DOCSLIB.ORG

Hierarchy and Command-Structure in the Roman Army1

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Hierarchy and Command-Structure in the Roman Army1 24 HIERARCHY AND COMMAND-STRUCTURE IN THE ROMAN ARMY1 The military hierarchy and the military command-structure represent two different aspects of army organization. While the former expresses a set of social relations in the barracks, the latter determines the way an army functions as an organized fighting force. For the individual, the positions he occupied in the hierarchy d~ring the course of his career reflect his social status as a Roman soldier and afterwards in civilian life. Thus these are listed on many public and private inscrip­ tions and have provided the material for extensive research by modem scholars, ever since van Domaszewski published his major study, Die Rangordnung des ro'mischen Heeres. The combined study of literary sources and inscriptions has done much to clarify the relationships between ranks in all parts of the Roman army, although there are problems which remain to be solved and others which may never be solved on the available evidence. Elucidation of the hierarchy, however, does not necessarily help in understanding the command-structure, or chain of command, although obviously there must always be some connection between rank and function in a large organization. While our sources abound in refer­ ences to specific ranks in the army, they provide far less information about what the people holding these ranks were actually doing, in war or in peace-time. Systematic study has therefore focused more on the hierarchy than on functions or command-structure. It is the aim of this paper to show that there are various unresolved problems with regard to the chain of command in the Roman Imperial Army, from the first till the fourth centuries, which need to be addressed if we want to understand the basic principles of its organization. Every army, ancient or modem, needs a chain of command to con­ vey the orders of its general to the individual soldiers. The command structure depends on the system which groups soldiers into the units 1 School of History, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel. HIERARCHY IN TifE ROMAN ARMY 389 which, when combined, make up the fighting force. We should like to deal here with the specific question of which officer filled the gap between the legionary legate, who commanded almost 6000 men, and the legionary centurion, who commanded 80. The principle of a chain of command is clearly defined in some of our sources and can occasionally be seen as functioning in practice. Onasander, in the middle of the first century A.D., observes that the general should transmit his orders through officers. 2 Julius Caesar frequently describes himself as giving orders through his legati and tribuni, or addressing his centurions.3 Very few sources, however, give specific information about the command-structure in peace-time, or the order of battle when the army acted as a fighting force. This distinction has to be made, for on the battle-field the army operates on a massive scale, while in peace-time its constituent units maintain themselves inde­ pendently and often operate on a small scale. First, however, brief mention should be made of the organization of the republican legion. It seems that, originally, the legion was an administrative unit, not a tactical one. 4 As described by Polybius (vi 24) the legion was divided into thirty maniples,5 each commanded by two centurions,6 assisted by two optiones (ou' oupayouc;) and two standard-bearers (CTTJµatoq,6pouc;). There is no suggestion in Polybius that the maniple was subdivided into tactical units of centuries, com­ manded by their own officers: the two centurions are said to com­ mand 'a half maniple'. 7 The term 'centuria' or its equivalent does not exist. There is no reference to any other unit above the level of the maniple and the cohort is nowhere mentioned. Each legion had six tribunes, but these had no specific function in the chain of com­ mand, but were experienced officers in this period (vi 19-20; 27, 4). Polybius' description of the Roman army camp suggests that there 2 Onasander, strategi,cus, 25. 3 Caesar, BG iv 23; vii 52; also: v 37; vi 7. 4 Livy 8, 8-10; 14. 5 Polybius gives four synonyms for the term maniple (vi 24, 5): 1cat to µEV µepo~ EKaatov EKaAEaav Kat tayµa Kat mtt'ipav Kat cniµaiav .... It follows that the term· a1tt1pa is used here for a maniple rather than a cohort, as in the Early Empire, or as in Polybius xi 23 (below, n. 20). 6 The officers of the maniple are called 'centurions' or 'taxiarchoi': tou~ o' iwtµov~ (EKIXA.Eaav) KEVtupfrova~ Kat ta~tlXPXOU~. 7 The maniple has two officers, says Polybius, because it should never be without a commander. If there are two centurions each commands one half of the maniple, but if there is one, he commands the entire maniple. .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Military Reforms of Gaius Marius in Their Social, Economic, and Political Context by Michael C. Gambino August, 2015 Directo
    The Military Reforms of Gaius Marius in their Social, Economic, and Political Context By Michael C. Gambino August, 2015 Director of Thesis: Dr. Frank Romer Major Department: History Abstract The goal of this thesis is, as the title affirms, to understand the military reforms of Gaius Marius in their broader societal context. In this thesis, after a brief introduction (Chap. I), Chap. II analyzes the Roman manipular army, its formation, policies, and armament. Chapter III examines Roman society, politics, and economics during the second century B.C.E., with emphasis on the concentration of power and wealth, the legislative programs of Ti. And C. Gracchus, and the Italian allies’ growing demand for citizenship. Chap. IV discusses Roman military expansion from the Second Punic War down to 100 B.C.E., focusing on Roman military and foreign policy blunders, missteps, and mistakes in Celtiberian Spain, along with Rome’s servile wars and the problem of the Cimbri and Teutones. Chap. V then contextualizes the life of Gaius Marius and his sense of military strategy, while Chap VI assesses Marius’s military reforms in his lifetime and their immediate aftermath in the time of Sulla. There are four appendices on the ancient literary sources (App. I), Marian consequences in the Late Republic (App. II), the significance of the legionary eagle standard as shown during the early principate (App. III), and a listing of the consular Caecilii Metelli in the second and early first centuries B.C.E. (App. IV). The Marian military reforms changed the army from a semi-professional citizen militia into a more professionalized army made up of extensively trained recruits who served for longer consecutive terms and were personally bound to their commanders.
    [Show full text]
  • Polybius and Livy on the Allies in the Roman Army
    POLYBIUS AND LIVY ON THE ALLIES IN THE ROMAN ARMY Paul Erdkamp* From the fourth or third century until the beginning of the rst century bc, Rome’s armies were also the armies of her allies. The socii and nomen Latinum raised at least half of the soldiers that fought wars for Rome. The Italic allies were clearly distinguished from the non-Italic troops, such as Cretan archers or Numidian horsemen, by the fact that they were governed by the formula togatorum. This can be concluded from their ‘de nition’ in the lex agraria from 111 bc: socii nominisve Latini quibus ex formula togatorum milites in terra Italia imperare solent. The formula togatorum is seen as a de ning element, distinguishing the Latin and Italic peoples from Rome’s overseas allies. Although in the second century bc a con- sciousness of Italy as a political and cultural unity gradually emerged, it was still referred to as a military alliance of Roman citizens and allies at the end of that century.1 The beginnings of this system remain in the dark, due to the inadequacies of our sources. The foedus Cassianum between Rome and the Latin League (traditionally dated to 493 bc) supposedly established a federal army under Roman command, but next to nothing is known about its functioning. The participation of the allied peoples was based on the treaties between their communities and Rome. The position of the Latin colonies was slightly different, because their obligations were probably based on the lex coloniae governing each Latin colony.2 We may assume that the role of the allies was re-de ned * I wish to thank John Rich, Luuk de Ligt and Simon Northwood for their many valuable comments.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 14: the Roman Republic, 509 B.C
    0218-0231 CH14-846240 10/29/02 11:39 AM Page 218 CHAPTER The Roman Republic 14 509 B.C.–30 B.C. ᭡ The Roman eagle on an onyx cameo A Roman legionary ᭤ 509 B.C. 450 B.C. 264 B.C. 46 B.C. 31 B.C. Romans set up Twelve Tables Punic Wars Julius Caesar Octavian becomes republic are written begin appointed sole ruler of dictator of Rome Roman Empire 218 UNIT 5 THE ROMANS 0218-0231 CH14-846240 10/29/02 11:39 AM Page 219 Chapter Focus Read to Discover Chapter Overview Visit the Human Heritage Web site • How the government of the Roman Republic was organized. at humanheritage.glencoe.com • How the Roman Republic was able to expand its territory. and click on Chapter 14— • How the effects of conquest changed the Roman economy Chapter Overviews to preview this chapter. and government. • How reformers attempted to save the Roman Republic. Terms to Learn People to Know Places to Locate republic Tarquin the Proud Carthage patricians Hannibal Barca Sicily plebeians Tiberius Gaul consuls Gracchus Corinth legionaries Julius Caesar dictator Mark Antony triumvirate Octavian Why It’s Important In 509 B.C., the Romans overthrew Tarquin (tar’ kwin) the Proud, their Etruscan king, and set up a repub- lic. Under this form of government, people choose their rulers. Reading Check However, not everyone had an equal say in the Roman Repub- What is a lic. The patricians (puh trish’ uhnz)—members of the oldest republic? and richest families—were the only ones who could hold pub- Who were the lic office or perform certain religious rituals.
    [Show full text]
  • Historical Evolution of ​Roman Infantry Arms And
    HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ROMAN ​ INFANTRY ARMS AND ARMOR 753 BC - 476 AD An Interactive Qualifying Project Report Submitted to the Faculty of the WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE In partial fulfillment to the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science By Evan Bossio Robert Chase Justin Dyer Stephanie Huang Marmik Patel Nathan Siegel Date: March 2, 2018 Submitted to: Professor Diana A. Lados Professor Luca Capogna Abstract During its time, the Roman Empire gained a formidable reputation as a result of its discipline and organization. The Roman Empire has made a lasting impact on the world due to its culture, political structure, and military might. The purpose of this project was to examine how the materials and processes used to create the weapons and armour helped to contribute to the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. This was done by analyzing how the Empire was able to successfully integrate new technologies and strategies from the regions the Empire conquered. The focus of this project is on the Empire's military, including the organization of the army, and the tactics and weapons used. To better understand the technology and innovations during this time the Roman long sword, spatha, was replicated and analyzed. 1 Acknowledgments The team would like to thank Professor Diana A. Lados and Professor Luca Capogna for this unique experience. The team would also like to thank Anthony Spangenberger for his guidance and time throughout the microstructure analysis. Lastly, this project could not have been done without Joshua Swalec, who offered his workshop, tools, and expertise throughout the manufacturing process 2 Table of Contents Abstract 1 Acknowledgments 2 Table of Contents 3 List of Figures 6 List of Tables 11 Authorship 12 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Roman Military Medicine
    Roman Military Medicine Roman Military Medicine: Survival in the Modern Wilderness By Valentine J. Belfiglio and Sylvia I. Sullivant Roman Military Medicine: Survival in the Modern Wilderness By Valentine J. Belfiglio and Sylvia I. Sullivant This book first published 2019 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2019 by Valentine J. Belfiglio and Sylvia I. Sullivant All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-3087-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-3087-4 To Ellie and Brent. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations .................................................................................... ix Foreword ................................................................................................... xi Chapter I ..................................................................................................... 1 Introduction Chapter II .................................................................................................... 5 Sanitation in Ancient Roman Military Hospitals Chapter III ................................................................................................ 13 Control of Epidemics Chapter IV ...............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • ITALY Powerpoint 2-10.Pptx
    2/10/12 I. Disaster Italian neighbors aack aer defeat: • July 18th 390 BC, Bale of Allia and Gallic Sack • Aequi, Volscians, and Etruscans • but 115 yrs later: 275 BC Rome is mistress of Italy • 800 years (410 AD) before another foreigner enters Rome in arms • HOW? RecoVery Army reform • Abandon hoplite phalanX with long spears 1 2/10/12 • Instead: The ‘PoIybian” Legion – throwing spears – The consular army battle short swords deployed for $ – long shield There were two legions in the full consular army, as well as two aloe (contingents of allied soldiers), and two units of cavalry $4 One maniple, the basic tactics • New tac[cal units: unit of the army, containing 120 men. Every maniple consisted of two centuries of 60 men, each with its own centurion, standardbearer and optio There were ten maniples in 1 legion = 30 maniples each of the three lines of the legion 1 maniple = 2 centuries Gaps equal to the frontage of a maintained between The triorii, at the rear, unit were recruited from the oldest, each of the maniples in a line most experienced soldiers. There were only 60 men in each triarii maniple //i/ The principes, formed from men in their 20s and 30s, The hastati, formed from 1 century = 60 men considered to be in the younger men. At the front, prime of life they faced the enemy first 0 • FleXible and deadly (5, II. EXpansion 390-275 BC 2. Samnites: Italian mountain tribe • Three Samnite Wars Three main areas of eXpansion 1st war (343-41): 1: Lans Capua appeals to Rome • 493: Treaty w.
    [Show full text]
  • The Rise of Rome: How Did It Happen?
    3 The Rise of Rome: How Did it Happen? This chapter attempts to account for the remarkable growth of Rome discussed in the previous chap- ter. There we saw how all through the fifth and early fourth centuries (ca. 400—380b .c.), Rome had difficulty merely coping with its immediate neighbors and invaders from the nearby hill country. In 390 b.c. it suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Celts, during which Rome itself was captured and burned. Yet by 290 b.c. it had achieved sovereignty over the whole peninsula of Italy, vanquishing in the process its old Celtic enemies as well as the powerful Samnite confederation. A few years later it was able to take on and drive from Italy a professional Hellenistic army led by Pyrrhus, the capable king of Epirus. How did it manage to achieve this spectacular turn around? 1. THE MoST FundAMEntal ExPlAnation: THE NatuRE oF THE PolIS military participation ratios At its most fundamental level, Rome’s success depended on its polis constitution. It was argued in the introduction that the Greek polis was a revolutionary breakthrough in human social and political engineering which produced a new type of state. Rela- tive to its population, more people were involved in its civic and military affairs than any previous form of society. As a consequence, more talent was tapped and more human energies and loyalties were released than was possible, for example, in the much larger but less free empires of the Middle East. When functioning properly, polis-type societies were extraordinarily efficient institutions.
    [Show full text]
  • Republican Roman
    Version 4 April 2016 REPUBLICAN ROMAN The following Army Organisation List (AOL) will enable you to build a Republican Roman army for War & Conquest. Please refer to the introductory online Army Organisation List guide document. This is Version 5, May 2016. Feedback and observations are most welcome. INTRODUCTION The Republican Roman Empire battled against Carthage and the Successors of Alexander. It has a long and chequered history. The Roman army successfully evolved and this list does not attempt to cover the entire period of the Republic or the reorganisations in detail although it should cover the most popular variations. ARMY COMPOSITION PERSONALITIES OF WAR SUPPORTING FORMATIONS Up to 25% of the points value of the army Up to 25% of the points value of the army may be Personalities of War. may be selected from supporting formations An Army General must be selected. If the Army General is killed during the battle, ALLIED FORMATIONS then another Personality who has the Up to 15% of the points value of the army capability to become Army General may may be selected from allied formations. assume command. Depending on the size of game you may be Strategy Intervention Points are automatically better served taking a complete allied army. pooled in a Republican Roman army As the Republican Roman lists are expanded we will add more selections for Numidians, LEGION FORMATIONS Illyrians and Ligurians At least 50% of the points value of the army must be selected from the Legion Formations. LEGENDS OF WAR Refer to the Legion Composition Guidelines at Assuming they are being used, an additional the end of this list.
    [Show full text]
  • Maniple to Cohort: an Examination of Military Innovation and Reform in the Roman Republic
    MANIPLE TO COHORT: AN EXAMINATION OF MILITARY INNOVATION AND REFORM IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC A thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE Military History by BENJAMIN J. NAGY, MAJOR, US ARMY B.S., University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, 2003 Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 2014-01 Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) 13-06-2014 Master’s Thesis AUG 2013 – JUN 2014 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Maniple to Cohort: An Examination of Military Innovation and 5b. GRANT NUMBER Reform in the Roman Republic 5c.
    [Show full text]
  • The Pawn of Rome: the Roman Infantryman
    Portland State University PDXScholar Young Historians Conference Young Historians Conference 2018 Apr 18th, 9:00 AM - 10:15 AM The Pawn of Rome: The Roman Infantryman Nanyi R. Yang Clackamas High School Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/younghistorians Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the Military History Commons Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Yang, Nanyi R., "The Pawn of Rome: The Roman Infantryman" (2018). Young Historians Conference. 6. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/younghistorians/2018/oralpres/6 This Event is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Young Historians Conference by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: [email protected]. THE PAWN OF ROME: THE ROMAN INFANTRYMAN Nanyi Yang Humanities: Western Civilization March 19, 2018 1 As a Roman soldier standing in a battle line with friends and comrades, nothing would have been clear. Death, especially if the soldier was near the front of the line, could arrive in a split second by the tip of a javelin or arrow. Thousands of troops marching into positions would kick up dust, obscuring vision. The clamor of troops marching and armor and weapons rattling would be deafening. Yet it is by these very people that the Roman Empire rose to one of the largest and most successful empires in human history. Its widespread success, however, meant that the Romans did not always have the luxury of fighting on familiar terrain.
    [Show full text]
  • NECESSARY CHANGE: the NEED for SURVIVAL AS a PERSPECTIVE of ROMAN MILITARY ADAPTATION by Wayne W. Johnston Thesis Submitted I
    NECESSARY CHANGE: THE NEED FOR SURVIVAL AS A PERSPECTIVE OF ROMAN MILITARY ADAPTATION by Wayne W. Johnston Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Classics Acadia University April, 2016 © Copyright by Wayne W. Johnston, 2016 This thesis by Wayne William Johnston is accepted in its present form by the Department of History and Classics as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours Approved by the Thesis Supervisor __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Vernon Provencal Date Approved by the Head of the Department __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Gillian Poulter Date Approved by the Honours Committee __________________________ ____________________ Dr. Anna Redden Date ii I, Wayne William Johnston, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis. _________________________________ Signature of Author _________________________________ Date iii TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL PAGE ii PERMISSION FOR DUPLICATION iii ABSTRACT vi INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE A. Greek Influence on the Etruscan Origins of Roman Military Evolution 4 I. Archaeological Evidence 5 II. Armor 5 III. Weaponry 8 IV. Formation of the Phalanx in the Etrusco-Greek Polis 9 V. Literary Evidence 9 B. Roman Breakaway from the Etrusco-Greek Style of Warfare 12 I. Historical Dates 12 II. Weakness of the Phalanx 14 III. Geographical Context 15 IV. The Maniple: Development, Organization and Equipment 16 V. The Roman Navy 24 CHAPTER TWO A. Marian Reforms in the Late Republic 32 I.
    [Show full text]
  • (NRCE) Study Guide – Advanced Level
    National Roman Civilization Exam (NRCE) Study Guide – Advanced Level By Connor Harrison and José Molina This study guide is meant to be good approximation of the material needed to know for the NRCE exam. It is not meant to be fully comprehensive, but should cover most things that could be asked on the exam for Roman History and Roman Life. This guide is adapted from Connor Harrison’s Roman History Notes and José Molina’s Roman Life Notes. Please note that Ancient Geography, although asked on the NRCE, is not yet included in this version of the study guide. Ancient Geography includes, but is not limited to, directions to and from ancient locations, modern names of ancient cities (and vice versa), and names and destinations of ancient Roman roads. 1 Roman History By Connor Harrison MONARCHY (753-510 B.C.) 7 KINGS - Romulus o Lineage . Mother was Rhea Silvia, father was Mars (the God) Rhea Silvia was the daughter of Numitor, whose brother Amulius had stolen the throne of Alba Longa Romulus and his brother Remus were thrown into the Tiber River, recovered by a she-wolf, and raised by the shepard Faustulus The wife of Faustulus was Acca Larentia o Romulus and Remus . Romulus had a brother, Remus . There was a dispute over where the city would be settled, so Romulus settled the Palatine hill, Remus settled the Aventine hill . According to one account, Romulus is said to have seen 12 vultures while Remus was said to have seen 6, meaning Romulus had superior augury and had say over where the city should be .
    [Show full text]