ARC Teaching Fellow Kate da Costa Archaeology University of Sydney [email protected] Roman Provincial Borders Across Jordan1

Abstract number a century beforehand (Jones 1964: 42-43 By 400 AD Jordan was divided amongst four Roman and 280-283). An understanding of the position, provinces: Palaestina Prima in the southern Jordan nature and function of the borders between each Valley, Palaestina Secunda over most of north- province is fundamental to any study of the ad- west Jordan, Palaestina Tertia south of the Wådπ ministration of the Empire. Such an understanding al-Møjib and Arabia over the rest. However, as in is hampered by the fact that, nearly one hundred the rest of the Roman Empire, we are uncertain as years after Mommsen published The Provinces of to where some, or all, of the actual border lines ran. the Roman Empire (1909), we still do not know ex- That the border was known in antiquity is clear actly where the internal borders ran. It appears that from the evidence of toponyms, cadestration, tax part of the problem is the attitude that we more or records and pilgrims’ accounts. That the border had less know which territories belong to which prov- some meaning is also clear — on principal borders ince, and that this rough knowledge is sufficient for a customs duty was imposed which distorted the historical studies (Millar 1993: 31 and 535-544). trade in locally produced ceramics. This distortion The result of such an approach can be illustrated by is particularly clear in the southern Levant, and the maps from a study of Roman provincial admin- provides a tool to develop an archaeological istration in the Danubian provinces (Dise 1999), methodology to detect provincial borders in a way although it should be stressed that this is merely a not available to historians. The Borders of Arabia convenient example, and by no means the worst. and Palaestina project is examining the area around Dise argued that Roman administration in newly Wådπ ar-Rayyån in northern Jordan as a case-study, conquered territories was an agent of Romanisa- and the preliminary results of the first season of tion, and contrasted settlement patterns in neigh- field work are presented. bouring provinces. Maps of Noricum and Pannonia The glue holding the Roman Empire together were published separately on adjacent pages in for over 800 years was its system of administration. Dise’s work. These provinces shared a border, but The provinces were the basis of this system2. Their when the modern maps are overlaid it is clear that extent reflected varying economic, social and po- the line of the shared border was drawn differently litical factors. However, not one ancient source dis- on each map and these lines diverge for their entire cusses the basis on which provinces were changed length. The discrepancy represents a distance of up (Roueché 1999). to 2 days journey in antiquity — large enough to By 400AD there were approximately one hun- have had a serious impact on the administration of dred provinces in the Roman Empire, double the a province3

1 This paper is based on fieldwork conducted as part of theDrawing and Stevenson (1939), although the collection of Brunt’s articles the line: the archaeology of Roman provincial borders in Late (1990) contains some pertinant studies, as do several contributions Antique Palaestina and Arabia (AD250 – 650) project (short to the Cambridge Ancient History2, volumes 10 to 14 and Mann’s title: Borders of Palaestina and Arabia / BAP), directed by the article in ANRW “Frontiers of the Principate” (1974). author and funded by the Australian Research Council 2006-2010 3 It is irrelevant who was responsible for the failure to check the (DP0666110) and the University of Sydney. Project website: maps, be it the author or the editor; it is simply an example that www.acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/bap such information is seen as unimportant. 2 There is no modern survey replacing the works of Arnold (1906)

-731- Kate da Costa In the area of modern Jordan, there are abundant There, approximately 40 Tetrarchic inscriptions examples of maps with more or less arbitrary lines have been collected by Millar (1993: 535-544) and (e.g. Jones 1964; Avi-Yonah 1977). The Barrington the publishers of the Rafid survey (Urman 2006) Atlas maps of provinces carry the disclaimer that and, by the variance in their formulae, have added “Provincial boundaries are approximate and in considerably to the understanding of borders in this many cases, very uncertain” (Talbert (ed.) 2000; area (Graf 1992; Ma’oz 2006)5. Elliott and Barckhaus 2003). We know from extant land deeds that boundar- It is clear from the history of border changes in ies of individual properties were known (Kraemer Palaestina and Arabia alone that territorial chang- 1958), and that owners were permitted to move the es occurred both before and after Diocletian, the boundary stones in order to sell a portion of their traditional reformer (Palaestina: Mayerson 1988; property. Barnes 1982, 214; Tsafrir et al. 1994: 16; Syria: Since provinces were mainly defined by the Bowersock 1983: 92; Arabia Bowersock 1983: combination of cities, their dependent towns and 143). Provincial rearrangements were not a sin- villages, and all their associated territories, the ex- gle event, but represented changing requirements tent of these territories defined the provincial bor- within a changing Empire. The complexities of der (Avi-Yonah 1977; Mann 1974). This edge was territorial change can be seen through the separate known to the relevant authorities, not least because transfers of up to seven parcels of land along the of land taxes, but that information has not been northern border of Arabia between 188 and the end very well preserved for us today. Although not con- of the third century AD (Kettenhofen 1981). sistent across the Empire, modern knowledge of By 400AD Jordan was crossed by several Roman which localities were assigned to which province is provincial borders: Palaestina Prima extended into based on a wide range of data including boundary the southern Jordan Valley and east of the Dead Sea, markers (Schlumberger 1939; Seigne 1997), mile- Palaestina Secunda occupied an important part of stones on interprovincial roads (Mittmann 1970; north-west Jordan, Palaestina Tertia lay south of Isaac 1978), place names, historical documents, the Wådπ al-Møjib and Arabia over the rest. literary efforts and church council attendance Based on historical information, what do we lists6. There is a general modern assumption that know already? We know that Roman law was so- between (or around) these few known points, the phisticated enough to distinguish conceptually be- border followed topographic features (Avi-Yonah tween the finis (limit) and limes (boundary) of land, 1977; Bowersock 1983, 90-103) — not forgetting, and between land delineated by a natural feature as Kennedy has argued, watersheds (1998: 50-52) and land measured out (Dilke 1971). We know that and, especially, rivers (Braund 1996). After the ear- the measuring out of the limites of a colony was a ly 4th century AD much of this fades away, leaving solemn ritual event, worth illustrating on coinage4. traditional history without evidence. Other religious aspects of boundaries include the general position of Terminus in Roman religion, To What Then Can We Turn? and the specific activities of the Terminalia on the Distribution patterns of locally produced ceramics last day of the year (February 13) where landown- are significant indicators of local economic activity ers garlanded their joint boundary stones (Rose and (da Costa 2001 ; Shaw 1995; de Ligt 1993; Pea- Scheid 2003; Piccaluga 1974). cock 1982; Howard and Morris 1981). The differ- We know that land surveyors erected bound- ent classes of ceramics seem to be showing simi- ary stones marking a variety of territories, such as lar uneven distribution patterns, e.g. cooking pots the Imperial forest in Phoenice (Breton 1980) and such as Galilean ware (Adan-Bayewitz 1993), fine a series of markers in the Golan / southern Syria. table wares such as Jarash bowls (Watson 1989),

4 E.g. Trajan founding Sarmizegethusa, sestertius, 104-107AD, discussions with me about this paper during the conference, and RIC II 568; Hadrian founding Aelia Capitolina: AE22, 136AD, his generosity and kindness in sharing his extensive knowledge Meshorer Aelia 2. and understanding of the material. 5 Graf believes that these boundary markers relate to surveys of 6 Toponyms: Ad Fines in Bosnia lies on the border line of Savia / imperial estates, rather than general land surveys. For the arguments Dalmatia (Talbert (ed.) 2000, Map 20E5); Historical documents: presented in this paper, that difference may be irrelevant — their e.g. the Bordeaux Pilgrim’s itinerary (Geyer and Cuntz 1965); existence and the use of known survey points is the critical issue. Eusebius’ Onomasticon; Literary efforts: e.g. Ammianus Marcel- Nonetheless, I wish to record my thanks to David Graf for his linus’ geographic digressions in Books XIV-XXVI.

-732- Roman provincial borders across Jordan ceramic lamps (da Costa 2001), recent work in the on small-scale economics and local trade. Golan (Hartal 2003) and on Levantine amphorae It seems clear that the customs duty on major (Reynolds 2005). borders, i.e. that between Arabia and Palaestina, In the case of early Byzantine Pella (3rd-5th rather than the internal borders of Palaestina, re- centuries), Watson (1992) has shown that bulk im- mained in place until the late 6th century and, by portation of ceramics from an important production making it uneconomical to import local ceramics centre, Jarash, did not occur. Jarash ceramics only from neighbouring provinces, distorted trade pat- appeared at Pella in quantity from the end of the 6th terns. This distortion can be utilised to map the lo- century. The cities are, however, relatively close cation of the unknown sections of the provincial and linked by a major Roman road. Before the late borders. 6th century, some other factor clearly acted as a The Borders of Arabia and Palaestina project, barrier to local trade. based on a case-study in an area overlapping part The patterns cannot be adequately explained by of the border between Palaestina Secunda and either topographic features or by simple distance Arabia, is developing an archaeological methodol- from the production centre. They seem bounded by ogy to allow a more precise definition of provincial the approximate line of provincial borders, in the territory (FIG. 1). It seemed most efficient to test few places where these can be reasonably recon- the methodology in an area where the leeway was structed. But why? most restricted, but could still contribute to solving Our knowledge of a related issue, the collec- a problem of political geography. tion of indirect taxes, is equally patchy (Delmaire As it happens, the borders of Palaestina Se- 1989; Hopkins 1980; Goffart 1974; Jones 1974). cunda are amongst the best known in the Roman Of these, customs duty, portorium, was levied on Empire. The evidence from Eusebius’s Onomasti- the Imperial frontiers, at 12.5% or 25%, and also con is vital, although Isaac’s reassessment of Eu- within the Empire, where the rate is not certain but sebius’s sources (1996) means that Avi-Yonah’s was probably 2.5% to 5% (Jones 1964: 429 and interpretations, used for mapping in his histori- 825; Sijpestejin 1987). De Laet, in the major study cal geography (1976, 1977), will have to be reap- of portorium (1975), was unable to comment on praised. The south-east corner is less certain, but customs duty after Diocletian owing to a lack of here the principal of ceramic evidence can be put written evidence. Our information, while heavily into use. Dohelah has produced a corpus of lamps biased towards Egypt and the early Empire, shows which seems much more like the range of lamps that taxes, tolls and levies had a conspicuous effect present at sites in Palaestina than Arabian lamps

1. Sites sampled during the 2006 BAP sea- son 2006, with Pella and Jarash. Open circles indicate sites with incomplete site plans. Watersheds are represented by dot- ted lines (plan by H. Barnes).

-733- Kate da Costa (Sari 1991, 1992). than has hitherto been the case, confirming the use The project plans to collect ceramics of the 3rd to of the Wådπ ar-Rayyån itself as a boundary, rather 7th centuries from sites in the area of the supposed than its northern or southern watersheds, and that border. The overall corpus from each site can then the south-east corner of the province also had a be categorised by reference to the known corpora wadi, possibly the Wådπ al-Wårid, as its limit. from Pella (‘Palestinian’) and Jarash (‘Arabian’). The border ought to lie between the ‘Palestinian’ Bibliography and ‘Arabian’ sites. Adan-Bayewitz, D. 1993. Common Pottery in Roman The first field season was carried out in Novem- Galilee: A study of local trade. Bar-Ilan University ber / December 2006. Cataloguing is incomplete, Press: Tel Aviv. but ceramics were collected from 11 sites, mainly Arnold, W. T. 1906. The Roman System of Provincial in the western part of the survey area. We targeted Administration to the Accession of Constantine the sites that had already been identified, mainly by Great. Blackwell: London. Mittmann (1970) and the Wådπ al-Yåbis survey, Avi-Yonah, M. 1976. Gazetteer of Roman Palestine. and are aiming to recover about 3000 sherds per Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Jerusalem. site. Some sites, like Bå‘øn, have enormous quan- ––– (rev. ed.) 1977. The Holy Land from the Persian to tities of pottery. In other cases even more sherds the Arab Conquest (536 BC-AD 640) A Historical than this will need to be collected, as there can be Geography. Baker Book House: Michigan. extensive Islamic occupation which reduces the Barnes, T. 1982. The new empire of Diocletian and proportion of Late Roman and Byzantine pottery Constantine. HUP: Cambridge. as, for example, at Kh. Ma˙rama. Additionally, part Bowersock, G.W. 1983. Roman Arabia. HUP: of the team acts as a documentary unit, planning Cambridge. as much possible of the visible part of the site and, Braund, D. 1996. River frontiers in the environmental especially, documenting the extensive evidence for psychology of the Roman world. Pp. 43-47 in D. underground housing and industrial installations Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East. (JRA we came across at several sites. Supplementary Series 18). Preliminary observations, aided substantially Breton, J.-F. 1980. Les inscriptions forestières d’Hadrien by the expertise of Ina Kehrberg, suggest that sites dan le mont Liban: IGLSyr 8.3, nos. 5001-5187. Bib- south of the Wådπ ar-Rayyån / al-Yåbis do indeed liothèque archéologique et historique, 104. have ceramics similar to the Jarash corpus. Sites Brunt, P. A. 1990. Roman Imperial Themes. Clarendon to the north seem to have pottery more like that of Press: Oxford. Pella. da Costa, K. 2001. Byzantine and early Islamic lamps: As we move east, away from the clear line of typology and distribution. Pp. 241-257 in P. Watson the river into the region where the line of the bor- and E. Villeneuve (eds.), La céramique byzantine et der is poorly understood, we have some difficul- proto-islamique en Syrie-Jordanie (IVe-VIIIe siècles ties. The change settlement pattern east of the main apr. J.-C.) Actes du colloque tenu à Amman, 3-5 Dec. watershed is noticeable. There are fewer sites with 1994. IFAPO: Beirut. material of the relevant time period and, of those, De Laet, S. J. 1975. Portorium: étude sur l’organisation several lie almost entirely under modern villages. douanière chez les Romains, surtout à l’époque du However, the material already published from Do- Haut-Empire. Arno Press: New York. helah helps to fill in the gaps, as will the material de Ligt, L. 1993. Fairs and Markets in the Roman Em- from Ya‘amøn (el-Najjar et al. 2001). ArchGIS pire. Amsterdam. modelling will help confirm our preliminary inter- Delmaire, R. 1989. Largesses sacrées et res privata: pretations, adding some to subjective pottery cata- L’aerarium impérial et son administration du IVe au loguing. In particular, it will be possible to com- VIe siècle. Rome. pare the cost of travel between the various sites, Dilke, O. A. W. 1971. The Roman Land Surveyors: an which should clearly demonstrate that transport introduction to the agrimensores. David and Charles: costs were not a limiting factor in the distribution Newton Abbott. of provincial ceramics. Dise, R. 1991. Cultural Change and Imperial Adminis- We are therefore confident that we will be able tration: the Middle Danubian Provinces of the Ro- to plot the route of the border far more accurately man Empire. Peter Lang: New York.

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