B-Catenin Is Central to DUX4-Driven Network Rewiring in Facioscapulohumeral Rsif.Royalsocietypublishing.Org Muscular Dystrophy

Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014 b-catenin is central to DUX4-driven network rewiring in facioscapulohumeral rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org muscular dystrophy

Christopher R. S. Banerji1,2,3,4,†, Paul Knopp4,†, Louise A. Moyle4, Research Simone Severini2, Richard W. Orrell5, Andrew E. Teschendorff1,6 4 Cite this article: Banerji CRS, Knopp P, Moyle and Peter S. Zammit LA, Severini S, Orrell RW, Teschendorff AE, 1Statistical Cancer Genomics, Paul O’Gorman Building, UCL Cancer Institute, Zammit PS. 2015 b-catenin is central to 2Department of Computer Science, and 3Centre of Mathematics and Physics in the Life Sciences and DUX4-driven network rewiring in Experimental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK 4Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King’s College London, New Hunt’s House, Guy’s Campus, facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. London SE1 1UL, UK J. R. Soc. Interface 12: 20140797. 5Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, University College London, Rowland Hill St., http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0797 London NW3 2PF, UK 6CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai Institute for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue Yang Road, Shanghai 200031, People’s Republic of China

Received: 21 July 2014 Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is an incurable disease, characterized by skeletal muscle weakness and wasting. Genetically, FSHD is Accepted: 27 October 2014 characterized by contraction or hypomethylation of repeat D4Z4 units on chromosome 4, which causes aberrant expression of the transcription factor DUX4 from the last repeat. Many genes have been implicated in FSHD pathophysiology, but an integrated molecular model is currently lacking. We Subject Areas: developed a novel differential network methodology, Interactome Sparsification bioinformatics, systems biology, biochemistry and Rewiring (InSpiRe), which detects network rewiring between phenotypes by integrating gene expression data with known protein interactions. Using InSpiRe, we performed a meta-analysis of multiple microarray datasets from Keywords: FSHD muscle biopsies, then removed secondary rewiring using non-FSHD facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, datasets, to construct a unified network of rewired interactions. Our analysis meta-analysis, b-catenin, differential identified b-catenin as the main coordinator of FSHD-associated protein inter- networks, canonical Wnt signalling, DUX4 action signalling, with pathways including canonical Wnt, HIF1-a and TNF-a clearly perturbed. To detect transcriptional changes directly elicited by DUX4, gene expression profiling was performed using microarrays on murine myoblasts. This revealed that DUX4 significantly modified expression of the genes Authors for correspondence: in our FSHD network. Furthermore, we experimentally confirmed that Wnt/ Christopher R. S. Banerji b-catenin signalling is affected by DUX4 in murine myoblasts. Thus, we provide e-mail: [email protected] the first unified molecular map of FSHD signalling, capable of uncovering Peter S. Zammit pathomechanisms and guiding therapeutic development. e-mail: [email protected]

1. Introduction Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is the third most common inheritable disease of skeletal muscle, yet, due to the relative longevity of patients, it is the most prevalent muscular dystrophy (approx. 12/100 000 [1,2]). Despite such prevalence, no curative therapy exists. Clinically, FSHD is characterized by asymmetric, skeletal muscle atrophy affecting specific muscle groups, often associated with features including retinal vasculature † These authors contributed equally to this abnormalities and sensorineural hearing loss [1,3–5]. Approximately 95% of work. cases (FSHD1; OMIM158900) are associated with deletion of a number of 3.3 kb D4Z4 macrosatellite repeats on chromosome 4q35. Healthy individuals Electronic supplementary material is available typically have between 11 and 100 such repeats, whereas FSHD1 patients at http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0797 or have 1–10. Importantly, complete loss of D4Z4 units is not associated with FSHD. Each D4Z4 repeat contains an open reading frame for a transcription via http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org. factor, double homeobox 4 (DUX4) [6,7]. Reduced D4Z4 repeat number leads

& 2014 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014 to hypomethylation, which on a permissive genetic back- DUX4 expression in human myoblasts perturbs a large pro- 2 ground supplying a polyadenylation signal, stabilizes portion of genes which are differentially expressed in FSHD rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org DUX4 transcripts from the last D4Z4 repeat. In the remain- [18]. Our analysis further demonstrates in a meta-analysis set- ing 5% of cases (FSHD2; OMIM158901), D4Z4 repeats are ting that signalling network rewiring in FSHD, independent not contracted, but become hypomethylated, likely through of atrophy, ageing and inflammation, can also be explained mutations in chromatin-modifying genes such as SMCHD1 by DUX4, lending more support to the hypothesis that [8]. Again on the permissive genetic background with a poly- DUX4 expression drives pathology. adenylation signal, this leads to DUX4 transcription from the To determine whether DUX4 expression results in b-catenin last D4Z4 repeat. Thus, aberrant DUX4 expression underlies signalling, we assayed readouts of the Wnt pathway and found FSHD pathogenesis in both FSHD1 and FSHD2 [9]. How significant DUX4-mediated activation of b-catenin signalling in DUX4 perturbs pathway interactions to produce the complex mouse myoblasts. Thus, we provide the first integrated FSHD FSHD phenotype is unclear, with many genes and pathways network, capable of explaining DUX4-driven pathomechanisms Interface Soc. R. J. implicated in FSHD. Indeed, the FSH Society FSHD Inter- and informing development of therapeutics. national Research Consortium has annually set uncovering FSHD molecular networks as a top research priority. Complex diseases are frequently examined by gene 2. Results

expression profiling using an arrayed platform of cDNA probes 12

(microarray) and many datasets are published each year. These 2.1. Meta-analysis of facioscapulohumeral muscular 20140797 : describe healthy and diseased biological processes, including dystrophy datasets using InSpiRe FSHD and other muscular dystrophies and myopathies. How- InSpiRe is a differential network methodology we designed to ever, their use is often limited to selecting genes for further extract a subset of the human protein interaction network examination based on differential expression, evidence from containing proteins and interactions that are altered between the literature or intuition. Systems biology and network concepts, two phenotypes described by expression data. The three steps particularly the conceptual framework of differential networks of InSpiRe are summarized in figure 1, and explained in detail and network rewiring, allow higher order, unbiased analysis of in Material and methods. such data [10,11]. These approaches involve integration of Four human FSHD datasets were obtained from the GEO molecular profiles (especially gene or protein expression) with Database. GSE3307 [17,19] consisted of gene expression data network models of protein interactions [12,13], to identify from 14 skeletal muscle (nine biceps, five deltoid) biopsies either hotspots of differential expression, or a change in local from FSHD patients, and 14 skeletal muscle biopsies from interaction patterns-network rewiring. Although many healthy, matched control individuals. GSE10760 [5] contains differential network algorithms exist [13,14], each has limitations. gene expression data from vastus lateralis biopsies from 19 Here, we developed a novel differential network algor- FSHD patients and 30 control individuals. Both GSE3307 and ithm based on information theoretic principles that we call GSE10760 were profiled on the Affymetrix Human Genome Interactome Sparsification and Rewiring (InSpiRe). InSpiRe U133A Array platform. GSE26145 [20] and GSE26061 [21] are detects shifts in active pathway regimes, identifying proteins exon array studies using the Affymetrix Human Exon 1.0 ST from the human interactome displaying a wide class of rewir- Array each profiling three myoblast and three myotube samples ing events between two phenotypes. This protein set is from either quadriceps, rhomboid or deltoid muscles of three constructed into a sub-network, which is sparsified to FSHD patients and three control individuals. As only isolated describe pathways altered between phenotypes. cells were arrayed in GSE26145 [20] and GSE26061 [21], non- Here, we performed a meta-analysis with InSpiRe on multi- muscle gene expression was assumed to be low/negligible. ple FSHD and healthy human control datasets to identify These studies were employed in our meta-analysis to refine network rewiring. Rewiring associated with ageing, disuse the larger datasets of primary muscle biopsies of GSE3307 atrophy, inflammation and muscle wasting was then subtracted [17,19] and GSE10760 [5]. All datasets were pre-processed and to construct a unified FSHD-specific disease network. Our FSHD normalized as described in Material and methods. network is significantly more connected than expected by chance Approximately 3500 genes were implicated per set by (99.5% of the network forms a single maximally connected com- InSpiRe as rewiring between FSHD and control samples. ponent) demonstrating that the disease phenotype arises via a Considering all FSHD data, the intersection of rewired sets highly coordinated perturbation of signalling pathways. consisted of a significantly large overlap of 829 genes Our analysis confirms previous findings on processes and ( p , 10 1025, based on randomly selecting genes from each signalling pathways perturbed in FSHD, such as myogenesis, dataset and assessing the size of overlap). Many genes in this oxidative stress sensitivity, actin cytoskeletal signalling, Wnt/ intersection have been associated with FSHD, e.g. TP53 [16], b-catenin signalling and p53-mediated apoptosis [4,15–17]. JUNB [20,17], HIF1A [20], WNT3 [4], LMO3 [20], ANXA4 [5] Importantly, we also describe novel FSHD molecular mech- and HSPB1 [22]. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) [23] on anisms. Notably, local network measures revealed b-catenin the intersection also implicated many FSHD associated pro- at the centre of our network, as the main coordinator of cesses, such as myogenesis [17] and regulation of the actin FSHD-associated protein interaction signalling, and provides cytoskeleton [15], and pathways, including, p53 [16], Wnt [4], insight into the precise molecular determinants of oxidative and VEGF [5] signalling. stress sensitivity. To examine how much of our FSHD network can be explained by DUX4, we performed expression 2.2. Gene expression changes specific to profiling using microarrays of primary satellite cell-derived murine myoblasts expressing DUX4. This revealed that facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy expression of genes in our FSHD network is directly attribu- Superimposed on network rewiring due to FSHD molecular ted to DUX4. A recent single dataset study demonstrated that mechanisms, are rewiring events due to non-specific changes. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

Interrogate public databases 3

primary muscle biopsies genome-wide gene protein interaction assays rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org healthy and pathological expression assays

protein A protein B .R o.Interface Soc. R. J. 12 20140797 :

isolation of myoblasts/ database of muscle gene database of protein– protein interaction differentiation into myotubes expression protein interactions network Interactome Sparsification and Rewiring (InSpiRe): three steps (a) Step 1: integrate expression and interaction databases for a given phenotype weighted interaction apply to entire database protein A protein B interaction data protein A protein B

expression data Pearson’s correlation interaction weight |r| =0.8 coefficient: r = 0.8 in phenotype weighted protein interaction expression of protein A in modulus of Pearson’s r network expression of protein B phenotype (b) Step 2: detect rewiring with information theoretic measures interaction interaction apply to all proteins in weighted protein distribution of distributions of interaction network central protein: central protein: phenotype x phenotype y

differential entropy (x–y) <0 >0 =0

KL divergence (x, y) >0 >0 >0 set of proteins rewiring across phenotypes (c) Step 3: sparsify network of rewiring proteins and their neighbours interaction data example 1: keep interaction example 2: remove interaction apply to all rewiring protein maintain remove interaction distributions protein A interaction interaction

A A

protein B expression of protein A expression of protein A expression of protein B expression of protein B key differential correlation differential correlation B B sparse network of phenotype x between phenotypes: between phenotypes: differential interactions phenotype y p-value < 0.05 p-value > 0.05

Figure 1. An overview of the InSpiRe algorithm. Public databases are interrogated for expression data and protein–protein interaction data, as inputs to the algorithm. (a) Step 1 of InSpiRe: integration of expression data with the protein interaction network, via Pearson correlations, results in a weighted network for each phenotype. (b) Step 2 of InSpiRe: information theoretic measures detect rewiring hotspots between the two phenotypes. Differential (local) flux entropy detects shifts in active pathway regimes, Kullback–Leibler (KL) divergence detects rewiring events to which differential entropy is blind. (c) Step 3 of InSpiRe: sparsification of the neighbourhood of rewiring proteins, through consideration of differential correlations across phenotypes, results in a sparse network subset, containing proteins and interactions that are significantly rewiring between the two phenotypes. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

To identify genes implicated as rewiring specifically in FSHD, to stabilization of b-catenin and its nuclear translocation. In 4 we also ran InSpiRe on two datasets each describing skeletal the nucleus, b-catenin interacts with TCF/LEF transcription rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org muscle gene expression during ageing (GSE5086 [24] and factors that normally interact with Groucho, a transcriptional GSE9676 [25]), disuse atrophy (GSE5110 [26] and GSE8872 repressor. This interaction with b-catenin allows TCF/LEF to [27]) and other muscle diseases involving inflammation and act as transcriptional activators to induce expression of target wasting (GSE3307 [19], where juvenile dermatomyositis genes. To determine whether b-catenin is acting via its role and limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2A datasets were in transcription, we queried our network for downstream tar- independently analysed). Genes rewiring in these non- gets of b-catenin signalling, i.e. TCF/LEF genes. Importantly, FSHD datasets were considered as secondary rewiring. Of all members of the TCF/LEF family (TCF7, TCF7L1 (TCF-3), the 829 InSpiRe identified genes, 273 were associated with TCF7L2 (TCF-4)andLEF1) were involved in network rewiring ageing, 364 with disuse atrophy and 394 with other muscle in FSHD. diseases, identifying a core set of 164 genes specifically rewir- To analyse control of b-catenin activity via canonical Interface Soc. R. J. ing in FSHD (electronic supplementary material, table S1). WNT signalling, we queried our network for WNT, DVL For the final stage of InSpiRe, we considered the 164 high con- and FZD family members [28]. This revealed WNT16, fidence genes and their direct neighbours in the protein DVL1, DVL2 and FZD1 were rewired (figure 3). interaction network (a complete network of 2866 genes). Stat- These genes are connected in the FSHD network (except

istical sparsification on the largest FSHD dataset (GSE10760) WNT16), indicating dysregulation of the b-catenin signall- 12 was performed to eliminate interactions that were not signifi- ing pathway is contributing to FSHD pathogenesis. There 20140797 : cantly altered between FSHD and control phenotypes, to is a significantly increased positive correlation in gene generate the FSHD network. expression along the chain: FZD1 ! DVL1 ! CTNNB1 ! TCF-3 (TCFL1) ! c-Myc (MYC) in FSHD samples, implying an increased activation of this pathway (figure 3). Increa- 2.3. The facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy sed negative correlation between b-catenin expression and network that of PITX2 and increased positive correlation between Our FSHD network consists of 2616 proteins and 15 972 inter- gene expression of PITX2 and LEF1 also occurred. b-catenin actions, the majority of which form a single maximally is also involved in numerous other processes including connected component (2603/2616 genes). To evaluate the sig- substantially altered correlations with CASP3 and CASP8 nificance of certain properties of the FSHD network, we (interactions associated with apoptosis), and hypoxia computed a distribution of random networks by performing inducible factor 1-a (HIF1-a) (figure 2). 1000 random selections of 164 core genes and re-running the statistical sparsification on GSE10760 each time. This demon- 2.5. Activation of HIF1-a signalling in strated that the FSHD network has significantly more interactions and genes than one would expect by chance facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy ( p ¼ 0.04 and p ¼ 0.034, respectively). Such network density HIF1-a is one of the most rewired of the 164 genes and implies that signalling dysregulation underlying FSHD is a increases in activity in FSHD (electronic supplementary coordinated perturbation of a large number of intersecting material, figure S1), with many genes associated with HIF1-a signalling pathways. signalling in the FSHD network, including, VHL, HSP90AA1, RBX1, RRAS, VEGFA, MAPK8, NCOA1, PIK3R3, SLC2A4, HIF1AN and TCEB2.HIF1-a signalling has recently been impli- 2.4. Dysregulation of b-catenin signalling is central to cated in FSHD, due to identification of several downstream rewiring in facioscapulohumeral muscular components of the pathway being differentially expressed [20]. dystrophy 2.6. TNF-a over-activation of reactive oxygen species To identify critical genes and pathways in our FSHD network, we employed local network measures. Betweenness induced JNK cell death pathways centrality measures the number of shortest paths between Many genes involved in TNF-a over-activation of reactive any two genes passing through a given gene and can identify oxygen species (ROS) induced JNK cell death pathways signalling bottlenecks. Genes in our network demonstrating were in our FSHD network. These included MAP4K5, high betweenness centrality are important for coordination PARP2, JUNB (electronic supplementary material, figures of signal dysregulation in FSHD: the gene with the highest S2–S4) TNFA, JUN, JUND, JNK1 and JNK3. MAP4K5 is a betweenness centrality is CTNNB1, encoding b-catenin. highly specific activator of JNK signalling [29] and displays CTNNB1 is also highly connected in our network, with a a significantly increased ( p ¼ 0.0035) negative expression cor- degree of 73, supporting a role for this gene in numerous dys- relation with TNF-receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2)in regulated interactions. To determine whether an increase in FSHD samples. PARP2 is necessary for activating TNF-a- b-catenin activity is occurring in FSHD muscle, we con- induced necrosis [30] and displays increased positive sidered the neighbourhood of CTNNB1 in the FSHD expression correlation with BRCA1 across FSHD samples, in network (figure 2). b-catenin is highly correlated with its an interaction associated with cell death [31]. JUNB displays neighbours in the FSHD network across FSHD samples, but significantly increased positive expression correlation with not across control samples, implying an increase in b-catenin FOS ( p ¼ 1.5 1028) and JUN ( p ¼ 0.044). JNK1 and JNK3 activation in FSHD (figure 2). display clear shifts from predominantly uncorrelated in b-catenin is fundamental to canonical Wnt signalling, expression with neighbours in control samples, to highly cor- initiated when Wnt ligands interact with a heterodimeric related in FSHD samples, implying their increased activity in Frizzled/LRP5/6 complex, which signals to DVL1/2, leading FSHD muscle. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

(a) CTNNB1 in control muscle gene expression correlation between 5 connected proteins rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org

LRP6 –1 1 CASP3 and CASP8 anti- TCF7L2 CDK5R1 VCL correlated with CTNNB1 XRCC6 TLE1 CTBP1 TCF7 FOXO4 HBP1 TCF3 LIMA1 TBL1XR1 TCF7L1 HIF1A PPARD CSNK2B PITX2 TMPO PTPRC CASP3 TRRAP SMARCA4 KDR PARD6A ACTG1 KRT18 HNRNPU CASP8 CA9 GBAS CDC42

NOTCH1 Interface Soc. R. J. DVL2 CTNNB1 EMD DVL1 CTNNA1 WNK1 ABL1 RBM9 RAB5A PHB2

SPECC1L PIK3R1 PPP2R1A CTNND1 IGHA1 ENAH GRIN2D CSNK2A1 TOP2A

RAPGEF2 12 FGFR1 FHL2 FYN CDH1 20140797 : APC2 DSC3 IKBKB MET DLG1 MMP2 HIF1A VEGFA SLC9A3R1 ACTB TGFBR1 CAMK4 uncorrelated CDH5 ALB U2AF2 CAPZA1 ERBB2 with CTNNB1

(b) CTNNB1 in FSHD muscle

LRP6 TCF7L2 VCL CASP3 and CASP8 CDK5R1 XRCC6 TLE1 CTBP1 positively correlated with FOXO4 HBP1 TCF3 TCF7 LIMA1 CTNNB1 TBL1XR1 TCF7L1 HIF1A PITX2 PPARD TMPO PTPRC CSNK2B CASP3 TRRAP SMARCA4 KDR PARD6A ACTG1 KRT18 HNRNPU CASP8 CA9 GBAS CDC42 NOTCH1 EMD DVL2 CTNNB1 DVL1 CTNNA1 WNK1 ABL1 RBM9 RAB5A PHB2 SPECC1L PPP2R1A CTNND1 PIK3R1 IGHA1 ENAH GRIN2D CSNK2A1 RAPGEF2 TOP2A FGFR1 FYN CDH1 FHL2 APC2 DSC3 IKBKB MET DLG1 MMP2 VEGFA SLC9A3R1 HIF1A positvely TGFBR1 ACTB CDH5 CAMK4 ALB U2AF2 CAPZA1 correlated with ERBB2 CTNNB1

Figure 2. The neighbourhood of CTNNB1 in the FSHD network. Interactions are coloured proportional to the Pearson correlation in gene expression between connected genes across control samples (a) and FSHD samples (b). Red edges are negatively correlated, grey edges uncorrelated and green edges positively correlated. The thickness of edges is proportional to 1 2 p,wherep [ (0, 0:05] is the p-value of the statistical analysis performed to determine whether correlation in gene expression between connected edges is different between FSHD and control. Large nodes belong to the core set of 164 high confidence FSHD-specific rewiring genes. Large circles indicate proteins significantly rewiring between FSHD and control phenotypes, identified in the second stage of InSpiRe. There is a clear shift from predominantly uncorrelated to highly correlated between FSHD and controls, with an increased correlation between CTNNB1 and its interaction partners across FSHD samples as compared with controls. This is indicative of increased b-catenin activity. Note the increased positive correlation between CTNNB1 and HIF1A, CASP3 and CASP8.

2.7. DUX4-driven gene expression mirrors targets. Conversely, to repress transcriptional targets of DUX4 via recruitment of a repressive complex, tMALDUX4 was facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy also fused to the N-terminal of Drosophila melanogaster engrailed We next determined how much network rewiring in FSHD is (residues 2–298) to create tMALDUX4-ERD. Also included directly due to DUX4. We generated a panel of DUX4 was the single inverted truncated D4Z4 repeat centromeric to constructs in the pMSCV-IRES-eGFP retroviral backbone [32]. the D4Z4 arrays that encode DUX4c [34]. In all DUX4 con- In addition to full-length DUX4, we also analysed structs, DNA binding, and so target gene selection, is tMALDUX4—the putative splice variant initiating with the dictated by the homeodomains, which are common to all con- amino acids MAL and lacking the C-terminal domains [33]. structs. Altering the C-terminal region should only affect the We also fused tMALDUX4 to a VP16 transactivation domain degree of target gene activation, allowing both cross-validation from the human herpes simplex virus 1 VP16 protein, to gen- and detection of target genes that are only weakly activated by erate tMALDUX4-VP16, a transcriptional activator of DUX4 DUX4. Thus, multiple DUX4 constructs containing the same Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

correlation between 6 (a) FZD1 connected proteins rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org

–1 1 DVL2 DVL1

CTNNB1 .R o.Interface Soc. R. J. TCF7L2 TCF7L1 TCF7 PITX2

DAXX HIC1 EP300 MYC LEF1 12 20140797 : (b) FZD1

increased positive DVL2 DVL1 correlation along the path from FZD1 to MYC in FSHD muscle

CTNNB1

TCF7L2 TCF7L1 TCF7 PITX2

DAXX HIC1 EP300 MYC LEF1 Figure 3. The Wnt pathway in the FSHD network. Interactions are coloured proportional to the Pearson correlation in gene expression between connected genes across control samples (a) and FSHD samples (b). Note the shift from predominantly uncorrelated links in controls to highly correlated links in FSHD, implying an activation of this Wnt pathway in FSHD.

DNA-binding domain robustly and independently confirm whether DUX4 modifies pathways identified in our FSHD target gene selection. network, multivariate analysis was used to identify gene To determine the confluence between our FSHD network expression significantly perturbed by one or more DUX4 and gene expression changes generated by DUX4, we per- construct, using the limma package in R [35]. formed a microarray to detect transcriptional changes induced Enrichment analysis was performed using Metacore by the DUX4 constructs compared to control retrovirus. Primary (Genego), to identify biological processes and pathways (net- mouse satellite cells from three adult C57BL10 male mice were works) modulated by genes perturbed by DUX4 constructs. expanded, passaged and infected in parallel. RNAwas prepared This revealed considerable enrichment for Wnt signalling 20 h later to assay early gene expression changes caused by ( p ¼ 1 1028, figure 5). DUX4, before more non-specific changes associated with inhi- Individual DUX4 constructs were also independently bition of myogenesis or cell death occur. Gene expression was compared to control retrovirus and lists of significantly analysed using Affymetrix GeneChip Mouse Gene 1.0 ST altered genes generated. As expected, Metacore (Genego) Arrays and was quality controlled and log-normalized as also identified significant enrichment of Wnt signalling in described in Material and methods. DUX4 perturbed genes ( p ¼ 7.99 1029), which matches Hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis identification of b-catenin as critically rewiring in our (PCA) on the 1000 most variable probes demonstrated that FSHD network. the different constructs clustered as expected. Full-length As several pathways identified as rewiring in our FSHD net- DUX4 clustered with the strong transcriptional activator work involved transcription factors, we next determined which tMALDUX4-VP16, while DUX4c and tMALDUX4 displayed transcription factor targets were overrepresented among genes similar transcriptional profiles, distinct from those obtained significantly perturbed by the DUX4 constructs. This analysis for DUX4 and tMALDUX4-VP16 (figure 4). tMALDUX4- revealed several enriched transcriptional hubs perturbed ERD, designed to negatively regulate DUX4 transcriptional tar- by DUX4, of which nine of the top 11 matched to genes in our gets, did not cluster with the other DUX4 constructs. All DUX4 FSHD network. Consistent with our network identified constructs were distinct from control retrovirus. To determine pathways, among enriched hubs were HIF1-a, JUN and FOS. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

(a) PC1 7 rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org –0.95 –0.90 –0.85 –0.80

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–0.6 –0.2 –0.4 control RV 0.2 0 0.4 PC2 tMALDUX4-ERD tMALDUX4 DUX4c tMALDUX4-VP16 (b) DUX4

Z-score

–2 02

Figure 4. Clustering of the DUX4 construct expressing mouse satellite cell-derived myoblast samples. PCA (a) and hierarchical clustering (b) on the 1000 most variable probes across the five DUX4 constructs and control RV show clustering of technical replicates, demonstrating reproducibility. Note also clustering of tMALDUX4-VP16 (black) with DUX4 (red); DUX4c (green) with tMALDUX4 (yellow) but separation of tMALDUX4-ERD (purple) and control (blue) from other DUX4 constructs.

To establish whether genes in the FSHD network are per- modified by DUX4 (p ¼ 1 1025), and can be used as a turbed as a result of DUX4, we extracted all microarray biomarker of DUX4 expression. probes mapping to genes with direct human orthologues in our FSHD network, creating a network probeset consisting 2.8. Perturbed Wnt/b-catenin signalling in DUX4- of 1866 genes. We then performed a re-sampling procedure (see Material and methods) to determine whether expression expressing satellite cell-derived myoblasts of the network probeset was a significant biomarker of DUX4 Several Wnt/b-catenin targets were identified as being expression. This analysis confirmed that mouse orthologues altered in both the human FSHD network and the of genes in our human FSHD network are significantly DUX4 microarray. These included Lgr5/6, Tcf3/4, Myf5 Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

(a) Biological processes enriched among DUX4 construct perturbed genes 8

system development rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org anatomical structure development developmental process multicellular organismal development anatomical structure morphogenesis multicellular organismal process positive regulation of cellular process regulation of localization organ development nervous system development 0102030405060 .R o.Interface Soc. R. J. –log p-value (b) Biological pathways enriched among DUX4 construct perturbed genes developmental neurogenesis and axonal guidance signal transduction: Notch signalling signal transduction: Wnt signalling

developmental blood vessel morphogenesis 12

cell adhesion: attractive and repulsive receptors 20140797 : developmental ossification and bone remodelling strong enrichment developmental Hedgehog signalling for Wnt signalling cell adhesion amyloid proteins cardiac development Wnt/b-catenin, Notch, Vegf, lp3 and integrin signalling developmental regulation of epithelial to mesenchyme transition 0246 8101214 –log p-value Figure 5. Enrichment analysis of genes perturbed by DUX4 constructs in mouse satellite cell-derived myobalsts. (a) Biological processes enriched among genes perturbed by DUX4 constructs. (b) Biological pathways enriched among genes perturbed by DUX4 constructs. Note the significant enrichment for Wnt/b-catenin signalling among genes perturbed by DUX4 constructs. and Lef1. To validate this, we performed quantitative PCR 3. Discussion (QPCR) on satellite cell-derived myoblasts from three C57Bl10 mice retrovirally infected with either DUX4 or We have constructed the FSHD network: the first unified, control retroviral constructs and cultured for 24 or 48 h. unbiased map of network rewiring underlying FSHD. At one or both time points, Lef1, Tcf4, Lgr5 and Myf5 DUX4-driven transcriptional changes demonstrated that were significantly increased in DUX4-infected samples, expression of genes in our FSHD network was significantly whereas Tcf3 and Lgr6 were significantly decreased by altered by DUX4. This is consistent with the growing consen- DUX4 (figure 6a), confirming that DUX4 alters this sus that FSHD1/2 is caused by aberrant DUX4 expression signalling cascade at a transcriptional level. [9,18]. Importantly, our FSHD network is significantly more connected than a random network. Such connectivity allows analysis of crosstalk in FSHD pathological signalling, essential 2.9. DUX4 induces Wnt/b-catenin signalling in murine to guide development of therapeutics targeting the multiple symptoms of FSHD. Our network is derived from gene myoblasts expression in muscle biopsies and myogenic cells, and thus Wnt/b-catenin signalling involves the physical interaction of provides clear insight into pathways perturbed in FSHD several proteins, and so transcriptional disruption of targets muscle. In addition however, we have also identified path- does not necessarily mean that Wnt/b-catenin signalling is ways which influence vasculogenesis and neurogenesis in altered. To confirm activation of Wnt/b-catenin signalling in general, suggesting that our results can also inform on extra- DUX4-expressing myoblasts, we performed a TopFLASH/Fop- muscular symptoms of FSHD, including retinal telangiectasia FLASH assay. The TopFLASH Tcf reporter plasmid contains six and sensorineural hearing loss. Differential gene expression Tcf-binding sites, whereas in the FopFLASH reporter, these sites studies have generally implicated disjointed collections of are mutated, upstream of a luciferase reporter. The relative ratio genes associated with these symptoms (e.g. myogenesis [17] is a widely used assay for measuring canonical Wnt signalling and vasculature growth factors [5]), and hypotheses have [36]. Primary satellite cell-derived myoblasts can be difficult to been proposed [4,37]. However, there has been no unbiased, transfect with high efficiency, so we switched to murine data driven insight into how these pathways relate, let alone C2C12 myoblasts. These were co-transfected with either Top- actually coordinate. Our results emphasize the importance of FLASH or FopFLASH plus Renilla, then passaged and the development and application of network theoretic tools, transfected with DUX4 or control vector for 24 h. Relative lucifer- such as InSpiRe, to identify pathomechanisms and therapeutic ase activity measured from four independent experiments targets in complex diseases. showed that DUX4 expression significantly increased the Top- We compared InSpiRe to other commonly used network FLASH/FopFLASH ratio 2.36-fold ( p ¼ 0.04) and hence DUX4 methodologies (electronic supplementary material): Net- expression activates Wnt/b-catenin signalling in myoblasts Walk [13] and GSEA on differentially expressed genes. (figure 6b). NetWalk also uses a protein interaction network to identify Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

(a) Lef1 Tcf3 Tcf4 9 1.2 6 6 rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org * * 5 1.0 5

4 0.8 4 * * 3 0.6 3

2 0.4 2 * * 0.2 1 fold change to control 1

0 0 0 .R o.Interface Soc. R. J. Lgr5 Lgr6 Myf5 6 * 1.4 3.0 * 5 1.2 2.5 1.0 4 2.0

0.8 12

3 1.5 20140797 : * 0.6 2 1.0 0.4 *

fold change to control 1 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 control DUX4 control DUX4 control DUX4 control DUX4 control DUX4 control DUX4 24 h24 h 48 h 48 h 24 h24 h 48 h 48 h 24 h24 h 48 h 48 h

(b) 3.0 * 2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0 fold change to control TopFLASH/FopFLASH 0.5

0 control DUX4

Figure 6. DUX4 perturbs Wnt/b-catenin signalling. (a) QPCR of downstream targets of Wnt/b-catenin signalling Lef1, Tcf3, Tcf4, Lgr5, Lgr6 and Myf5 in mouse satellite cell-derived myoblasts, 24 or 48 h after infection with either DUX4 or control retroviral constructs. Data are mean + s.e.m. from three mice, where an asterisk denotes a significant difference (p , 0.05) from infection with control retrovirus using a paired two-tailed Student’s t-test. (b) TopFLASH/FopFLASH assay of immortalized C2C12 murine myoblasts transfected with either DUX4 or control plasmid, shows a significant increase in TopFLASH/FopFLASH luciferase activity with DUX4 expression (n ¼ 4). Data are mean + s.e.m. from four independent experiments where an asterisk denotes significance ( p , 0.05) from control using a two-tailed Student’s t-test. candidate genes, but unlike InSpiRe, uses weighted random There is increasing evidence that aberrant DUX4 expression walks. Both NetWalk and InSpiRe displayed a significant con- due to changes in the number or methylation state of D4Z4 sensus in the features identified across the four FSHD repeats on chromosome 4 underlies FSHD pathology [9]. datasets ( p ¼ 1 1025). This is in contrast to differential Indeed, it was recently demonstrated that DUX4 drives over expression, which lacks consistency in the features identified half the differentially expressed transcripts in FSHD [18]. How- across these datasets. Thus demonstrating the power of ever, the number of differentially expressed transcripts is very network-based methodologies over conventional differential low in FSHD as compared with other pathologies [18,5,15] and expression. NetWalk performed similarly to InSpiRe in identi- it has been shown that a more subtle transcriptional dysregula- fying genes which proved a significant classifier of the DUX4 tion may better represent unifying features of FSHD [15]. Our construct microarray samples (p ¼ 1 1025) but generated a FSHD network captures such subtle dysregulation and it was network with more genes and fewer interactions (3363 important to determine whether the network, derived from genes and 5651 interactions) than InSpiRe (2616 genes and unbiased meta-analysis of multiple muscle biopsies from 15 972 interactions). However, both NetWalk and GSEA on FSHD patients, could be controlled by DUX4. Performing differentially expressed genes were inferior to InSpiRe in microarray analysis to detect changes in gene expression after identifying functional annotations previously associated DUX4 constructs were expressed in muirne myoblasts demon- with FSHD (electronic supplementary material, figure S5). strated that DUX4 modifies expression of genes in our FSHD Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014 network. Moreover, we found significant enrichment of DUX4- network contains many genes in the ROS-mediated pathway, 10 mediated transcriptional changes for critical pathways ident- including TNF-a. DUX4 represses genes of the glutathione rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org ified in our network, including Wnt/b-catenin, HIF1-a and redox pathway, likely causing ROS accumulation in FSHD JNK signalling. This also indicates that many DUX4-mediated muscle [45], which may lead to increased TNF-a as part of signalling changes are conserved between man and mouse, a pro-inflammatory response [46]. Additionally, levels of making mouse models useful for understanding FSHD TNF-a are negatively correlated with muscle endurance pathology and as platforms for testing therapeutics [38]. [42]. FSHD myoblasts undergo cell death in response to CTNNB1 has the highest betweenness centrality in our non-pathological levels of hydrogen peroxide [41] and other FSHD network, identifying b-catenin as a bottleneck of FSHD- oxidative stress-inducing factors; while antioxidants inhibit associated protein interaction signalling. Gene expression DUX4-induced toxicity in FSHD myoblasts [45]. Thus, over- correlation between b-catenin and its interaction partners is activation of ROS-mediated TNF-a -induced cell death path- also significantly increased in FSHD, implying increased ways are potentially important pathomechanism in FSHD. Interface Soc. R. J. activation. Moreover, the TCF/LEF transcription factors TNF-a also stimulates ROS production via interaction with are present in our network, as well as several upstream NADPH-oxidase, in a positive feedback loop [30]. Our components of the canonical Wnt pathway. Involvement of results support this occurring in FSHD as RAC1 is a well- Wnt signalling in tissue-specific myogenesis and in retinal connected member of our FSHD network and a critical

angiogenesis led to a recent hypothesis that Wnt/b-catenin component of the NADPH complex, also capable of activat- 12 signalling was important for FSHD pathomechanisms [4]. A ing JNK cell death signalling. RAC1 is also regulated by 20140797 : role of Wnt/b-catenin signalling in controlling DUX4 non-canonical Wnt signalling in a manner dependent on expression and FSHD muscle cell apoptosis was also recently MAP4K5 [47]. Our network unifies TNF-a, Wnt and JNK proposed [39]. Moreover, enhancing expression of b-catenin signalling in FSHD. via administration of LiCl2 reduces apoptosis in a model of JNK signalling also plays an important role in oxidative occulopharyngeal muscular dystrophy [40]. Our FSHD net- stress-induced cell death, and we found that JNK signalling work, compiled algorithmically from multiple independent is more active in FSHD. JNK signalling can be controlled in datasets, provides the detailed interactions of dysregulated many ways, including via TNF-a signalling. In this scenario, b-catenin signalling. Furthermore, Wnt/b-catenin-related the AP-1 transcription factor target genes JUN, JUNB and genes were enriched in our microarray of DUX4-driven tran- FOS are specifically upregulated downstream of JNK. These scriptional changes in mouse myoblasts and validated via genes are present in our FSHD network, moreover, all display QPCR. DUX4 also drives activation of the canonical Wnt a significant increase in positive gene expression correlation pathway, as shown by the TopFLASH assay. with one another in FSHD samples, indicating their co- Interaction partners of b-catenin in our FSHD network regulation. This result is evidence of TNF-a-mediated JNK reveal mechanisms by which Wnt/b-catenin signalling is signalling in FSHD. involved in certain hallmark phenotypes of FSHD through In the absence of NF-kB activity, prolonged JNK activation pathway crosstalk. Among these is the characteristic oxi- by TNF-a leads to apoptosis [48]. Owing to the increased dative stress sensitivity of FSHD muscle/myoblasts [41,42]. apoptosis of FSHD muscle cells, we postulate that NF-kB Our work implicates HIF1-a signalling as critically perturbed may be less active. In addition to activating JNK cell death in FSHD and shows that HIF1A displays strong positive pathways in response to ROS, TNF-a also activates NF-kBsur- correlation with b-catenin in FSHD samples, providing vival signalling causing the production of the antioxidant mechanism for previous observations of involvement of MnSOD to suppress ROS and minimize JNK cell death signal- downstream components of the HIF1-a pathway in FSHD ling [30]. MnSOD is the only antioxidant downregulated in [20]. HIF1-a binds b-catenin during hypoxia competitively FSHD [42], suggesting that NF-kB may be less active in with TCF-4 [43], which may both inhibit TCF4/b-catenin- FSHD muscle. Our results provide evidence for this theory: driven cell proliferation and increase transcription of hypoxic NFKB1 encodes the DNA-binding subunit of the NF-kBtran- response genes, including VEGF. We found that in FSHD, scription factor, which though present in our FSHD network, correlation in gene expression between b-catenin, and both is relatively uncorrelated with its interaction partners in HIF1A and TCF-4, significantly increases, resulting in FSHD samples. This implies NFKB1 is inactive in FSHD elevated angiogenic genes such as VEGF, providing an expla- muscle, and thus unable to repress the increased cell death nation for the hallmark oxidative stress sensitivity in FSHD, via overactive JNK. Finally, we find crosstalk between JNK sig- as well as retinal vasculature abnormalities [4,5]. nalling and Wnt, in that all members of the PAR-1 gene family Actin cytoskeleletal signalling has also been implicated in are in our FSHD network. This family was identified as FSHD pathology [15]. Our work shows perturbed crosstalk dishevelled kinases, capable of simultaneously regulating between such signalling and HIF1-a may contribute to Wnt activation of b-catenin signalling and JNK signalling FSHD. MAP2 is associated with microtubule stability and [49]. Overactive JNK signalling has also been implicated in rewired in FSHD. In hypoxic cardiomyocytes, MAP2 is sensorineural hearing loss, an FSHD clinical phenotype [50]. required for stabilization of the microtubule network, leading Inhibitors of JNK signalling could partially mitigate the oxi- to suppression of pVHL and increased HIF1-a [44]. Interest- dative stress sensitivity of FSHD muscle cells, and D-JNKI-1 ingly via this mechanism, HIF1-a was upregulated at the is currently in clinical trials for treatment of strokes [51]. protein level but not the mRNA level (in early stages of In conclusion, we have developed a novel, general algor- hypoxia) [44], emphasizing the power of our method for ithm, InSpiRe, to detect network rewiring from multiple detecting events invisible to differential expression analysis gene expression datasets describing two phenotypes. Using of microarrays. InSpiRe, we performed the first meta-analysis of the FSHD Another notable pathway perturbed in FSHD was ROS. transcriptome, creating an integrated FSHD network. We The role of ROS in FSHD is well reported, and our FSHD also assayed DUX4-driven transcriptional changes and Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014 demonstrated that expression of genes in our network is sig- younger or older patients. Non-FSHD muscle diseases analysed 11 nificantly altered by DUX4. Our FSHD network provides an were selected from GSE3307 due to the large number of rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org unbiased, unifying molecular map of FSHD-associated high-quality samples available. protein interaction signalling, elucidating perturbed genes GSE2614 and GSE26061 were suitable for integration by the and pathways critical to pathomechanisms. Importantly, we ComBat function [59] in R which employs an empirical Bayes approach to eliminate batch effects and was recently demonstrated identify and validate b-catenin as central to FSHD patho- as superior to other microarray data integration methods [60]. The logy. Our network provides insight into the crucial steps of integrated dataset contained six FSHD myoblasts, six FSHD myo- dysregulated signalling in FSHD and so will inform design tubes, six control myobalsts and six control myotubes. PCA was of well-targeted therapeutics: currently lacking for FSHD. performed on the integrated dataset and the dominant principal We provide the FSHD network as a queryable interface component correlated with cell type and disease status but not (electronic supplementary material). with batch, implying a successful integration. We extracted from datasets probes mapping to genes Interface Soc. R. J. corresponding to proteins in our interaction network. For all microarray platforms considered, there were cases where multiple probes 4. Material and methods mapped to a single gene. As our protein interaction network does not take into account alternative splice variants of a given gene, 4.1. Construction of the protein interaction network we must assign a single value to each protein based on the The protein interaction network was constructed as previously expression data. There are multiple ways of achieving this, and 12 20140797 : described [52] from integration of the Human Protein Interaction for our methodology we computed the average expression across Network (www.pathwaycommons.org) [53], the Human Protein probes mapping to a single gene for each sample, assigning the Reference Database [54], the National Cancer Institute resulting value to the gene. This approach has proved successful Pathway Interaction Database, the Interactome (www.ebi.ac. in our previous studies for identification of network rewiring in uk/intact/) and the Molecular Interaction Database [55]. Redun- cancer [52] and cell differentiation [61]. For each dataset, proteins dant interactions were removed leaving only genes with a unique in the interaction network with no corresponding probe in the EntrezGene ID, within the maximally connected component. The microarrays were deleted from the network, proteins with a protein interaction network contains 10 720 proteins and 152 889 degree of zero following this deletion were also removed. This documented interactions and post-translational modifications, resulted in a reduced protein interaction network for each dataset. including protein binding, complex formation, phosphorylation, ubiquitylation and sumoylation. 4.4. The interactome sparsification and rewiring 4.2. Public mRNA expression datasets algorithm We ran InSpiRe on the following four datasets from the GEO InSpiRe is a differential network methodology, consisting of three Database [56]: GSE3307 [19] (14 FSHD samples, 14 controls), main steps (figure 1). An R-script for implementation of InSpiRe GSE10760 [5] (19 FSHD samples, 30 controls), both profiled on is provided in the electronic supplementary material. the Affymetrix Human Genome U133A Array platform. GSE26145 [20] and GSE26061 [21] expression studies of FSHD and control myoblasts and myotubes profiled on the Affymetrix 4.5. Integration of mRNA expression data with the Human Exon 1.0 ST Array, were also analysed. protein interaction network A recent study GSE36398 [15] was excluded from our analy- The first step of InSpiRe is integration of expression data with sis as it reported substantially weaker gene expression changes interaction data (figure 1a). For each phenotype, we integrate between FSHD and control muscle biopsies compared with expression data with the protein interaction network by assign- most previous studies [15]. It was considerably discordant with ing each interaction connecting two proteins, i and j, with a the other datasets analysed by InSpiRe in identification of rewired transformed Pearson correlation in gene expression profiles of genes. Thus, given that the other studies displayed significant proteins i and j across the samples corresponding to the given agreement, GSE36398 was omitted. phenotype (denoted Cij). This results in a weighted network wij We also used human skeletal muscle studies into gene which is then transformed into a stochastic matrix Pij expression in muscle diseases other than FSHD (GSE3307 [19]), wij ageing (GSE5086 [24] and GSE9676 [25]) and atrophy (GSE5110 P ¼ P ,(4:1) ij w [26] and GSE8872 [27]). k[N(i) ik where N(i) denotes the set of neighbours of protein i in the interactome.

4.3. Pre-processing and normalization of public datasets We interpret row k in the matrix Pij as a probability distribution Expression datasets underwent quality control using the Array Pdescribing the interaction preferences of protein k.Notethat QualityMetrics package in R [57]. This included analysis of RNA j[N(i) Pij ¼ 1andPij ¼ 0wheneveri and j are not connected in degradation and elimination of samples displaying clear signal sat- the interaction network. For (Pij) j[N(i) to be a probability distri- uration [58]. Datasets were log-normalized using robust multi-array bution, we require that Pij 0, which is guaranteed if wij 0. The average (RMA) and PCA performed to determine whether the choice of the transformation of the Pearson correlation wij must be dominant principal component correlated with condition being made carefully to ensure non-negativity and that interpretation of compared (e.g. disease status). PCA performed on the two larger a high edge weight, indicative of an increased likelihood of inter- FSHD studies (GSE3307 and GSE10760) revealed that the dominant action between connected proteins, is valid. We considered two principal component correlated with both disease status and age possible transformations of which wij ¼jCijj was superior (see the of patients sampled. For this reason, we additionally analysed electronic supplementary material). datasets associated with age-dependent gene expression. PCA on the age-dependent study, GSE5086 revealed that the dominant principal component correlated with age and separ- 4.6. Detecting rewiring hotspots ated into two groups corresponding to young and older The second stage of InSpiRe is utilization of information theoretic samples. We used this clustering to classify samples as either measures to detect rewiring between two phenotypes Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014 described by weighted networks constructed by stage 1 of 4.7. Sparsification of relevant subset of protein 12 InSpiRe (figure 1b). Two measures are employed to detect significant rewiring between two phenotypes: differential local flux interaction network rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org entropy and Kullback–Leibler divergence. The final step of InSpiRe is sparsification of the rewiring subset Local flux entropy quantifies the disorder of a protein interaction of protein interactions (figure 1c). To create the relevant subset distribution in a given phenotype and is based on Shannon entropy. of the protein interaction network, proteins significantly rewir-

Given a stochastic matrix Pij describing a given phenotype, ing between two phenotypes, as identified in step 2 of the local flux entropy of protein i is defined as InSpiRe, are connected to their neighbours in the interactome. X 1 Interactions in this sub-network connecting proteins whose Si :¼ Pij log Pij,(4:2) expression is not significantly differently correlated (assessed log ki j[N(i) again via the jack-knife technique) between two phenotypes where k is the degree of protein i in the interaction network. are deleted, sparsifying the network to leave only rewired i Interface Soc. R. J. interactions. Si [ [0, 1] is a measure of how close a protein’s interaction distribution is to uniform. Values close to 0 imply protein i has a deterministic interaction distribution and values close to 1 suggest a uniform profile. 4.8. DUX4 constructs We compute vectors describing local flux entropy of each Coding sequences for DUX4 and DUX4c were kindly received protein in the interactome for two phenotypes. These are from Dr Stephen Tapscott and Dr Alexandra Belayew. tMAL- DUX4 was created by removing 75 amino acids from the 12 statistically analysed using the jack-knife technique (electronic 20140797 : supplementary material) to identify proteins with significantly C-terminus of DUX4 [33]. The stop codon of tMALDUX4 was different local flux entropies between phenotypes. Such proteins removed and ligated to either a VP16 transactivation domain can be considered as altering heterogeneity in their interaction or engrailed repressor domain (ERD) to create tMALDUX4- distributions across phenotypes. VP16 and tMALDUX4-ERD, respectively. All inserts were Our previous studies on cancer and cell differentiation ligated into the pMSCV-IRES-eGFP vector (Clonetech) [32]. have revealed that proteins with lower entropy in a given Retroviruses-encoding DUX4 constructs and control phenotype can be interpreted as being more active in that pMSCV-IRES-eGFP were produced by transfecting HEK293T phenotype [14,61,52]. Examples of interaction distribution packaging cells with DUX4/pMSCV-IRES-eGFP constructs and changes which lead to either an increase or a decrease in local a retroviral helper plasmid using Lipofectamine (Invitrogen). flux entropy are displayed in figure 1b. It is possible for a protein interaction distribution to be rewired without changing uniformity (figure 1b). Consequen- 4.9. Microarray tially, we introduce a novel measure based upon Kullback– Satellite cells from three male eight-week-old C57BL/10 mice Leibler divergence, which though lacking the functional were isolated and cultured [62]. Satellite cell-derived myoblasts interpretation of local flux entropy, is sensitive to such rewiring. were expanded on Matrigel-coated plates for 6 days in DMEM- The Kullback–Leibler divergence is defined as follows: Glutamax (Invitrogen) with 30% fetal bovine serum (PAA), 10% Given two probability distributions P : X ! [0, 1] and horse serum (Gibco), 1% chick embryo extract (ICN Flow), Q : X ! [0, 1], provided {x [ X : Q(x) . 0} , {x [ X : P(x) . 0} 10 ng ml21 bFGF (Peprotech) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin the Kullback–Leibler divergence between P and Q is given by (Sigma) at 378C5%CO2. Myoblasts were infected with X DUX4, DUX4c, tMALDUX4, tMALDUX4-VP16, tMALDUX4- P(x) 21 DKL(PjjQ) :¼ P(x) log : (4:3) ERD or control pMSCV-IRES-eGFP retrovirus with 4 mgml Q(x) x[X Polybrene for 20 h, before RNA extraction using Qiagen RNeasy Kit and quantification on a Nanodrop ND-1000 spec- Note that D (PjjQ) = D (QjjP)asD (PjjQ) quantifies the KL KL KL trophotometer (Labtech). Gene expression analysis was expected number of bits required to describe a sample from the performed using GeneChip Mouse Gene 1.0ST Array and probability distribution P given one incorrectly assumes the GCS3000 microarray system (Affymetrix) by the King’s Geno- sample follows the distribution Q. To compare distributions mic Centre. Data were quality controlled and log-normalized describing the interactions of proteins in control and pathological using RMA, and processed in three independent batches, with samples, choice of direction of Kullback–Leibler divergence is batch effects compensated using the ComBat function in R cite- ambiguous, we will therefore use symmetrized Kullback–Leibler combat. PCA on the 1000 most variable probes confirmed divergence defined by compensation, with the top principal components uncorrelated DS(P, Q) :¼ DKL(PjjQ) þ DKL(QjjP): (4:4) with batch (figure 4).

Given two phenotypes A and B described by stochastic matrices PA, PB, the local symmetrized Kullback–Leibler divergence of ij ij 4.10. Re-sampling procedure to assess concordance protein i between phenotypes is

A B between microarray and facioscapulohumeral Ki(A, B) :¼ DS((Pij ) j[N(i),(Pij ) j[N(i))(4:5) muscular dystrophy network and To determine whether expression of genes in our FSHD network X A Pij was significantly altered by DUX4, we first identified a probeset ¼ (PA PB) log : (4:6) ij ij B of mouse orthologues to 1866 genes in the FSHD network, to j[N(i) Pij permit comparison with our murine satellite cell microarray of Ki(A, B) [ [0, 1), values near 0 indicate that interaction distri- DUX4 construct expression. Our objective was to assess whether bution of protein i is similar across phenotypes, large values expression of genes in the network probeset was able to dis- imply rewiring of protein i between phenotypes. tinguish between the five DUX4 retroviral constructs better We employ the jack-knife technique (electronic supplemen- than would be expected by chance. If this is the case, then clus- tary material) to determine which proteins have a significantly tering of DUX4 constructs based on expression of the network non-zero Kullback–Leibler divergence (and therefore are probeset should be significantly better than that based on a rewiring) between two phenotypes. random probeset of equivalent size. Downloaded from http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on November 26, 2014

We therefore performed a re-sampling procedure, evaluating 4.12. Quantitative PCR 13 10 000 random probesets of 1866 genes from our microarray. For

Satellite cell-derived myoblasts were infected with DUX4 and rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org each random probeset, we performed a hierarchical clustering control retroviral constructs and RNA extracted as per the micro- and enforced a six cluster solution, which we then compared to array samples at 24 and 48 h after infection. RNA was then the optimal six cluster solution corresponding to the perfect sep- reverse-transcribed using the Reverse Transcription Kit with aration of the six retroviral constructs. To compare cluster genomic DNA wipe-out (Qiagen) and QPCR was performed distributions, we used the Rand index, a function which assesses on an Mx3005P QPCR system (Stratagene) with MESA Blue classification similarity on a unit scale. In this manner, we QPCR MasterMix Plus and ROX reference dye (Eurogentec). obtained a null distribution of Rand indices describing how Expression was normalized relative to Tbp expression. Primers well a random probeset may be expected to cluster the five used were as follows: Lef1; F-TCATCACCTACAGCGACGAG, DUX4 constructs. This null distribution then allowed us to calcu- R-TGATGGGAAAACCTGGACAT. Lgr5; F-CCGCCAGTCTCC late a p-value evaluating the hypothesis that expression of the

TACATCGCC, R-GCATTGTCATCTAGCCACAGGTGCC. Lgr6; Interface Soc. R. J. network probeset clustered the DUX4 constructs better than F-CACACATCCCGGGACAGGCAT, R-GGGAGGAGAGCCC could be expected by chance. CTCAAGC. Tcf3; F-TCTCAAGCCGGTTCCCACAC, R-TTTCC GGGCAAGCTCATAGTATTT. Tcf4; F-TGCCGACTACAACAG GGACT, R-TGCTGGACTGTGGGATATGA. Myf5 F-TGAGGG AACAGGTGGAGAAC, R-AGCTGGACACGGAGCTTTTA. Tbp 4.11. TopFLASH/FopFLASH F-ATCCCAAGCGATTTGCTG, R-CCTGTGCACACCA. TopFLASH and FopFLASH Tcf reporter constructs (Millipore) 12 20140797 : contain either six complete (TopFLASH) or mutant (FopFLASH) Acknowledgements. Statistical analysis was performed by C.R.S.B. with Tcf-binding sites, upstream of a luciferase reporter gene [63]. guidance from A.E.T. and S.S. The study was conceived by C2C12 myoblasts cultured in DMEM þ 10% FBS þ 1% penicil- C.R.S.B., P.K. and P.S.Z. Experiments were performed by P.K., L.M. lin/streptomycin were transfected with either construct plus and C.R.S.B. C.R.S.B. and P.S.Z wrote the manuscript with contri- Renilla (transfection control) for 24 h before trypsinizing and butions from L.M., A.E.T., S.S., R.O., and P.K. transfected a second time in triplicates with either 100 ng Funding statement. C.R.S.B. is supported by a CoMPLEX PhD student- DUX4 or control pMSCV-IRES-eGFP using Lipofectamine (Invi- ship, the British Heart Foundation (SP/08/004) and the FSH Society Shack Family and Friends research grant (FSHS-82013–06). trogen). Myoblasts were then incubated in DMEM Glutamax L.M. is funded by a Muscular Dystrophy Campaign studentship þ þ (Invitrogen) 2% horse serum (Gibco) 1% penicillin/strepto- (RA4/817). S.S. is supported by the Royal Society. A.E.T. is sup- mycin (Sigma) for 24 h. Relative luciferase was measured using ported by a Heller Research Fellowship. The Zammit laboratory is the Dual Luciferase Kit (Promega), b-catenin activity was calcu- additionally supported by the Medical Research Council and Associ- lated as luciferase/renilla, then TopFLASH/FopFLASH, and ation Franc¸aise contre les Myopathies, together with BIODESIGN plotted as a fold change of the control. The experiment was per- (262948–2) from EU FP7. formed on four independent occasions with statistics based on Conflict of interests. The authors declare that they have no conflict of the combined average of each experiment. interest.

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