Research in Research in Engineering Design (1993) 5: 63 69 Limited Q 1993 Springer-Verlag London Engineering Design

Science and Design Methodology: A Review n Nigel Cross tr in DesignDiscipline,FacultyofTechnology,TheOpenUniversity,MiltonKeynesMKT6AA'UK 80.00 with ectly Design with a review of Previous Abstract. Design methodoloay has always seemed to haue a in Engineering problematic relationship with science. The "design methods research. ml1)ement" sfarted out with intentions of making design more "scientift'", but the more mature.fteld of design methodology and has resulted in clarifying the differences between design science. This paper reuiews the relatiuely short history of 2. A Brief Overview maps desiqn metl'todology and its relationship with science, and tries lut some o.f the major themes that haue sustained it, The origins of the emergence of new design methods the concepts o;f to establish some aqreed understanding .for in the 1950s and 1960s lay in the application of novel, of design' scientiJic: tlesign, tlesign sc:ience and the science "scientific" methods to the novel and pressing problems of the Second World War-from which Design science; Keywords. Design methodology; iame OR and management decision-making techni- Science of design ques-and in the development of creativity techniques in ttre t9S0s. (The latter was partly, in the USA, in response to the launch of the first sputnik, which seemed to convince American scientists and engineers that they lacked creativitY.) The new "design methods movement" developed I 1. Introduction through a series of conferences in the 1960s and ,1 1970s London, 1962 (Jones and Thornley 1963); years since the first - It is now more than thirty Birmingham, 1965 (Gregory 1966); Portsmouth, 1967 ito ( London in ons conference on design methods was held in 1969); Cambridge, Mass', 1969 I (Broadbent and Ward ad- 1963). This conference is 1962 (Jones and Thornley (Moore 1970); London 1913;New York 1974 (Spillers )uld 1 generally regarded as the event which marked the rom 1974);Berkeley, Calif., 1975, Portsmouth again tnl976 i which in iaunch of the "design methods movement", (Evans et al. 1982) and again in 1980 (Jacques and of design methodology as ,l turn led to the emergence Powell 1981). course' the field was a subject or field of enquiry. Of The first design methods or methodology books also om: earlier work (the earliest reference in 1 baseJ on some appeared in this period Hall (1962), Asimow (1962), probably Zwicky's - I design methodology literature is Alixander (1964), Archer (1965), Jones (1970) and published in 1948 *ork on morphological method Broadbent (1973), together with the first creativity conference was the first (Zwicky 1948)), but the 1962 books Gordon (1961) and Osborn (1963)' received substantial - iime tirat "design methods" However, the 1970s also became notable for the I academic recognition. rejection of design methodology by the early pioneers' is still rather So the history of design -methodology Christopher Alexander said: "I've disassociated myself I previous "history" reviews have been I abrief one. Some from the field. . . . There is so little in what is called (1980 1984)' In by Broadbent (1979) and Cross 'design methods'that has anything useful to say about 1 celebrated its t4Se the Design Methods Group how to design buildings that I never even read the some special reviews in its ri twentieth anniversary with literature any more. . . . I would say forget it, forget Theories' Finger and journal Design Methods and the whole thing. . . . If you call it 'lt's A Good Idea To ( Reseatch bi*on (1989) opened the first issue of Do', I like it very much; if you call it 'A Method', I I like it but I'm beginning to get turned off; if you call and offprint requests ro Nigel Cross' The Open Corresporuleru:e 'A Methodology', I just do not want to talk about University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA' UK' it Surraeur8ug (9961 :epuexelv) sornlcnrls ureren) lclA oql Jo lJo,u eql pue u8rseq P meu;o slueuoduloo eql edeqs o1 ,(r1 s:eu8tsap 'so.tnlcn'r1s uo sacuoreJuoJ leuollPuJelul Jo sellss Oql cgJl P eql .{11luePl o1 slsiluetcS ut'eldtuexe ro;:s0861 eql ul I Suqsrxo 3o . slueuodtuoc '(r1 q8norq]'edorng l" f13uor1s pedoye,tep,{3o1opoqleu u8rsep 3ur:eeur8ug 'suotlelonb 3ur,uo11o; oq] uI polcageJ se 'ecuolcs v 'uollceJtp ]ueroJIp pue u8tsep ueo,^Aleq suolltullslp eletu ol lq8nos i' € ur lnq serSolopoqleu rleql Surdole,tep IIus s;e'u lp e,req slsrSolopoqleur u8rsep 'sfep lsetlree eql tuoJC spleu JollEI essq] ollglv\u?elu pue 'uStsep lBlrlsnpul Ie pu€ Sutreeut8ue ueq] Suruueld pue ernlcelttlcJE Is arualJs puu .{Solopoq}atr l ol eJotu eq ol spuol qcuordde slql 'Je^o'^AoH pJ uBIseO uaa,rlag sdlqsuollulag '€ lu€AeleJ '(,{lrunuruoc otl}'sJosn'sletuolsnc'sluet1c) !.sJeu'l.ro', DC ruelqo;d eql r{lIA\ s,reulred ore sreu8tsep qclq'^A uI 6l ue pue (..8ut '0661 ecurs (VSn) tuawaaounl4l uanag to ssecord,{;oledrct}-red'..e,'rl1u1ueun8re,, N uorlou eql pecnporlul peq (eSOt) uorutS) eI{} pue 066I eculs (5151) u1rsag DuuaaurAug -cgsrt€s,, Jo '!oIluffiof elerrdorddu ro .{rolce;sllES uotl oq pu.rnop aqt '686I ecurs (ygn) uasaq aurnautaug sed,{1-uotln1os Jo -ruSocer spJ€,^aol'(..srue1qord pelcl,lt,, ro3'{llercedse) ;SI ut tpnasay '7361 ecurs (VSn) sanssl uArcaA '6L6I ut reu8rsep oql ecuelodturuo eql uro{ pue esrurldo tns ecurs (;n) salpnis ubsaq peq e^Bq e'u 'qst18ug Jo uror; ,{ume po^our (s0l6l eqt ;o) ur, suoqecrlqnd o1 'ute8u 're;er o1 1sn1 'fSolopoqleu pu€ ol sldurelle '(1ree uorlereueS puoces oql'spoqlour (.cglluotcs,''leuolleJ 3ol ,{roeq1 'qcreeser u8tsep 3o sleurnol ,,rreu Jo ecue8rerue poseq se,u (s996 'crleure1s,{s uorlecrldde eql uo 1 eq oql uoeq seq luerudole^ap lueculu8rs fpelncrlred y ;o ' uotlereue8 oql '..suolleroue8,, 1o '{:oaql nru isluelttssu u8tsep cluoJlsele 1ue8t11e1ut ro/pue eqt 3o) lsJg seq Jopuo'^ e16 uBtsep ro; ure8e sBuuds edoq areqm s.lolll5 o1 paueddeq 1Rq.4A lq8ru )J.rl uorl?ruolne 'spoqletu eql ur f3o1o ,\\ou Jo uotle;eue8 JO 's1uorudo1e,,rep 1y ur .(llercedso - s086I el€l uodn uotlereue8 eJnlnJ ssolpue uE Jo Elsl^ E I -poqlour u8rsep uI lserelut Jo IE,toueJ JOp€oJq E osle ;o peuedo 1t pue 'spoqleul ..uoIl3reue8-1srg,, elenbepeut op s?,r oJeIII 'u8rsep uI uollnlos pue ruelqo-rd Jo ernl€u Sutpuelsrepun ol luotulrulluoc rloql ruor; edecse slst8olopoq]eur '4Aeu Gt1;- reqcry) ..e^Iletntutuoc,, eql 'e8;eue II€^ osn€ceq se,t'r uorlseSSns sIt{I eq u0 '(6861) sso:3 fq pesodord Iepou oql uI se oql lel lI luetlllJq o1 Suruu€eq s€.44 uolJereue8 puoces ',ueu e ]eql pu€ !o io,u1 snot,terd oql uolleulqtuoo 3 uo peseq eq { Jo oql euou plrql e sdeqre4 'I{loq (Suruur8eq ,(resseceu ? 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As Levy (1985) 82), things ought to be. (Simon 1969) wrote, "Science is no longer perceived in terms of a )89) single fixed methodology focused on a specific view of Glynn (1985) has pointed out that the above the world. It is more an expanded rationality for ISA distinctions tend to be based on a positivistic (and problem-identifying, -structuring and -solving activi- ign possibly simplistic) view of the nature of science, and ties." This makes scientific methodology sound indis- :ive that scientists too, like designers, create their hy- tinguishable from design methodology. Thus the nse potheses and theories, and use these theories to guide simple dichotomies expressed in the 1960s are being lier their search lor facts. Hillier et al. (1972) also criti- replaced by a more complex recognition of the web yth cized design methodologists for basing their ideas of interdependencies between knowledge, action and 0s. on outmoded concepts of scientific method and reflection. )rs, epistemology. But in some places, old attitudes die hard! The try Cross et c/. (1981) went so far as to suggest that the editorial in the very first issue of this journal was clear ll current epistemology of science is in some confusion about the journal's aim to change design from an art of and therefore is a most unreliable guide for an to a science: "For the field of design to aduance from ng epistemology of design. This conclusion was chal- art to science (emphasis added) requires research. . . ." rd lenged by Levy (1985), who suggested that transforma- (Dixon and Finger 1989) h ut tions within the epistemology of science should be seen Let us at least try to clarify some of the terminology ly as active growth and development rather than simply that is used in discussing concepts such as "scientific ' l:t nt chaos, and that it would be naive to try to isolate design", "design science" and "the science of design". ht design and technology from science and society. tt, However, there may still be a critical distinction to rll be made: method may be vital to science (where it 3.1. Scientific Design D validates the results) but not to design (where results IS do not have to be repeatable). As already noted above, the origins of design methods 1- It is also clear that practitioners, whether in scrence lay in "scientific" methods, similar to decision theory s, or design, do not have to be methodologists. As Sir and the methods of operational research. The origina- n Frederick Bartlett pointed out, "The experimenter tors of the "design methods movement" also realised must be able to use specific methods rigorously, but that there had been a change from pre-industrial he need not be in the least concerned with methodo- design to industrial design - and perhaps even to logy as a body of general principles. Outstanding post-industrial design? The reasons advanced for 'methodologists' have not themselves usually been developing new methods were often based on this successful experimenters." (Bartlett 1958) lf "designer" assumption; modern, industrial design is too complex is substituted for "experimenter", this observation also for intuitive methods. holds true in the context of design. The first half of this century had also seen the rapid The Design Research Society's "Design: Science; growth of scientific underpinnings in many types of Method" conference of 1980 (Jacques and Powell design e.g. materials science, engineering science, 1981) gave an opportunity to air many of these building science, behavioural science. A relatively considerations. The general leeling from that con- simple view of the design science relationship is that, ference was that it was time to move on lrom making through this reliance of modern design upon scientific simplistic comparisons and distinctions between science knowledge, through the application of scientific and design; that perhaps there was not so much for knowledge in practical tasks, design "makes science design to learn lrom science after all; and that perhaps risible" (Willem 1990). science rather had something to learn from design. As So we might suggest that "scientific design" refers Archer (1981) wrote in his paper for that conference, to modern, industrialised design as distinct from "Design, like science, is a way of looking at the world pre-industrial, craft-oriented design based on scien- and imposing structure upon it." Both science and tific knowledge but utilising a mix of both intuitive design, as Glynn (1985) pointed out, are essentially and non-intuitive design methods. 66

N, Cross Science 3.2. Design Science sciences; (2) theory of technical systems; (3) theory ol refers design processes; (4) design methodology. "Design science" was a term perhaps first our u used by Andreasen (1991) points to two impJitant Gregory ( I 966), in rhe context the . areasol syster ;f I 965 conference theory in design science on "The Design that are delineated by Hubka Method,'. Others, too, have the (for mechanical .,design engineering): theory of the design development of a science" as their aim; for process (general procedures, methods, example, the originators of the ICED tools) and 4. Pt conferences, the theory of machine systems (classification, "Workshop Design Konstruction', (WDK), modelling, are also etc. of technical systems). This the International Society lor helps to design thinking" brought together several related approaches ls, tools) and and 4. Progress in Design Methodology recent new work (Cross on, modelling, et al. 1992). r define design I conclude here with a brief review of developments and product in the science of design (design methodology) over the 4.5. The philosophical last decade. I will use categories of work similar to Philosophy of Design Merhod: ;cience" Analysis refers those I used in Deuelopments in Design Methodology and Reflection on Design Activity and wholly (N. Cross 1984), which covered the period 1962 92. the utilisation Some of the comparative discussions of design and design science also in 4.1. The Development of Design Methods: have already been referred to earlier in this paper (Levy 0rigination and Application of Systematic Methods 1985, Glynn 1985). There have been several new studies in the epistemology of design (Buchanan In this category, the last decade has been notable 1989, Zeng and Cheng 1991, Roozenburg 1992), and for the development of product quality assurance we should also inclucle here work in the ts of "design praxeology of design (Gasparski methods, such as Taguchi methods (Ross lggg) and 1990). :nce "science Some quality function deployment (Hauser and Clausing of us have also been theory-buil<1ing around eople has an I 98 8). the concept ol "designerly" ways of thinking and cience". acting (A. Cross For There has also been significant new work in design 1984, 1986, Tovey 19g6, N. Cross e of 1990), effective automation, using expert systems and other artificial although some aspects of this work have been frcial Simon challenged by Coyne inteiiigence techniques. A new series of conferences on and Snodgrass (1991). "a body of AI and design has been established, where this work :rmalisable, is reported (Gero 1991). t the design process: 4.2, The Management of Design Models 5. Conclusion )79), wrote: and Strategies for Executing Design projects logists and Design methods emerged in the early 1960s gning itself We have had a new generation of systematic models as part of a desire (with a history going back to the 1920s) ity; that is, of the design process, particularly in engineering to make design somehow more '.scientific". a-scientific design, and particularly from Germany (Hubka (1992), The subject became adopted as an academic area r that "the Pahl and Beitz (1984), Verein Deutscher Ingenieure of study known as design methodology. ity; rhat is, (VDI) (1987)). We have also seen the emergence For some people, design methodology appeared f scientific of "concurrent" models of product planning and to have died in the 1970s; however, deveiopment (Andreasen 1991, pugh l99l). we can now see that it survived, and that there has been some particularly '' has also In architecture and planning there has been strong and healthy growth in the 19g0s, especially he science development of the "argumentative', process models in the engineering and product design he science (e.g. McCall 1986). fields. There is still some confusion and controversy :s having over the use of terms problems: such as design science, but I hope that the ests. " 4.3. The Structure of Design Theoretical discussion here has helped to clarify this. of design Analysis of the Nature of Design problems Design methodology o what I has become a much more There has been significant mature academic field, but still suffers rgy"; rhe new work on problem from a lack of "types", for confidence in it by practitioners, :dures of example by Schon (1988) and by Oxman design and it has had (1990). In tl-ris category we might also little (acknowledged) practical application. Lrdes the include the new work stablish- on formal languages and grammars ol design (Stiny 1980, process, trlemming 1987). design 4.4. The Nature of Design Activity: Empirical ction on Note Observations of Desigir Practice and its This .,A )84) There have is a revised version of a paper, History of Design been many more protocol and case studies .. design Methodology ", prepared for a conference on Design Methodology " made in this period. Examples include (1994), Schon and Relationships with Science" (de Vries et al. 1993\. Scie 68 N. Cross

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