment.

Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin

Atlantic white-sided dolphins are abundant in the North Atlantic in both temperate and sub-Arctic waters (Reeves et al. 1999). Estimates suggest that there may be a few hundred thousand individuals in the North Atlantic (Reeves et al. 1999). There are thought to be three distinct populations in the Northwest Atlantic: the Gulf of Maine, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Labrador Sea (Palka et al. 1997). Little is known about migratory or seasonal shifts in distribution (Gaskin 1992b; Waring et al. 2007). This species is known to occur in large groups of 50 to 60 dolphins and occasionally is seen in the hundreds (Reeves et al. 1999). On the Nova Scotia shelf, the mean group size has been reported to be 8 to 9 individuals (Whitehead et al. 1998). Similar to other toothed whales and dolphins, Atlantic white-sided dolphins produce whistles at frequencies of 6 to 15 kHZ and also use sound for echolocation (Thomson and Richardson 1995).

Atlantic white-sided dolphins are common throughout the Gulf of St. Lawrence, although surveys suggest they are most frequently associated with steep bottom topography (Kingsley and Reeves 1998). Aerial surveys suggest there may be very high inter-annual and seasonal variation in the number of Atlantic white-sided dolphins that occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Kingsley and Reeves 1998). Surveys in August and September 1995 estimated 12,000 individuals in the entire Gulf, but in July of the following year the estimate was only 500 individuals. This species was commonly reported in waters off western Newfoundland during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Lynch 1980), and surveys in August 1995 to 1998 (Tournois 2003) and in late August 1995 and 2002 (Lesage et al. 2007) reported Atlantic white-sided dolphins to be common in the northern and northeastern Gulf, including in the Laurentian Channel, off western Newfoundland and in St. Georges Bay. However, there was high variation in abundance estimate between survey periods. The winter distribution is unknown (Lesage et al. 2007).

Based on the above seasonal distribution and abundance information, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are anticipated to have a moderate high likelihood of occurring in the Study Area during the Project.

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Whitebeaked Dolphin

Whitebeaked dolphins are a cold-water species that occur in the North Atlantic from Davis Strait to Cape Cod, MA. They are known to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lien et al. 2001; Tournois 2003). Although there is no abundance estimate for the Northwest Atlantic, surveys in various parts of their range suggest that a few thousand whitebeaked dolphins occur in eastern Canada and in the northeastern United States (CETAP 1982; Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007). There is no hearing data specific to this species but it is expected to be similar to that of other dolphin species discussed previously.

Although the distribution and migratory behavior of whitebeaked dolphins is not well known, ice entrapments and repeated sightings along the Newfoundland east coast indicate that this species does occur in these waters during winter (Hai et al. 1996; J. Lawson, unpublished data). The 1995 and 1996 surveys by Kingsley and Reeves (1998) estimated that approximately 2,500 individuals occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Surveys to date suggest this population is concentrated in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (Sears et al. 1981; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007), mainly to the west of Anticosti Island and in the Jacques Cartier Strait, as well as in the Strait of Belle Isle/Mecatina plateau area.

Based on the above seasonal distribution and abundance information, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are anticipated to have a high likelihood of occurring in the Study Area during the Project.

Long-finned Pilot Whale

Long-finned pilot whales occur throughout cold and temperate waters of the North Atlantic and in the southern hemisphere. In the Northwest Atlantic they occur from Greenland to Cape Hatteras, NC, including within the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland waters (Tournois 2003, Lesage et al. 2007; Lawson and Gosselin 2009). Pilot whales occur in pods ranging from pairs to hundreds of individuals. Genetic and behavioural studies suggest that these pods may vary in composition over the short-term, but that long-term associations are typically related individuals with little dispersal of males or females from the natal group (Amos et al. 1993; Whitehead et al. 2003). Pilot whales strand relatively frequently as a group and there have been several en masse stranding in Atlantic Canada (Hooker 1997), although the reason for such stranding is unclear. Mass stranding have occasionally been reported in St. Georges Bay (Kingsley and Reeves 1998).

Seasonal inshore to offshore movements may occur in eastern Canadian waters in response to movement of their key prey, shortfin squid (Abend and Smith 1999). Long-finned pilot whales have been reported to occur in inshore waters of Newfoundland during winter (Mercer 1975). Historically long-finned pilot whales were hunted in the North Atlantic, including within Newfoundland waters (Mitchell 1975). There is no estimate of population size in the North Atlantic, but a few thousand are thought to occur within the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Abend and Smith 1999; Waring et al. 2007). The greatest concentrations of long- finned pilot whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are observed in the southern portions of the Gulf, most commonly off northwestern Cape Breton and also in western Newfoundland, including in

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St. Georges Bay (Lien 1980; Kingsley and Reeves 1998; Tournois 2003; Lesage et al. 2007). Sightings are most common in areas that have deep water and steep bottom topography.

Long-finned pilot whales are known to occur in western Newfoundland and are present year- round, particularly in St. Georges Bay area. There is anticipated to be moderate to high likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area.

Sperm Whale

Sperm whales are widely distributed globally and extend from polar waters (edge of pack ice) to tropical regions, but are most abundant in waters with water temperatures greater than 15oC (Whitehead et al. 1992; Jacquet 1996). Sperm whales are deep divers (i.e., depths of up to 3,000 m) and dives may last from 30 minutes to more than 2 hours. This behaviour, in combination with their wide distribution, makes sperm whales very difficult to study. Data on distribution and estimates of post-whaling abundance are limited (Whitehead 2002). Sperm whale distribution is driven by social structure. Mature females and juveniles typically occur in pods in tropical and subtropical waters, while adult males occur singly or in groups with other males, often at higher latitudes, except during the breeding season when they join females in lower latitudes (Whitehead and Waters 1990). Due to this sex-based division in distribution, sperm whales encountered in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are very likely to be solitary, older males. Although predominantly deep divers, male sperm whales also occur in shallower waters (Whitehead et al. 1992). Sperm whales produce very loud sounds (acoustic clicks) that are used for both echolocation and communication (Madsen 202; Whitehead 2003). These clicks are typically in the frequency of 5 to 24 kHz (Madsen et al. 2002).

Sperm whales are not common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and typically are only seen sporadically, although a few individuals do occur regularly, and are more common off western Newfoundland than in other parts of the Gulf (Reeves and Whitehead 1997; Tournois 2003). No sperm whales were sighted during three summer surveys of marine mammals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence by Lesage et al. (2007). However, their distribution in the Gulf is not well known, and lack of sightings may be due to insufficient spatial and temporal coverage. Sperm whales occur in the Gulf at least during the ice-free period, when they are thought to be feeding, but they may be present year-round (Reeves and Whitehead 1997). Surveys of cetaceans on the Scotian Shelf (Whitehead et al. 1998) reported 92 sightings of sperm whales and an average group size of 1.09. The abundance of sperm whales are unknown for any population (Whitehead 2002); however, there are thought to be at least a few thousand in the western North Atlantic (Reeves and Whitehead 1997; Waring et al. 2007; Whitehead 2002). COSEWIC considers sperm whales to be not at risk in Canada.

Sperm whales occur occasionally in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and are more common in western Newfoundland waters than elsewhere in Gulf, and may occur year-round. There is anticipated to be low potential for occurrence in the Study Area.

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Shortbeaked Common Dolphin

Shortbeaked common dolphins are a widely distributed species in all the world’s oceans except for polarregions (Perrin 2002). In the Northwest Atlantic, this species occurs from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras, NC (Gaskin 1992b), and is known to occur in Canadian waters in summer and fall (Waring et al. 2007). Although it was previously thought that this species did not occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, there have been 243 confirmed photo-identifications from three summer surveys in the Gulf (Lesage et al. 2007), and a stranding in the Baie des Chaleurs in 2005. Shortbeaked common dolphins have most frequently been sighted in the Strait of Belle Isle, the Esquiman Channel, and in the Laurentian Channel (Lesage et al. 2007).

Shortbeaked common dolphins occur in deep waters of Gulf of St. Lawrence during summer and fall, and are considered to have low potential for occurrence in the Study Area.

Striped Dolphin

Striped dolphins are common in warm-temperate and tropical waters globally, and have been reported from Greenland to South America (Sergeant et al. 1970; Baird et al. 1993; Gowans and Whitehead 1995). There are an estimated 100,000 striped dolphins in the Northwest Atlantic (Waring et al. 2007).

Although considered unlikely to be seen in the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence, over 20 striped dolphins were observed in the trough northwest of Cape Breton during a shipboard survey (Lesage et al. 2007). A striped dolphin stranded near that area in 1980 (Mitchell 1981) and a striped dolphin also stranded in the St. Lawrence Estuary more recently (Fontaine 2005). These sightings suggest that the species is at least an occasional visitor to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but is unlikely to occur in the Study Area during the Project.

6.4.2 Seals

Harbour Seal

Harbour seals are widely distributed in coastal areas of the North Atlantic and North Pacific (Burns 2002). In the western North Atlantic, harbour seals belong to the subspecies P. vitulina concolor. Harbour seals occur year-round throughout the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lesage et al. 2004). They are considered to be the least abundant of the pinniped species in Atlantic Canada, and their population is estimated to be approximately 10,000 to 15,000 individuals with an estimated 4,000 to 5,000 occurring in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Robillard et al. 2005; Waring et al. 2007).

Distribution information in the ice-free period has been obtained through local knowledge and both small- and large-scale aerial and shipboard surveys (Lavigueur et al. 1993; Robillard et al. 2005; Lesage et al. 2007). Harbour seals are concentrated in the Gulf around Anticosti Island and PEI, and to a lesser extent along the Quebec shoreline and at the Îles-de-la-Madeleine, as well as off western Newfoundland (Robillard et al. 2005; Lesage et al. 2007). Less is known about distribution in the winter, although it appears that harbour seals occupy areas where ice

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conditions remain light to intermediate (Lesage et al. 2004). Little is known about distribution further offshore in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but studies using satellite telemetry suggest that daily harbour seal movements are typically within a few kilometers of haul-out sites. They are generally shallow divers (Lesage et al. 2004), although they are also known to occur further from shore in the northern Laurentian Channel and on the western shelf of Newfoundland (Lesage et al. 2007).

There is high likelihood of harbour seals occurring the Study Area as the species occurs in offshore western Newfoundland and occurs year-round.

Grey Seal

Grey seals are distributed in continental waters on both sides of the North Atlantic. This species is thought to enter the Gulf of St. Lawrence Estuary between April and May to moult and then feed. Following this, grey seals migrate to breedings areas in fall (southern Gulf of St. Lawrence; Sable Island on the Scotian Shelf; or in Maine and Massachusetts) (Lavigueur and Hammill 1993; Hammill and Gosselin 2005; Waring et al. 2007). In the Northwest Atlantic, grey seals form a single genetic population. For management purposes, grey seals in Canadian waters are divided into three groups based on the location of breeding sites used: Sable Island (81 percent of pup production), Gulf of St. Lawrence (15 percent of pup production), and coast of Nova Scotia (4 percent of pup production) (Hammill and Stenson 2011). In 2010, 62,000 of the estimated 76,300 pups born in 2010 were born at Sable Island (Hammill and Stenson 2011).

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, grey seals gather on ice to breed in fall and winter. Following breeding they disperse and are often seen during moulting season (May) and throughout the summer at various locations, primarily concentrated in the Estuary and southern Gulf. Whelping in the Gulf of St. Lawrence occurs on small islands off Cape Breton (e.g., Amet Island and Hay Island) and on the Îles-de-la-Madeleine, as well on pack ice between PEI, mainland Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton Island (Lesage et al. 2007). Females pup between September and March with peak pupping in Canada occurring in January (Hall 2002). Females remain with pups and nurse them for approximately 18 days before mating and dispersing. Outside of the breeding and moulting periods, grey seals haul-out periodically and appear to maintain relatively small home ranges near these haul-out sites. Aggregations of grey seals occur in the St. Lawrence Estuary on Anticosti Island, Mingan Islands, Miramichi Bay (New Brunswick), PEI, and on small islands of Îles-de-la-Madeleine. During the winter months, grey seals mainly occur within the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, and tagging data suggest that Miramichi Bay, Northumberland Strait, and Cape Breton Island may be important overwintering areas (Lesage et al. 2007).

There is a commercial hunt for grey seals in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the coast of Nova Scotia (Hammill and Bowen 2011). The harvest is managed under the Objective Based Fisheries Management approach for Atlantic seals, and the management objective is to maintain an 80 percent probability that the population will remain above 70 percent of the abundance of the largest population size recorded. In recent years, the trophic interactions between the abundant grey seal population and fish stocks in Atlantic Canada have become an

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issue of concern for commercial fisheries and management, and is an important area of research (Hammill and Bowen 2011; Hammill 2011).

There is low to moderate likelihood of grey seals occurring the Study Area during the Project as the species reproduces between September and March and at this time the Gulf population is concentrated in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Harp Seal

Harp seals range throughout the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans and the Gulf of St. Lawrence represents the southern extent of their range (Hammill and Stenson 2011). Harp seals spend summers in the Canadian Arctic and Greenland and in winter, migrate to Newfoundland and Labrador and to the Gulf of St. Lawrence to feed and reproduce; pups are born on the pack ice in February or March (Hammill and Stenson 2011). Pupping occurs in three main areas in Atlantic Canada: in the southern Gulf at Îles-de-la-Madeleine and PEI, in the northeastern Gulf (Mecatina Patch), and off the northeast coast of Newfoundland (The Front). After weaning, females feed in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence or in the Estuary. Males remain on the whelping patch throughout the whelping and breeding period, and then haul out onto ice to moult (Lesage et al. 2007). Most adult harp seals leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence by the end of May, although some harp seals remain year-round (Lesage et al. 2007). Pups appear to follow the ice as its leaves the Gulf (toward Cabot Strait) and then either remain with the ice or move north along the west coast of Newfoundland, heading north via the Strait of Belle Isle in June (Sergeant 1991).

Harp seals are very abundant and were estimated to number around 8 million in 2008 (Hammill and Stenson 2010). Large herds are seen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence throughout winter until late-May. Harp seals are hunted in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence from January to May.

Harp seals are common in the Study Area in late fall to early spring and uncommon at other times of year; it is anticipated that likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area during the Project is moderate to high.

Hooded Seal

Hooded seal range across the North Atlantic and typically occur from as far north as Svalbard (Barents Sea) to Nova Scotia, although it is not uncommon for individuals to occur outside this range (Stenson and Kavanagh 1993; Hammill 1993; Kovacs 2002). This species is highly migratory and spends summers in the Arctic and winters in eastern Canada. In spring, hooded seals congregate in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, north of Newfoundland, in Davis Strait and east of Greenland to breed for two to three weeks (Kovacs 2002). In the Gulf of St. Lawrence pupping occurs near the Îles-de-la-Madeleine, PEI, and Cape Breton Island (Hammill 1993), and represents a small portion of the hooded seal population; the majority of pupping occurs off northeast Newfoundland in Davis Strait (Stenson and Kavanagh 1993; Kovacs 2002). Females pup on loose pack ice and nurse for four days before weaning. Mating then occurs in the water. After breeding, adults move to the northern portion of the Laurentian Channel, before migrating to Greenland coasts where they moult. Some individuals exit the Gulf of St. Lawrence through

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the Strait of Belle Isle, but the majority exit through Cabot Strait. The pups remain with the ice as it drifts from the PEI coast toward Cabot Strait. Some pups may remain in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during their first year, as there are many reports of live and dead hooded seals along the shore (Harris et al. 2001).

Hooded seals disperse widely in summer and fall, and there are no reliable estimates of abundance as hooded seal are difficult to survey for much of the year. The total population was estimated to be nearly 600,000 in 2005, of which a small proportion reproduced in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Hammill and Stenson 2006).

Outside of the breeding season, hooded seals commonly occur as single individuals. Vocalizations are simple and occur in the frequency range of 0.1 to 1.2 kHz (Thomson and Richardson 1995).

Based on known seasonal distributions, it is anticipated that hooded seals have a moderate to high likelihood of occurring in the Study Area during the Project.

6.4.3 Marine Reptiles

Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle

The Kemp’s Ridley sea turtle has a large range in the Northwest Atlantic, and although adults rarely occur outside the Gulf of Mexico, juveniles occasionally occur as far north as Newfoundland and Labrador (Ernst et al. 1994; Breeze et al. 2002). Kemp’s Ridley sea turtles are considered accidental visitors to Canadian waters, which are not considered to provide important habitat for this species. Their occurrence in waters off western Newfoundland is unknown but is expected to be very unusual. The species breeds in Mexico (Rancho Nuevo) and is listed as endangered in US waters under the Endangered Species Act; they do not have legal protection status in Canada.

6.5 Marine Birds

Western Newfoundland has lower abundances of marine birds than other coastal areas of Newfoundland, possibly due to a lack of breeding habitat or because of lower productivity in adjacent waters, where there is less mixing than elsewhere (Lock et al. 1994 in LGL 2005). Nonetheless, hundreds of species can be found in western Newfoundland, including migratory species that visit the area seasonally to feed, mate, overwinter, or breed. Marine birds are protected federally under the Migratory Birds Convention Act which is administered by Environment Canada. Further details on the distribution of marine birds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are synthesized in the Western Newfoundland Strategic Environmental Assessment (LGL 2005; 2007).

Marine birds can be divided into four sub-groups:

x inshore birds; x offshore/pelagic birds;

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x coastal waterfowl; and x shorebirds

Birds considered as ‘inshore birds’ mainly use shallow waters to feed in, and return to shore at night to rest on land. The most common inshore marine birds found in western Newfoundland include Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus), Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia), Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), and Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea). Common Terns, Arctic Terns, Great Black-backed Gulls, Herring Gulls, Ring-billed Gulls and Black-legged Kittiwakes nest in small colonies scattered along the west coast of Newfoundland (LGL Limited 2005), notably near the Bay of Islands, St. Paul’s Inlet areas of Gros Morne National Park, Port au Port Peninsula, and Flat Bay Island near Stephenville Crossing.

Offshore or pelagic birds do not return to land to rest; rather, they feed at sea over deep waters and can rest at sea. These pelagic birds do return to colonies on land to breed, particularly on rocky cliffs and islands; however, few species breed in Newfoundland (DFO 2007b). The most common offshore seabirds in the Gulf include the Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus), Black- legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica), Black Guillemot (Cepphus grille), Common Murre (Uria aalge), Thick-billed Murre (Uria lomvia), and Razorbill (Alca torda). There are estimated to be 18 inshore and offshore marine bird species (referred to collectively as ‘seabirds’) that breed in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and western Newfoundland. Some seabirds are present seasonally in Newfoundland waters, such as the Greater Shearwater and Wilson’s Storm Petrel, both of which nest in the South Atlantic during austral summer, and then migrate to Newfoundland waters to feed during from July to September (LGL 2005, 2007). The greatest abundances of seabirds in western Newfoundland are generally between January and September (LGL 2007), although there are seasonal differences in species composition. In spring, the most common seabirds (April to May) are Double-crested cormorant, Great Cormorant, Herring Gull, Iceland Gull, Great Black-backed Gull, Common Tern and Arctic Tern. During summer (June to September) the most common seabirds in western Newfoundland according to the SEA (LGL 2005) are Northern Gannet, Double-crested Cormorant, Herring Gull, Great Black-backed Gull, Common Tern and Arctic Tern. In the fall (October to December) the most abundant seabirds are the Double-crested Cormorant, Great Cormorant, Herring Gull, Iceland Gull and the Great Black-backed Gull.

There are approximately 18 different species of waterfowl found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including Common Eider and scoter species. Nesting colonies of Common Eider can be found on the Islands of St. John Bay (north of the Study Area), with smaller colonies located in St. Margaret’s Bay, Stearin Island and Bay of Islands (LGL Limited 2005). Notable waterfowl breeding and staging areas are located south of the Study Area near the Codroy River estuary.

Shorebirds are not present in western Newfoundland all year, but rather migrate seasonally to feed in coastal western Newfoundland during late summer to early fall. The most abundant shorebirds in western Newfoundland have historically included White-rumped Sandpipers, Semipalmated Sandpipers, Greater Yellowlegs, Semipalmated Plovers, and Black-bellied

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Plovers (LPL 2005). Important shorebird areas for western Newfoundland are located north of the Study Area (Parson’s Pond), in the southern extent of the Study Area (Port au Port Bay), and further south (St. Georges Bay and J.T. Cheeseman Park/Grand Bay West area) (LGL 2005).

6.6 Sensitive Areas

Several sensitive areas have been identified in the vicinity of the Project (Figure 6-50). Sensitive areas are often associated with rare or unique marine habitat features, habitat that supports sensitive life stages of valued marine resources, and/or critical habitat for species at risk. Sensitive Areas were selected as a VEC due to their importance as unique or critical habitats for various species or species assemblages. Sensitive areas are important socially, culturally, aesthetically, ecologically, and scientifically.

Sensitive Areas within or in the vicinity of the Project Area include Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs), and special marine areas (as defined by the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society). Other identified sensitive areas such as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) occur near but not within the Study Area. These areas are considered further in the following sections.

Many of the sensitive areas discussed in this section were created to recognize the importance of the areas for Species at Risk, commercial species, or other marine fauna; therefore, this assessment is closely linked to the assessment of other VECs.

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Figure 6-50 Sensitive Areas in Western Newfoundland

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6.6.1 Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs)

The Study Area is located within the Gulf of St. Lawrence Integrated Management (GOSLIM) area. Large Ocean Management Areas are regions established by DFO for planning purposes (DFO 2011b). Within the GSL-GOSLIM DFO has designated ten areas as EBSAs. EBSAs are selected based on pre-established biological criteria, including the uniqueness of the area, the concentration of the biological component in each area, and the function of the area for the biological component (DFO 2007b). The EBSAs are created based on the best available information at the time and do not cover all the areas or species that contribute to the dynamics of each ecosystem. As such, each EBSA requires re-evaluation over time (DFO 2011b).

EBSA 10 (the West Coast of Newfoundland) (DFO 2007b), is of particular interest as a portion of the Study Area is located within this EBSA (Figure 8-47). This EBSA covers 18,238 km2 and extends from the Cabot Strait north to the Esquiman Channel. It predominantly covers coastal waters, as well as deeper waters near the head of Esquiman Channel (DFO 2007b). This area is most notable for its importance to groundfish; sections of the EBSA are unique in that entire groundfish populations concentrate there. Western Newfoundland is the main concentration area for juvenile Atlantic cod, redfish, American plaice, and Atlantic wolffish. These species have dense concentrations in this area during periods of spring and fall. The area is also notable for pelagic fishes. The Esquiman Channel serves as a refuge area for Atlantic herring, and a summer feeding ground for the Atlantic herring, spiny dogfish, silver hake (Merluccius bilinearis) and pollock (Pollachius virens). This area also serves as the principal cod spawning area in the region. Capelin and Atlantic herring larvae are also found in abundance in this EBSA. The Esquiman Channel is used by entire populations of fishes as the principal migration route within the GOSLIM area. The northern and southern most sections of this EBSA are known to be frequented by marine mammals.

6.6.2 Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society - Special Marine Areas

In addition to the West Coast of Newfoundland EBSA discussed above, the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS), a non-government organization, has identified four special marine areas within or adjacent to the Study Area (CPAWS 2009). Information on each area is included in Table 6.6.

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Table 6.6 Special Marine Areas in and near the Study Area

Site Name Marine Habitat Special Features Extensive mudflats at the mouth of the bay. The area is a transition zone between Extensive salt marsh. High biodiversity in temperate and Arctic environments. Several the areas with hard substrate. algal and invertebrate species found in the area that occur infrequently. Fish spawning and nursery habitat in the area, eelgrass beds present. Mud substrate in one area considered St. Paul’s Inlet unique. Major staging area for waterfowl and shorebirds in summer and fall. The area has Breeding Killdeer, Semi-Palmated Plover, Common Tern, Arctic Tern, Canada Goose, and Harlequin Ducks. There is also a harbour seal colony present. Bonne Bay hosts more than 20 different Bonne Bay is adjacent to Gros Morne National marine habitats including coastal plain Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. lakes and ponds, low plateau bogs, and The variety of habitats present in Bonne Bay it fjords. is considered the area with the highest Bonne Bay biodiversity in Newfoundland. It also has the highest biodiversity of seaweeds and kelp in eastern Canada. Trout, char, lumpfish, herring, and other species spawn in the bay. Canada Goose and Harlequin Duck nest in the area. There are eelgrass beds in the area, but it The area has productive lobster fishing is otherwise characterized by cliffs and grounds. There is also a colony of over 500 rough topography. There are marine pairs of Black-Legged Kittiwakes in the area. Blow me Down communities in the area typical of sandy seabeds. There is heavy ice scour in the area during the winter months. Habitats around Boswarlos include This area is used by birds during their fall marshes, rocky areas, and coastal migration. Extensive eelgrass beds in the area Boswarlos beaches. Eelgrass beds, patches of as well as abundant scallop beds in the shallow rockweed, and kelp are also present areas. nearshore in the area. Source: CPAWS 2009

6.6.3 Other Identified Sensitive Areas

Codroy Valley-Bay St. George-Port au Port Peninsula Atlas of Significant Coastal Marine Areas

The Codroy Valley-Bay St. George-Port au Port Peninsula Atlas of Significant Coastal Marine Areas (Long Range Regional Economic Development Board 2011) lists two significant coastal and marine areas near the Study Area and three within the Study Area (Long Ledge and two at the mouth of the Serpentine River). The locations of these areas and important features are described in Table 6.7.

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Table 6.7 Significant Coastal and Marine Areas as Designated by the Long Range Regional Economic Development Board

Location Key Feature Additional Features Whales and dolphins frequent the bay. Minke whales are Herring spawning, capelin most common; however, humpback, fin, and pothead whale spawning, lobster, snow crab, St. George’s are also observed. Harbour porpoises are known to use the mackerel, scallop, halibut, flounder, Bay area. redfish, leatherback sea turtle, sharks (blue shark) Atlantic herring use St. George’s Bay and Port au Port for Lobster, herring, sea urchin, and The Ledges spring spawning as well as a fall feeding ground. giant scallop. Capelin spawning occurs at the mouth of the river. The Lobster, herring, Atlantic salmon, Serpentine substrate size ranges from 1 to 50mm and spawning typically sea urchin, and giant scallop. River occurs at this location annually. The mouth of the river is a migration/staging area for Atlantic Capelin spawning, herring, and Serpentine salmon and eastern brook trout that spawn in the river. lobster. River

This area is an important spawning and nursery area for Capelin spawning and herring Long Ledge lobster. spawning. Source: Long Range Regional Economic Development Board 2011

Eelgrass Beds

Other than those noted in the special marine areas (CPAWS 2009), there are no identified eelgrass beds as part of a Sensitive Area within or near the Study Area. Eelgrass beds have been identified along the southern extent of the Study Area (Figure 6-2).

Eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds are productive habitats in coastal areas that serve as important spawning, nursery, and refuge sites for many species. Because of these biological characteristics, eelgrass beds are considered sensitive habitats (Gotceitas et al. 1997; Orth et al. 2006, DFO 2009a). Eelgrass beds have been found to be among the most productive ecosystems globally (DFO 2009a, Beal et al. 2004) and provide a number of important functions and services including (Warren et al. 2010; DFO 2009a; Catto et al. 1999; Gotceitas et al. 1997):

x supporting high diversity; x providing refuge and nursery areas for invertebrates and fishes; x providing food sources for migrating and over-wintering waterfowl; x stabilizing sediments; and x recycling and storing nutrients, and exchanging gases.

A variety of invertebrate species feed on eelgrass directly as well as feed upon associated epiphytes, and in turn, these invertebrates attract species of higher trophic levels including fish and shorebirds. Eelgrass meets DFO’s criteria of an Ecologically Significant Species (DFO 2009a) and is protected under the Fisheries Act. In Newfoundland, surveys to date suggest eelgrass is most abundant on the southwest coast but also occurs in sheltered, coastal areas around the province in areas and at depths where sufficient sunlight penetrates (DFO 2009a).

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Gros Morne National Park

Although Gros Morne National Park is outside the Study Area, it does include areas of the coast and its importance in the region is worth noting. Gros Morne National Park is 1,805 km2 and includes important terrestrial and aquatic habitats. In 1987, the park was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as it is a rare example of an area where continental drift is evident. Deep ocean crust and rocks from the Earth’s mantle are exposed in areas of the park. The park borders Bonne Bay, which is an area considered to have the highest biodiversity in Newfoundland and the highest biodiversity of seaweeds and kelp in eastern Canada (CPAWS 2009).

Bird Habitat

The Important Bird Area (IBA) program is an international conservation initiative coordinated by BirdLife International, designed to use scientific data to identify, conserve and monitor a network of sites that provide essential habitat for birds. In Canada, the partners for this program are Bird Studies Canada and Nature Canada. There are no IBAs within the Study Area. There are three designated IBAs along the western coast of Newfoundland: Gros Morne National Park, Codroy Valley, and Grand Bay West to Cheeseman Provincial Park (Figure 6-50). Table 6.8 lists the species found at each site.

Table 6.8 Important Bird Areas in the Vicinity of the Study Area

Location Site ID IBA Bird Species Grand Bay West to Cheeseman Port aux Basques NF038 Piping Plover (melodus ssp.) Provincial Park Ovenbird (furvois ssp.) Doyles NF040 Codroy Valley Estuary Red Crossbill (pusilla ssp.) Black-capped Chickadee Common Tern Arctic Tern Hairy Woodpecker Rocky Harbour NF045 Gros Morne Bonne Bay Harlequin Duck (eastern population) Ovenbird (furvois ssp.) Red Crossbill (pusilla ssp.) Rock Ptarmigan (welchi ssp.)

6.7 Fisheries and Other Ocean Users

The commercial fishery has been the historic driver of the economy throughout coastal Newfoundland. It remains an important component of the economy throughout the Province. DFO carries out annual Research Vessel (RV) and sentinel surveys to monitor the status of the various commercial species harvested in the fishery including the status and health of underutilized species, species under moratoria, and species at risk.

Data collected by DFO during the 2010 and 2011 RV surveys (Table 6.9) were analyzed to determine the potential for underused species, as well as the most abundant species by catch weight in the Ptarmigan Study Area (NAFO Division 4Rc). In 2010, the highest catches by

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weight were of Atlantic cod (33.7 percent), northern shrimp (17.1 percent), redfish (16.8 percent) and American plaice (6.1 percent). In 2011, the pattern was similar, with Atlantic cod (22.4 percent), northern shrimp (18.7 percent), redfish (12.1 percent), and Greenland halibut (5.2 percent) accounting for the majority of species (brittle stars, sponge, comb jelly and other miscellaneous invertebrates were excluded). Catches of other species were relatively low.

Table 6.9 Species with the Highest Catch Weights during Research Vessel Surveys in NAFO Division 4Rc for 2010 and 2011

Year 2010 2011 Total Weight Landed 1,461.97 1,931.87 (kg) Weight Caught Percent of Total Weight Caught Percent of Total Species (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Alligatorfish 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.00 American plaice 88.91 6.08 48.70 2.52 Atlantic cod 493.04 33.72 434.01 22.47 Atlantic halibut 1.94 0.13 75.86 3.93 Atlantic herring 7.13 0.49 4.29 0.22 Atlantic hookear sculpin 0.46 0.03 0.20 0.01 Atlantic wolffish 34.53 2.36 18.42 0.95 Capelin 3.10 0.21 1.08 0.06 Common grenadier 0.87 0.06 1.05 0.05 Fourbeard rockling 0.36 0.02 0.17 0.01 Fourline snakeblenny 1.74 0.12 0.97 0.05 Greenland halibut 48.60 3.32 100.59 5.21 Mailed sculpin 7.14 0.49 5.45 0.28 Newfoundland eelpout 3.34 0.23 3.42 0.18 Northern hagfish 7.80 0.53 2.45 0.13 Northern shrimp 250.56 17.14 351.04 18.17 Norwegian shrimp 0.24 0.02 0.37 0.02 Redfish (Sebastes spp.) 246.05 16.83 232.99 12.06 Sea urchin 0.31 0.02 0.91 0.05 Sevenline shrimp 0.49 0.03 0.84 0.04 Shortfin squid 5.13 0.35 8.10 0.42 Smooth skate 10.06 0.69 7.05 0.36 Snow crab 1.39 0.09 0.10 0.01 Striped pink shrimp 22.26 1.52 3.05 0.16 Thorny skate 48.10 3.29 18.03 0.93 Witch Flounder 39.91 2.73 7.55 0.39 White barracudina 0.54 0.04 1.43 0.07 White hake 19.07 1.30 33.35 1.73 Yellowtail flounder n/a n/a 2.26 0.12 Source: DFO 2012 (pers. comm) Note: R/V data collected using Campelen 1800 shrimp trawl

The depths at which these species were caught during the 2010 and 2011 RV surveys varied greatly. The mean depth of capture for 2010 was 191.6 m and for 2011 was 174.6 m. The mean depths and depth range (minimum and maximum depths) for species with the highest catch weights are shown in Table 6.10.

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Table 6.10 Mean, Minimum and Maximum Catch Depth during DFO Research Vessel Surveys in 4Rc for 2010 and 2011

Year 2010 2011 Species Mean Catch Depth (m) Range (m) Mean Catch Depth (m) Range (m) Alligatorfish 167.8 126 to 218 77.5 70 to 100 Atlantic plaice 195.4 74 to 310 198.8 48 to 315 Atlantic cod 169 74 to 289 168.6 48 to 315 Atlantic halibut 180 172 to 194 269.5 265 to 274 Atlantic herring 213.5 178 to 294 220 70 to 315 Atlantic hookear sculpin 185.7 98 to 310 195.8 97 to 315 Atlantic wolffish 185.7 98 to 294 115.6 43 to 250 Capelin 241.6 178 to 310 279.1 249 to 315 Common grenadier 246.8 178 to 310 279.1 249 to 315 Fourbeard rockling 242.1 172 to 310 275.8 249 to 315 Fourline snakeblenny 105 74 to 130 99.8 70 to 118 Greenland halibut 238.6 127 to 310 279.1 249 to 315 Mailed/Moustache sculpin 162.2 74 to 294 141.2 43 to 315 Newfoundland eelpout 112.7 98 to 130 95.75 70 to 118 Northern hagfish 234.8 178 to 294 279.5 249 to 315 Northern shrimp 226.6 126 to 310 256.8 97 to 315 Norwegian shrimp 266.8 212 to 310 281.6 265 to 315 Redfish (Sebastes spp.) 204.6 98 to 310 198.9 43 to 315 Sea urchin 147.8 74 to 263 104 48 to 250 Sevenline shrimp 139.1 74 to 216 96.3 70 to 118 Shortfin squid 197.4 98 to 268 279.5 265 to 315 Smooth skate 236.6 172 to 310 276.3 249 to 315 Snow crab 178.8 98 to 310 145.3 43 to 274 Striped pink shrimp 156.3 74 to 234 79.7 43 to 118 Thorny skate 198.7 74 to 310 202.0 48 to 315 Witch Flounder 201.5 74 to 310 224.3 70 to 315 White barracudina 274.5 228 to 310 279.5 249 to 315 White hake 254.6 172 to 310 279.5 249 to 315 Yellowtail flounder 201.5 74 to 310 224.3 70 to 315

Species that were caught at shallow depths (although are not necessarily restricted to shallow depths) include Atlantic cod, fourline snakeblenny, sea urchin and striped pink shrimp. Species that were caught at greater depths included Atlantic herring, white barracudina, capelin, common grenadier, Greenland halibut, northern hagfish, northern shrimp, Norwegian shrimp and smooth skate. Species caught over a wide range of depths included yellowtail flounder, witch flounder, thorny skate, snow crab, Atlantic plaice and Atlantic wolffish.

DFO assessment surveys occur throughout the year in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and seismic activities may avoid overlap. Those surveys planned for 2012 are summarized in Table 6.11. The DFO Science Advisory Schedule will be accessed online (http://www.meds-sdmm.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/applications/events-evenements/index-eng.asp) prior to the start of the Project to determine if there are any DFO activities scheduled to overlap with the Project.

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Table 6.11 Fisheries and Oceans Canada Surveys Proposed for Fall / Winter 2012 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

DFO Region Area Survey Quebec 4RST Sentinel Survey Quebec 4RST and 4Vn PZMA Survey (AZMP) Gulf of St. Lawrence Southern Gulf Snow Crab Survey Gulf of St. Lawrence 4T Sentinel Survey Quebec 4RST, 3PN Groundfish RV Survey Gulf of St. Lawrence Southern Gulf Groundfish RV Survey Gulf of St. Lawrence 4T Herring Survey Quebec 4RST and 4Vn PZMA Survey (AZMP) Source: http://www.meds-sdmm.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/applications/events-evenements/index-eng.asp Accessed July 2012

The following sections provide descriptions of commercially important fish and shellfish species in the Study Area. The descriptions include species that are currently important in western Newfoundland (e.g., herring, snow crab), and those that were historically important (e.g., American plaice, Atlantic cod).

6.7.1 American Plaice

American plaice is not managed by quota in Division 4R and landings have been low as compared with other stocks. There is not currently (2011-12 season) a directed fishery in Division 4R. Since 2006 plaice landings elsewhere in the Gulf have averaged 24 t in the directed fishery, and 84 t as bycatch.

American plaice catch rate distribution during research surveys indicates that the species occurs throughout the Estuary and northern Gulf of St. Lawrence with good catches from the head of the Laurentian, Esquiman and Anticosti channels, and in St. Georges Bay on the west coast of Newfoundland (Archambault et al. 2011). There were fluctuations in mean weights and numbers per tow between 1990 and 2003 with no observable trend; however, weights and numbers were stable from 2004 through 2008. Weight and length have increased since 2009, with 2010 and 2011 being similar (Figure 6-51); additional detail related to changes in plaice population and distribution is provided in Section 6.2.

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-51 Mean Number and Mean Weight for American Plaice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

The distribution of the American plaice catch between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-52. Some catches occurred within the Study Area; however, catches were more concentrated outside the Study Area, both to the south in St. Georges Bay, and to the north in Esquiman Channel.

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Figure 6-52 Distribution of American Plaice Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.2 Atlantic Cod

The reader is referred to the Species at Risk discussion (Section 6.2) for a review of the life history of Atlantic cod. Atlantic cod that are likely to occur within the Study Area are those which normally occupy the area from the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence to the south coast of Newfoundland, covering two DFO stock management units, the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (3Pn, 4RS) and southern Newfoundland (3Ps). In 2011, there was no TAC or defined season set for a directed cod fishery in 4R. There is however a recreational cod fishery in western Newfoundland which is discussed in Section 6.7.

Annual surveys of this stock suggest that abundance and spawning stock biomass remain low. Since 1997, only fixed fishing gear (gillnets, handlines and longlines) have been permitted in this fishery, and the fishery was under moratorium in 2003, but re-opened with lower quotas in 2004. The 2011 directed fishery allocation was not caught (DFO 2012a) The July 2010 sentinel survey in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (NAFO Division 3Pn, 4RST) caught 7,137 kg of Atlantic cod, the third lowest value of the 1995 to 2010 time series. Catch distribution shows that cod in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence occurs primarily in 4R along the west coast of Newfoundland (SLGO 2011). For areas deeper than 36.6 m (20 fathoms), the minimum trawlable biomass index for cod was 36,478 tonnes, amongst the lowest values in the time- series from 1995 to 2010 (SLGO 2011).

The abundance of individuals ages 3+ within the 3Pn/4RS declined from 559 million in 1980 to 31 million in 1994, then it slowly increased to 55 million individuals in 2009 and dropped to 41 million in 2012 (DFO 2012a) as illustrated in Figure 6-53. Over the most recent five years, the average number of adults has been 19 million individuals (DFO 2011a) with a projected 20 million for 2012 (DFO 2012a). As expected with a population collapse, the spawning stock biomass declined from approximately 250 Kt in the mid-1980s to the lowest observed in 1994. In the most recent five years, the spawning stock biomass has averaged 19 Kt, well below the conservation limit reference point that had been established for this stock of 116 Kt. Growth, condition, size and age at sexual maturity for the 3Pn/4RS population decreased in the mid- 1980s and in the early 1990s, which was associated with periods when oceanographic conditions were unfavourably cold. These changes had a negative impact on fecundity and the reproductive rate of the population and were coupled with an increase in the natural mortality rate. The reasons for this increase in natural mortality rate are unclear but may in part be related to poor fish condition, particularly after spawning (DFO 2011a).

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Source: DFO 2012a

Figure 6-53 Estimated Cod Population Numbers (3+ and Mature Population)

The exploitation rate as trended by data collected through the sentinel fisheries program has trended downward since 2006, reaching 7.4 percent in 2010 and 4.8 percent in 2011. These values were compared to those estimated by the sequential population analysis (22 percent in 2010 and 9.2 percent in 2011) and are generally comparable. The 2011 exploitation rate associated with a fishery totalling 1,742 tonnes was 9 percent (DFO 2012a).

Landings of cod then declined continuously until 1993 with vessels using mobile gear generally catching their allocation, whereas those using fixed gear failed to do so. Currently this is the only Atlantic coast cod stock where the directed fishery is only conducted with fixed gear (longlines, gillnets and hand lines) (DFO 2012a). The 2011 total cod directed fishery allocation was not caught. Since reopening in 1997, the allocations have varied between 2,000 to 7,500 tonnes (except in 2003 when the fishery was closed).

The distribution of cod commercial catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-54. These catches are mainly a result of by-catch during other groundfish fisheries. Catch rates were highest south of Port au Port Peninsula, and catches also occurred within the Project Area.

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Figure 6-54 Distribution of Atlantic Cod Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.3 Atlantic Halibut

The Atlantic halibut fishery in the Gulf of St. Lawrence began at the end of the 19th century (DFO 2011f) and catches were high with thousands of tonnes landed annually by Canadian and American fleets. After the 1950s, fishing of Atlantic halibut was almost exclusively Canadian (Atlantic Provinces and Quebec). Catches decreased from over 600 t in the 1960s to 90 t in 1982, but increased steadily and reached 672 t in 2009 to 2010, the highest landings in 45 years (DFO 2011f; Trzcinski et al. 2011).

The current fishery is carried out with longlines and an annual total allowable catch (TAC) is set, though there is bycatch of Atlantic halibut in the gillnet fishery. In 2011 the adjusted TAC for Atlantic halibut in 4RST was 636 t, with a directed-fishery adjusted TAC in Newfoundland (4R) of 161 t. Landings in 2011 in Newfoundland (4R) totaled 161 t (DFO 2012e). In 2011 the Atlantic halibut fishery took place over a 24-hour period, June 28 and 29 (Graney 2011).

In the annual sentinel fishery in the northern Gulf, Atlantic halibut had a low, stable biomass between 1995 and 2003, with a gradual increase up to 2009 (5,327 t). Biomass estimates in 2010 suggest a slight decrease (4,212 t), but still higher levels than prior to 2004 (SLGO 2011). Catches were distributed mainly in the Esquiman, Laurentian and Anticosti channels. Abundance and biomass indices arising from data collected from the summer RV surveys in the southern and northern Gulf have more than tripled in the last 10 years, with values from 2006 to 2008 being some of the highest in the 18-year time series (Trzcinski et al. 2011). Since 2003, the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of the halibut directed longline fishery increased in all NAFO divisions in the Gulf.

The average number and average weight per tow of Atlantic halibut steadily increased between 2000 and 2007, and have remained high (Figure 6-55) (Archambault et al. 2011). Since the mid-2000s, catch rates have shown a marked increase with higher yields per tow. The largest catches are concentrated at depths of approximately 200 m, on the slopes of the Laurentian, Esquiman and Anticosti channels, and in the western sector of the Gulf (Archambault et al. 2011).

The distribution of Atlantic halibut catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-56. This species is common in western Newfoundland, including within offshore portions of the Study Area.

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Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-55 Mean Number and Mean Weight for Atlantic Halibut in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

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Figure 6-56 Distribution of Atlantic Halibut Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.4 Atlantic Herring

Herring catches in western Newfoundland primarily use purse seines, with some use of gill nets (LGL 2005). In 2011 the TAC for 4R was 24,000 t, including 4,600 t specifically allocated for fixed gear. Total landings in 2011 were 23,280 t, or 97 percent of the TAC (DFO 2012e). The TAC for 2012 will remain unchanged. The 2012 fishery by the large-purse seine fleet opened in January, and the remaining fleet sectors opened in April.

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the highest catch rates (kg/tow) for Atlantic herring have been recorded in the St. Lawrence Estuary, along the Laurentian Channel, between Anticosti Island and the west coast of Newfoundland, and in the Strait of Belle Isle (Archambault et al. 2011).

In Division 4R, the probabilities of finding herring were relatively stable between 1993 and 1997 at approximately 40 percent, increased to a maximum of 75 percent in 2000 and 2001, and then fell to 35 percent in 2004. The probability in 2011 is higher than the average of the 1990 to 2010 period as illustrated in Figure 6-57 (Archambault et al. 2011).

Source: Archambault et al. 2011

Figure 6-57 Probability of Finding Herring in 4R, 1988-2012

The distribution of commercial catches of herring between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-58. Catches were high relative to other species and concentrated along the coast within the Study Area, in Port au Port Bay north to Bay of Islands. There is also a high concentration of catches south of the Study Area, in St. Georges Bay. North of the Study Area, catches are mainly restricted to the inshore and Bonne Bay.

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Figure 6-58 Distribution of Atlantic Herring Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.5 Atlantic Mackerel

The Atlantic mackerel fishery uses purse seines in Division 4R, and this fishery has grown substantially in the last decade from a low of 13,383 tonnes in 2000 to a high of 54,279 tonnes in 2005. Landings in Division and Area 4R, increased from a low of 2,000 tonnes in 2000 to a high of approximately 26,000 tonnes in 2003, followed by similar landings in 2004 (23,855 tonnes), which declined to between 14,141 to 16,799 tonnes in 2005 and 2006. The 2007 catches for 4R were 24,577 tonnes (DFO 2008d). The increased landings are directly related to increased landings on both coasts of Newfoundland by seiners. The fishery catches between 2000 and 2005 are supported by the strong 1999 year classes with 2006 and 2007 catches supported by the 2003 year class (DFO 2008d). The year class strengths since the 1999 year class have not been as strong, so there is a degree of uncertainty whether catches of 50,000 tonnes can be continued to be realized (DFO 2008d).

The majority of the catches since 2004 were by purse seines of less than 65 feet, followed by purse seines greater than 65 feet, gillnets and handlines. The catches in eastern Canada are largely underestimated as bait and recreational catches are unreported. A reduction in the daily and total egg production has been estimated since 2002, with the 2007 spawning biomass at 76,532 t, representing one of the lowest values (DFO 2008d).

Distribution of commercial mackerel catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-59. In western Newfoundland and the eastern Gulf of St. Lawrence, mackerel catches were concentrated along the coast, particularly south of Port au Port peninsula in St. George’s Bay, south of the Study Area. Within the Study Area, most commercial catch is in Port au Port Bay and in Bay of Islands.

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Figure 6-59 Distribution of Atlantic Mackerel Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.6 Capelin

The commercial capelin fishery is carried out with purse seines, as well as traps to a lesser extent. The season for capelin is short and corresponds with the pre-spawning period (i.e., spring) for the seine fishery, and the spawning period (i.e., early summer) for the trap fishery (DFO 2011g). Most of the fishing in 4R occurs in June and July and typically occurs in coastal areas between Bonne Bay and Port au Port Peninsula. Division 4R has a TAC of 11,195 t, making it an important fishery in the area as compared with 1,805 t for the combined division 4ST (DFO 2011g).

The distribution of commercial catches of capelin between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-60. Catches were concentrated along the coast between Bay of Islands and Port au Port Peninsula, including within the Study Area, with a small number of catches reported in the offshore portions of the Study Area.

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Figure 6-60 Distribution of Capelin Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.7 Greenland Halibut

A directed fishery for Greenland halibut began in the mid-1970s in the Gulf (NAFO Division 4RST) using gillnets and bottom trawls (DFO 2011h). Along with the moratorium on the Atlantic cod mobile gear fishery in 1993, the trawl fishery for Greenland halibut was also closed; however, the gillnet fishery continues. The largest concentrations of Greenland Halibut are mainly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence estuary, the western sector of Anticosti, and at the head of the Esquiman, Laurentian, and Anticosti Channels (Archambault et al. 2011). Most catches in 2004 were made in the late-spring / early-summer (LGL 2005). In 2011 the TAC Greenland halibut in 4RST was 4,500 t. This includes the directed fixed-gear fishery in western Newfoundland which had a TAC of 617 t in 2011; total landings were 713 t (DFO 2012e).

The distribution of Greenland halibut catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-61. Catches occurred in the offshore portions of the Study Area, but were more frequent to the north in Esquiman Channel, and south in St. George’s Bay.

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Figure 6-61 Distribution of Greenland Halibut Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.8 Lumpfish

Lumpfish is fished for a few weeks during the spring in coastal waters of 4R and other Gulf of St. Lawrence areas. The fishery targets females as the primary market is caviar (DFO 2011f) with little or no market for its flesh which has water content with low fat and protein levels. The fishery does not have a TAC but uses other restrictions (mesh size, number of nets, fishing season). The fishery is conducted on all coasts of Newfoundland but the southern and northern coasts are the main areas of exploitation. Landings from 4R are almost exclusively from the Strait of Belle Isle (DFO 2011x). Although not a main fishery in the Study Area (Figure 6-62), lumpfish remains an important income source for some fish harvesters in 4R (DFO 2011f).

On the west coast of Newfoundland (4R), the annual average of roe landings for the 1969 to 2005 period was 163 tons (DFO 2011f). Landings dropped considerably since 2005 from 264 t (2005) to 11 t (2009) and increased slightly in 2010 (36 t), despite high market prices. As abundance data a lacking, it is difficult to assess the status of the lumpfish stock. However, the most recent assessment (DFO 2011f) suggests lumpfish are overexploited and the population may be at risk. There was little data available for lumpfish catches in 4Rc from the 2010 commercial fishery catches.

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Figure 6-62 Distribution of Lumpfish Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.9 Redfish

The reader is referred to Section 6.2 for a detailed review of Acadian and deepwater redfish.

Catches of redfish (biomass) in the sentinel fishery in the northern Gulf have been declining since 2000, and reached a low in 2009 (30,021 t) and increased slightly in 2010 (41,283 t), but still remains among the lowest biomass values of the time series. Although the biomass has declined, redfish distribution has remained similar between 1990 and 2001, with the highest concentrations located southeast of Anticosti Island in the deep water of the Laurentian Channel (Archambault et al. 2011). In 2011, the redfish fishery in Unit 1 (defined as the Gulf, including 4RST, 3Pn, and 4Vn) was open between June 15 and October 31 (DFO 2011m) and had a total TAC of 2,000 t. The TAC for Newfoundland was 25 t. The total landings in Unit 1 was 645 t, or 32 percent of the TAC (DFO 2012c).

The distribution of redfish commercial catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-63. Catches were concentrated in deep waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Although there were some catches recorded within the Study Area, only two are within the exploration licenses.

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Figure 6-63 Distribution of Redfish Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.10 Witch Flounder

Commercial trawl fisheries for witch flounder began in Newfoundland in the 1940s, and stocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence began to be fished in the 1950s when Danish seiners in Fortune Bay moved in to St. Georges Bay (DFO 2012c). The fishery (Division 4RST) expanded in the 1970s and came under TAC management. The TAC was 3,500 t in 1977, landings decreased during the 1990s, but recovered in 1998 and the TAC was set to 1,000 t in 2006. It has remained at 1,000 t through the 2011-12 season; however, landings in 2011 were 318 t in Division 4R and 124 t in Division 4T (DFO 2012e). In addition to decreased numbers of fish landed, the size of the fish have also decreased with the proportion of large fish (larger than 40 cm in length) decreasing from as high as 80 percent in the 1970s to 10 percent in 2011. Overall, their commercial biomass is thought to have declined by 90 percent since the 1960s (DFO 2012c).

The distribution of all flounder species catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-64. Catches for witch flounder within the Study Area were in the offshore portion, north of the exploration licenses. In 2011, the witch flounder fishery was open from May 15 through December 31 (DFO 2011m).

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Figure 6-64 Distribution of Witch Flounder Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.11 Atlantic Sea Scallop

The Atlantic sea scallop fishery occurs throughout the Atlantic Provinces (Hart and Chute 2004). A hydraulic dredge is used for harvesting within Newfoundland waters (Naidu et al. 2001). The distribution of Atlantic sea scallop in the Northwest Atlantic is shown in Figure 6-65. There are potentially commercially viable populations located in St. George’s Bay, south of the Study Area. The distribution of sea scallop catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-66. In this five year period there were no catches within the Study Area and there was no TAC set for Division 4R (DFO 2012e).

Source: Hart and Chute 2004

Figure 6-65 Distribution of Atlantic Sea Scallop in the Northwest Atlantic

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Figur3 6-66 Distribution of Atlantic Sea Scallop Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.12 Lobster

Lobster is common along the nearshore west coast of Newfoundland. Though the fishery makes up a small portion of the harvest in 4R (less than 2 percent), it is a high-value fishery and important to local fishers. The lobster season in this area occurs in spring from April to early July. The fishery uses lobster traps weighted to the bottom, typically in depths less than 20 m. The Project Area falls within Lobster Fishing Area (LFA) 13B. Fishing occurs from small open boats with traps set close to shore, at depths typically less than 20 m. Fishing effort was largely unregulated until 1976, at which point licenses were required and the trap numbers were regulated. Between 1998 and 2002, a lobster management plan was implemented which reduced licenses by 25 percent, and increased the minimum legal size from 81 mm carapace length to 82.5 mm carapace length. In addition, traps must provide exits for undersize lobsters to escape, and the keeping of undersize, ovigerous and V-notched females is prohibited. Landings in Newfoundland have remained relatively stable over past 50 years, although there has been considerable variation among LFAs, with lobster landings increasing in recent years in LFA 11, 13A, 13B and 14A (western and southern coast) (DFO 2009e).

The west coast of Newfoundland (LFA 13 and 14) supports high catches of lobster relative to other areas in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (DFO 1992) (Figure 6-67).

Source: DFO 1992 Note: Dark areas indicate high landings of lobster relative to other areas

Figure 6-67 The Distribution of Lobster in Atlantic Canada

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During Strategic Environmental Assessment consultations with fishermen in July 2005 (LGL 2005), the inshore area between the outer portion of Port au Port Bay and Shag Island to the north (4Rc) was identified as prime lobster spawning area. Fishermen indicated that lobster fishing grounds in the area between Long Point (outer Port-au-Port Bay) and Shag Island generally yield very large females. Fishers also noted lobster nursery areas near Shoal Point, Outer Bay of Islands located just above North Head LFA (13B; Parcel 6). .

6.7.13 Northern Shrimp

The shrimp trawl fishery began in 1965, and has become a very important fishery in western Newfoundland in recent decades following the collapse of the groundfish stocks. It is a high-value fishery, and occurs between April 1 and December 31, though the majority of shrimp is caught between May and July (LGL 2005). The shrimp fishery is regulated by a number of management measures, including the setting of TACs, imposition of a minimum mesh size (40 mm) and, since 1993, the compulsory use of the Nordmore grate (DFO 2012d). Effort is concentrated in deeper waters (depths greater than 200 m) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A TAC has been set for each fishing area; however, due to interannual variability of the stock, the quota and number of licenses tends to be changed annually.

Landings for shrimp in the estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence rose from approximately 1,000 tons to 7,500 tons between the early and late 1970s, and to 15,000 tons by the late 1980s. Landings remained stable between 1990 and 1995, gradually increasing in 1996 until they totaled over 23,000 tons by the late 1990s with over 36,000 tons landed in 2010 (DFO 2012d). The TAC was reduced by 5 percent in 2011 with preliminary landings recorded as 34,000 tons in 2011. The landing and TAC (blue triangles) for the Esquiman fishing area are presented in Figure 6-68 (DFO 2012d).

Source: DFO 2012d

Figure 6-68 Landing and Total Allowable Catch for Esquiman Shrimp Fishing Area

The distribution of northern shrimp catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-69. There are catches recorded within the Study Area, including a concentration of catches in its northern end. However, catches are more concentrated to the north and west of the Study Area.

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Figure 6-69 Distribution of Northern Shrimp Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005- 2010

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6.7.14 Snow Crab

In western Newfoundland (Division 4R), the snow crab fishery is open from April through June and is conducted using baited conical traps. Off western Newfoundland the crab fishery is divided into two areas: 4R Offshore and 4R Inshore (DFO 2012f).

Landings in 4R Offshore declined by 83 percent between 2007 and 2010 to a historical low of 30 t, but increased to 150 t in 2011. This may be attributable to an increased level of effort, a factor of four, in 2011. The TAC in the offshore area has not been caught since 2002. Overall the commercial biomass (i.e., crab with a carapace width of 95 mm or greater) remains low and recruitment has been low in recent years (DFO 2012f).

Landings in 4R Inshore declined by 80 percent between 2003 and 2010 to a historical low of 190 t, but increased to 450 t in 2011. As with the offshore crab fishery in the region, this may be attributable the level of effort, which was doubled in 2011. The TAC in the inshore has not been caught since 2003. The commercial biomass in the inshore has increased since 2009 along with recruitment (DFO 2012f).

The distribution of snow crab catches between 2005 and 2010 are shown in Figure 6-70. There are a large quantity of catches reported for the Study Area relative to other shellfish species. However, there are substantially more reported further north along the Northern Peninsula, and also to the south in St. George’s Bay.

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Figure 6-70 Distribution of Snow Crab Catches in Western Newfoundland, 2005-2010

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6.7.15 Other Marine Users

Commercial fishing has long been a major focus of economic activity for western Newfoundland and it remains an important economic base for small communities. Other commercial activities in the Study Area include seal hunting and commercial shipping, as well as marine-related tourism. In addition to commercial activities, there are a number of recreational activities undertaken in, and adjacent to, the Study Area, including hunting, fishing and boating. These activities are described below in the context of the Study Area and potential interactions with the Project.

Aboriginal Fishers Newfoundland

The Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation is active on the west coast of Newfoundland, with members living between Cape Ray and Woody Point. In 1999, the Supreme Court of Canada handed down its decision in the Marshall case, which essentially agreed that the Treaties signed in 1760 and 1761 by Mi'kmaq and Maliseet communities include a communal right to hunt, fish and gather natural resources in pursuit of a 'moderate livelihood' (DFO 2011n; Gaudet and Leger 2011). In response, DFO began to negotiate interim fishing agreements in order to provide First Nations communities with the opportunity to enter commercial fisheries (though some communities already held Communal Commercial Fishing Licenses at this time). The number of licenses held by First Nations is divided into Communal Fishing Licenses that grant permission to fish for food and social and ceremonial purposes, and Communal Commercial Fishing Licenses that allow fishers from First Nations to sell their catch (DFO 2011n).

The Allocation Transfer Program is a process for voluntary retirement of commercial fisheries licence holders and the re-issuance of such licences to appropriate Aboriginal groups. The program is therefore designed to provide Aboriginal groups with employment and income while not placing additional burdens on existing resources (DFO 2011n). The main species harvested in Aboriginal fisheries in the Gulf are snow crab, lobster, rock crab, alewife / gaspereau, mackerel, shrimp and smelt. In 2007, $22 million in revenue was generated through the Communal Commercial Fishing License program in the Gulf Region, and $15 million was generated in the Quebec-Maritime Region (DFO 2011n). Snow crab and lobster are the most valuable species (Gaudet and Leger 2011).

The Qalipu Mi’kmaq First Nation is the sole owner of a company named Mi’kmaq Commercial Fisheries Inc. in NAFO Division 4R and owns five core enterprises with vessels under 39’11”. All five possess a groundfish licence, with four having a lobster licence, and three possessing a crab quota. There are pelagic fixed gear licences associated with three of the enterprises as well (DFO 2011o).

The Aboriginal Aquatic Resource and Oceans Management program provides funding to qualifying Aboriginal groups to establish aquatic resource and oceans management bodies. For eligible groups, funding was available to obtain access to commercial fishery opportunities (including vessels and gear) and to build the capacity of groups to take advantage of aquaculture opportunities. One such body has been set up for Western Newfoundland, whereby the Qalipu and Conne River Band have formed the Mi'kmaq Alsumk Mowimsikik

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Koqoey Association (MAMKA). MAMKA holds four enterprises with vessels less than 39’11”. All four of these enterprises hold a lobster licence, with two of them holding a groundfish and snow crab quota. There are also pelagic fixed gear licences associated with three of the enterprises (DFO 2011o).

During the Western Newfoundland SEA (LGL 2005) public consultation process, Mi’kmaq groups from the area reiterated the province’s requirement to notify Aboriginal peoples about any land development issues. Historically, in the 16th and 17th centuries the Mi'kmaq created a "Domain of Islands" in the Gulf (Heritage NF 1997). Initial consultations by Ptarmigan with the Qalipu indicate there is no overlap between their fishing areas and the Project.

Recreational Fisheries

Statistics from the Maritime, Gulf and Newfoundland and Labrador regions suggest that recreational fishing has declined in recent years, though the value to the provinces has increased (Gaudet and Leger 2011). In Newfoundland and Labrador, recreational fishing may take place in coastal and inland waters. Salmon Fishing Areas (SFAs) of the western Newfoundland region are SFA 13 (Cape Ray-Cape St. Gregory) and SFA 14A (Cape St. Gregory-Cape Bauld) (DFO 2012a). Of the 186 scheduled salmon rivers in Newfoundland and Labrador, there are 13 that empty in or near the Study Area (7 in SFA 13 and 6 in SFA 14a). Preliminary salmon river catch data for 2011 are presented by coastal area in Table 6.12. Catch indicates small and large, retained and released. CPUE indicates catch-per-unit-of-effort (effort in rod days) (DFO 2012a).

Table 6.12 Salmon River Catch Data for Western Newfoundland Coastal Areas, 2011

Effort River Catch CPUE (Rod Days) SFA 13 Harry’s River 4,311 1,318 0.31 Fox Island River 420 276 0.66 Serpentine River 1,012 352 0.35 Cook’s Brook Closed to Angling Humber River 14,660 6,406 0.44 Hughes Brook 41 72 1.76 Goose Arm Brook 138 56 0.41 SFA 14a Trout River 76 29 0.38 Lomond River 2,327 862 0.37 Deer Brook 420 203 0.48 Western Brook No Data Parsons Pond River 62 17 0.42 Portland Creek 1,549 455 0.29 Source: DFO 2012g

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A recreational groundfish (cod) fishery takes place annually in the Study Area. The fishery occurs over two periods each summer and early fall. The dates for the 2012 fishery are July 21st to August 12th and September 22nd to 30th. As a result, there is no interaction with the Project.

Aquaculture

Marine aquaculture remains as an important industry throughout the Gulf, particularly as the number of commercial fisheries has declined. Aquaculture has experienced rapid growth in eastern Canada over the last two decades in response to a growing demand for seafood, declining wild stock fisheries and technological improvements in fish farming practices. Approximately 1,741 (2010) active aquaculture sites exist within the Gulf, with the large majority concentrated in PEI and the Gulf coast of New Brunswick. The majority of finfish (Atlantic salmon / rainbow trout) operations in the Gulf are land-based (hatcheries / fish-out ponds) and are concentrated along the north shore of Nova Scotia, with a few seasonal marine grow-out sites distributed along western Newfoundland (Atlantic cod). Due to exposure to heavy winds and potentially long ice-bound seasons, the western Newfoundland coastline is not as suitable for aquaculture as other areas of the Province or the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Alexander et al. 2010; Gaudet and Leger 2011). Due to the limited aquaculture activities in the Study Area, it is not expected to interact with the Project.

Seal Hunting

The commercial seal hunt in Atlantic Canada dates back over 200 years. The industry grew throughout the 20th century, largely to meet the demand for fur (Alexander et al. 2010). Today the number of sealers is greatly reduced, but the hunt remains a valuable economic and cultural practice in the Gulf and Newfoundland and Labrador regions. In the Gulf, two species are harvested: harp seal and grey seal. The majority of sealing occurrs between March and May in the Gulf. Estimated landed value (based on average prices paid to sealers) of harp seals (Atlantic Canada) in 2001 was $5.5 million; however, the value increased to $21 million in 2002 due to extremely favourable market conditions. In recent years, personal use sealing licenses have been issued to residents adjacent to sealing areas in Newfoundland and Labrador (south of 53°N latitude), the Quebec North Shore, the Gaspe Peninsula and the Iles-de-la-Madeleine (Alexander et al. 2010, Gaudet and Leger 2011).

There is not likely to be an interaction between the Project and seal hunting because they will not occur at the same time.

Bird Hunting

The hunted bird species and open seasons in the Western Newfoundland Migratory Game Bird Coastal Zones are posted in the provincial Hunting and Trapping Guide, published annually by the Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Environment and Conservation. Migratory game birds (ducks, geese, snipe) are managed by the federal government under the Migratory Birds Convention Act. (NLDOEC 2012). The main groups of birds hunted in coastal zones (i.e. that portion of the coast lying within 100 m of the mean ordinary high-water mark, including the

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coastal portions of offshore islands and the adjacent marine coastal waters.) are the seaducks (eiders, scoters and Long-tailed Ducks), Common and Thick-billed Murres, mergansers, geese and snipe. There is no open season for Harlequin Ducks. To hunt migratory game birds you must possess a valid Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit (NLDOEC 2012).

Open season for ducks is September 15 to December 29, 2012, with the exception of Long- tailed ducks, eiders and scoters, which is November 24, 2012, to February 28, 2013 Murre Hunting Zone 3 is within the Study Area and the season is November 25 to March 10. This hunt is open only to residents of Newfoundland and Labrador (NLDOEC 2012).

Marine Traffic

The Gulf region contains one of the major seaways of the North America. The majority of ship traffic enters and exits the Gulf via Cabot Strait (Figure 6.71). The Gulf accommodates approximately 6,400 commercial vessel transits annually supporting domestic and international trade and transport (Alexander et al. 2010). In addition, a number of commercial ferry routes exist throughout the Gulf including North Sydney, NS to Port aux Basques, NL, which passes south of the Study Area.

The Port of Corner Brook is located within the Study Area. Between October 1, 2011 and January 31, 2012 there were 39 recorded trips to the port of Corner Brook (pers. comm., J. Chow, Port of Corner Brook. Approximately 25 percent of these were associated with the Kruger paper mill in Corner Brook (J. Chow, pers. comm.).

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Source: Geocentric Mapping Consulting 2002, in Alexander et al. 2010 The arrow width represents vessel counts in the shipping corridor (traffic density); the color indicates the countries and continents of origin. Major ports are represented by a specified number of inbound transects.

Figure 6-71 Atlantic Inbound Vessel Transect Density Map: Inbound Cargo and Tanker Shipments in 2000

Tourism and Recreational Activities

Marine tourism and recreation is an industry experiencing growth throughout the Gulf, including increased cruise ship activity, offshore excursions (whale watching and marine tours), recreational boating, and recreational use of coastal areas (hiking, diving, kayaking). Owing to the climate, much of marine recreation and tourism activities occur from spring to fall (Alexander et al. 2010). The interaction between the Project and recreational activities will be minimal because the Project will proceed from October to January, which is largely outside the time period of recreational marine activities.

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7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ASSESSMENT

This section focuses on the assessment of the potential environmental effects of routine and accidental Project activities on the VECs selected for analysis. The effects assessment follows the methodology described in Section 4.0. The primary potential environmental effects of the Project on identified VECs (Table 7.1) include changes in habitat quality, potential mortality of marine life, and change in fisheries/other uses due to the following activities:

x waste generation (e.g., sanitary or domestic waste); x presence of vessels, including routine discharges (e.g., bilge water, deck discharge); x 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise); x lighting; and, x routine air emissions from vessels.

Accidental events and interaction with other projects and activities are also assessed. The interactions between Project activities, accidental events and other projects and activities with each VEC are summarized in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Potential Project Activity-VEC Interactions

Project Activities Users Shellfish Other Ocean Marine Birds Fisheries and and Fisheries Species at Risk and Sea Turtles Sea and Areas Sensitive Marine Fish and and Fish Marine Marine Mammals Mammals Marine Routine Project Activities Waste generation (sanitary and domestic) 99999 Presence of vessels 99999 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) 99999

Lighting 999 Air emissions 999 Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill (vessel) 999999 Loss of product from streamers 999999 Cumulative Environmental Effects (Other Projects and Activities) Marine traffic 999999 Commercial fisheries 999999 Oil and gas activities N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

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7.1 Change to the Project That Could Be Caused by the Environment

The physical environment of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and western Newfoundland was described in Section 5.0. Successful geohazard and seismic exploration surveys have occurred in Newfoundland for over twenty years within the current regulatory regime. The potential changes to the Project that could be caused by the environment include:

x Sea ice and icebergs in winter x Weather and sea conditions (extreme condition may alter schedule and program operations) x Seismic activity (i.e., earthquakes) x Shark biting

The schedule for the Project is from mid-October to January. In offshore western Newfoundland, there is low potential for sea ice based on historical records; however, there is a possibility of sea ice in December and January and this will be considered during Project planning. As icebergs occur in the spring and early summer, there is no interaction with the Project. More likely, seismic survey activities could be affected or limited by wind and wave conditions. Seismic survey operators generally stop operations once wind and wave conditions reach thresholds where the ambient noise can disrupt data collection. Safety and proper collection of data will be a primary concern during declining weather conditions and will determine the continuation of operations. In the case of severe weather, the Project vessels will return to port. The operator and contractor are familiar with weather and sea conditions in Atlantic Canada and limitations they impose. Project vessels will be certified for Canadian waters and adhere to Transport Canada and Canadian Coast Guard regulations.

Natural seismic activity in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and eastern Canada is discussed in Section 5.2. There is very low potential for earthquakes of considerable magnitude to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and therefore there is no likely effect of earthquakes on the Project.

There is a very low potential for interactions between sharks and the solid streamers. Although large sharks are relatively uncommon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, anecdotal evidence from other areas suggests that sharks have damaged streamers in the past. Streamers will be inspected regularly for damage, include breaks by shark bite. In the event a streamer is damaged, the vessel will return to port for replacement or repair.

The following mitigation measures will be applied to reduce the potential effects that could be caused by the environment:

x possible natural hazards will be considered and incorporated into Project planning (including hurricanes and earthquakes) as relevant and in keeping with the risk and likelihood of their occurrence; x monitoring of 24-hour and longer term weather forecasts will be conducted to anticipate increased wind and waves due to storms to support suspension of operations and management of safety concerns and to ensure success of data collection; and

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x Surveys will not be conducted in areas with hazardous ice conditions.

Effects of the environment on the Project are anticipated to be not significant with the application of the above mitigations.

7.2 Environmental Effects of Project on the Environment

The potential environmental effects of the proposed seismic survey on the identified VECs (Species at Risk, Marine Fish and Shellfish, Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles, Marine Birds, Sensitive Areas, and Fisheries and Other Ocean Users) are addressed in the following sections. Project activities that may interact with VECs include waste generation (sanitary and domestic) causing potential contamination, the presence of the vessels, 2D and 3D seismic activities resulting in survey-related underwater noise, lighting from the vessels, and air emissions. Underwater noise resulting from the seismic activities represents the environmental effect of greatest concern and will be discussed in detail. The potential interactions between routine Project activities and VECs are shown in Table 7.1. There is also potential for accidental events to occur, including the release of hydrocarbons, and the loss of product from streamers if fluid- filled streamers are used.

7.3 Species at Risk

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on SAR are evaluated. Cumulative environmental effects of the Project in combination with other projects and activities are assessed in Section 7.9. SAR includes the marine fish, marine mammals, sea turtles, and marine birds that have been listed under Schedule 1 of SARA or that have been assessed by COSEWIC as at risk; these species have been previously described in Section 6.2.

There is potential for the Project activities to interact with SAR. However the likelihood of occurrence in the Study Area between October and January differs among species, as does relative sensitivity to Project activities. There is greatest concern for those species with high likelihood of occurring and/or high sensitivity to Project activities (such as marine mammals). Based on the available information presented in Section 6.2, the SAR that may occur within the Study Area during the Project time frame, or that exhibit greatest sensitivity to increased sound, are listed in Table 7.2.

Those species at risk that are considered to have low likelihood of occurring in the Study Area during the scheduled time frame based on known distribution data include North Atlantic right whale, beluga whale, northern bottlenose whale, killer whale, Sowerby’s beaked whale, loggerhead sea turtle, Ivory Gull, Eskimo Curlew, Piping Plover, Harlequin Duck, Barrow’s Goldeneye, white shark, northern wolffish, Atlantic bluefin tuna, roundnose grenadier, deepwater redfish, cusk, Atlantic sturgeon, spiny dogfish, blue shark, thorny skate and basking shark. As such, due to the unlikely potential interaction of the Project with these SAR, the likelihood of environmental effects on them is very low and it is extremely unlikely that there could potentially be any significant environmental effects.

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Table 7.2 Species at Risk of Greatest Concern for Project-Interaction

Species Conservation Status Marine Mammals Blue whale (Atlantic population) Schedule 1, SARA (Endangered) Fin whale (Atlantic population) Schedule 1, SARA (Special Concern) Harbour porpoise (Northwest Atlantic population) Schedule 2, SARA (Threatened) Sea Turtles Leatherback sea turtle (Atlantic Ocean) Schedule 1, SARA (Endangered) Marine Fish Spotted wolffish Schedule 1, SARA (Threatened) Atlantic wolffish Schedule 1, SARA (Special Concern) Atlantic cod (Laurentian North, Laurentian South, COWEWIC (Endangered) Newfoundland and Labrador, and Southern populations) Winter skate (Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence and COSEWIC (Endangered) Northern Gulf-Newfoundland population) Porbeagle shark COWEWIC (Endangered) Acadian redfish (Atlantic population) COWEWIC (Threatened) Shortfin mako COSEWIC (Threatened) Atlantic salmon (Anticosti Island, South Newfoundland, COWEWIC (varying status among populations ranging Gaspé-Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec from Endangered [Anticosti Island population], to Eastern North Shore, Quebec Western North Shore, Threatened [South Newfoundland population] to Special Inner St. Lawrence populations) Concern for remaining four populations) American plaice (Maritimes, Newfoundland and COWEWIC (Threatened) Labrador population) American eel COWEWIC (Threatened)

The potential interactions between Project activities and SAR are provided in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Project-Related Interactions – Species At Risk

Change in Habitat Project Activities Potential Mortality Quality 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) x x Presence of vessels x Sanitary and domestic waste x Lighting x Air emissions x Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel x x Loss of product from streamers x x Cumulative Environmental Effects Marine traffic x x Commercial Fisheries x x Oil and Gas Exploration and Development N/A N/A

7.3.1 Significance Definition

A significant adverse residual environmental effect on SAR is one that, after application of feasible mitigation, will result in any of the following:

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x A non-permitted contravention of any of the prohibitions stated in Sections 32-36 of SARA occurs (i.e., it is an offence to capture, take, possess, collect and sell endangered or threatened species, as well it is illegal to damage or destroy the residence, for example the nest or den, of an endangered or threatened species), or in the case of marine Species of Special Concern listed in Schedule 1 of SARA, where the Project activities are not in compliance with the objectives of management plans (developed as a result of Section 65 of SARA) that are in place at the time of relevant Project activities; x Alters the marine habitat quality within the Study Area, in such a way as to cause a change or decline in the distribution or abundance of a marine SAR population that is “at risk” that is dependent upon that habitat such that the likelihood of the long-term survival of these populations within the Study Area is substantially reduced as a result; and, x Or the direct mortality of individuals or communities occurs such that the likelihood of the long-term survival of these “at risk” SAR within the Study Area is substantially reduced as a result.

An adverse environmental effect that does not exceed the above criteria is considered to be not significant.

7.3.2 Mitigation

The following technically and economically feasible mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate potential adverse environmental effects of the Project on SAR have been identified:

x The Project will adhere to the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment; x A Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Observer will be employed during all seismic surveys; x Ramp-up procedures will be implemented during all seismic surveys; x Ceasing of seismic operations if observer sights species at risk within ramping-up period; x Vessels will reduce speeds when marine mammals and sea turtles are observed; x The use of strategies to detect and avoid marine mammals during night time (i.e., when Marine Mammal Observers are unable to use visual surveys) will be encouraged during seismic surveys. x Presence of FLO onboard to communicate with other vessels; x All wastewater discharges to comply with the OWTG and ship operations will adhere to Annex of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) and Pollution Prevention Regulations of the Canada Shipping Act; x Solid waste will be transported to shore and recycled where possible; and x Equipment will be designed to meet regulatory requirements for emissions, and regular maintenance plans will be followed to allow equipment to operate as efficiently as possible.

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Note that the ramp-up procedure is the gradual (over 20 to 30 minutes) increase of the number of sleeves fired simultaneously within an array from the air gun. This ramping up period is included to provide time for mobile marine animals such as marine mammals, sea turtles and fish to leave the area of influence.

In the following section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on Species at Risk (Marine Fish, Marine Mammals, Sea Turtles, and Marine Birds) are evaluated. Although this section is included in the assessment for SAR, the information is also applicable to non-listed species. Information in these sections was obtained from summaries presented within the Western Offshore Newfoundland SEA (LGL 2005), as well as more recent literature.

7.3.3 Marine Fish Species at Risk Effects Assessment

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Survey

Underwater sound from Project activities has the potential to change habitat quality and potential mortality and can affect SAR in a variety of ways depending on source levels, duration of exposure, proximity of sound source, species sensitivities and environmental conditions, among other factors.

Evidence to date suggests the most likely response of marine fish (both at risk and unlisted species) is a startle response to sudden survey noise (air guns) and behavioural responses (i.e., shift in depth or change is swimming direction); these responses are predicted to be short-term and highly reversible (DFO 2004b; LGL 2005; Payne et al. 2008; DFO 2011f). Throughout the survey, the proponent and operator will adhere to the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment, will have a Fisheries Liaison Officer (FLO) onboard, and will use ramping up procedures. Due to the mitigation that will be imposed and due to the temporary nature of behavioural environmental effects, noise is considered a not significant environmental effect on marine fish species at risk, however potential environmental effects are discussed below for completeness and to support this conclusion.

The most intense sound source associated with this Project is the 2D and 3D seismic energy that will be generated during the proposed 54-day seismic program. This program will use one seismic vessel to survey a 1,014 m2 (maximum) area within the Study Area. The specific Project parameters related to the proposed seismic survey are detailed in Section 2. Some sound levels reported for natural and human generated ambient underwater noise are provided in Section 5.10.

All fish have some ability to detect sound, although species differ in hearing ability and sensitivity to sound (Fay and Popper 2000; Kasumyan 2005). Fish use two sensory systems to detect water motions: the inner ear (there is no outer or middle ear) and the lateral line system. The ear serves to detect sound up to hundreds or even thousands of Hz (depending on the species), whereas the lateral line detects low-frequency sound (e.g., less than 100 Hz), but is generally considered to be primarily a detector of water displacement (Slabbekoorn et al. 2010). Fish with swim bladders and specialized auditory couplings to the inner ear (e.g., herring), are

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considered to be hearing specialists (Fay 1988). Fish species that possess a swim bladder but lack specialized, auditory couplings to the inner ear (e.g., Atlantic cod) are moderately sensitive to sound pressure, while those species with a reduced or absent swim bladder (e.g. wolffish, spp., American eel and American plaice) have low sensitivity to sound (Fay 1988). Fay (1988) developed an approximate threshold for each of these three classifications of hearing sensitivity: the highly sensitive group have a hearing threshold of less than 80 dB re 1 μPa; the moderately sensitive threshold is between 80 and 100 dB re 1 μPa; and those fish with a low threshold have a sensitivity to sound greater than 100 dB re 1 μPa. In comparison, underwater ambient noise in bad weather is in the range of 90 to 100 dB re 1 μPa, and large tankers may have a source noise level of 170 dB re 1 μPa @ 1 m. A comparison of moderately sensitive species showed a measurable behavioural response to sound at 160 to 188 dB re 1 μPa (Turnpenny and Nedwell 1994).

Another potential environmental effect of increased noise is the possibility of masking communication among fish as well as the ability to detect prey and predators. In general, the sounds produced by fish have broadband signals concentrated at less than 500 Hz, although this varies among species, sex and populations (Slabbekoorn et al. 2010). Fish are known to produce sounds in spawning aggregations (Saucier and Baltz 1993; Aalbers 2008) and courtship interactions (Myrberg et al. 1986; McKibben and Bass 1998). Sounds could serve in aggregating reproductive groups, and may contribute to a synchronized release of eggs and sperm (Myrberg and Lugli 2006). Recent experimental evidence has shown that sounds can modify mate choice decisions in fish. An acoustic effect on sexual preferences was also inferred for Atlantic cod in which the male drumming muscle mass was correlated with mating success (Rowe et al. 2008). Although sharks, skates and rays have relatively poor hearing sensitivity as compared to other fishes, a study by Myrberg (2001) reported that these taxa approached irregularly pulsed broadband sounds, which could be indicative of using sound to detect the presence of struggling prey (Myrberg 2001). Similarly, members of the genus Laos have been found to be capable of detecting ultrasound (up to 180 kHz), which could allow detection and avoidance of whales that use echolocation (Popper at al. 2004; Doksæter et al. 2009).

Reviews of studies of the effect of seismic sound on marine life by DFO (DFO 2004b; 2011p; Payne et al. 2008; DFO 2011b) seismic sound exposure at field operating levels, although it is possible that fish kills have occurred and not been observed (DFO 2004a; DFO 2011a). Under laboratory conditions, mortality or injury to eggs and larvae have only been observed at close range and at high intensity sound (DFO 2004b, 2011p, Payne et al. 2008). In a laboratory experiment on monkfish eggs, Payne et al. (2009) determined that the difference between eggs exposed to sound pressure levels at 205 dB peak to peak and that of the control group was not statistically significant 48 to 72 hours after exposure. The authors concluded that seismic surveys are unlikely to pose any threat to monkfish eggs or larvae that may float in veils at the surface during monkfish spawning (Payne et al. 2009). However, there has been well- documented evidence of immediate changes in behaviour such as a startle response and avoidance behaviour (e.g., change in swimming direction, movement out of area of sound) (McCauley et al. 2000a, 2000b; Wardle et al. 2001; DFO 2004b; Løkkeborg 2010). Such responses most commonly occur within the area of the seismic program, but have been observed to occur in fish located tens of kilometres away from the site (Engås et al. 1996).

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Studies suggest that normal behaviour patterns commonly return within thirty minutes of the seismic response (McCauley et al. 2000a, 2000b); therefore, behavioural effects are expected to be short-term, and non-lethal. As well, a ramp-up approach may reduce the startle response.

To date, data are inadequate to evaluate the likelihood of sub-lethal effects on fish exposed to seismic noise under field operating conditions. Under experimental conditions, sub-lethal and/or physiological effects (including adverse hearing effects) have been observed in fish exposed to an air gun in some cases (often at close range and high intensity) (LGL 2005). A summary of fish injuries caused by exposure to sound pressure is provided in Figure 7-1. Auditory damage is thought to begin at 180 dB and internal injuries may occur beyond 220 dB. The seismic source energy during the seismic program will be concentrated at 220 dB and Peak Sound Pressure Level is expected to be less than 220 dB (refer to Section 2.2.).

Source: adapted from Turnpenny and Nedwell 1994. Note: Dotted line indicates an assumed sound level rather than an estimated one.

Figure 7-1 Sound Pressure Threshold (dB) for the Onset of Fish Injuries

There have been several studies that have examined the effects of long-term noise exposure on fish (Scholick and Yan 2001; Amoser and Ladich 2003; Smith et al. 2004; Wysocki et al. 2006). These studies suggest that fish which are hearing specialists often demonstrate temporary hearing loss when exposed to increased background noise levels for 24 hours or more, whereas fish species that are hearing generalists may not experience hearing loss. The amount of hearing loss that occurs in fish may be correlated to the sound pressure level of the noise relative to the hearing threshold of the fish.

For the proposed Project, the potential adverse environmental effect from noise for marine fish species at risk is greatest for those species that undergo spawning and/or mating in the Study Area at the time of the survey (refer to Section 6.2). Kulka et al. (2007) hypothesize that it is possible that adult wolffish guarding nests could abandon the egg cluster due to disturbance by loud noise such as seismic sound, although there is no information to support this, and there are no reports of wolffish spawning within the Study Area. A study by DFO (2004b) determined that oil and gas exploration activities are considered to have negligible effects on the ability of both northern and spotted wolffish to survive and recover. A cod spawning area is known to occur near the Study Area but as spawning occurs between April and June, the Project will not

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overlap. Winter skate spawn during fall and eggs and larvae may be present in the water column for up to 22 month after spawning; there is potential for spatial and temporal overlap of spawned winter skate with the Project. There is also potential for spatial and temporal overlap between the Project and Acadian redfish spawning. However, as reviewed above, current scientific literature suggests a lack of serious physical or behavioural effects of seismic energy at field operating conditions on fish, though data gaps remain in some cases.

Noise from a seismic source array used in the 3D seismic survey may cause mortality or physiological effects on fish (eggs and larvae) within tens of metres of the source. Physical effects on fish may occur within a few hundred metres of this magnitude sound source, but no mortality of fish is expected. Fish will likely be startled and avoid the area within a few kilometres of the sound source temporarily. Therefore, in consideration of the nature and timing of the interactions and the sensitivity of various SAR as illustrated by the literature, the sound- related environmental effects of the Project on SAR are rated not significant.

Vessel Presence

A 2D and 3D seismic survey vessel and a smaller supply vessel will be involved during the proposed seismic program. The noise generated by the operation of the seismic vessel and support vessel can be considered continuous underwater noise and may decrease habitat quality for marine fish species at risk occurring in the vicinity of Project activities. Vessel noise includes a variety of tonal and broadband sounds, both of which are dependent on the size, design and speed of the vessel (Richardson et al. 1995).

Fish are generally most sensitive to low-frequency sound (10 to 500 Hz), a range that overlaps with the most intense sound produced by vessels. Some studies suggest noise is thought to be the main cause of vessel avoidance by some fish (Mitson 1995; Mitson and Knudsen 2003; Fay and Popper 2003; De Robertis et al. 2008); although a study by Davis et al. (1998) suggested that the most likely response of fish is to move laterally or to a greater depth as the vessel passes over. Furthermore, a study by Røstad et al. 2006, found evidence that some fish may be attracted to vessels. Some fish have been observed to congregate, seek shelter or forage for food at places with artificially high sound levels such as ports or bridges (Slabbekoorn et al. 2010).

Literature to date suggest that the response of fish to noise produced by vessels is dependent on species, stage in life cycle, time of day, vessel sound, local conditions and whether the fish has fed (Davis et al. 1998). The noise associated with the operation of the Project vessels is expected to have a negligible environmental effect on marine fish given that only two vessels are in use for a short duration and in comparison to the existing volume of vessel traffic in the Gulf of St. Lawrence represents a very small fraction of vessels present. The environmental effects on marine fish SAR as a result of vessel presence as part of this Project are anticipated to be not significant.

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Sanitary and Domestic Waste

The generation of sanitary and domestic waste during the Project has the potential to enter the marine environment and reduce habitat quality. To reduce pollution and harm to the environment, the reduction and proper disposal of generated waste will occur throughout the proposed Project. All solid waste, as well as excess chemicals or chemicals in damaged containers, will be brought ashore for proper disposal. The Transportation of Dangerous Goods and Workplace Hazardous Materials Information Systems regulations govern the handling, use, storage, transport and disposal of hazardous materials; all Project employees must be familiar with these regulations and best practices followed.

All routine discharges associated with the seismic survey will be discharged in accordance with Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and for Dangerous Chemicals under the Canada Shipping Act and the International Conventions for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). Annex I of MARPOL includes requirements for: surveys and inspections; International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificates; discharges of oil or oily water mixtures; reception facilities; segregated or dedicated clean ballast; retention of oil in slop tanks; monitoring, filtering and separating equipment; sludge tanks; pumping, piping and discharge arrangements; and shipboard oil pollution emergency plans. These international regulations have been incorporated as part of the Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and for Dangerous Chemicals under the Canada Shipping Act. Discharge limits are based on best available technologies and are the focus of continuous improvement programs. Where practical, use of technology to reduce discharge limits below those in the OWTG (NEB et al. 2010) will be implemented. Other materials, such as deck drainage and bilge waters, may negatively affect marine fauna health due to the presence of residual hydrocarbons. Any discharged oily water will comply with the OWTG (NEB et al. 2010), as will any other regulated liquid or solid discharged from the vessel.

The potential environmental effects from routine discharges include increased nutrients attracting marine fauna or causing eutrophication; contamination of marine environment; and effects of oily water on marine fauna (i.e. birds); however, as all solid waste and chemicals will be disposed of properly on land; and due to regulations already in place (OWTG/MARPOL), discharges will treated and be below acceptable limits. The environmental effects of discharges from routine operations of the Project on marine fish are anticipated to be negligible and not significant.

Atmospheric Emissions

Atmospheric emissions will occur from the operation of the two vessels during the seismic survey. The release of atmospheric emissions may reduce habitat quality for air-breathing marine life, but is unlikely to affect marine fish species at risk. All vessels used will adhere to regulatory requirements for emissions (Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships). In addition, the Study Area has assimilative capacity for emissions resulting vessel operation because of the strong average winds at the site. There will be negligible environmental effects to air quality beyond the immediate survey area during the course of the seismic program.

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As marine fish are not air-breathers and atmospheric emissions are expected to be negligible in the Study Area, the environmental effects of atmospheric emissions on marine fish species at risk are considered not significant.

Lighting

Lighting will occur on the two vessels used during the course of the seismic survey. Artificial lighting has the potential to reduce habitat quality and may disturb or alter behaviour of marine fish located near the vessel. Lighting at night from vessels may interrupt the normal circadian rhythm of fish (and invertebrates), although it is difficult to predict responses of various species (Nightingale et al. 2005; Brüning et al. 2011). Vessel lighting may also attract or repel species and distribution may be altered in artificially lighted areas, particularly for pelagic fishes (e.g., herring, sand lance) and squid that are known to be attracted to light (Pascoe 1990).

The environmental effects of light attraction on marine fish are expected to be negligible and not significant for marine fish species at risk as only two vessels will be used during the Project, the presence of the vessel is relatively short-term, and effects from artificial lighting are temporary and highly reversible.

Accidental Events

In the unlikely case of an accidental event resulting in the release of marine diesel fuel or streamer effluent, marine fish species at risk may be affected. Mitigation will be in place to reduce the likelihood of an accidental event and standard navigation and safety regulations prescribed by Transport Canada and the Canadian Coast Guard will be followed. While a hydrocarbon spill from the vessel or streamers could result in a significant adverse environmental effect on marine fish species at risk, it is not likely to occur. In the case of an accidental event, contingency plans will be put in place, including the use of oil booms. Environmental effects from this scale of event are generally low in magnitude, of limited geographic extent and reversible. The following literature review provides background on the nature of spill related environmental effects for information. Much of the literature to date on oil spills is focused on crude oil rather than the lighter marine diesel fuel or streamer fluids that will be used during the Project. However, a review of potential environmental effects from hydrocarbons on marine fish is relevant to this assessment.

Eggs and larvae of fish (and invertebrates) are the most likely to experience physiological effects (e.g., morphology, genetic damage, reduced growth, mortality) from interactions with hydrocarbons since they are planktonic and unable to actively avoid the spill (Rice 1985). Larval stages also lack the ability to metabolize the hydrocarbon as adult fish can. In general, fish larval stages exposed to high concentrations of hydrocarbons may exhibit morphological change, genetic damage and/or reduced growth (Rice 1985; Heintz et al. 1999; Couillard 2002; Hendon et al. 2008). For example, work by Frantzen et al. (2011) studied capelin embryos spawned on a Norway beach that were then exposed to pyrene and crude oil for 32 days until hatching. The study found that concentrations of 40 μg/L crude oil and 55 μg/L pyrene significantly increased mortality of the embryos and decreased hatching success. In a study of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) larvae that were exposed to oil following the 1989 Exxon Valdez

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oil spill, Hose et al. (1996) concluded that larvae hatched from demersal adhesive eggs at oiled sites had a higher incidence of deformities and abnormalities than those at unaffected sites. In addition, several studies have found that exposure to dissolved polyaromatic hydrcarbons (PAHs) can be directly toxic to fish embryos, even at low aqueous concentrations (Carls et al. 1999; Frantzen et al. 2011). While fish species vary in their sensitivities to hydrocarbons, deformities and mortality are likely for larvae that are in direct contact with PAHs. It should be noted that the use of oil dispersants (surfactants and solvents) in combination with oil has been found to be more toxic to phytoplankton and fish larvae than oil alone (Whiting 1995). More recently, Fodrie and Heck (2011) studied the early life stages of coastal fish communities following the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill and results suggested there were no immediate, large-scale losses of 2010 fish cohorts and no shifts in community, although the authors state that potential longer-term effects as a result of chronic exposure and delayed effects are possible. Due to high natural mortality rates for larval stages, local mortality of early life stages caused by the accidental release of hydrocarbons may be difficult to detect.

The potential environmental effects of hydrocarbons on juvenile and adult fish (both listed and unlisted species) have been relatively well studied, although primarily in laboratory settings (Rice et al. 1986, Payne et al. 1988; Collier et al. 1996; Law and Hellou 1999; Xia et al. 2012), and have been summarized in several documents (Payne et al. 2003; LGL 2005 and references within). Pelagic fish occurring near the surface are more likely to be affected than benthic or intertidal fishes in an oil spill. If exposed at a sufficient concentration, fish may experience effects ranging from direct acute effects such as coating of gills, to less obvious (and potentially chronic) physiological and behavioural effects. Physiological effects that have been observed include abnormal gill function, increased liver enzyme activity, decreased growth, organ damage and increased disease or parasitism (LGL 2005). Juvenile and adult fish are able avoid interactions with hydrocarbons by swimming away, and due the small scale of any potential accidental spill during this Project, the potential environmental effects on juvenile and adult fish are anticipated to be negligible.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects of waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound, lighting, and air emissions are assessed with respect to magnitude, extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility for each of the interactions (i.e., change in habitat quality, potential mortality). A summary of the environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.4. A key Project-specific consideration of the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days). With application of the described mitigation measures and because the potential residual environmental effects are short-term, localized, and reversible, the residual environmental effects on Marine Fish Species at Risk are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.4 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Fish Species at Risk

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Ecological and Level of Confidence Socio-Economic

x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Sanitary and Prevention of Pollution from Ships Change in Habitat domestic x Solid waste to be transported to shore N112R2NS H Quality (A) waste x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Presence of Change in Habitat Act 2001 and Collision Regulations N112R2NS H Vessel Quality (A) x Standard equipment inspections/best maintenance practices 2D and 3D Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation Change in Habitat x Seismic of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Quality (A) Survey L312R2NS M Potential Mortality x Ramping up procedures (underwater (A) noise) x Standard equipment inspections/best maintenance practices Change in Habitat Lighting N112R2NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Change in Habitat Prevention of Pollution from Ships Air Emissions N312R2NS H Quality (A) x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices

Accidental Events Change in Habitat x Adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Transport Diesel fuel Quality (A) Canada requirements and Canadian Coast Guard spill from L311R2NS H Potential Mortality requirements vessel (A) x Use of oil containment booms when necessary Change in Habitat x Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of Quality (A) Product from x Use of oil containment booms when necessary L311R2NS H Potential Mortality Streamers (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Ecological and Level of Confidence Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several individuals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity Geographic Extent: 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 1 = <1 km radius 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 3 = 11 to 100 km radius adverse activity 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.3.4 Marine Mammals Species at Risk Effects Assessment

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on marine mammal species are evaluated. Although this section is considered for marine mammal species at risk, these potential environmental effects also apply to non-listed marine mammals. The synthesis of potential effects of seismic noise on marine mammals that is presented in the Western Newfoundland SEA (LGL 2005) was consulted and is summarized below. In addition, the potential environmental effects of marine seismic activities on marine mammals have been reviewed by Richardson et al. (1995), Gordon et al. (2004), Southall et al. 2007) and Weilgart (2007) as well as for several recent 3D seismic surveys in Newfoundland and Labrador waters (e.g., LGL 2007, 2010, 2012) and these resources were also consulted for information that is presented here.

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Survey

Marine mammals are highly acoustic animals that use sound to communication, detect prey, avoid predators and gather information about their environment. Underwater sound has the potential to propagate over long distances, however marine mammals do not respond to all sounds (Richardson et al. 1995). The area in which marine mammals may respond to a man- made sound is usually smaller than the actual area over which the sound can be heard (LGL 2005). More is known about the environmental effects of noise on marine mammals than other marine animals since they are particularly sensitive to sound and because of this, marine mammal mitigation guidelines are used as a baseline to reduce harm to all marine taxa. It should be recognized that large gaps still remain in knowledge of the potential environmental effects of seismic noise on marine mammals. Overall, exposure to seismic sound is considered unlikely to result in the direct mortality of marine mammals. There are no documented cases of marine mammal mortality or serious injury is association with seismic surveys to date, although there have been cases involving stranding events that are coincident in time and space with military sonar operations (Jepson et al. 2003; DFO 2004b; D’Spain et al. 2006). However, a causal link between whale strandings and seismic exploration has not been clearly demonstrated because of a lack of robust data. However there is potential for increased sound level to have other effects on marine mammals including masking, disturbance (behavioural changes), hearing impairment (temporary threshold shift [TTS] or permanent threshold shift [PTS]), and other physiological effects which may include tissue or organ damage, stress, neurological effects, bubble formation (Richardson et al. 1995; Gordon et al. 2003; Southall et al. 2007).

Communication and Masking Effects

All marine mammals emit sound that is produced internally, and also produce sound generated externally (i.e., tail slapping) that may serve as a method of communication. Toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises (hereafter referred to as Odontocetes) communicate using two types of sound: vocalizations, that is continuous, narrowband, frequency-modulated signals that range in duration from several tenths of a second to several seconds and range in frequency from approximately 2 to 25 kHz (Tyack and Clark 2000); and echolocation, broadband click trains with peak frequencies that vary from tens of kiloHertz to well over 100 kHz (Au 1993).

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Echolocation clicks are broadband and mostly in the ultrasonic range, and are used to gain information about the surrounding environment, predators and prey (i.e., pulse sent out, received and interpreted). The sound production mechanism of baleen whales is unclear. Baleen whales communicate using low frequency sounds (generally between 25 Hz and 4 kHz (Richardson et al. 1995)) that can propagate for long distances. These sounds can be classified into calls and songs. Calls have been categorized further into simple calls (low frequency less than 1 kHz, narrow band, frequency and amplitude modulated), complex calls (broadband, 500 to 5,000 Hz, frequency and amplitude modulated), grunts and knocks (less than 0.1 second duration, 100 to 1,000 Hz), and clicks and pulses (short duration, less than 2 milliseconds, 3 to 30 kHz) (Clark 1990). Sounds produced by baleen whales range in duration from the 50 milliseconds thumps produced by minke whales (Thompson et al. 1979) to moans produced by blue whales, which can have durations up to 36 seconds (Cummings and Thompson 1971). Songs have been recorded from several species and analyzed (Payne and Payne 1985; Au et al. 2006; Suzuki et al. 2006). Humpback song can be broken down into themes that consist of repetitions of phrases, which are made up of patterns of units (with energy up to 30 kHz). Distinct songs are sung by male humpback whales in each ocean basin (Murray et al. 2011); these songs change over time, although they do maintain recurring patterns (Green et al. 2011). Much remains unknown about the variability of whale songs and communication and it is not well understood what causes changes in sounds, and whether observed changes in length, volume or frequency of communication indicates a compensatory response to increased underwater noise (Fristrup et al. 2003). Seals also use sound to communicate in both air and underwater, and seal vocalizations are often described as grunts, snorts, barks, yelps, roars, groans, growls and whinnies (Richardson et al. 1995; Au and Hastings 2008).

Masking refers to what occurs when sounds used by marine mammals are obscured by other underwater noise; masking can occur naturally due to noise produced by storms, waves, other animals; however, in this case, we refer to sounds used or produced by marine mammals that are concealed by anthropogenic underwater noise. Marine mammals are adapted to a certain level of masking; however, the increase in anthropogenic noise has likely increased the severity and frequency of masking of sounds that are used by marine mammals for prey detection, predator avoidance, communication, and echolocation (in the case of Odontocetes). Masking is most likely to occur when anthropogenic sounds are similar in frequency to the sound being used by the marine mammal (Au 1990). Another factor appears to be the direction of sound; evidence suggest that masking may not be as severe in the case where the anthropogentic background noise is coming in a different direction than the signal of interest (Richardson et al. 1995). Some species of marine mammal have been observed to increase the source level of their communication calls when background levels are elevated (Foote et al. 2004; Di Iorio and Clark 2010). However, if little or no overlap occurs between the introduced sound and the frequencies used by the species, communication is not expected to be disrupted.

Acoustic energy in the sound pulses produced by seismic air guns overlaps with frequencies used by baleen whales, but the discontinuous, short-duration nature of these pulses is expected to result in limited masking of baleen whale calls, although there has been some evidence of humpback whales ceasing calling in presence of anthropogenic low-frequency sound (Risch et al. 2012). Masking effects of seismic noise on Odontocetes are expected to be unlikely

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because the sound will be intermittent and predominantly low frequency. There is potential for masking effects among seals during seismic surveys, as they use a wide frequency band.

Hearing

The hearing abilities of many cetaceans and other marine mammals have been studied in detail (Richardson et al. 1995; Au et al. 2000). TTS refers to exposure to sound resulting in a non- permanent elevation in hearing sensitivity and is the least serious form of hearing damage (Richardson et al. 1995). Under experimental conditions, temporary elevations in hearing thresholds have been observed in captive marine mammals exposed to strong pulsed sounds, which could result in a permanent threshold shift (PSS) if the TTS is elevated or occurs for an extended period of time. For small toothed whales (e.g., beluga whales, pilot whales), studies have found relatively poor hearing sensitivity at frequencies below 1 kHz and extremely high sensitivity at and above several kiloHertz. For larger, deep-diving toothed whales (e.g., beaked whales), there are very few data on the absolute hearing thresholds (but see Cook et al. 2006; Finneran et al. 2009). Most of the toothed whale species have been classified as belonging to the “mid-frequency” hearing group, and to have functional hearing from approximately 150 Hz to 160 kHz (Southall et al. 2007). The porpoises, river dolphins and members of the genera Cephalorhynchus (occur in Southern hemisphere) and Kogia (e.g., sperm whales) are classified as belonging to the “high frequency” hearing group, with functional hearing from approximately 180 to 200 kHz (Southall et al. 2007). Occasional occurrences of TTS are not known to cause permanent hearing damage in humans or terrestrial mammals and this is expected to be true for marine mammals as well. Hearing sensitivity has been shown to recovery rapidly in humans and other animals after the exposure to the sound ends (Richardson et al. 1995). There is less information available on permanent hearing damage, as it is difficult to predict. In their review, Richardson et al. (1995) suggest that permanent hearing damage due to prolonged exposure to continuous anthropogenic sound is unlikely to occur for sounds with source levels up to approximately 200 dB re1 μParms.

Current policy by the US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) states that marine mammals should not be exposed to impulsive sounds over 180 (cetaceans) and 190 (pinnipeds) dB re1 μPa (rms) (NMFS 2000). LGL (2005) report in their summary that a seismic sound source of 234 dB re1 μParms would result in sound pressure levels of 180 and 190 dB re1 μParms (i.e., limits imposed by US National Marine Fisheries Service policy for whale, dolphins and porpoises, and for seals, sea lions and walrus, respectively) at distances of 512 and 170 m, from the sound source, assuming that the sound spreads spherically. As the sound source used during the Project is expected to be less than 220 dB re1 μParms, it is expected that this recommended limit will occur at distances of less than 512 m from the sound source during the Project.

Audiograms (graphs indicating hearing thresholds of pure tones as a function of frequency) have been measured from approximately 20 marine mammal species (from a low number of individuals), and provide greater understanding of hearing. However, variability on an individual level is not well understood. As baleen whales are adapted for detection of low-frequency (10 Hz to 30 kHz) (Parks et al. 2007), it is expected that baleen whales are more likely to hear air gun pulses at further distances from the source than Odontocetes. However, baleen whales

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have been observed seen well within the distances where seismic noise would be detectable and often show no clear behavioural reaction to those sounds. The functional hearing range for true seals (such as the species that occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence) in water is considered to extend from 75 Hz to 75 kHz (Southall et al. 2007), although some species do not have as broad an auditory range (Richardson et al. 1995). Some of the true seals (Phocidae) such as those that occur in Newfoundland waters, have better hearing sensitivity at low frequencies (less than 1 kHz) than do toothed whales.

Behavioural and Physiological Changes

Indicators of disturbance to marine mammals include changes in swimming direction and speed, dive duration, surfacing duration, respiration (i.e., blow rate), movement towards or away from the noise and changes in acoustic behaviour. Marine mammals are generally more tolerant of stationary sources of noise than moving sources; this seems especially true for seals, which will approach a stationary vessel or fixed platform (Richardson et al. 1995).

Baleen whales exposed to sound pulses from air guns have been observed to react by deviating from their normal migration route and/or interrupting their feeding and moving away from the sound source (Richardson et al. 1995; Richardson and Malme 1993; McCauley et al. 2000a, 2000b; Gordon et al. 2004; Nowacek et al. 2007). In observations of northern bottlenose whale on the Scotian Shelf during a seismic survey, researchers found that the whales did show avoidance behaviour at close distances; however, the overall number of marine mammals observed in a 2 km radius did not seem to change whether operations were going or not (DFO 2010c). Baleen whales generally tend to avoid intense sound sources, with the size of the avoidance zone varying among species and location (Richardson et al. 1995; Gordon et al. 2004). Most studies suggest that small toothed whales do tend to avoid (or increase distance from) an operating seismic vessels, in comparison to a non-operating vessel (Moulton and Miller 2005; Holst et al. 2006; Stone and Tasker 2006; Richardson et al. 2009); but that the avoidance zone is typically 1 km or less, with some individuals showing no apparent avoidance. Little information exists on the reactions of seals to sounds from seismic exploration in open water (Richardson et al. 1995). One study that used visual monitoring from seismic vessels in Alaska found that the number of seals observed remained nearly the same when no airguns were firing as when one airgun was firing, and during full operation of 8 to 11 airguns, although seals tended to be further away (but still within a few hundred metres) during full operation of air gun array (Harris et al. 2001).

Moulton and Holst (2010) summarized marine mammals monitoring results from eight seismic programs off eastern Canada during 2003 to 2008. Marine mammal observations were recorded for 9,180 hours from seismic vessels. During these seismic surveys, it was found that baleen whales exhibited localized avoidance of the active air gun array. Sighting rates were statistically significantly lower during operations with the full air gun array compared with non- seismic periods, and the reduced number of sightings, suggest that some baleen whales avoided the source vessel by several kilometres. Baleen whales were also observed substantially further from the source vessel during seismic operating periods than during non- operating periods. On average, it was found that baleen whales were observed approximately 200 m further from the vessel during seismic operations and were also noted to swim away from

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the vessel more often during seismic compared with non-seismic periods. Dolphin species were detected further away during air gun activity (by approximately 200 m) compared with non- seismic periods, but there was no statistically significant difference between sighting rates. For large toothed whales such as sperm whales and beaked whales the sighting rates and distances were similar during periods when air guns were active versus silent (Moulton and Holst 2010).

Physiological environmental effects on marine mammals resulting from seismic sounds (or due to changes in diving behaviour resulting from startle effects) are not well documented but may include tissue damage, bubble formation, and stress responses (Southall et al. 2007). However, the physiological effects that are thought to be caused by mid-frequency sonar (on beaked whales for example), are unlikely to arise from seismic airgun pulses which are lower energy (Southall et al. 2007); therefore, it is not appropriate to compare apparent effects of military sonar to potential environmental effects from seismic surveys.

Mitigation measures will be applied throughout the seismic survey to reduce the potential for harm to marine mammals. The Project will adhere to the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment, use ramping-up procedures over a 20 to 30 minute period to allow marine mammals (and other mobile marine life) time to exit the area in response to the sound before it reaches maximum levels, and have a trained observer onboard to watch for and report any occurrence of marine mammals. If marine mammals are sighted within the monitoring zone (i.e., 500 or 1,000 m) during ramping up, airguns will be shut down. The survey is scheduled to occur between October and January when fewer whales and dolphins occur within the Gulf of St. Lawrence. These mitigation measures have been successfully applied in other seismic programs to reduce potential for overlap between seismic sound and marine mammals. Due to the mitigations that will be in place, marine mammals are likely to avoid the area of influence of seismic sound (tens to hundreds of metres) and avoid overlap with the Project spatially; the environmental effects of seismic noise on marine mammal species at risk is predicted to be not significant.

Vessel Presence

There is potential for interactions between marine mammals and the two Project vessels, including attraction or avoidance behaviours by marine mammals. There is also potential for noise from vessel operation to affect marine mammals. The potential environmental effects of increased sound on marine mammals is summarized in the above section; however, as the Project only involves two vessels over 3 to 4 months, it is unlikely that the Project vessels will substantially increase noise in the area as there is already heavy vessel traffic within the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

There is also low potential for a collision between a vessel and a marine mammal. Toothed whales (e.g., Northern bottlenose whale, beluga whale, killer whale, sperm whale), dolphins and porpoises have low rates of reported ship strikes in comparison to baleen whales, which may be due to the speed, agility or use of echolocation by Odontocetes (Laist et al. 2001; Jensen and Silber 2003). In contrast, baleen whales are struck relatively commonly, and mortality due to ship strikes in a growing concern (Laist et al. 2001; Jensen and Silber 2003; Glass et al. 2010).

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It is thought that these large, sometimes slow-moving animals rest (log) at the surface and are often unable to react fast enough to avoid approaching vessels (Laist et al. 2001; Jensen and Silber 2003). Large, high-speed vessels such as container ships and cruise ships are considered to be the most likely vessel involved in a collision. Vessel collisions are of greatest concern for recovery of species at risk such as the North Atlantic right whale (Fujiwara and Caswell 2001; Vanderlaan and Taggard 2009). Evidence suggests that serious (or lethal) vessel strikes to whales are infrequent at vessel speeds less than 25.9 km/hr (14 knots) and are rare at vessel speeds less than 18.5 km/hr (10 knots) (Laist et al. 2001) and as such, speed regulations have been put in place is some shipping areas to reduce lethal collisions (Wiley et al. 2011). Collisions with seals also occur in Canadian waters, although they are not well documented and the frequency of such incidents is unknown (Baird 2001).

A trained observer will be present during the seismic program to monitor for presence of marine mammals and other wildlife, and is likely these animals will be noticed far in advance of vessel approach due to blows and other surface behaviours. If a marine mammal is in the path of a Project vessel, every safe effort will be made by the vessel operator to avoid collision. As the seismic vessel will use slow and steady movement (estimated to be 7.4 to 9.3 km per hour (or 4 to 5 knots) during this Project, and the supply/guide vessel will use reduced speed and communicate frequently with the observer, the risk of collision is low.

Given the temporary and reversible nature of any noise disturbance and the mitigation in place to avoid the potential for collisions, the environmental effect of vessel traffic on marine mammal species at risk is predicted to be not significant.

Sanitary and Domestic Waste

All routine discharges associated with the seismic survey will be discharged in accordance with Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and for Dangerous Chemicals under the Canada Shipping Act and the International Conventions for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The potential environmental effects on marine mammal species at risk from sanitary and domestic waste generated as part of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Lighting

The potential environmental effects of artificial lighting on marine mammals are considered negligible as only two vessels will be involved in the Project, and marine mammals are not anticipated to be near the vessel due to the ongoing noise emitted during operations. The potential environmental effects on marine mammal species at risk from artificial light as a result of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Atmospheric Emissions

Atmospheric emissions will occur from the operation of the two vessels during the seismic survey. There will be negligible environmental effects to air quality beyond the immediate survey area during the course of the seismic program. The release of atmospheric emissions

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may reduce habitat quality for marine mammals breathing directly near the vessel, however this is highly unlikely. A trained observer will be onboard to monitor for presence of marine mammals, including species at risk. All vessels used will adhere to regulatory requirements for emissions (Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships). The potential environmental effects on marine mammal species at risk from atmospheric emissions as a result of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Accidental Events

In the unlikely case of the accidental release of marine diesel fuel or a release of product from the streamers occurs, there is potential for marine mammals to interact with hydrocarbons. There are few measurable long-term lethal effects reported from exposure to, ingestion of, or bioaccumulation of oil by whales (LGL 2005); although it is known that whales exposed to persistent organic pollutants such as belugas in the St. Lawrence estuary will accumulate the toxins in their blubber and milk, experience immunosuppression effects and have extremely high rates of cancerous tumours (De Guise et al. 1995; Martineau et al. 2002).

Studies in the two decades following the Exxon Valdez oil spill shed new light on potential effects of hydrocarbons on the environment (Loughlin et al. 1994, 1996; Peterson 2001; Bodkin et al. 2002; Peterson et al. 2003; Matkin et al. 2008). Although previously it was believed that the acute, short-term effects from oil spills were most serious (i.e., mortality following an oil spill), evidence from long-term studies now suggests that the effects on marine mammal populations from chronic effects can be considerable (Bodkin et al. 2002; Peterson et al. 2003; Matkin et al. 2008).

Whales, dolphins, porpoise and seals appear to be less likely to suffer acute mortality in the short term from oil in comparison to marine birds, otters or fur seals, as they are able to rely on blubber for insulation (rather than feather or fur) and are unlikely to experience depressed thermoregulation as a result of oiling (Geraci 1990). Those animals restricted to an embayment or other enclosed or semi-enclosed water body are at greatest risk of encountering released hydrocarbons. There is evidence that cetaceans have some ability to detect oil spills and to avoid in some cases (St. Aubin et al. 1985; Matkin et al. 1994). Whales exposed to hydrocarbons could experience eye irritation, and baleen could be fouled by oil and reduced filtering efficiency; however, these effects are expected to be short-term and reversible. Seals may or may not actively avoid oiled sites. Seals exposed to may also experience eye irritation, and there is potential for seal pups to decrease thermoregulatory ability of their birth coat and fat stores (St. Aubin 1990). Marine mammals that ingest hydrocarbons will void some of the ingested oil through vomiting or feces, however some may be absorbed and can cause longer- term toxic effects. It is also possible that marine mammals may inhale fumes; the most likely effect would be irritation of respiratory system and absorption into blood stream (Geraci 1990; Hall et al. 1996).

In the unlikely event of an accidental release of hydrocarbons (marine diesel) or streamer product into the environment during the seismic survey, the maximum volume of oil that could be released is restricted to the amount carried in the vessel fuel tank. As marine diesel fuel is light, and any accidental event would occur in the high-energy Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is

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expected that much of the hydrocarbons will evaporate immediately and disperse. It is not expected to persist in marine environment. A contingency plan will be in place in the case of an accidental event to contain the spill and limit potential interactions with marine mammals. The potential environmental effects on marine mammal species at risk from an accidental event are predicted to be not significant.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects of waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound, lighting, and air emissions on marine mammals were assessed with respect to magnitude, extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility for each of the interactions (i.e., change in habitat quality, potential mortality). The Project will not affect habitat quantity. A summary of the environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.5. A key Project-specific consideration of the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days). With application of the described mitigation measures and because the potential residual environmental effects are short-term, localized, and reversible, the residual environmental effects on Marine Mammal Species at Risk are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.5 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Mammal Species at Risk

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Activity Environmental Mitigation Measure Effects Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Significance Rating Level of Confidence Reversibility Ecological and Socio-Economic

2D and 3D Change in Habitat x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Seismic Quality (A) Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Survey x Ramping up procedures L 3 1 2 R 2 NS M (underwater Potential Mortality x Use of trained observer noise) (A) x Use of best practices and industry standards x Use of trained observer Change in Habitat Presence of x Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 Quality (A) L 2 1 2 R 2 NS H Vessel x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Act 2001 and Collision Regulations x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Waste Change in Habitat Prevention of Pollution from Ships generation Quality (A) x Solid waste to be transported to shore N 1 1 2 R 2 NS H (sanitary and domestic) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Change in Habitat x Use of best practices and industry standards Lighting N 1 1 2 R 2 NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Air Change in Habitat Prevention of Pollution from Ships L 3 1 2 R 2 NS H Emissions Quality (A) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Accidental Events Change in Habitat x adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Diesel fuel Quality (A) Transport Canada requirements and Canadian Coast spill from L 3 1 1 R 2 NS H Potential Mortality Guard requirements vessel (A) x use of oil containment booms when necessary Change in Habitat Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of x Quality (A) Product from x use of oil containment booms when necessary L 3 1 1 R 2 NS H Potential Mortality Streamers (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Activity Environmental Mitigation Measure Effects Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Significance Rating Level of Confidence Reversibility Ecological and Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity Geographic Extent: 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 1 = <1 km radius adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.3.5 Sea Turtle Species at Risk Effects Assessment

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on sea turtle species at risk are evaluated. Although this section applies to species at risk, the information also applies to non-listed sea turtles.

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Survey

Sea turtle auditory perception occurs through a combination of bone and water conduction rather than air conduction (Lenhardt 1982; Lenhardt and Harkins 1983). Detailed descriptions of sea turtle ear anatomy are found in Ridgway et al. (1969), Lenhardt et al. (1985); and Bartol (2008). Sea turtles do not have external ears, but the middle ear is well adapted as a peripheral component of a bone conduction system. The ear arrangement of sea turtles enables sea turtles to hear low-frequency sounds while underwater and makes them relatively insensitive to sound above water. Sound vibrations can also be conducted through the bones of the carapace to reach the middle ear. Studies and observations have demonstrated that sea turtles are able to hear and to respond to low-frequency sound, but hearing threshold appears to be high (Ketten and Bartol 2005; Bartol 2008). It has been suggested that sound may play a role in navigation, but recent studies suggest that visual, wave and geomagnetic cues are the main navigational cues used by hatchling and juvenile sea turtles (Sale and Luschi 2009; Putman et al. 2011). Sea turtles are likely to avoid underwater sound (McCauley et al. 2000a, 2000b) and this avoidance behaviour may reduce the risk of potential physiological effects of sound exposure. Sea turtles are not believed to use hearing for prey detection or navigation; therefore, masking is unlikely to be an important issue for sea turtles.

Based on experimental studies and field observations, it appears that sea turtles generally respond to seismic sound by exhibiting startle behaviour, increasing swimming speed, and/or swimming away from the sound source (McCauley 1994; Weir 2007). In laboratory studies, sea turtles in enclosures exposed to air gun sounds were observed to increase swimming speed, change direction of swimming, increase activity, and attempt to avoid the sound (Bartol 2008). Moein et al. (1994) investigated the avoidance behaviour and physiological responses of loggerhead turtles exposed to an operating air gun. The turtles were held in a netted enclosure approximately 18 m by 61 m by 3.6 m deep, with an air gun at each end. Only one air gun was operated at any one time; the firing rate was one shot every five to six seconds. The air gun was initially discharged when the turtles were near the centre of the enclosure and the subsequent movements of the turtles were documented. The turtles exhibited avoidance during the first presentation of air gun sounds at a mean range of 24 m, but the avoidance response waned soon after, which suggested that the turtles had become habituated to the sound.

Results from observations during seismic surveys suggest that some sea turtles exhibit behavioural changes and/or avoidance when near an operating seismic vessel. However, avoidance of approaching seismic vessels occurs to a limited distance, as observers often report that sea turtles are seen from operating seismic vessels. Observations of sea turtles were carried out during a ten-month seismic survey in Angola (Weir 2007); a total of 240 sea turtles were seen during 676 hours of vessel-based monitoring and observations suggested that sea turtles tended to be seen slightly closer to the seismic source, with the sighting rates twice

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as high, during non-seismic versus seismic periods, although results were inconclusive due to the difficulties of observing the behaviours of turtles from the vessel (Weir 2007).

Mitigation measures to reduce risk to marine mammals such as the use of onboard observers and ramp-up procedure are also useful for reducing risk from seismic programs to sea turtles; however, sea turtles are harder to detect at sea than whales and is a factor to be considered. As the survey is scheduled to occur from October to January, the only species of sea turtle that could overlap with the Study Area during the Project time frame is the Leatherback sea turtle, which may occur in Canadian waters as late as November, and the likelihood of encountering this species in the Study Area between October and January is low. The environmental effects of seismic noise on Sea Turtle Species at Risk is predicted to be not significant.

Vessel Presence

Potential environmental effects on sea turtles from vessel presence include underwater noise, attraction or repulsion effects, and, although unlikely, potential for a vessel strike. As the Project only involves two vessels over 3 to 4 months, it is unlikely that the Project vessels will substantially increase noise in the area as there is already heavy vessel traffic within the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

There is limited information pertaining to the potential environmental effects of vessel traffic on sea turtles. One study of green sea turtles by Hazel et al. (2007) in Australia suggested that 60 percent of observed turtles (n = 1,819) actively avoided vessels travelling at 3.7 km/h (2 knots), but only 22 percent avoided vessels travelling at speeds of 11.1 km/h (6 knots). Similar studies have not been done for leatherback turtles to date. However, Tomás et al. (2008) reported that of the total reported sea turtle strandings on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, nine percent were due to vessel strikes. In the US the number of turtle strandings that were attributed to vessel strikes increased from approximately 10 percent in the 1980s to a high of 20.5 percent in 2004 (National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 2007). Vessel strikes are a serious threat to all marine turtle species; however, due to the presence of an onboard observer and the slow speeds that will be used by the Project vessels, the likelihood of an accidental collision is considered to be very low.

The most likely environmental effects from vessel presence include behavioural changes and/or avoidance when near a seismic vessel. However, avoidance of approaching supply vessels is sufficiently limited and at such a small scale that sea turtles have been seen from operating supply vessels (within hundreds of metres) (LGL 2005). Therefore, the most likely environmental effect of vessel presence on sea turtles is that they will temporarily avoid an area due to noise, with the spatial extent of any such temporary disturbance likely being small. The environmental effects on sea turtle species at risk due to vessel presence during the Project are predicted to be not significant.

Sanitary and Domestic Waste

The effects related to routine discharges have been discussed in Section 7.3.3. Routine discharges will be of limited duration and frequency over the Project survey, and will comply

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with applicable regulations (OWTG). The potential environmental effects on sea turtle species at risk from sanitary and domestic waste generated as part of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Lighting

The potential environmental effects of artificial lighting on sea turtles are considered negligible as only two vessels will be involved in the Project, and sea turtles are not anticipated to be near the vessel due to the ongoing noise emitted during operations as well as due to unlikely presence of sea turtles during fall and winter, the time of year when the project will occur. The potential environmental effects on sea turtle species at risk from artificial light as a result of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Atmospheric Emissions

Atmospheric emissions will occur from the operation of the two vessels during the seismic survey. There will be negligible environmental effects to air quality beyond the immediate survey area during the course of the seismic program and these are considered not significant. The release of atmospheric emissions may reduce habitat quality for sea turtles breathing directly near the vessel however this is highly unlikely as sea turtles are not expected to occur when the seismic survey is in operation. A trained observer will be onboard to monitor for presence of sea turtles, including species at risk. All vessels used will adhere to regulatory requirements for emissions (Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships). The potential environmental effects on sea turtle species at risk from atmospheric emissions as a result of this Project are considered to be not significant.

Accidental Events

In the unlikely case of an accidental event resulting in the release of marine diesel fuel or streamer fluid there is potential for sea turtles (if present in the area) to interact with hydrocarbons. Sea turtles appear to be more sensitive to oil spills than whales or seals, in part because they seem able to detect or actively avoid hydrocarbons. Studies of sea turtles exposed to oil suggest possible environmental effects include mortality, disrupted feeding, and physiological effects including lesions, damaged nasal and eyelid tissue, reduced lung diffusion capacity and decreased oxygen consumption, as well as longer-term population effects (Lutz et al. 1989; Bossart et al. 1995; Lutcavage et al. 1995; LGL 2005; Barron 2011). Few studies to date have occurred on Leatherback sea turtles, the only species that is likely to occur in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the scheduled Project time-frame (October to January).

In the unlikely event of an accidental release of hydrocarbons during the seismic survey, the maximum volume of oil that could be released is restricted to the amount carried in the vessel fuel tank. As marine diesel fuel is light, and any accidental event would occur in the high-energy Gulf of St. Lawrence, it is expected that much of the hydrocarbons will evaporate immediately and disperse. It is not expected to persist in marine environment. There is low potential for sea turtles to occur in the Study Area during late fall and winter, however a contingency plan will be in place in the case of an accidental event to contain the spill and limit potential interactions with

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sea turtle species at risk. The potential environmental effects on sea turtle species at risk from an accidental event are predicted to be not significant.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects of waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound, lighting, and air emissions were assessed with respect to magnitude, extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility for each of the interactions (i.e., change in habitat quality, potential mortality). The Project will not affect habitat quantity. A summary of the environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.6. A key Project-specific consideration of the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days). With application of the described mitigation measures and because the potential residual environmental effects are short-term, localized, and reversible, the residual environmental effects on Sea Turtle Species at Risk are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.6 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Sea Turtle Species at Risk

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Level Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

2D and 3D x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Change in Habitat Seismic Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Quality (A) Survey x Ramping up procedures L 3 1 2 R 2 NS M Potential Mortality (underwater x Use of trained observer (A) sound) x Use of best practices and industry standards x Use of trained observer Presence of Change in Habitat x Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 L212R2NS H Vessel Quality (A) x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Act 2001 and Collision Regulations x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Waste Prevention of Pollution from Ships generation Change in Habitat x Solid waste to be transported to shore N212R2NS H (sanitary and Quality (A) domestic) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Change in Habitat Use of best practices and industry standards Lighting x N212R2NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Change in Habitat Prevention of Pollution from Ships Air Emissions N312R2NS H Quality (A) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Accidental Events Change in Habitat x adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Diesel fuel Quality (A) Transport Canada requirements and Canadian Coast spill from L311R2NS M Potential Mortality Guard requirements vessel (A) x use of oil containment booms when necessary Change in Habitat x Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of Quality (A) x use of oil containment booms when necessary Product from L311R2NS Potential Mortality M Streamers (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity Geographic Extent: 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 1 = <1 km radius adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.3.6 Marine Bird Species at Risk Effects Assessment

Marine bird species at risk were selected as a VEC because of the potential interactions with Project activities that could affect their habitat, behaviour, breeding success and ecological role. Marine birds are protected under the Migratory Bird Convention Act, administered by Environment Canada. Marine birds are also considered a VEC because of regulatory concern (C-NLOPB 2012) and their sensitivity to oil in the marine environment.

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on Marine Bird Species at Risk are evaluated.

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Survey

The Schedule 1 SARA-listed species Ivory Gull, Barrow’s Goldeneye, Piping Plover, Harlequin Duck and Eskimo Curlew are unlikely visitors in the Project Area. Ivory Gull may occur where the pack ice extends into the Project Area in winter however this is unlikely (Section 6.2). The risk of hearing impairment to Ivory Gull from seismic surveys is low, as this species would not spend considerable amounts of time below the surface of the water or in close proximity to air gun pulses. The residual adverse environmental effect of sound from the seismic survey on Marine Bird Species at Risk is predicted to be not significant.

Vessel Presence

As the supply vessel will travel between the Project Area and coastal Newfoundland, there is potential for this routine Project activity to interact with some of the marine bird Species at Risk that occur within coastal areas of the Study Area. This includes the following species protected under SARA: Ivory Gull; Piping Plover; Barrow’s Goldeneye; and Harlequin Duck. Some species listed under SARA (i.e., Eskimo Curlew) are considered unlikely to occur in the Study Area, so the potential for interaction with supply vessels are also considered unlikely.

Marine birds in the Study Area should be habituated to vessel activity and direct effects are not anticipated as these species are highly mobile and can avoid vessels by flying or diving. Energy expended during these events would be minimal and have no physiological effect on the birds.

Supply vessels travelling from Newfoundland to the Project site will follow established shipping lanes and will comply with applicable pollution prevention regulations. The volume of increased vessel traffic as a result of the Project will be minimal and short-term. Residual adverse environmental effects of ship traffic on marine bird Species at Risk is predicted to be not significant. The Project vessels may affect marine birds through discharges, lighting, its physical presence and noise. Marine birds are commonly habituated to vessel activity. Some species such as gulls and Northern Fulmar (Fulmaris glacialis) are actually attracted to ships and often stay with them for extended periods, likely because they associate the vessels with fish discards (Wahl and Heinemann 1979; Brown 1986; Montevecchi et al. 1999; Stenhouse and Montevecchi. 1999). Direct environmental effects to marine birds due to the presence of vessels lighting are not anticipated because these species are highly mobile and can avoid vessels by flying or diving; collisions with vessels are rare. The presence of vessels and

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operations at night (i.e., lights) may disturb or alter the behaviour of some marine birds, but will likely be short-term as the vessels will not be a sustained source of food (e.g., fish discards, other organic waste).

Sanitary and Domestic Waste

As routine discharges will be of limited duration and frequency over the survey period, and will comply with applicable regulations and will disperse rapidly in an open ocean environment, no measurable environmental effects on marine bird species at risk are anticipated. All discharges will meet established guidelines (e.g., OWTG) which were established to protect the environment. As such, the adverse residual effects of sanitary and domestic waste on Marine Bird Species at Risk are predicted to be not significant.

Atmospheric Emissions

There is ample assimilative capacity for emissions resulting from Project activities because of the strong average winds at the site. There will be negligible environmental effects to air quality beyond the safety exclusion zone. Marine bird species at risk are unlikely to occur within the safety exclusion zone. Given the short term nature of this Project and size of the two vessels being used, no residual adverse significant environmental effects on Marine Bird Species at Risk are predicted.

Lighting

During the Project, lighting associated with vessel traffic is unlikely to attract marine bird species at risk with the possible exception of migrating birds, although the likelihood for interaction is low. As lighting effects will be short-term, are limited to two vessels (seismic and supply) and will have appropriate mitigation in place (including an onboard observer), the residual adverse environmental effect is the predicted to be not significant.

Accidental Events

An accidental event resulting in release of marine diesel or streamer product could come in contact with marine birds and cause changes in their abilities to thermo-regulate, swim and/or fly, particularly if the diesel or floatation fluid forms a surface slick. However, both diesel fuel and floatation fluid at the surface typically evaporates relatively quickly in high energy environments, are dispersed by wave action, and do not persist in the environment. A spill in the offshore is unlikely to affect the largely coastal marine bird species at risk (Ivory Gull; Piping Plover; Barrow’s Goldeneye; and Harlequin Duck). Therefore the environmental effects of an accidental event during the Project are expected to be minimal and predicted to be not significant for marine bird species at risk.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects associated with Project-related waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound from seismic surveys, lighting, and air emissions were assessed with respect to change in habitat quality and potential mortality; the Project will not

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affect habitat quantity. Each potential effect was assessed with respect to its magnitude, geographic extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility. A summary of the residual environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.7.

A key consideration for the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days); any residual environmental effects are expected to be short-term, localized, and reversible. With application of the mitigation measures prescribed above, the residual environmental effects on non-listed Marine Bird Species at Risk are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment, globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.7 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment - Marine Bird Species at Risk

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Rating

Direction of Level Extent Socio- Confidence Context Significance Significance Duration Economic Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Ecological and

2D and 3D Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Change in Habitat x Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Quality (A) Survey L312R 2 NS H Potential Mortality x Ramping up procedures (underwater (A) x Use of observer noise) x Use of observer x Avoidance of seabird colonies and observed marine mammals and sea turtles routine checks for stranded birds and appropriate handling Presence of Change in Habitat procedures L212R 2 NS H Vessel Quality (A) x Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Act 2001 and Collision Regulations x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Sanitary and Change in Habitat Pollution from Ships domestic Quality (A) N212R 2 NS H x Solid waste to be transported to shore waste x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Routine checks for stranded birds and appropriate handling procedures Change in Habitat Lighting L212R2 NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Change in Habitat Air Emissions Pollution from Ships L512R 2 NS H Quality (A) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices

Accidental Events Change in Habitat adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Transport Canada Diesel fuel x Quality (A) requirements and Canadian Coast Guard requirements spill from 1211R 2 NS H Potential Mortality vessel x use of oil containment booms when necessary (A) Change in Habitat x Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of Quality (A) x use of oil containment booms when necessary Product from 1211R 2 NS H Potential Mortality Streamers (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Rating

Direction of Level Extent Socio- Confidence Context Significance Significance Duration Economic Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Ecological and

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity Geographic Extent: 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 1 = <1 km radius adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.4 Marine Fish and Shellfish

In this section, the potential effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on Marine Fish and Shellfish are evaluated. Cumulative effects of the Project in combination with other projects and activities on Marine Fish and Shellfish are assessed in Section 7.9. Marine Fish and Shellfish consists of all life stages of marine fish and shellfish species present in the Study Area (including ichthyoplankton and larvae) as well as components of their habitat (including plankton and benthos). The potential interactions between Project activities and Marine Fish and Shellfish are provided in Table 7.8.

Table 7.8 Project-Related Interactions – Marine Fish and Shellfish

Change in Habitat Potential Project Activities Quality Mortality Sanitary and domestic waste x Presence of vessels x 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) x x Lighting Air emissions Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel x x Loss of Product from Streamers x x Cumulative Environmental Effects Marine traffic x x Commercial Fisheries x x Oil and Gas Exploration and Development N/A N/A

7.4.1 Significance Definition

A significant adverse environmental effect is defined as one that affects fish and/or shellfish populations, or habitat, in such a way as to cause a decline or change in abundance and/or distribution of the population over one or more generations. Natural recruitment (reproduction and in-migration from unaffected areas) may not re-establish the population to its original (i.e., pre-Project) level within several generations or avoidance of the area becomes permanent.

An adverse environmental effect that does not meet the above criteria is considered to be not significant.

7.4.2 Mitigation

The following technically and economically feasible mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate potential adverse effects of the Project on Marine Fish and Shellfish have been identified:

x All wastewater discharges to comply with the OWTG and ship operations will adhere to Annex of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) and Pollution Prevention Regulations of the Canada Shipping Act; x Solid waste transported to shore and recycled where possible;

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x Adherence to the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment; and, x Standard equipment inspection/maintenance practices to be in place to minimize emissions and discharges.

In addition to the mitigation measures described above, a ‘ramp-up’ procedure of the seismic equipment will be implemented prior to the beginning of the survey. The ramp-up procedure is the gradual increase of the number of sleeves fired simultaneously within an array from the air gun. This ramping up period is included to provide time for marine fauna to leave the Project Area.

7.4.3 Environmental Effects Assessment

The reader is referred to the discussion of existing knowledge and environmental effects of the Project and accidental events on marine fish and their habitat in Section 7.3.3. The known effects of seismic surveys on shellfish are described below. Potential effects on shellfish from seismic surveys, sanitary and domestic waste and vessel presence will be similar to those described for fish in Section 7.3.3. There will be negligible interaction between shellfish and light and air emissions from survey vessels. Therefore these are not discussed further.

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Surveys on Invertebrates

Underwater sound has the potential to affect shellfish in a variety of ways depending on the source levels, duration of exposure, proximity of sound source, species sensitivities and environmental conditions. LGL (2005) summarized the existing literature on potential environmental effects of industrial sound (including seismic sound) on marine fauna. That information is summarized here in addition to recent sources when available.

Reviews of studies on the effects of seismic sound on marine life (DFO 2004; Payne et al. 2008; CEF 2011; DFO 2011) report no direct evidence of mortality of fish or shellfish in response to seismic sound exposure at field operating levels. There is well-documented evidence of immediate changes in behaviour such as a startle response and avoidance behaviour (e.g., change in swimming direction, movement out of area of sound) of both fish and shellfish (McCauley et al. 2000; LGL 2005; Løkkeborg 2010). Adverse effects stemming from behavioural responses could include: leaving preferred feeding and spawning grounds; increased energy expenditure; disruption of migration; suppression of spawning behaviour; or making or blocking of sound reception (CEF 2011). Although seismic energy is well understood, less is known about marine species in terms of their distribution, life history and potential long-term or sub-lethal effects from seismic noise. The review of literature by DFO (DFO 2004; Payne et al. 2008; DFO 2011) indicate nearly all areas related to the effect of seismic sound on marine fauna have large gaps and uncertainty associated with them owing to the low number of controlled experimental studies that have been conducted. Mitigation measures (i.e., ramping up procedures, avoidance of survey during critical times and sensitive areas) can reduce the risk of harm substantially.

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There have been no documented cases of invertebrate mortality due to seismic noise. However, there have been accounts of mass giant squid strandings on two occasions that corresponded to periods of seismic activity (Guerra et al. 2004; Worcester 2006). Literature reviews (Moriyasu et al. 2004) and workshops (DFO 2004; CEF 2011) suggest that information is lacking to evaluate the likelihood of sub-lethal or physiological effects on crustaceans during molting stages, and that the potential for seismic sound to disrupt communication, orientation, locomotion, or detection of predators and prey has not been studied. However, a review by DFO (2004) concluded that unless it can adversely affect reproduction or growth, the overall effect of seismic sound on invertebrates is likely low.

Analysis of the effects of seismic exposure to crab found no apparent effects on adult crab behaviour, health, or catch rates. However, there was an effect on egg development for a female exposed to seismic energy at very close range (2 m) (Christian et al. 2004). Similarly, reviews by LGL (2005) also found that mortality of eggs and larvae have only been reported when exposed at very close range to seismic sources. It should be noted that many invertebrates are sessile or have very limited ability to move, or are planktonic during larval stages, and would be unable to avoid seismic sound. Behavioural responses (i.e., change in swimming patterns, startle response) have been observed for some invertebrate species.

Changes in catch rates (both increases and decreases) of commercially harvested shellfish species have been documented in response to seismic noise, but trends are not consistent (Andriguetto-Filho et al. 2005; Parry and Gason 2006). Benthic macroinvertebrates (shellfish) are less likely to be affected by seismic activity than pelagic or planktonic invertebrates because few benthic invertebrates have gas-filled spaces that would make them sensitive to changes in pressure, and also because benthic species are usually more than 20 m away from the seismic source as they occur on the seafloor.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects of waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound, lighting, and air emissions were assessed with respect to magnitude, extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility for each of the interactions (i.e., change in habitat quality, potential mortality). A summary of the environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.9. A more detailed discussion on the assessment of effects to marine fish, shellfish, and their habitats is provided in Section 7.3.3.

A key Project-specific consideration of the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days). With application of the described mitigation measures and because the potential residual environmental effects are short-term, localized, and reversible, the residual environmental effects on Marine Fish and Shellfish are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.9 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Fish and Shellfish

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Level Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Sanitary and Prevention of Pollution from Ships Change in Habitat Domestic x Solid waste to be transported to shore N22 2 R 2 NS H Quality (A) Waste x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Presence of Change in Habitat Shipping Act 2001 and Collision Regulations L26 2 R 2 NS H Vessel Quality (A) x Standard equipment inspections/best maintenance practices 2D and 3D Change in Habitat x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Seismic Quality (A) Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Survey L35 2 R 2 NS H (underwater Potential Mortality noise) (A) x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance Change in Habitat Lighting practices N232 R 2 NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Change in Habitat Prevention of Pollution from Ships Air Emissions N532 R 2 NS H Quality (A) x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Accidental Events Change in Habitat x Adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Diesel fuel Quality (A) Transport Canada requirements and Canadian Coast spill from Guard requirements L2 11 R 2 NS H vessel Potential Mortality x Use of oil containment booms when necessary (A) Change in Habitat x Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of Quality (A) x Use of oil containment booms when necessary Product from L2 11 R 2 NS H Streamers Potential Mortality (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity Geographic Extent: 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 1 = <1 km radius adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.5 Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on non-listed marine mammals and sea turtles are summarized. Project effects on marine mammal species at risk and sea turtle species at risk are assessed in details in Sections 7.3.4 and 7.3.5 respectively. Project-related interactions are shown in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10 Potential Project-Related Interactions– Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

Change in Habitat Potential Project Activities Quality Mortality 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) x x Presence of vessels x Sanitary and domestic waste x Lighting x Air emissions x Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel x x Loss of product from streamers x x Cumulative Environmental Effects Marine traffic x x Commercial Fisheries x Oil and Gas Exploration and Development N/A N/A

7.5.1 Significance Definition

A significant residential adverse environmental effect is defined as one that affects a marine mammal or sea turtle population or portion thereof, or their associated habitat, in such a way as to cause a decline in abundance and/or change in distribution over one or more generations. An effect is considered significant if natural recruitment (i.e., reproduction and immigration from unaffected areas) cannot re-establish the population to its baseline (i.e., pre-Project) conditions within one to two generations.

A not significant adverse environmental effect is defined as an adverse effect that does not meet the above criteria.

7.5.2 Mitigations

Based on the potential interactions identified in Table 7.10 and existing knowledge regarding these interactions, the following technically and economically feasible mitigation measures have been identified to reduce or eliminate potential adverse effects of the Project on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles:

x the Project will adhere to the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment; x a Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Observer (also referred to as the MMO) will be employed during all seismic surveys; x ramp-up procedures will be implemented during all seismic surveys;

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x ceasing of seismic operations if observer sights species at risk within ramping-up period; x vessels will reduce speeds when marine mammals and sea turtles are observed; x the use of strategies to detect and avoid marine mammals during night time (i.e., when Marine Mammal Observers are unable to use visual surveys) will be encouraged during seismic surveys. x presence of FLO onboard to communicate with other vessels; x All wastewater discharges to comply with the OWTG and ship operations will adhere to Annex of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) and Pollution Prevention Regulations of the Canada Shipping Act; x solid waste will be transported to shore and recycled where possible; and x equipment will be designed to meet regulatory requirements for emissions, and regular maintenance plans will be followed to allow equipment to operate as efficiently as possible.

7.5.3 Environmental Effects Assessment

The potential environmental effects associated with Project-related waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound from seismic surveys, lighting, and air emissions were assessed with respect to change in habitat quality and potential mortality; the Project will not affect habitat quantity. Each potential effect was assessed with respect to its magnitude, geographic extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility. A summary of the residual environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.11.

A key consideration for the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days); any residual environmental effects are expected to be short-term, localized, and reversible. With application of the mitigation measures prescribed above, the residual environmental effects on non-listed Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment, globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Table 7.11 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measures Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Level Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

Waste x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Change in Habitat generation Prevention of Pollution from Ships Quality (A) N212R2 NS H (sanitary and x Solid waste to be transported to shore domestic) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Use of trained marine mammal and sea turtle observer x Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 Presence of Change in Habitat x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping L312R2 NS H Vessels Quality (A) Act 2001 and Collision Regulations

2D and 3D Change in Habitat x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation Seismic Quality (A) of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Surveys ( x Ramping up procedures L312R2 NS M underwater Potential Mortality x Use of trained marine mammal and sea turtle observer noise) (A) x Use of best practices and industry standards x Use of best practices and industry standards Change in Habitat Lighting N212R2 NS H Quality (A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for the Change in Habitat Air Emissions Prevention of Pollution from Ships L312R2 NS H Quality (A) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices

Accidental Events Change in Habitat x Adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Transport Diesel fuel Quality (A) Canada requirements and Canadian Coast Guard spill from requirements L211R2 NS H vessel Potential Mortality x Use of oil containment booms when necessary (A) Change in Habitat x Routine inspections of the streamers Loss of Quality (A) x Use of oil containment booms when necessary Product from L211R2 NS H Streamers Potential Mortality (A)

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measures Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: <10 percent of the population or Context: H = High level of confidence habitat in the Study Area will be affected Duration: M = Medium: 11 to 25 percent of the 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area population or habitat in the Study Area will 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity be affected 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing H = High: >25 percent of the population or 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity habitat in the Study Area will be affected 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing adverse activity Geographic Extent: 1 = <1 km radius 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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Follow-up

A trained marine mammal and sea turtle observer will be on the vessel to monitor and report any sightings or interactions with marine mammals and sea turtles during the course of the seismic survey. No follow-up programs are recommended for marine mammals and sea turtles.

7.6 Marine Birds

Marine birds were selected as a VEC because of the potential interactions with Project activities that could affect their habitat and behaviour. Marine birds are protected under the Migratory Bird Convention Act, administered by Environment Canada. Marine birds are also considered a VEC because they were included in the Project Scoping Document (C-NLOPB 2012) and because of their sensitivity to oil in the marine environment.

In this section, the potential environmental effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on marine birds are evaluated. Species of marine birds listed under SARA or considered at risk by COSEWIC are assessed within the Species at Risk VEC (Section 7.3.6). Cumulative environmental effects are discussed in Section 7.9. Table 7.12 identifies the potential interactions of Project activities, accidental events, and cumulative environmental effects with Marine Birds, identifying those activities with potential for changes in habitat quality or potential mortality.

Table 7.12 Project-Related Interactions – Marine Birds

Change in Habitat Potential Project Activities Quality Mortality 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) xx Presence of vessels xx Sanitary and domestic waste xx Lighting xx Air emissions xx Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel xx Loss of product from streamers xx Cumulative Environmental Effects Marine traffic x x Commercial fisheries x x Oil and gas activities N/A N/A

7.6.1 Significance Definition

A significant adverse residual environmental effect on Marine Birds is one that affects marine bird populations (e.g., direct mortality, change in migratory patterns, habitat avoidance) in a way that causes a decline in abundance or change in distribution of population(s) of indicator / representative species within the Study Area. Natural recruitment may not re-establish the population(s) to its original level within one generation.

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A not significant adverse environmental effect is defined as an adverse effect that does not meet the above criteria.

7.6.2 Mitigation

Based on the potential interactions identified and existing knowledge regarding these interactions, the following technically and economically feasible mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate potential adverse effects of the Project on Marine Birds have been identified:

x avoidance of seabird colonies by the seismic vessel and support vessel; x routine checks for stranded birds and implementation of appropriate procedures for release that will minimize the effects of vessel lighting on birds; x adherence to The Leach’s Storm-Petrel: General Information and Handling Instructions in the event that this species becomes stranded on the survey vessel (which involves the pre-submission of a permit application to the CWS); x a pelagic marine bird monitoring program will be implemented according to the protocols developed by CWS and the Operator will include a trained observer among their staff; x compliance with the Migratory Birds Convention Act and regulations; x ramping up procedures prior to use of maximum seismic energy; x all wastewater discharges to comply with the OWTG and ship operations will adhere to Annex of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, (MARPOL 73/78) and Pollution Prevention Regulations of the Canada Shipping Act; x solid waste transported to shore and recycled where possible; and x equipment will be designed to meet regulatory requirements for emissions and regular maintenance plans will allow equipment to operate as efficiently as possible.

7.6.3 Effects Assessment

Much of the information provided in the following sections is based on the Western Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Area Strategic Environmental Assessment (LGL 2005).

Effects of Sound from 2D and 3D Seismic Survey

Sources of noise associated with the Project include 2D and 3D seismic survey and marine traffic and these are discussed in detail in Section 7.3.6. The atmospheric noise generated by this Project is of little concern for seabirds, the loudest source being the vessel engine. The most intense sound source from this Project will be the 2D and 3D seismic noise.

The hearing abilities of marine birds is known to be excellent in air and on land (Fay 1988), but information on their abilities to hear underwater is lacking. Experiments and field studies of the effects of seismic air guns on seabirds are extremely limited. The lack of data regarding seabirds and seismic activity may reflect that there is little evidence of adverse interactions (Davis et al. 1998), or alternatively may reflect a bias and be a result of few studies investigating the effects of seismic energy on birds to date.

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The sound created by air guns is focused downward below the surface of the water and sound levels in the air and at the surface are likely greatly reduced compared to levels deeper in the water (LGL 2002). As such, the only potential direct effect may result from birds diving below or close to the seismic energy source. Above the water, the sound is reduced to a muffled shot that should have little or no effect on birds that have their heads above water or are in flight, aside from a potential startle response.

Observations made during a seismic program in the Davis Strait area showed no evidence of mortality or distributional effects on marine birds (Stemp 1985) and similarly, Evans et al. (1993) found that seabirds in the vicinity of seismic activity in the Irish Sea did not show signs of attraction or avoidance – there was no observable difference in behaviour. Parsons (in Stemp 1985) reported that shearwaters with their heads under water were observed within 30 m of seismic sources (explosives) and did not respond. Similarly, trained observers reported no observed adverse effects on guillemot, fulmar and kittiwake species that were monitored during seismic surveys in the North Sea (Turnpenny and Nedwell 1994), although it should be noted that no large concentrations of these seabird species were observed during the study, and effects could have been noted if large numbers of birds had been present during the seismic survey.

Most species of marine birds (Procellariidae, Hydrobatidae, Phalaropodinae and Laridae) that are expected to regularly occur in the Study Area use surface waters (less than 1 m depth) to feed. The only group of marine birds that spends extended periods submerged and dives to deeper depths is the Alcidae (e.g., Dovekie, Common Murre, Thick-billed Murre, Razorbill, Black Guillemot and Atlantic Puffin). Alcids forage for food by diving under the water and propelling their bodies with their wings (Elliott et al. 2008). All are capable of reaching considerable depths and spending prolonged periods of time submerged, particularly Common Murres (Hedd et al. 2009). The effects of seismic sounds on Alcidae are unknown, but sound is likely not important in seeking out and obtaining food. However, all six species are vocal at breeding sites, indicating auditory capabilities are important in that part of the life cycle of Alcidae. Northern Gannet are also deep divers, reaching up to 10 m; however, they are submerged for very short periods before surfacing.

Most species of seabirds that may be present in the Study Area spend only a few seconds underwater during a foraging dive; therefore, there would be minimal opportunity for exposure. Given the short-term (approximately 54 days) and localized nature of the potential effects, the potential for any injury to birds would be minimal. The residual environmental effects are predicted to be not significant.

Vessel Presence

The potential interactions between the vessels and environment were discussed in Section 7.3.6.

The presence of vessels may affect Marine Birds through the physical presence of the vessel and above-water noise. Marine birds in the Study Area may be habituated to vessel activity and some birds such as gull species and Northern Fulmar are actually attracted to ships and often

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stay with them for extended periods (Montevecchi et al.1999). Direct effects to Marine Birds are not anticipated because these species are highly mobile and can avoid vessels by flying or diving; collisions with vessels are rare. Energy expended during these events would be minimal and are not expected to have any physiological effect on the birds.

Supply vessels travelling to the Project site will follow established shipping lanes, particularly in proximity to shore, and the potential for disturbance to colonies will be minimal. The residual environmental effects are predicted to be not significant.

Sanitary and Domestic Waste

The potential interactions between marine fauna and routine discharges are discussed in detail in Section 7.3.6.

There is potential for marine birds to interact with waste materials that are routinely discharged. Waste materials, such as deck drainage and bilge water, may negatively affect marine bird health due to the presence of residual hydrocarbons. The attraction of gulls to vessels as a result of discharges of sanitary and domestic waste may increase the potential for predation of smaller marine birds such as Leach’s Storm-Petrels. Given the short duration of the Project and compliance with applicable regulations and guidelines related to discharges, the environmental effects on marine birds are predicted to be not significant.

Atmospheric Emissions

There is ample assimilative capacity for emissions resulting from Project activities because of the strong average winds at the site. There will be negligible environmental effects to air quality beyond the safety exclusion zone. Given the short term nature of this Project and size of the two vessels being used, no residual adverse significant environmental effects on marine birds are predicted.

Lighting

During seismic activity, vessel traffic may affect seabirds by attracting them to lighting. Seabirds primarily navigate by sight, and lights can be an eye-catching visual cue (Wiese et al. 2001). The greatest period of risk of attraction to offshore lights is in September when birds are moving to offshore wintering grounds. Storm Petrels and other Procellariformes (tube-nosed seabirds) are nocturnal foragers on bioluminescent prey and are, therefore, naturally pre-disposed to attraction to light of any kind (Imber 1975). Young-of-the year birds appear to be more susceptible to light attraction than adults although further research is required (LGL Limited 2005).

While all vessels have navigation and warning lights that may attract marine birds, lighting on seismic vessels may attract birds more readily than other vessels as the illuminated areas will be larger and more intense. Storm-petrels are particularly susceptible to light attraction because of their nocturnal feeding habits. For the Project, lighting will be used as required for navigational purposes for safe operations and equipment monitoring. Since lighting is required

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at night for safety purposes, mitigation will include routine checks for stranded birds and implementation of appropriate procedures for release that will minimize the effects of vessel lighting on birds in the Study Area.

As the above effects will be short-term and with appropriate mitigation in place, the residual adverse environmental effect of lighting on Marine Birds is predicted to be not significant.

Accidental Events

Accidental events with potential environmental effects on Marine Birds include the release of hydrocarbons from a vessel (i.e. diesel; fuel oil or lube) or from the seismic streamers (floatation fluid or Isopar, a de-aromatized diesel).

In comparison to crude oil, diesel fuel that is accidentally released from the vessel evaporates much more quickly, and does not persist in the environment over the long-term (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2006). Diesel fuel has a low viscosity and is quickly dispersed in the water column when mixing occurs due to wind (greater than 9 to 13 km/h) or due to breaking waves. Diesel may be dispersed and form droplets that are maintained in suspension in the water column. The storage regulations in place for lube oil minimize the volume lost during an accident or rupture. Floatation fluid could be released if a fluid-filled streamer becomes damaged. To mitigate this, inspections of the streamer and other equipment will be performed routinely, and there will be frequent communication with nearby vessels.

In consideration of the nature of the hydrocarbons, and the magnitude and geographic extent of a spill of hydrocarbons from a vessel or the streamers, the residual adverse environmental effect of accidental events on Marine Birds is predicted to be not significant.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects associated with Project-related waste generation, presence of the vessel, underwater sound from seismic surveys, lighting, and air emissions were assessed with respect to change in habitat quality and potential mortality; the Project will not affect habitat quantity. Each potential effect was assessed with respect to its magnitude, geographic extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility. A summary of the residual environmental effects of the Project is provided in Table 7.13.

A key consideration for the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days); any residual environmental effects are expected to be short-term, localized, and reversible. With application of the mitigation measures prescribed above, the residual environmental effects on non-listed Marine Birds are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based on the well- documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment, globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

.

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Table 7.13 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Marine Birds

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Level Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

2D and 3D x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on Seismic Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment Change in Habitat x Ramping up procedures L3 1 2 R 2 NS H Survey Quality (A) (underwater x Use of trained observer to observe for birds noise) x Use of trained observer to observe for birds x Avoidance of seabird colonies x Routine checks for stranded birds and appropriate Presence of Change in Habitat handling procedures L2 1 2 R 2 NS H Vessel Quality (A); x Adherence to MARPOL 73/78 x Compliance with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Act 2001 and Collision Regulations x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for Sanitary and the Prevention of Pollution from Ships Change in Habitat x Solid waste to be transported to shore L2 1 2 R 2 NS H domestic Quality (A); waste x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Change in Habitat x Routine checks for stranded birds and appropriate Lighting Quality (A); handling procedures L2 12R2NS H Mortality(A) x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for Air Change in Habitat the Prevention of Pollution from Ships L5 12R2NS H Emissions Quality (A) x Regular equipment inspections / best maintenance practices Accidental Events x Adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Diesel fuel Contact with Transport Canada requirements and Canadian Coast spill from L3 11R2NS H marine birds (A) Guard requirements vessel x Use of oil containment booms when necessary Loss of x Routine inspections of the streamers Contact with Product from x Use of oil containment booms when necessary L3 11R2NS H marine birds (A) Streamers

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Context: H = High level of confidence Study Area Duration: H = High: mortality of several indiduals 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity Geographic Extent: 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing 1 = <1 km radius adverse activity 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.7 Sensitive Areas

As many of the Sensitive Areas in and near the Study Area were created in relation to species at risk and other marine resources, such as marine mammals, marine fish and marine birds, this assessment is closely linked to the assessment of other VECs. This VEC addresses the potential environmental effects on the area, or the quality of the habitat, and not the species that inhabit the sensitive habitat; these interactions are addressed in the appropriate VEC.

While some of the Sensitive Areas considered within this VEC overlap with the Study Area, few areas will interact with routine Project activities. Many Project activities and their potential zones of influence are localized within the Project Area. The only federally designated Sensitive Area that overlaps the Project Area and may be affected by the Project is EBSA 10 (the West Coast of Newfoundland). A cod spawning area west of Port au Port, and which is outside the 2012/2014 Project Area, overlaps EL 1128, where 2D or 3D seismic surveys could be planned in the future. There are also Sensitive Areas designated by non-government organizations along the west coast of Newfoundland near Port au Port within the Study Area, including eelgrass beds (CPAWS 2009) and Long Ledge (Long Range Economic Development Board 2011). Table 7.14 identifies the potential interactions of Project activities, accidental events, and other projects and activities with Sensitive Areas. The only potential interactions are associated with an accidental event. Cumulative effects are assessed in Section 7.9.

Table 7.14 Project-Related Interactions – Sensitive Areas

Change in Habitat Project Activities Quality 2D and 3D seismic survey (underwater noise) Presence of vessels Sanitary and domestic waste Lighting Air emissions Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel x Loss of product from streamers x Cumulative Environmental Effects Marine traffic x Commercial fisheries x Oil and Gas activities N/A

7.7.1 Significance Definition

A significant adverse residual environmental effect on Sensitive Areas is one that alters the habitat of the identified Sensitive Areas physically, chemically or biologically, to such a degree that there is a decline in abundance of key species or species at risk or a change in community structure, beyond which natural recruitment (reproduction and immigration from unaffected areas) would not return the population or community to its former level within several generations.

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An adverse environmental effect that does not meet the above criteria is considered to be not significant.

7.7.2 Mitigation

The following technically and economically feasible mitigation measures to reduce or eliminate potential adverse effects of the Project on Sensitive Areas have been identified:

x Oil Spill Response Plan; x Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan as per the Canada Shipping Act, 2001; and x Contract with readily available response organization.

7.7.3 Effects Assessment

Accidental Events

Accidental events with potential to affect Sensitive Areas within the Study Area are those resulting in the release of hydrocarbons.

In the case of an accidental event resulting in the release of marine diesel fuel or streamer fluid, sensitive areas within the Study Area, such as eelgrass beds may be affected. A review of potential effects of hydrocarbons on fish is provided in Section 7.3.3.

Eelgrass is sensitive to exposure to hydrocarbons, which could result from an accidental release of diesel. The presence of hydrocarbons in the water column may cause non-lethal physiological effects or the mortality of individual plants if there are moderate to high concentrations in the water column for a few hours, or low concentrations of hydrocarbons that persist over a few days (Fingas 2001); however, no effect may be observed (Short and Wyllie- Echeverria 1996). Seasonal variation can also affect the duration and extent of a hydrocarbon spill, as well as potential effects on the eelgrass life cycle. It has also been noted that some surfactants/dispersants applied to mitigate oil spills could have a much more detrimental and long-term effect on eelgrass than the hydrocarbons themselves (Hatcher and Larkum 1982).

The potential environmental effects of diesel oil on eelgrass are not well studied. One incident in Newfoundland involved the accidental release of diesel fuel on a road near Bonne Bay during berm construction activities in 1999. It was documented to cause a die-off of eelgrass in the adjacent coastal area (Hanson 2004); however, restoration efforts were successful in restoring the eelgrass bed using the Transplant Eelgrass Remotely with Frames System (Short et al. 2002). Diesel oil can be more toxic than crude oil in the short-term. However, studies of crude oil spills in Alaska and France provide insight to the potential effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediment of eelgrass beds.

In the event of a hydrocarbon release, and depending on meteorlogical conditions at the time, diesel could reach the eelgrass beds, if present. However, there is a low likelihood of occurrence because spill prevention procedures will be in place and contingency plans will be

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designed to limit exposure of sensitive areas should a spill occur. The potential for community- level effects on the eelgrass bed, in the event of a worst-case scenario, is low.

Mitigations will be in place to reduce the likelihood of an accidental event and standard navigation and safety regulations prescribed by Transport Canada and the Canadian Coast Guard will be followed. In the case of an accidental event, contingency plans will be put in place, including the use of oil booms. Environmental effects from this scale of event are generally low in magnitude, of limited geographic extent and reversible.

Effects Assessment Summary

The assessment of potential environmental effects on Sensitive Areas focused on accidental release of hydrocarbons. Due to the short duration of the proposed Project (i.e., 54 days), and the implementation of the proposed mitigation measures, the potential adverse environmental effects of the Project on Sensitive Areas are predicted to be not significant. A summary of potential environmental effects on Sensitive Areas is provided in Table 7.15.

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Table 7.15 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Sensitive Areas

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a) Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Soci o- Context Duration Economic Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Ecological and Level of Confidence Significance Rating

Accidental Events x Oil Spill Response Plan; x Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan as per Contact between Diesel fuel spill the Canada Shipping Act, 2001; and diesel fuel and L 2 11R 2 NS H from vessel x Contract with readily available response sensitive areas (A) organization. x Use of oil containment booms when necessary Contact between x Use of solid streamers if feasible; Loss of Product streamer fluid and x Routine inspections of the streamers L 2 11R 2 NS H from Streamers sensitive areas (A) x Use of oil containment booms when necessary

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Soci o- Context Duration Economic Magnitude Frequency Geographic Reversibility Ecological and Significance Rating Level of Confidence KEY Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: Direction: 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant A = Adverse 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant N = Neutral 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) P = Positive 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio-economic L = Low level of confidence Magnitude: 6 = continuous Context: M = Medium level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) H = High level of confidence L = Low: interaction with individual in the Duration: 1 = Relatively pristine area not affected Study Area 1 = < 1 month by human activity H = High: mortality of several indiduals 2 = 1-12 months 2 = Evidence of existing adverse activity 3 = 13-36 months 3 = High level of existing adverse activity Geographic Extent: 4 = 37-72 months 1 = <1 km radius 5 = >72 months 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.8 Fisheries and Other Ocean Users

The potential effects of routine Project activities and accidental events on Fisheries and Other Ocean Users are evaluated. Fisheries refer to commercial, recreational, Aboriginal/subsistence and foreign fisheries activity in the Study Area and is related to the discussion of marine fish and shellfish in Section 7.4. Other Ocean uses include bird hunting and, recreation and tourism. Cumulative effects of the Project in combination with other projects and activities, including marine traffic, on Fisheries and Other Uses are listed in the table below and assessed in Section 7.9.

The Study Area, which includes all three ELs as well as a buffer for the turning radius of the vessel, occurs within NAFO Unit Area 4Rc and 4Rb, with 4Rd, 4Ss and 4Sx adjacent. Landings are reported for NAFO division 4R, an area that extends from Port aux Basques to the Northern Peninsula. Fishing activity within NAFO Division 4R is described with respect to total landings and value, and fishing activity within Unit 4Rc is described in greater detail in Section 6.7.

Fishing in 4Rc occurs from April to November, with very little fishing between December and March. May to July is the busiest period for fishing in 4Rc, with lobster and snow crab fisheries occurring mainly in April to July, and finfish fisheries more common from July to September. Fixed gear (gillnets, longline, hand line and pots) is used more commonly than mobile gear (trawls seines, dredges). The most economically valuable fisheries in 4Rc in recent years have been lobster, mackerel, herring, snow crab and cod, although the highest catches are from mackerel, herring, capelin and cod.

The Project is scheduled to be undertaken between October 2012 and January 2013, thereby avoiding the primary commercial fishery seasons. Consultation with the Qalipu First Nation indicates that there is no known spatial or temporal overlap between the Project and known fishing activities of that group. Additionally, due to the short duration of the Project (54 days), the timing of the planned survey (October to January), and the distance from onshore/nearshore recreational activities, it has been determined there are minimal interactions between other user activities including bird hunting and, tourism and recreation. Therefore the Project will not significantly affect other ocean users, and is not assessed further. Details on other ocean users are provided in Section 6.7.15. The potential interactions between Project activities and Fisheries are provided in Table 7.16.

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Table 7.16 Project-Related Interactions – Fisheries and Other Ocean Users

Change in Fisheries and Project Activities Other Ocean Users Waste generation (sanitary and domestic) x Presence of vessels x 2D and 3D Seismic Survey (underwater noise) x Lighting Air emissions Accidental Events Diesel fuel spill from vessel x Loss of Product from Streamers x Cumulative Effects Marine traffic x Commercial Fisheries x Oil and Gas Exploration and Development N/A

7.8.1 Significance Definition

A significant adverse residual environmental effect would be one that results in a measurable and sustained effect on commercial fisheries, and other ocean users.

7.8.2 Mitigation

Mitigation measures will be implemented to reduce the potential for adverse environmental effects on Fisheries and Other Ocean Users that could potentially result from Project activities. Most importantly, the Project is timed to reduce interaction with important commercial fisheries during the spring and summer. As discussed in Section 2.2.9, the Proponent’s Environmental Management Plan includes the following mitigation related to fisheries activity:

x Fisheries liaison / interaction policies and procedures, such as routine advisories, where appropriate and continued consultation with One Ocean and the Fisheries Food and Allied Workers (FFAW); x Use of a qualified observer(s) (Fisheries Liaison Officer), whom will be capable of liaising with the fishing industry during the seismic surveys, as required by Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012); and, x Compensation of affected parties, including fisheries interests, for accidental damage resulting from Project activities, in keeping with the Compensation Guidelines Respecting Damages Relating to Offshore Petroleum Activity (C-NLOPB 2002).

These measures are in addition to mitigation related to Marine Fish and Shellfish, as discussed in Section 7.4.

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7.8.3 Environmental Effects Assessment

Existing Knowledge about Environmental Effects

Effects on marine fish from waste generation resulting from the Project are discussed in Section 7.3.3. All discharges will meet established guidelines (e.g., OWTG, MARPOL) and procedures.

The effects on marine fish and shellfish resulting from vessel presence (i.e., sustained vessel noise), are discussed in Section 7.3.3. As discussed, literature to date suggest that the response of fish to noise produced by vessels is dependent on species type, stage in life cycle, time of day, vessel sound, local conditions and whether the fish has fed (Davis et al. 1998). The Project will comply with the requirements of the Canada Shipping Act (2001) and Collision Regulations. Regular equipment inspections and best maintenance practices will also be imposed.

Potential effects of sound on marine fish behaviour are assessed in Section 7.3.3. Most available literature indicates that the effects of survey level seismic noise on fish are minimal if the fish (including eggs and larvae) are beyond a critical distance from the seismic source. Startle response and local avoidance of the sound source by fish are common and expected responses to seismic noise, and this effect is expected to be reversible. In most cases, it appears that behavioural effects on fish as a result of noise should result in negligible effects on individuals and populations.

Effects on commercial fish species from accidental events resulting from the Project (release of marine diesel fuel or streamer effluent if solid streamers are not used) are discussed in Section 7.3.3.

Mitigation measures will be in place to reduce the likelihood of an accidental event and standard navigation and safety regulations prescribed by Transport Canada and the Canadian Coast Guard and standard maintenance practices will be followed. The effects of a diesel spill or loss of streamer fluid would be short term as these types of hydrocarbon would dissipate quickly. Environmental effects from this scale of event are generally low in magnitude, of limited geographic extent and reversible. In the unlikely event of a substantial release of hydrocarbon, the C-NLOPB’s guidelines will be used to determine the need for compensation.

Effects Assessment Summary

The potential environmental effects of waste generation, presence of the vessel, and underwater sound were assessed for Fisheries and Other Ocean Users with respect to magnitude, extent, frequency, duration, and reversibility (Table 7.17). The environmental effects of the Project on Marine Fish and Shellfish were assessed in Section 7.4 and found to be not significant. A key Project-specific consideration of the environmental effects assessment is the short duration of the proposed activities (i.e., approximately 54 days). With application of the described mitigation measures and because the potential residual environmental effects are short-term, localized, and reversible, the residual environmental effects on Fisheries are predicted to be not significant. This determination is made with a high degree of certainty based

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on the well-documented effects of seismic surveys on the marine environment globally and in Newfoundland and Labrador.

As discussed, a number of fisheries related mitigations are in place, including timing the survey to avoid interaction with the busiest fishing season in the Study Area, initial consultation with fishers and the Qalipu First Nation, and the presence of a Fisheries Liaison Officer on the vessel for the duration of the survey. Additionally, the Proponent will continue to consult with fishers in the area through both One Ocean and the FFAW.

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Table 7.17 Potential Environmental Effects Assessment Summary – Fisheries and Other Ocean Users

Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Level Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

x Adhere to Annex I of the International Convention for Sanitary and the Prevention of Pollution from Ships Change in Domestic x Adhere to Offshore Waste Treatment Guidelines L 2 2 2 R 2 NS H Fisheries (A) Waste x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Timing of Survey Presence of Change in x Presence of Fisheries Liaison Officer L 2 6 2 R 2 NS H Vessel Fisheries (A) x Standard equipment inspections/best maintenance practices x Timing of Survey 2D and 3D x Adherence to Compensation Guidelines Respecting Seismic Damages Relating to Offshore Petroleum Activity (C- Change in Survey NLOPB 2002). L 3 5 2 R 2 NS H Fisheries (A) (underwater x Adherence to Statement of Canadian Practice on noise) Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment x Ramping up procedures Accidental Events x Adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Transport Diesel Canada requirements and Canadian Coast Guard Change in requirements L to fuelspill from 2 11 R 2 NS H Fisheries (A) x Use of oil containment booms when necessary M vessel x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices x Use solid streamers if possible Loss of x Routine inspections of the streamers Change in Product from Use of oil containment booms when necessary L 2 1 1 R 2 NS H Fisheries (A) x Streamers x Standard equipment inspections / best maintenance practices

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Evaluation Criteria for Assessing Environmental Effects (a)

Potential Environmental Activity Mitigation Measure Effects and Direction Extent Context Duration Magnitude Frequency Geographic Geographic Reversibility Significance Rating Significance Level of Confidence Ecological and and Ecological Socio-Economic

KEY

Direction: Frequency: Reversibility: Significance Rating: A = Adverse 1 = <11 events/year R = Reversible S = Significant N = Neutral 2 = 11-50 events/year I = Irreversible NS = Not Significant P = Positive 3 = 51-100 events/year (Refers to population) 4 = 101-200 events/year Level of Confidence: Magnitude: 5 = >200 events/year Ecological / Socio- L = Low level of confidence N = Negligible (essentially no effect) 6 = continuous economic M = Medium level of confidence L = Low: <10 percent of the population or Context: H = High level of confidence habitat in the Study Area will be affected Duration: M = Medium: 11 to 25 percent of the 1 = < 1 month 1 = Relatively pristine area population or habitat in the Study Area will 2 = 1-12 months not affected by human activity be affected 3 = 13-36 months 2 = Evidence of existing H = High: >25 percent of the population or 4 = 37-72 months adverse activity habitat in the Study Area will be affected 5 = >72 months 3 = High level of existing adverse activity Geographic Extent: 1 = <1 km radius 2 = 1 to 10 km radius 3 = 11 to 100 km radius 4 = 101 to 1,000 km radius 5 = 1,001 to 10,000 km radius 6 = >10,000 km radius

(a) Where there is more than one potential environmental effect, the evaluation criteria rating is assigned to the environmental effect with the greatest potential for harm

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7.9 Cumulative Environmental Effects

Past, present and future projects and activities in combination with the seismic survey activities proposed for EL1120, 1127 and 1128 (the Project) may result in cumulative environmental effects. The initial proposed seismic survey activities are scheduled to occur in EL1120 over a 54-day period, between mid-September 2012 and early January 2013 or over the same period in 2013/2014, and consequently has potential for overlap with other activities within the Study Area such as marine vessel traffic and commercial fisheries. Seismic surveys and localized wellsite surveys may be conducted after the initial survey, up to 2021. The potential cumulative environmental effects on marine Species at Risk, Marine Fish and Shellfish, Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles, Marine Birds, Fisheries and Other Ocean Users, and Sensitive Areas are assessed below.

7.9.1 Other Projects and Activities

Marine Traffic

Commercial shipping occurs in western Newfoundland, particularly near the ports of Corner Brook and Stephenville, and heavy vessel traffic occurs further offshore on the shipping routes to and from the St. Lawrence Seaway. The Gulf accommodates approximately 6,400 commercial vessel transits annually, supporting domestic and international trade and transport (Alexander et al. 2010). Traffic is busiest in western Newfoundland during summer, when European traffic uses the Strait of Belle Isle, and when fisheries are most active. As an indication of commercial marine traffic activity within the Study Area during the months of October to January (the timeframe proposed for the Project), there were 39 recorded trips to the port of Corner Brook (J. Chow, Port of Corner Brook, Pers. Comm.). Marine vessel traffic includes commercial fishing vessels, cargo vessels, oil tankers, ferries, Coast Guard vessels, cruise ships, and powered recreational boating vessels. There is no planned oil and gas-related vessel activity during the scheduled timeframe for the Project’s initial seismic survey. Issues associated with marine vessel traffic include underwater noise and marine discharges.

Commercial Fisheries

The Study Area is located primarily within NAFO Unit Area 4Rc. Fishing in 4Rc occurs primarily between April and November, with very little fishing between December and March. May to July is the busiest period for fishing, with lobster and snow crab fisheries occurring mainly in April to July, and finfish fisheries more common from July to September. Fixed gear (gillnets, longline, hand line and crab pots) is used more commonly than mobile gear (trawls seines, dredges). The primary issues associated with commercial fisheries include disturbance of the seabed (e.g., trawling), and harvest of fish and shellfish. The Project is scheduled to be undertaken between October and January, thereby avoiding the primary commercial fishery seasons.

Oil and Gas Activities

As of the date of report preparation, there are no other active environmental assessments for oil and gas activities within the Study Area (http://www.cnlopb.nl.ca/env_active.shtml). The Old

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Harry Prospect (EL 1105) is approximately 120 km to the southwest of EL 1120, and exploration drilling at that location, if it proceeds, will not have a cumulative environmental effect with the Project because there will be no spatial overlap between the two. There may be Project seismic exploration activities beyond 2012, up to 2021, in which case, the proponent will provide this information in the EA Validation Updates and liaise with other operators, as and when appropriate.

7.9.2 Cumulative Environmental Effects Assessment

Species at Risk

Other projects and activities that could act in combination with the Ptarmigan Project to result in cumulative effects to Species at Risk are commercial fisheries and marine traffic. Based on the Project timeframe and known distribution data, the species listed on Schedule 1 of SARA that are most likely to occur in the Study Area between October and January are blue whale (Atlantic population), fin whale (Atlantic population), leatherback sea turtle (Atlantic Ocean), spotted wolfish, and Atlantic wolffish. Species listed on Schedule 2 of SARA or assessed as at-risk by COSEWIC that may occur in the Study Area between October and January are harbour porpoise (Northwest Atlantic population), Atlantic cod (Laurentian North, Laurentian South, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Southern populations), winter skate (Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northern Gulf-Newfoundland population), porbeagle shark, Acadian redfish (Atlantic population), Shortfin mako, Atlantic salmon (Anticosti Island, South Newfoundland, Gaspé-Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec Eastern North Shore, Quebec Western North Shore, Inner St. Lawrence populations), American plaice (Maritimes, Newfoundland and Labrador population), and American eel.

Of these, four are marine mammal or sea turtle species, for which an on-board observation program will be conducted. The seismic survey will be suspended in the event of marine mammal or sea turtle observations, and therefore there will be negligible cumulative environmental effect resulting from the Project for marine mammal and sea turtle species at risk. The remaining Species at Risk are fish, which could be affected by marine vessel traffic (marine discharges, underwater noise) and commercial fisheries. These activities are regulated and, therefore, the cumulative environmental effects will not likely be significant because they will be managed through regulatory provisions and because the increase of two vessels locally due to Project activities is negligible in comparison to existing marine vessel traffic and commercial fishing activity.

Based on the time frame scheduled for the Project, and known distribution data, it is not likely that bird species at risk will be present within the Study Area, and therefore, there are no likely significant cumulative environmental effects.

Marine Fish and Shellfish

Other projects and activities that could act in combination with the Ptarmigan Project to result in cumulative effects to Marine Fish and Shellfish are commercial fisheries and marine traffic. Commercial fishery activities may result in habitat alteration (i.e., trawls) and removal of

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resources (i.e., fish and invertebrate stocks); however, commercial fisheries are managed by DFO using quota systems in order to maintain fish populations at sustainable levels, and therefore, the cumulative environmental effect resulting from commercial fishery activities in combination with the Project on Marine Fish and Shellfish is not likely to be significant.

Marine vessel traffic, including commercial fishery vessels, create underwater noise, and result in marine discharges. The increase of two vessels locally due to Project activities is negligible in comparison to existing vessel traffic and the number of commercial fishing vessels and the associated noise, disturbance, and discharges. Therefore, the cumulative environmental effect of Project activities in combination with marine vessel traffic on Marine Fish and Shellfish is not likely to be significant.

Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles

Other projects and activities that could act in combination with the Ptarmigan Project to result in cumulative effects to Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles are commercial fisheries and marine traffic. Cumulative environmental effects on marine mammals and sea turtles may result from existing underwater noise associated with other marine vessels and entanglement/bycatch associated with the fishery. Cumulative environmental effects on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles will be minimized through the implementation of mitigation measures, including an air gun ramp-up procedure and an onboard trained observer that will minimize effects resulting from underwater noise. There is no potential for entanglement as a result of the Project, and therefore there is no cumulative effect in this regard. The likely effect of the commercial fishery and marine vessel traffic on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles is minimal. The increase of two vessels locally due to Project activities is negligible in comparison to existing vessel traffic and the number of commercial fishing vessels and the associated noise, disturbance, and discharges. Therefore, the cumulative environmental effect of Project activities in combination with other projects and activities on Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles is predicted to be not significant.

Marine Birds

Commercial fishery activities have the potential to cause mortality of birds through entanglement/bycatch. Marine vessels may affect marine birds through lighting (i.e., attraction), oily discharges and noise. Cumulative environmental effects on Marine Birds resulting from the Project will be minimized through the implementation of mitigation measures, including avoidance of seabird colonies, and daily checks for stranded birds and following handling and release protocols. The increase in two vessels locally due to Project activities is negligible in comparison to existing vessel traffic and the number of commercial fishing vessels. The likely effect of the commercial fishery and marine vessel traffic on marine birds is minimal. The Project is not likely to have significant environmental effects on Marine Birds and therefore, the cumulative environmental effects of Project activities in combination with other projects and activities are also likely to be not significant.

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Fisheries and Other Ocean Users

The activity that could act in combination with the Ptarmigan Project to result in cumulative environmental effects to Fisheries and Other Ocean Users (e.g., seal hunting and bird hunting, recreation, and tourism) is marine traffic. The increase in two vessels locally due to Project activities is negligible in comparison to existing vessel traffic and the number of commercial fishing vessels and the associated noise and disturbance. Therefore, the cumulative environmental effect of Project activities in combination with other projects and activities is not likely to be significant. The other activity that could act in combination with the Ptarmigan Project to result in cumulative environmental effects to other ocean users is the commercial fishery. However, commercial fishing enterprises have been undertaken for centuries within the Study Area and are compatible with other ocean use activities, with minimal adverse interaction with other users. Therefore the cumulative environmental effect of the Project in combination with the commercial fishery on other ocean users is not likely to be significant.

Sensitive Areas

There is one federally designated sensitive area within the Study Area, the West Newfoundland EBSA (EBSA 10), as designated by DFO. Four special marine areas within or adjacent to the Study Area have been identified by CPAWS, and three significant coastal and marine area within the Study Area by the Long Range Regional Economic Development Board, both of which are non-government organizations. Adverse environmental effects to the Sensitive Areas are not likely during routine Project operation, and therefore, the cumulative environmental effect of the Project in combination with other projects and activities is not likely to be significant.

7.10 Mitigation and Follow-up

Proven mitigation measures and follow-up will be implemented to reduce the potential for adverse environmental effects that could potentially result from Project activities. These measures are well established and have been applied successfully for other seismic exploration activities. They include:

x scheduling the survey appropriately so as to avoid sensitive life stages of fish, as well as annual summer migration to Gulf of St. Lawrence by several marine mammal and sea turtle species; x scheduling of survey to avoid spatial and temporal overlap with fisheries where possible; x only operating during suitable weather conditions – strong winds and low visibility will be avoided; x establishment a land-based centre of operations, where communication can be coordinated; x adherence to all standard navigation procedures, Transport Canada requirements and Canadian Coast Guard requirements; x all ship operations will adhere to Annex of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) and Pollution Prevention Regulations of the Canada Shipping Act;

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x solid waste transported to shore and recycled where possible; x adherence to the mitigations provided in Appendix 2 of the Geophysical, Geological, Environmental and Geotechnical Program Guidelines (C-NLOPB 2012), including the Statement of Canadian Practice on Mitigation of Seismic Noise in the Marine Environment (including the Planning Seismic Surveys, Safety Zone and Start-up, Shut- down of Air Source Arrays, Line Changes and Maintenance Shut-downs, Operations in Low Visibility and Additional Mitigative Measures and Modifications section of the Statement); x use of qualified Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Observer onboard to monitor for marine mammals and sea turtles (including endangered and threatened species) during daylight hours; x use of a supply/pilot vessel that will guide seismic vessel and look for potential vessel traffic and hazards; x other vessels (fishing boats, marine traffic) are required to stay a minimum distance away from the stern of the seismic vessel to avoid interfering with the streamers; x equipment will be designed to meet regulatory requirements for emissions and regular maintenance plans will allow equipment to operate as efficiently as possible; x reduced vessel speeds when marine mammals and sea turtles are observed; x use of gradual ramp-up procedures for 30 minutes prior to operation of air gun (activating of air gun in ascending order until desired operating level reached); x allowing 20 minutes to pass before seismic activities resume following the sighting of marine mammals or sea turtles 30 minutes prior to ramp-up within 500 to 1,000 m of the centre of the air gun array; x shutting down of air gun during ramp up period if any marine mammals or sea turtles are sighted within 500 to 1,000 m of the array; x shutting down of air gun during ramp up period if any endangered or threatened marine mammals or sea turtles are sighted within 500 m of the array; x avoidance of seabird colonies by the seismic vessel and support vessel; x daily checks for stranded birds and following handling and release protocols (a Migratory Bird Handling Permit will be required); x adherence to The Leach’s Storm-Petrel: General Information and Handling Instructions in the event that this species becomes stranded on the survey vessel (which involves the pre-submission of a permit application to the CWS); x the use of strategies (i.e., hydrophones) to detect and avoid marine mammals during night time (when observers will not be able to use visual surveys) are encouraged during seismic surveys; x marine mammal and seabird observations made during ramp-up and data acquisition (and others made opportunistically) will be conducted consistent with existing protocols (i.e., Moulton and Mactavish (2004) for marine mammals and sea turtles and Gjerdrom et al. (2011) for seabirds); a monitoring report will be provided to the C-NLOPB within one year after completion of the surveys.

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x upfront planning to avoid high concentrations of fishing vessels; x clear and timely communications with other vessels; x operator will also use qualified FLO to facilitate communication between the two vessels and fisheries or other users; x use of a single point of contact (SPOC) to avoid interference with fishing vessels and fishing gear damage; x fixed fishing gear will be avoided; x advisories and communications via a Canadian Coast Guard “Notice to Mariners” and a “Notice to Fishers” via the CBC Radio program Fisheries Broadcast x contacting individual fixed gear fishers to arrange mutual avoidance; x coordination with DFO and FFAW to avoid any potential conflicts with research/survey vessels that maybe operating in the area; x communications with other operators with active seismic programs within the same general vicinity to minimize the potential for cumulative environmental effects x implementation of a gear and/or vessel damage compensation program, to promptly settle claims for loss and/or damage that may be caused by survey operations; x reporting any incidents of contact with fishing gear immediately to the 24-hour answering service at (709) 778-1400 or to the duty officer at (709) 682 4426. x preventative measures training and emergency response training for all staff on vessel during operation, including daily ‘Tool Box Safety’ meetings; x routine audits for all contractors on oil spill response preparedness; x appropriate clean-up of all small spills on vessel and proper disposal of oily rags; x use of solid streamers when feasible; x spill contingency plans will be in place; x all spilled hydrocarbons will be properly reported to the C-NLOPB and the Canadian Coast Guard; x use of oil containment booms when necessary; x monitoring of 24-hour and longer term weather forecasts to anticipate increased wind and waves due to storms; and x surveys will not be conducted in areas with hazardous ice conditions.

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8.0 REFERENCES

8.1 Personal Communications

DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). Personal Correspondence. February 2012. Chow, J. CEO Corner Brook Port Corporation, Personal Correspondence. July 2012. McKee, E. Parks Canada. Personal Correspondence. July 11, 2012.

8.2 Literature Cited

Aalbers, S.A. and M.A. Drawbridge. 2008. White sea bass spawning behavior and sound production. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 137(2): 542-550. Abend, A.G. and T.D. Smith. 1999. Review of distribution of the long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE 117, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA. vi + 22 p. Aguilar, A. 2002. Fin whale- Balaenoptera physalus. In: Perrin, W.F., B. Würsig, J.G.M. Thewissen (eds). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press, p. 425-438. Alexander, S.K. and J.W. Webb, Jr. 1985. Seasonal response of Spartina alterniflora to oil. Pp. 355-357. In: Proceedings, Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), American Petroleum Institute, 25-28 February 1985, Los Angeles, CA. Alexander, D.W., D.R. Sooley, C.C. Mullins, M.I. Chiasson, A.M. Cabana, I. Klvana and J.A. Brennan. 2010. Gulf of St. Lawrence: Human Systems Overview Report. Oceans, Habitat and Species at Risk Publication Series, Newfoundland and Labrador Region, 0002: xiv + 154 pp. Alton, M.S., R.G. Bakkala, G.E. Walters and P.T. Munro. 1988. Greenland turbot Reinhardtius hippoglossoides of the Eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands regions. NMFS Technical Reportm 71: 31 pp. Amos, B. C. Schlotterer, and D. Tautz. 1993. Social structure of pilot whales revealed by analytical DNA profiling. Science 260 (5): 670-672. Amoser, S. and F. Ladich. 2003. Diversity in noise-induced temporary hearing loss in otophysine fishes. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 113(4): 2170-2179. Andriguetto-Filho, J.M., A. Ostrensky, M.R. Pie, U.A. Silva and W.A. Boeger. 2005. Evaluating the impact of seismic prospecting on artisanal shrimp fisheries. Continental Shelf Research 25: 1720-1727. Archambault, D., Bourdages, H., Bernier, B., Fréchet, A., Gauthier, J., Grégoire, F., Lambert, J. and Savard, L. 2012. Preliminary results from the groundfish and shrimp multidisciplinary survey in August 2011 in the Estuary and northern Gulf of St. Lawrence. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document 2011/112. vi + 97 p.

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COSEWIC 2008a. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the roundnose grenadier Coryphaenoides rupestris in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. Vii + 42 pp. COSEWIC 2008b. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the killer whale Orcinus orca in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. viii + 65 pp. COSEWIC. 2009a. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the American plaice Hippoglossoides platessoides in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. x + 74 pp. COSEWIC. 2009b. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the basking shark Cetorhinus maximus, Atlantic population, in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. viii + 56 pp. COSEWIC. 2009c. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. vii + 32 pp. COSEWIC. 2010a. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Atlantic cod Gadus morhua in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. Xiii + 105 pp. COSEWIC. 2010b. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the deepwater redfish/Acadian redfish complex Sebastes mentella and Sebastes fasciatus, in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. x + 80 pp. COSEWIC. 2010c. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias, Atlantic population, in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. vii + 50 pp. COSEWIC. 2010d. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (Nunavik population, Labrador population, Northeast Newfoundland population, South Newfoundland population, Southwest Newfoundland population, Northwest Newfoundland population, Quebec Eastern North Shore population, Quebec Western North Shore population, Anticosti Island population, Inner St. Lawrence population, Lake Ontario population, Gaspé-Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence population, Eastern Cape Breton population, Nova Scotia Southern Upland population, Inner Bay of Fundy population, Outer Bay of Fundy population) in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xvii + 136 pp. COSEWIC. 2010e. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. viii + 75 pp. COSEWIC. 2011a. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Atlantic bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. ix + 30 pp. COSEWIC. 2011b. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiii + 50 pp.

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DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 1999b. Porbeagle shark in NAFO subareas 3-6. DFO Science Stock Status Report B3-09 (1999). 8 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2000. Gulf of St. Lawrence (4RST) Greenland Halibut. DFO Science Stock Assessment Report, A4-03: 7 pp. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2001. Update on the status of redfish stocks in the Northwest Atlantic: redfish in Units 1 and 2, and in Division 3O. DFO Science Stock Status Report A1-01 (2001). 22 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2004a. Description of the methods used for estimating the abundance of Sebastes fasciatus and S. mentella in Units 1 and 2. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat, Ottawa, ON. iii + 50 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2004b. Review of scientific information on impacts of seismic sound on fish, invertebrates, marine turtles and marine mammals. Habitat Status Report 2004/002. 15 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2005a. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, a unique ecosystem: the stage for the Gulf of St. Lawrence integrated management (GOSLIM). DFO Oceans and Science Branch. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2005b. Exploitation of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in NAFO Subdivision 3Ps: further updates based on 1997-2004 mark-recapture data. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat: 34 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2005c. Recovery potential for winter skate in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (NAFO Division 4T). Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report 2005/063. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2005d. Status and recovery potential of porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Research Document 2005/053. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2005e. Fishery management plan: Greenland halibut, NAFO Subarea 0, 2003-2005. DFO Report 2005/795. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2006a. Recovery Potential Assessment Report on white sharks in Atlantic Canada. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report 2006/052. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2006b. Atlantic halibut on the Scotian Shelf and southern Grand Banks (Division 3NOPs4VWX). Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat 2006/038. 9 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2006c. Potential socio-economic implications of adding porbeagle shark to the list of wildlife species at risk in the Species at Risk Act (SARA). DFO Policy and Economics Branch- Maritimes Region. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2006d. Assessment of the Atlantic Mackerel stock for the Northwest Atlantic (Subareas3 and 4) in 2006. DFO Canadian Science Secretariat Advisory Report 2007/012. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2007a. Statement of Canadian Practice with respect to the Mitigation of Seismic Sound in the Marine Environment. Available Online:

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http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans/management-gestion/integratedmanagement- gestionintegree/seismic-sismique/statement-enonce-eng.asp [Accessed March 2012]. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2007b. Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSA) in the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence: identification and characterization. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document 2007/016. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2007c. Recovery potential assessment for right whale (Western North Atlantic population). DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document. 2007/027. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2008a. Stock assessment of northern (2J3KL) cod in 2008. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report, 2008/034: 22 pp. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2008b. Proceedings of the Maritimes Region Science Advisory Process on the Assessment of Spiny Dogfish (Squalus acanthias); 14-15 November 2007. DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Proceed. Ser. 2008/009: iv + 18 pp.. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2008c. Status of basking sharks in Atlantic Canada. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document 2008/036. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2008d. Assessment of the Atlantic Mackerel stock for the Northwest Atlantic (Subareas 3 and 4) in 2007. DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Sci. Advis. Rep. 2008/041. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2008e. Assessment of the Greenland Halibut Stock in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (4RST) in 2007. DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Sci. Advis. Rep. 2008/044: 15 pp. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009a. Does eelgrass (Zostera marina) meet the criteria as an ecologically significant species? DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document 2009/018. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009b. Oceanographic conditions in the Estuary and the Gulf of St. Lawrence during 2009: zooplankton. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Resource Document 2009/083. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009c. Available information for preparation of the western Atlantic bluefiin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) COSEWIC status report. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat. 13 p. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009d. Stock assessment of Atlantic halibut of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Divisions 4RST) in 2008. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report, 2009/023: 14 pp. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009e. Assessment of American lobster in Newfoundland. DFO Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Science Advisory Report 2009/026. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2009f. State of the ocean 2008: Physical oceanographic conditions in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat Advisory Report, 2009/019: 19 pp. DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2010a. Trends in Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Subdivision 3Ps cod (Gadus morhua) stock size based on a

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