Color for Life: Biosynthesis and Distribution of Phenolic Compounds in Pepper (Capsicum Annuum)
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agriculture Review Color for Life: Biosynthesis and Distribution of Phenolic Compounds in Pepper (Capsicum annuum) Virgínia Carvalho Lemos 1,2, Julia Jessica Reimer 1,2 and Alexandra Wormit 1,2,* 1 Institute of Biology 1, Botany and Molecular Genetics, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 3, 52074 Aachen, Germany; [email protected] (V.C.L.); [email protected] (J.J.R.) 2 Bioeconomy Science Center (BioSC), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Wilhelm Johnen Straße, 52425 Jülich, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-241-80-26766 Received: 31 March 2019; Accepted: 16 April 2019; Published: 19 April 2019 Abstract: Fruits and vegetables are an important supplier of biological active substances, such as vitamins and secondary metabolites (SM) for human nutrition, but also for further industrial applications. Pepper (Capsicum annuum) is grown and consumed all over the world as a fresh vegetable or dried as a spice. It is also used as a coloring agent, as well for medical purposes. Pepper fruits are considered as an attractive source of health-related compounds, but other organs like the leaves and stem also contain considerable amounts of antioxidants, e.g., phenolic compounds. This indicates potential for valorization of residual biomass from horticultural production by using innovative bioeconomic concepts. Herein, we present an overview about the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds, with a special focus on flavonoids and their regulation in pepper, the current knowledge of amounts and distribution of these valuable substances, as well as possible strategies for: (1) increasing flavonoid contents in pepper, (2) improving the nutritional value of fruits, and (3) new concepts for utilization of residual biomass from horticultural production. Keywords: secondary metabolites; phenolic compounds; biosynthesis; flavonoids; human nutrition; industrial application; Capsicum annuum; pepper 1. Secondary Metabolites from Fruits and Vegetables are of High Value for Human Nutrition and Industrial Applications Fruits and vegetables are an important source of phytochemicals and secondary metabolites (SM). The health-promoting properties of fruits and vegetables have long been recognized and, as a result, recommendations for daily consumption have been issued by e.g., the World Health Organization (WHO) [1] and many different countries [2,3]. Plants produce more than 200,000 different SM [4], which have no direct function in growth and maintenance of cells, but can be bio-active, and have a major role in the adaptation of plants to their environment such as protection against different forms of stresses [5,6]. For example, SM have a key role in protecting plants from herbivores and pathogens [7–10], and they can serve as UV protectants [11,12], or signaling molecules to attract pollinators [13–15]. Plant SM play an important role for human nutrition as they are significant determinants of the quality of fruits and vegetables. Some major groups of SM can be distinguished: Phenylpropanoids or phenolic compounds, terpenoids, alkaloids, and sulfuric compounds [16]. Phenolic compounds derived from plant tissues, especially flavonoids, have been shown to possess beneficial properties for human health and disease prevention [17,18], including antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiviral properties [19,20]. Protective effects have been observed for the flavonoids kaempferol, naringenin, and apigenin [21–24], and for other phenolic compounds against chronic diseases such as cardiovascular Agriculture 2019, 9, 81; doi:10.3390/agriculture9040081 www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture Agriculture 2019, 9, 81 2 of 29 Agriculture 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 disease, Type II diabetes, and certain cancers [25–29]. SM are also of high value for industrial applications cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes, and certain cancers [25–29]. SM are also of high value for as they represent an important source of new pharmaceutics or phytomedicines, antibiotics, cosmetics, industrial applications as they represent an important source of new pharmaceutics or flavors, fragrances, pesticides or fine chemicals. Plant SM are used in their natural or derivatized phytomedicines, antibiotics, cosmetics, flavors, fragrances, pesticides or fine chemicals. Plant SM are form or might serve as backbones for the synthesis of several valuable metabolites [30,31], e.g., used in their natural or derivatized form or might serve as backbones for the synthesis of several approximately 60% of anticancer compounds and 75% of drugs for infectious diseases are derived valuable metabolites [30,31], e.g., approximately 60% of anticancer compounds and 75% of drugs for frominfectious these natural diseases products. are derived from these natural products. PeppersPeppers (Capsicum (Capsicum)) are are consideredconsidered toto havehave a high nutritional nutritional value value due due to to their their content content of of phytochemicalsphytochemicals with with known known antioxidant antioxidant capacity capacity [32]. [32]. The genusThe genusCapsicum Capsicum,, comprising comprising (non-pungent) (non- bellpungent) peppers bell and peppers chilies, and belongs chilies, to belongs the Solanaceae to the Solanaceae family and family contains and contains five domesticated five domesticated species: Capsicumspecies: annuumCapsicum L.,annuumCapsicum L., Capsicum chinense chinenseJacq., Jacq.Capsicum, Capsicum frutescens frutescensL., L.,Capsicum Capsicum baccatum baccatum L.L.,, and and CapsicumCapsicum pubescens pubescensRuiz Ruiz & & Pav. Pav. The The mostmost varietiesvarieties are found found among among the the group group of of CapsicumCapsicum annuum annuum, , whichwhich is alsois also the the economically economically most most important important species species [33]. [33]. Peppers Peppers are consumedare consumed as a freshas a fresh or cooked or vegetablecooked orvegetable dried as or a spice.dried Further,as a spice. the Further, industry the uses industry peppers uses intensively peppers asintensively a spice or as coloring a spice agentor in manycoloring foodstu agentff s.in Peppers many foodstuffs. are grown worldwide,Peppers are primarily grown worldwide, in tropical andprimarily subtropical in tropical countries, and but aresubtropical also cultivated countries, in temperate but are climatesalso cultivated in greenhouses in temperate [34]. Theclimates production in greenhouses of peppers [34]. has The been constantlyproduction increasing of peppers over has the been last 20constantly years, bothincreasing in terms over of cultivationthe last 20 areayears, and both fruit in productionterms of (Figurecultivation1A). area and fruit production (Figure 1A). Figure 1. Capsicum annuum production statistics [35]. (A) Pepper production (grey line and squares, Figure 1. Capsicum annuum production statistics [35]. (A) Pepper production (grey line and squares, in million tons) and Cultivation Area (black line with white circles, in million ha) worldwide from 1998 in million tons) and Cultivation Area (black line with white circles, in million ha) worldwide from until 2017. (B) Production (in million tons) of pepper in the 10 most producing countries in 2017. 1998 until 2017. (B) Production (in million tons) of pepper in the 10 most producing countries in 2017. In 2017, the world production of fresh peppers reached over 35 million tons of fruits harvested on In 2017, the world production of fresh peppers reached over 35 million tons of fruits harvested almoston almost two milliontwo million ha land ha land [35 ].[35]. China China was was the the largest largest producer producer in 2017 with with more more than than 17 17 million million tonstons of of peppers, peppers, followed followed by by Mexico, Mexico, Europe,Europe, TurkeyTurkey and Indonesia, Indonesia, who who produced produced between between one one and and 3.33.3 million million tons tons that that year year (Figure (Figure1B) [ 35 1B)]. Pepper[35]. Pepper fruits arefruits an excellentare an excellent source of source bio-active of compounds,bio-active suchcompounds, as vitamins, such carotenoids as vitamins, andcarotenoids phenolics and and phenolics have and been have reported been reported to have to one have of one the of highest the antioxidanthighest antioxidant capacities amongcapacities vegetables among vegetables [36–38]. Their [36–38]. suitability Their tosuitability tackle human to tackle micronutrient human deficiencymicronutrient has been deficiency discussed has previouslybeen discussed [39, 40previously]. [39,40]. TheThe aim aim of thisof this review review is to giveis to firstgive an first overview an overview about the about different the different classes of classes phenolic of compoundsphenolic andcompounds their biosynthesis, and their with biosynthesis, a special focus withon a flavonoids.special focus Further, on flavonoids. the current Further, knowledge the aboutcurrent the phenolicknowledge composition about the ofphenolicCapsicum composition annuum will of Capsicum be comprehensively annuum will be reviewed comprehensively and lastly, reviewed potential approachesand lastly, forpotential production approaches of beneficial for production phenolic of compoundsbeneficial phenolic in pepper, compounds for health in pepper, benefits for and industrialhealth benefits utilization, and industrial will be discussed. utilization, will be discussed. 2. Phenolic2. Phenolic Compounds—Structure Compounds—Structure andand BiosynthesisBiosynthesis 2.1.2.1. Definition Definition and and Structure Structure