Late Mesozoic Magmatism and Its Tectonic Implication for the Jiamusi Block and Adjacent Areas of NE China

Department of Applied Geology

Late Mesozoic Magmatism and its Tectonic implication for the Jiamusi Block and adjacent areas of NE China

Mingdao Sun

This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University

November 2013

DECLARATION

According to the Scientific Collaboration Agreement for Jointly Supervised PhD Awards between Zhejiang University, China, and Curtin University, Australia, this thesis is submitted at both universities; this being the English version submitted at Curtin.

To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made.

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university.

Signature: …………………………………………………..

Date: 13-11-2013

Abstract The Jiamusi Block of NE China is located between the North China and Siberia cratons. It collided with the Songliao Block to the west in the early Mesozoic as one of the circum-pacific accreted blocks, and formed the unified Eurasian eastern boundary as a result of subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate. Huge amounts of igneous rocks were produced in the whole of eastern Eurasia, including the Jiamusi Block, caused by back-arc intraplate extension triggered by paleo-Pacific subduction. Study of the petrogenesis of these igneous rocks is important for understanding the nature of the late Mesozoic magmatism and geodynamic evolution of the Jiamusi block and eastern China. For this research, typical late Mesozoic geological sections were selected from the Jiamusi Block for field geology, petrographic study, zircon SHRIMP U-Pb geochronology, geochemistry, Sr-Nd isotope, zircon Lu-Hf isotope and zircon O-isotope study, in order to accurately determine the age of the late Mesozoic igneous rocks and their petrogenesis. This study also summarizes previous research of subduction processes in the region and compares the geochronological and geochemical results with the igneous rocks in the Great Xing’an Range, the Songliao Basin, and other areas of East Asia. Finally the temporal relationship of the igneous rocks in NE China is discussed and illustrated by utilizing several models. The main achievements and conclusions of this thesis are as follows: (1) The late Mesozoic magmatism of the Jiamusi Block mainly occurred in the mid-Cretaceous between 104 ± 1 and 100 ± 2 Ma. Zircon SHIRMP U-Pb dating shows that the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry have the same age of 104 ± 1 Ma; the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt erupted between 103 ± 2 and 100 ± 2 Ma; and the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock and the Jiamusi bimodal dykes were all emplaced at 100 ± 2 Ma. (2) The mid-Cretaceous igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series, with a bimodal signature. They are all rich in LILE and HREE, depleted in HFSE, and formed in an active continental margin or intraplate tectonic setting. (3) The Yilin Formation rhyolite is a high-Mg adakite, with geochemical signature of high-Sr and La/Yb, low-Yb and Y, and high Mg# (~0.57). Positive εNd(t) 18 (~+0.75), low zircon δ O (5.6-6.7) and positive εHf(t) (5.8-12.7) suggest that the

III

source of the adakite is mantle peridotite metasomatized by slab derived melt/fluid. Negative Eu and Ba anomalies indicate residual plagioclase in the source and low melting pressure. Some samples have low Sr contents and abnormal 87Sr/86Sr values, possibly caused by magma-ground water interaction. The Wulaga pluton has two types of granite porphyry. One is hornblende granite porphyry which invaded into the early Cretaceous Ningyuancun Formation sandstone and tuff. The geochemical features of high Sr (>300 ppm), low Y (~8 ppm), high Mg# (~0.57), positive εHf(t)

(6.3-12.7) and εNd(t) (~+0.5) show that the hornblende granite porphyry is also a high-Mg adakite, similar to the Yilin Formation rhyolite. However, the crustal zircon δ18O (~8.0) and lower Y content (7.5-8.3 ppm) suggest that it was derived from the partial melting of a subducted slab but experienced minor mantle contamination, while the melting pressure was relatively high, with garnet, hornblende and rutile as residual minerals. The other type of granite porphyry has only minor hornblende. It invaded into khondalitic rocks of the pan-African Mashan Complex. Higher aluminum saturation index but consistent log (Na2O/MgO) values compared with the hornblende granite porphyry suggests that it was derived from partial melting of upper continental crust triggered by adakitic magma upwelling and emplacement.

(4) The Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt has relatively high SiO2 contents

(52.1-53.2%), with 4.25-4.36% Na2O and 1.32-1.35 % K2O, putting it into the alkaline basaltic andesite field in the TAS diagram. The high Al2O3 (18.0-19.0%) and low MgO (3.0-4.0%) contents and Mg# of 0.42-0.45 are features indicative of magma that experienced high degrees of crystal fractionation. No Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.98-1.00), high εNd(t) values (2.9-3.0), and flat LILE patterns suggest that 87 86 crustal contamination was minor. High εNd(t) and relatively low ( Sr/ Sr)i suggest 87 86 that the mantle source was depleted. The ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios (0.70565-0.70571) are higher than expected for normal asthenosphere-derived basalt, indicating that the mantle source was affected by subducted oceanic crust basalt which was altered by sea water. In tectonic discrimination diagrams, the Songmuhe Formation basalt plots in the active continental margin and intraplate field. It represents the beginning of the mafic magmatism in the Jiamusi Block, and extention of the lithosphere in the mid-Cretaceous. (5) The Huanan composite dyke is located in the centre of the Jiamusi Block. It consists of two 3 m wide andesite porphyry margins and one 5 m wide rhyolite porphyry interior. Zircons from the andesite and rhyolite porphyry have abundant

acicular apatite inclusions indicating fast cooling considering the crystalization temperature drop from apatite to zircon. Both granite porphyry and rhyolite porphyry have high SiO2 and Al2O3, low MgO and Fe2O3, with enrichment of LILE and LREE, and depletion of HFSE, Eu, Ba, U, and Sr; their sources are most possibly upper continental crust. The andesite porphyry was contaminated invarious degrees by the acidic magma. The Huanan composite dyke and its country rock represent interaction between basaltic magma and upper continental crust; it also represents evidence of extension of the Jiamusi Block in the mid-Cretaceous. (6) The Jiamusi bimodal dykes section is located in the west of the Jiamusi block. It consists of rhyolite and dolerite dykes. The rhyolite is characterized by enrichment in LILE and LREE, and depletion in HFSE. It shows a significant negative Eu anomaly, and has εNd(t) values ranging from 0.49 to 1.66 and two groups of initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios at 0.7045 and 0.7061. The rhyolite displays the compositional signature of Peraluminous Ferroan Granitoid (A-type), indicating it was derived by either differentiation of basalt or low pressure partial melting of continental crust. The dolerite is also characterized by enrichment in LILE and LREE, and depletion in

HFSE. It has a weak negative Eu anomaly and has εNd(t) = –1.22 to +3.26, and 87 86 ( Sr/ Sr)i = 0.7057–0.7074. The dolerite originated from partial melting and mixing of both asthenospheric and lithospheric mantle which was affected by residual oceanic slab or sediment, and experienced different amounts of lithospheric and crustal assimilation and contamination. The Jiamusi bimodal dolerite and ferroan (A-type) rhyolite dykes indicate lithospheric thinning, mantle upwelling and tectonic extention. (7) The igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block therefore show a range of types, including high-Mg adakite, ferroan rhyolite, basalt and rocks related to mixing between basaltic magma and crustal acid magma. These various types of rocks show a variety of processes, including: dehydration and partial melting of subducted slab; assimilation and contamination of mantle peridotite by slab fluid and melt; partial melting of both asthenospheric and lithospheric mantle triggered by fluid; and basalt upwelling and emplaced into the crust forming partial melting of upper continental crust; mixing and mingling of basaltic magma and crustal magma; basalt upwelling and underplating at the bottom of thinned crust forming ferroan (A-type) rhyolite. Magma formed by these processes ascended to the surface or sub-surface, suggesting an extension and thinning of the lithosphere, which is most possibly related with

oceanic plate subduction and roll back. (8) The late Mesozoic igneous rocks in NE China show an eastward temporal migration, and can be divided into three separate areas, which are from west to east: (1) The Great Xing'an Range ~160-120 Ma, (2) The Songliao Block ~120-110 Ma, (3) The Jiamusi area ~110-90 Ma. This temporal migration can be interpreted by the subduction – accumulation – rollback model of the paleo-Pacific plate. This model indicates that the episodic evolution of intraplate structural and magmatism evolution can be interpreted by subduction - accumulation - rollback of subducted slab, with or without the change of rate and direction of subduction. This model is possibly also helpful to interpret the late Mesozoic tectonic evolution of other areas of eastern China.

Keywords：Jiamusi Block, Cretaceous, intraplate magmatism, subduction, tectonic extension

CONTENT

ABSTRACT ...... III CONTENT ...... VII 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2 SCIENTIFIC ISSUES ...... 2 1.3 REVIEW TO PREVIOUS RESEARCH: CONCEPTS AND TERMS ...... 3 1.3.1 Nomenclature and occurrence of igneous rocks ...... 3 1.3.2 Adakite and Ferroan (A-type) granites ...... 4 1.3.3 Bimodal magmatism and magma mixing ...... 6 1.3.4 Intraplate and arc magmatism ...... 8 1.4 RESEARCH WORKLOAD AND CONTENT ...... 8 1.4.1 Workload ...... 8 1.4.2 Research content ...... 9 2 GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND ...... 10

2.1 TECTONIC SETTING ...... 10 2.2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY ...... 12 2.2.1 Stratigraphy ...... 12 2.2.2 Structure ...... 14 2.2.3 Igneous rocks ...... 16 3 FIELD GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY ...... 18

3.1 DISTRIBUTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ...... 18 3.2 FIELD AND PETROGRAPHY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ...... 19 3.2.1 Yilin Formation rhyolite (ML06) ...... 19 3.2.2 Wulaga goldmine granite porphyry (JY21) ...... 21 3.2.3 Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt (HG20) ...... 23 3.2.4 Hegang Houshigou Formation tuff (HG02) ...... 25 3.2.5 Composite dyke and its country rock in the Huanan region: granite porphyry with diorite enclaves (HN18) ...... 26 3.2.6 Jiamusi bimodal dykes (JD) ...... 28 4 GEOCHRONOLOGY ...... 31

4.1 METHOD ...... 31 4.2 AGE OF THE YILIN FORMATION RHYOLITE AND WULAGA GRANITE PORPHYRY ...... 33 4.3 AGE CONSTRAINT ON THE SONGMUHE FORMATION BASALT ...... 34 4.4 AGE OF HUANAN COMPOSITE DYKE AND ITS COUNTRY ROCK ...... 34 4.5 AGE OF THE JIAMUSI BIMODAL DYKES ...... 36 4.6 SUMMARY ...... 37 5 GEOCHEMISTRY ...... 43

5.1 MAJOR ELEMENT ...... 43 5.1.1 Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry ...... 43 5.1.2 Hegang Songmuhe formation basalt ...... 44 5.1.3 Huanan composite dyke and its country rock ...... 44 5.1.4 Jiamusi bimodal dykes ...... 45 5.2 TRACE AND RARE EARTH ELEMENT ...... 52 5.3 SR-ND ISOTOPES ...... 60 5.4 ZIRCON HF-O ISOTOPES ...... 65 5.4.1 Analytical method ...... 65 5.4.2 Analytical results ...... 66 6 PETROGENESIS: MAGMA ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION ...... 72

VII

6.1 HIGH-MG ADAKITE: YILIN FORMATION RHYOLITE AND WULAGA HORNBLENDE GRANITE PORPHYRY ...... 72 6.2 DEPLETED MANTLE UPWELLING AND DIFFERENTIATION: HEGANG BASALT ...... 75 6.3 MAGMA MIXING: HUANAN COMPOSITE DYKE AND ITS COUNTRY ROCK ...... 76 6.4 BASALTIC AND FERROAN (A-TYPE) ACIDIC MAGMA: JIAMUSI BIMODAL DYKES ...... 80 6.5 SUMMARY ...... 85 7 GEODYNAMICS ...... 86

7.1 TIME SEQUENCE OF LATE MESOZOIC MAGMATISM IN NE CHINA ...... 86 7.2 GEODYNAMICS OF THE LATE MESOZOIC IN NE CHINA: VIEWS FROM MAGMATISM, GEOPHYSICS AND PLATE TECTONICS ...... 88 CONCLUSIONS ...... 94 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... 95 REFERENCES ...... 96

VIII

Introduction

1 Introduction

1.1 Research background

Igneous rocks are one of the most important components of the lithosphere, forming by the interaction of the mantle with preexisting crust. They contain abundant information of Earth’s evolution and act as a probe for studying geological history and geodynamics.

Subduction of oceanic slabs is one of the key mechanisms that produce huge amounts of igneous rocks on the modern Earth. Research on these igneous rocks, including their nature and source, petrogenesis and evolution, plays a significant role in revealing interaction between the mantle, oceanic slabs and continental crust, and thus geodynamic processes in subduction systems.

The Jiamusi Block of NE China is located between the North China Craton and the Siberia Craton. As one of the circum-pacific accreted blocks, it collided westward with the Songliao Block and formed the unified eastern boundary of the Euriasia continent, related to subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate (Zhou et al., 2011). From the late Mesozoic to Cenozoic, under a regime of oceanic slab subduction and tectonic extention, igneous rocks and sedimentary basins were widely developed along the eastern margin of the Eurasian continent, including the Jiamusi Block.

In the past five years of doctoral research, the candidate participated in research projects including (1) “Structure and sedimentary evolution of late Mesozoic to Cenozoic basins of NE China”, which is a sub-topic of the National Major Project “Structure of complex petroleum basins and its control of oil and gas”; and (2) “Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic structural and sedimentary evolution of the Great Sanjiang basin group, NE China”, which was funded by PetroChina Ltd.

During work for the project, the candidate conducted field exploration and literature reviews of the Jiamusi Block, and concluded that the late Mesozoic sedimentary basins of the Jiamusi area, including Jixi, Boli, Shuangyashan, Hegang and Sanjiang, are all residual basins whose prototype was destroyed. In addition, the sedimentary sequence of the Songliao basin and basins in the Jiamusi Block are different. In the Jiamusi block, the major volcanic layer represented by Songmuhe Formation is the

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University uppermost strata of Mesozoic. The Early Cretaceous coal-bearing lake-river facies continental clastic rocks form the main components of the basins, while there were few late Cretaceous deposits. However, in the Songliao Basin, the major volcanic layer represented by the Yingcheng Formation is one of the lowest stratum and was covered by more than 2000 m thick of late Cretaceous oil- and gas-bearing sedimentary rocks. Hence magmatism might play an important role in defining basin and tectonic evolution.

Previous research on late Mesozoic magmatism of the Jiamusi Block is sparse, for instance, there was little high precision geochronology work, and the petrogenesis of late Mesozoic igneous rocks and their geodynamics was largely unknown. Hence, the candidate selected to study the magmatism of the Jiamusi Block and adjacent areas, with the aim of determining the regional tectonic evolution through studying magmatism and its implications.

1.2 Scientific issues

Since the late Mesozoic, tectonic evolution of NE China was mainly controlled by paleo-Pacific subduction (Maruyama et al., 1997; Muller et al., 2008; Isozaki et al., 2010), resulting in igneous events and the formation of sedimentary basins. Previous studies were mainly focused on the Great Xing’an Range in the west of NE China (Wang et al., 2006a; Zhou et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008a, 2010b; Ying et al., 2010a, b), where it was concluded that the late Mesozoic igneous events of the Great Xing’an Range occured mainly between 165-120 Ma. Some research was also conducted on the Yingcheng Formation volcanic rocks of the Songliao Basin (Wang et al., 2006b; Li et al., 2007a; Zhang, 2010; Zhang et al., 2011a), where it was concluded that this was erupted between 115-109 Ma. Zhang et al. (2011a) and Zhang et al. (2010b) summarized the available geochronology data for the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of NE China and indicated that there was a temporal evolution from west to east. To the east of the Songliao Basin, the Jiamusi Block also has late Mesozoic igneous rocks. However, studies on the geochronology and petrology on these igneous rocks was lacking.

Through field studies, the author discovered that there was a large variety of the late Mesozoic igneous rocks in the Jiamusi Block. Since geochronology and petrology of these late Mesozoic igneous rocks is the key to studying the crust-mantle evolution

Introduction of NE China, it was decided to investigate a whole range of magmatic rocks. This work will also allow an investigation of the connection between paleo-Pacific subduction and continental structural evolution. For this thesis, the author undertook geochronological and geochemical investigation, discussed the petrogenesis and tectonic implications of the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block and adjacent areas, in order to answer the following scientific issues:

(1) What is the age of the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block?

(2) How many types of igneous rocks are there? How did these various types of igneous rocks form?

(3) What is the tectonic implication of the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block? What is the relationship between magmatism and paleo-Pacific plate subduction?

(4) Did the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of NE China form in a unique tectonic setting? Is there a model to interpret their formation?

1.3 Review to previous research: concepts and terms

1.3.1 Nomenclature and occurrence of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks form by solidification of magma. The nomenclature of igneous rocks is essentially based on mineral composition, including essential minerals, accessory minerals and post-magmatic minerals and texture, including degree of crystallization, crystal size, and shape of minerals. This nomenclature is widely accepted by textbooks published in both English and Chinese (Wei and Zhang, 1994; Robin Gill, 2010).

However, since structure of igneous rock impacts its texture, some geologists connected structure of igneous rocks with their names. For example, they name erupted acidic rocks as rhyolite, but never name rock of a dyke or intrusion as rhyolite. In this thesis, readers will see the use of “rhyolite dyke” and “rhyolite porphyry dyke”. The author would like to emphasize that the name of the igneous rock is based on mineral composition and texture, not on depth of emplacement.

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

1.3.2 Adakite and Ferroan (A-type) granites

The classification of igneous rocks is firstly based on SiO2 content, which subdivides igneous rocks into ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, and acidic igneous rocks with increasing SiO2. Igneous rocks can also be divided into eruptive rocks and intrusive rocks based on emplacement in the crust. Basic rocks like basalt, have also been classified based on tectonic setting, including Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB), Ocean Island Basalt (OIB), Continental Flood Basalt (CFB), With-in Plate Basalt (WPB), Volcanic Arc Basalt (VAB) (Pearce, 1973; Pearce and Norry, 1979; Mullen, 1983; Meschede, 1986). For acidic rocks, some workers have followed the method for basic rocks, also based on tectonic regime, dividing acidic rocks/granites into Volcanic Arc Granites, Syn-Collisional granites, With-in Plate Granites, and Mid Ocean Ridge Granits (Pearce et al., 1984). Studies in recent years indicate that geochemical features of acidc rocks, especially continental granites, are controlled by the nature of their source and melting conditions, rather than tectonic setting (Zhang et al., 2007, 2008; Wu et al., 2007).

The method for granite subdivision based on the nature of the source was introduced by Chappell and White (1974), and has been widely accepted during the past forty years. They divided granite into two types: I-type and S-type, where source rocks were igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks, respectively. In terms of geochemistry,

Aluminum Saturation Index (ASI) [Al2O3 / (CaO+Na2O+K2O) mol] = 1.1 marks the boundary between I- and S-type granite. The source rocks of S-type granites experienced weathering processes. During weathering, elements including Na, K, Ca with +1 to +2 nominal cation charges, are inclined to be dissolved and transferred by water, while Al is likely to go into clay minerals. Hence the ASI of S-type granite is commonly higher. In terms of mineralogy, aluminum saturated minerals, like cordierite are marker minerals of S-type granite (Wu et al., 2007).

In recent years, more and more geologist realized that, source is not the only factor that controlled the geochemical nature of granites. The geochemical features of granites are also highly impacted by melting conditions, including tempreture and pressure. Thus, two types of rock are widely discussed. They are adakite and ferroan (A-type) granite.

Adakite was defined as intermediate to high-silica, high Sr/Y and La/Yb igneous

Introduction rocks derived from melting of the basaltic portion of oceanic crust subducted beneath volcanic arcs (Defant and Drummond, 1990). In the past twenty years, granites with high Sr and low Y derived from various sources were also discovered, hence the following research name all high Sr and low Y intermediate to high-silica igneous rocks as adakite (Zhang et al., 2001; Gao et al., 2004, 2008; Wang et al., 2006; Moyen, 2009; Castillo, 2012). Adakite forms in various tectonic settings, including modern island arc (Defant and Drummond, 1990), continental arcs (Atherton and Petford, 1996), intraplate settings (Stern, 1989; Moyen, 2009), and intraplate orogenic belts (Zhang, 2001; Topuz et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2005, 2008). Adakite has various sources including primary slab melt, slab melt hybridized by mantle wedge peridotite, melt derived from peridotite metasomatized by slab melt (Castillo, 2012), and high pressure partial melting from thickened lower crust (Guo et al., 2007; Chiaradia 2009). The adakite derived from lower crust is also named as C-type adakite or continental adakite which is potassium-rich and isotopically akin to continental crust (Li et al., 2013). Adakitic melt was derived from partial melting of a subducting slab and contaminated by and assimilated with mantle peridotite has a high Mg# (Rapp et al., 1999).

The determination of the sources of adakite is based on experimental petrogenesis. Studies (Rapp et al., 1991; Winther and Newton, 1991; Wolf and Wyllie, 1994; Rapp and Watson, 1995) show that melt from 10-40 % partial melting of basaltic rocks at 1000-1100 °C and 1.5 G Pa has geochemical features of adakite. The residual minerals are plagioclase, hornblende, orthopyroxene, and ilmenite when pressure is under 0.8 G Pa; garnet, hornblende, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, and ilmenite when pressure is at 1.6 G Pa; garnet, clinopyroxene, and rutile when pressure is higher than 1.6 G Pa (Qin et al., 2010). Eu content is controlled by plagioclase; Nb and Ta are controlled by rutile; HREE are controlled by garnet and hornblende. Hence, the melt has no Eu anomalies when the residual source lacks plagioclase; Nb and Ta depletion when the residual source has rutile (Xiong et al., 2005); and HREE depletion when the residual source has garnet or hornblende (Rappe et al., 2003).

A-type granite was originally defined as anhydrous, alkaline, and anorogenic (Loiselle and Wones, 1979). It is also discrimated by trace elements, for example, 10000Ga/Al > 2.6 (Whalen et al., 1987). Different from adakite, A-type granite formed in high tempreture and low pressure (Clemens et al., 1986; Creaser and

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

White, 1991; P Douce, 1997). A-type granite requires extensive heat transfer from hot mantle-derived basaltic magmas (Li et al., 2007b), hence it is commonly accompanied by basic rocks.

Frost et al. (2001) and Frost and Frost (2008, 2011) recommended using the term ‘Ferroan’ instead of ‘A type’ because most A-type granitoids are Ferroan and the term ‘A-type’ has become confusing because it has been applied to a broad spectrum of granitoids compositions with different petrogenesis. The Fe-index, MALI and ASI values are used for classifying Ferroan granitoid into three major groups: Metaluminous Ferroan Granitoids, Peralkaline Ferroan Granitoids and Peraluminous Ferroan Granitoids. The metaluminous ferroan granitoids are derived from differentiation of tholeiitic basalt and low pressure partial melting of crust; the peralkaline ferroan granitoids are derived from differentiation of transitional basalt and differentiation of alkali basalt; the peraluminous ferroan granitoids are derived from differentiation of basalt and low pressure partial melting of crust.

The definitions of adakite and ferroan (A-type) granite suggest that they have some relationship with respect to their source, but are strongly controlled by melting conditions, and form a pair based on melting pressure: adakite forms under high pressure, whereas ferroan (A-type) granite forms at low pressure. From the view of tempreture, both of them need a temperature higher than normal I- and S-type granites. Although few papers emphasize the melting temperature of adakite, it should also have a high melting temperature since its source was oceanic slab or the lower crust. Overall, adakite and ferroan (A-type) granite are acidic rocks formed at different pressure but at high tempreture.

1.3.3 Bimodal magmatism and magma mixing

Bimodal magmatism refers to contemporaneous eruption or intrusion of basic and acid magmas and normally occurs during crustal extension (Ersoy et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Genc and Tuysuz, 2010; Meng et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011b). Study of bimodal magmatism can not only shed light on possible genetic links between basaltic magmas and related silicic melts (Katzir et al., 2007), but also contribute to understanding regional tectonics. The acidic rocks in bimodal magmatism generally display the signature of ferroan (A-type) granites, so composite dykes also provide a key for studying the origin of ferroan granites (Stern and Voegeli, 1987; Jarrar et al.,

Introduction

2004).

Atlhough bimodal magmatism mainly involves basic and acidic magma, the phenomenon of magma mixing results in various intermediate rocks. In an extensional regime, the degree of mixing is commonly limited, so the basic and acidic magmas may coexist. Composite dykes and mafic enclaves are two unequivocal pieces of evidence for the coexistence of magmas of contrasting composition.

Composite dykes represent a unique kind of bimodal magmatism where coexisting basic and acid magmas occur within the same fracture system (Taylor et al., 1980; Perring and Rock, 1991). Composite dykes are essentially divided into two different types: those with a basic interior and acidic margins (Type 1), and those with an acidic interior and basic margins (Type 2) (Snyder et al., 1997; Wiebe and Ulrich, 1997; Katzir et al., 2007). Type 1 dykes are less useful for reconstructing the initial magma compositions because there is commonly extensive mixing and mingling between the basic and acid magmas (Zorpi et al., 1991; Snyder and Tait, 1998). Type 2 composite dykes, however, provide more reliable information on the chemical composition of coexisting magmas, since mingling of magmas is less common (Katzir et al., 2007).

Mafic micro-granular enclaves (MME) are also one of the most typical pieces of evidence for mantle-crust interaction. MME were once considered to be the residue of partial melting of crustal rocks until the discovery of mineralogy evidence such as fine-grained texture and needle-shaped apatite. It is now commonly accepted as they result from rapid cooling of basaltic magma intruded into a granitic magma chamber (Vernon, 1984; Cantagrel et al., 1984; Castro et al., 1990, 1991). Some MME show similar mineralogical and chemical features with their host rock, due to magma mixing (Didier and Barbarin, 1991). MME indicate physical and chemical mixing of asthenospheric or lithospheric mantle-derived mafic and crust-derived felsic magmas (Frost and Mahood, 1987). The mixing is controlled by the temperature and chemistry of the two types of magma, and their physical properties (Sparks and Marshall, 1986; Blundy and Sparks, 1992).

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

1.3.4 Intraplate and arc magmatism

From the view of plate tectonics, the geodynamic environment of magma genesis can be divided into three types: intra-continent, represented by areas such as the Siberia large igneous province and east Africa rift; continental margin, represented by areas such as Japan- Philippine island arc and Changbai-Wudalianchi volcanoes; and oceanic, represented by areas that include the Hawaii sea mount chain and Atlantic mid ocean ridge.

Tectonic discrimination diagrams are widely used to divide basalt into intraplate, volcanic arc, and mid-ocean ridge types (Pearce et al., 1984). The continental margin, as a concept of plate tectonics, has both intraplate and volcanic arc basalt. The intraplate magmatism is dominated by basaltic or bimodal magma, controlled by lithospheric extension; whereas arc magmatism is dominated by intermediate-acidic magma, controlled by the fluid and melt from subduction slabs that triggered partial melting of the mantle wedge, controlled by lithospheric compression. Most basalt discrimination diagrams use trace elements including Zr, Ti, Y, and Sr, and were designed to differentiate intraplate from volcanic arc magmatism. In this thesis, a focus will be on whether the late Mesozoic magmatism of the Jiamusi Block belongs to an intraplate or volcanic arc setting, rather than an intra-continent or continental margin.

1.4 Research workload and content

1.4.1 Workload

Work completed during the PhD study was as follows:

(1) Three fieldtrips for a total of 39 days: work included field observation, description and sampling. The working area included Jixi, Qitaihe, Jiamusi, Shuangyashan, and Hegang cities. There were 57 field points recorded and more than 300 rock samples were collected.

(2) Observed and described about 100 thin sections, and took more than 200 photomicrographs.

(3) 70 samples were crushed for geochemistry and mineral selection

Introduction

(4) Major, trace and rare earth element, and Sr-Nd isotopic analysis on 70 samples were undertaken at the State Key Laboratory of Mineral Deposits Research, Nanjing University, and the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS, respectively.

(5) Obtained more than 100 zircon CL images in Nanjing University, Curtin University, and the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, CAS.

(6) SHRIMP zircon U-Pb dating of 10 samples in Beijing SHRIMP Centre and Curtin University.

(7) 140 zircon Lu-Hf isotope analyses were made at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS

(8) 140 zircon Oxygen isotope analyses were made at the CMCA, University of Western Australia

(9) Attended 34th International Geological Congress, published two abstracts and gave two invited talks.

(10) Published one SCI paper related to the thesis.

1.4.2 Research content

This thesis focuses on the late Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block, and involves geochronological and geochemical research, and then analyses the petrogenesis and geodynamic setting. The research content is as follows:

Chapter 1 gives an introduction of background, significance, previous research on igneous rocks and workload; Chapter 2 reviews the tectonic setting and regional geology of the Jiamusi Block and adjacent areas; Chapter 3 presents the field geology and petrography; Chapter 4 shows the geochronological results of zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating and determines the age and sequence of the igneous rocks; Chapter 5 shows the geochemical results including major, trace and rare earth elements, Sr-Nd isotope, zircon Hf-O isotope; Chapter 6 discusses the petrogenesis, origin and evolution of the igneous rocks studied; Chapter 7 summarizes the temporal sequence of late Mesozoic igneous rocks in NE China, discusses the relationship between the magmatism and the paleo-Pacific subduction and illustrates the tectonic model.

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2 Geological background

2.1 Tectonic setting

Northeast China and adjacent regions consists of several massifs and terranes located between the Siberia and North China cratons (Fig 2.1a), including the Erguna, Xing’an, Songliao and Bureya–Jiamusi–Khanka blocks and the Sikhote–Alin accretionary complex (Fig 2.1b) (Wu et al., 2005; Yu et al., 2008; Kotov et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010; Sorokin et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2011). The Erguna, Xing’an and Songliao blocks are considered to be the eastern part of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) that amalgamated in the Paleozoic, whereas the Bureya–Jiamusi– Khanka block and Sikhote–Alin accretionary complex are early Mesozoic circum-Pacific accreted terranes (Wu et al., 2011).

The Bureya–Jiamusi–Khanka block, separated by the Yi-Shu and Dun-mi faults, was previously considered as three different blocks. Recent studies show that they all have pre-Mesozoic Mashan complex, Heilongjiang complex, and Permian granite (Zhou et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2011), and thus form a unified block in early Mesozoic, with the Yi-Shu and Dun-mi are late Mesozoic to Cenozoic faults. The Sikhote-Alin accretionary complex has late Paleozoic limestone and Triassic to Jurassic ophiolite, formed by paleo-Pacific subduction (Faure et al., 1995; Kemkin, 2008; Kemkin and Taketani, 2008). The Sikhote-Alin complex is mainly distributed in Russia; its Chinese part is named the Raohe complex or Nadanhada terrane (Cheng et al., 2006).

115° 120° 125° 130° 135° 140° (a) 55° (b) Siberia Craton

Okhotsk Belt Russian Craton

Siberian 50° Craton 50° Erguna Block CAOB (b) Bureya

Sikhote-Alin

Xing’an Block

Arabian Tarim Craton 45°

45° accretionary complex North China Jiamusi Craton Songliao Block Khanka Solonker

Liaoyuan Block Study Area Yangtze Indian Craton Craton 40° 40° North China Craton 0 200

paleo-Pacific Plate Km 115° 120° 125° 130° 135° Fig 2.1 (a) Tectonic sketch map of Asia, showing location of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) (b) Simplified tectonic units of NE China and adjacent areas After Zhou et al., 2009; Sorokin et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2011

Geological background

The study area of this thesis is the Jiamusi Block (Fig 2.2), and it is located at the end of northern branch of the Tan-Lu Fault, and is part of the late Mesozoic igneous belt of eastern China.

110° 120° 130° 140° Russia

Study area Lesser Xing’an Range

50° Mongo-Okhotsk suture ZGC Range

Mongolia

Great Xing’an Range Yi-Shu Fault

Songliao Basin Dun-Mi Fault

Korea 40° Beijing China

North China Yellow Craton Sea Japan

Dabie-Sulu Belt Tan-Lu Fault

30° East Yangtze Craton China Sea Cathaysia Block Taiwan

South Late Mesozoic 20° China Igneous Rocks Sea

110° Fig 2.2 Distribution of Late Mesozoic igneous rocks in Eastern China

After 1:500 000 geological map

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2.2 Regional geology

2.2.1 Stratigraphy

The strata of the Jiamusi Block from botton to top consist of Precambrian Mashan khondalitic rocks; early Mesozoic Heilongjiang Complex; late Mesozoic Didao, Chengzihe, Muling, Dongshan, Houshigou (Xiachengzi, Sipingshan), and Songmuhe (Yilin) formations; Paleogene Wuyun and Baoquanling formations; Neogene Fujin formation; and Quarternery cover.

The Mashan Complex makes up the main part of the Jiamusi Block and consists of khondalitic rocks with a metamorphic age of ~500 Ma (Wilde et al., 1999, 2000, 2003).

The Heilongjiang Complex is distributed in the western part of the Jiamusi Block and consists of ultramafic rocks, blueschist-facies pillow basalts, carbonates and mylonitic mica schists, which are considered to represent a Late Permian to Late Triassic mélange along the suture between the Jiamusi and Songliao blocks (Wu et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2009).

The Mesozoic strata are preserved as sedimentary basins, and include the above-mentioned formations (Fig 2.3) (Sha et al., 2003, 2008).

The Didao Formation has a restricted distribution and consists of volcanic tuff with clastic rocks, representing the early stage of Cretaceous basin development.

The Chengzihe and Muling formations are also refered to the Jixi Group. They are widely distributed in the Cretaceous basins, including the Jixi, Boli, Shuangyashan, Shuanghua, and Hegang basins. These two formations are conformabe; the major reason for sub-division is based on paleontological differences. They consist of grey-white sandstone, dark grey mudstone, and coal deposits, in river-lake facies deposits. In the interier of the Jiamusi Block, no boundary facies with the Chengzihe and Muling formations is suggesting that the Chengzihe and Muling formations formed in a unified basin that covered the whole of the Jiamusi Block, representing the main stage of the Cretaceous sedimentary deposition.

The Dongshan Formation consists of dark green andesite, volcanic breccia, and sandstone, and is locally distributed in the Boli and Hegang basins.

Geological background

The Houshigou Formation is widely distributed in most of the sedimentary basins and a low angular unconformably marks its contact with the Chengzihe-Muling-Dongshan formations; it has a thickness of 748-1266 m, and consists of two members: the lower member is mainly composed by conglomerate and yellow sandstone with cobbles of are andesite, gneiss, and granite; the upper member is mainly composed by dark grey fine-grained sandstone and dark mudstone, with a 3 m thick tuff layer at the top.

The Xiachengzi and Sipingshan formations in the Mudanjiang-Muling area are equivalent to the Houshigou Formation, all of which are covered by the Songmuhe formation and has a low angular unconformable relation with the underlying Chengzihe, Muling and Dongshan formations.

Stratigraphy Lithology Depositional system

Quaternary ﬂuvial deposits Neogene ﬂuvial deposits Songmuhe Fm. K2s 100 basalts and rhyolites >1190 m

Houshigou Fm. ﬂuvial and lacustrine K1h 105 clastic deposits, 748-1266 m tuff in the top of the strata

Dongshan Fm. andesite, tuff with K ds 110 1 clastic deposits 720 m

Muling Fm. K m ﬂuvial and lacustrine 1 115 clastic deposits with coal 261-605 m

Early Cretaceous Early

Chengzihe Fm. 120 K c coal-bearing ﬂuvial and 1 lacustrine clastic deposits 100-979 m

125 Age Early Jurassic Granites Pre-Cretaceous (Ma) Heilongjiang Complex Basement Mashan Complex

Fig 2.3 Stratigraphy of the Jiamusi block

(Representative stratigraphic column of the Hegang Basin, after Hegang and Jiamusi 1:200 000 geological maps)

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The Songmuhe Formation, which is the main focus of this thesis, is a volcanic unit that is widely distributed throughout the whole Jiamusi Block, and is the topmost layer of the Mesozoic succession. The Songmuhe Formation has two members: the lower Xigemu Member is basalt and basaltic andesite, with a thickness of 600 m, whereas the upper Aoqi Member is composed of rhyolite, acidic tuff and volcanic breccia, with a thickness of 487 m.

The Yilin formation occupies the same structural layer as the Songmuhe Formation but is only distributed in the Mudanjiang-Muling area along the Dun-Mi Fault, and only consists of acidic rocks, with no basic component.

2.2.2 Structure

The major faults of the Jiamusi Block are the Mudanjiang Fault, Dunhua-Mishan (Dun-Mi) Fault, Yilan-Shulan (Yi-Shu) Fault, Dahezhen Fault, and the Fujin-Tongjiang Fault (Fig 2.4).

The Mudanjiang Fault is south to north trend and extends from Jiayin to Tangyuan along the Mudan river. The fault is cut by the Yi-Shu Fault in the Jiamusi area. The Mudanjiang Fault has been considered to mark the suture between the Jiamusi and Songliao blocks (Zhang et al., 1998), the only argument being its time of formation. The age of the Heilongjiang Complex, which is the accretionary complex developed along the Mudanjiang suture, is very important for timing the active time of the Mudanjiang Fault. Recent studies show that the Heilongjiang Complex formed in the early Mesozoic (Zhou et al., 2009).

The Dunhua-Mishan Fault and the Yilan-Shulan Fault are northern branches of the Tanlu Fault (Fig 2.2), which extends over 2000 km parallel with the eastern Eurasian continental margin. Both the Yi-Shu and Dun-Mi faults have Neogene flood basalt, indicating their most recent active stage. However, their earliest acitivity is still a matter of debate.

The Dun-Mi Fault was previously considered to mark the suture between the Jiamusi and Khanka blocks. However, recent studies on pan-African magmatism (Zhou et al., 2010) show that the Jiamusi and Khanka blocks are a unified block. So the Dun-Mi Fault is not a suture, but a later fault. However, the Dun-Mi Fault controlled the formation of early Cretaceous sedimentary basins, so it was already active in the

Geological background early Cretaceous. Geophysical studies show that the Dun-Mi fault is a strike-slip fault with a counter clockwise strike-slip over a distance of 200 km, and it also cut the lithosphere.

The Yi-Shu Fault controlled several Paleogene rift basins like Tangyuan and Fangzheng basins, with thickness of Paleogene sediment of over 2000 m and potential for oil and gas. The Fangzheng Basin is already producing oil. The Yi-Shu Fault was still active in Neogene, but the sediment thickness at this time was not large. The Yi-Shu Fault did not exist any control on the early Cretaceous sedimentary basins, and possibly formed in the late Cretaceous. Geophysical research shows that it is not a lithospheric fault.

Fig 2.4 Major faults of the Jiamusi Block and adjacent areas

The Dahezhen Fault is the boundary between the Sanjiang Basin and Nadanhada Terrane. It was a thrust fault during emplacement of the Raohe Complex in the early

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Mesozoic. It possibly was re-actived as the northern branch of the Dun-Mi Fault in the late Mesozoic to Cenozoic. However, the Dahezhen Fault is not the boundary between the Jiamusi Block and the accretionary complex. The basement of the Sanjiang Basin Qianjin sub-basin (Fig 2.4) is composed of an accretionary complex, according to drill core obtained by oil companies. Ultramafic rocks as part of the oceanic crust were discovered in the Erlongshan area of Fujin city. The basement of the Sanjiang Basin Suibin sub-basin to the west of Fujin city is composed of Mashan Complex rocks. Hence the Fujin-Tongjiang Fault marks the boundary between the Jiamusi Block and the accretionary complex. Geophysical research (Liu et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2009) also showed that the Fujin-Tongjiang Fault is a lithospheric boundary structure; the crust to the west of the fault has high resistance, whereas the crust to the east has low resistance.

2.2.3 Igneous rocks

The igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block are mainly in four ages: Pan-African, Permian, Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

The Pan-African igneous rocks are mostly granites, with ages of about 515 Ma, a little earlier than the regional metamorphism time of about 500 Ma (Wilde et al., 2001, 2003). Ren et al. (2010, 2012) pointed out that the Pan-African granites have geochemical signature as S-type granite. Further analysis on mineral composition and geochemical features suggests that they are high-K calc-alkaline granites.

The Permian igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block have features of active continental margins and contain a range of rock types from basic to acid. Granite plutons at this time are widely distributed in the Jiamusi Block, for example, the Chushan pluton (256±5 Ma), Qingshan pluton (270±4 Ma), Shichang pluton (267±3 Ma), and the Chaihe pluton (254±4 Ma) (Wu et al., 2011). The volcanic rocks are bimodal, represented by the Permian Haojiatun Formation rhyolite, the Erlongshan Formation basalt, and the Zhenzishan Formation rhyolite. The tectonic setting was possibly related with paleo-Asian Ocean closure (Meng et al., 2008) or the start of paleo-Pacific subduction.

Studies on the late Mesozoic magmatism of the Jiamusi Block are limited, with few geochronology studies. Early results from the late Mesozoic igneous rocks vary from

Geological background

146-76 Ma, leading the view that the Yanshanian igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block are multi-staged (Cao et al., 1992). Recent studies suggest that the igneous rocks were mainly emplaced in the mid-Cretaceous. Zhang et al. (2009) studied a gabbro exposed in the Shuangyashan area, which gave a SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of 98 ± 2 Ma. Zhu et al. (2009) studied a dolerite in the Jixi area which intruded into the Chengzihe Formation and interacted with coal; it gave a whole rock 40Ar–39Ar age of 100 ± 4 Ma. Zhang et al. (2012) studied a gabbro exposed in the Shuangyashan area, where geochemistry indicated that the lithosphere mantle of the Jiamusi Block belongs to EM2. But there is a general lack of systematical study of late Mesozoic magmatism in the Jiamusi Block.

The Cenozoic magmatism of the Jiamusi Block is mainly continental flood basalt derived from the asthenosphere (Yu et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2012). The basalt is distributed along the Dun-mi and Yi-Shu faults. In the Tangyuan and Fangzheng basins along the Yi-Shu Fault, basalt layers commonly occur within the sedimentary Paleogene to Neogene strata, and are covered by Quatenary sediment. Along the Dun-Mi Fault, basalt layer is exposed, forming a positive landform. This period of basaltic magmatism was mostly derived from the partial melting of asthenospheric mantle, related to Pacific plate subduction and intraplate/back-arc extension.

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3 Field geology and petrography

3.1 Distribution of igneous rocks

Late Mesozoic igneous rocks are widely distributed on the Jiamusi Block. For this thesis, six sections were selected for describing the contact relationships and structures of the igneous rocks. They are the Yilin Formation (ML06), Wulaga goldmine (JY21), Hegang Songmuhe Formation (HG20), Hegang Houshigou Formation tuff (HG02), Huanan composite dyke (HN18), and Jiamusi bimodal dykes (JD). Section locations are shown in Fig 3.1.

Fig 3.1 Geological map of the Jiamusi block and adjacent area

Field geology and petrography

3.2 Field and petrography of igneous rocks

3.2.1 Yilin Formation rhyolite (ML06)

The Yilin Formation is distributed along the Dun-Mi Fault in the south of the Jiamusi Block. It is about 1500 m thick and covers an area of 100 km2, based on the 1:200 000 geological maps. It overlies Early Permian Tatouhe Formation slate and Late Permian granites, and is in thrust contact with late Early Cretaceous Sipingshan Formation continental clastic rocks, and covered by Miocene basalt (Fig 3.2). The Yilin Formation consists of rhyolite, rhyolitic porphyry, rhyolitic tuff, and perlite. The outcrop (Section ML06) of the sample location is in a perlite mine (44°45′28.6″N, 130°42′36″E) (Fig 3.3), which belongs to Taian village, Maqiaohe town, Muling city, 20 km from the border between China and Russia and inside pristine forest. The volcanic layer occurrence is about 130/30°. Seven samples were collected with samples ML06-1 to ML06-6 of black perlite showing pearl structure in both hand specimen and under the microscope (Fig 3.4a, b) and sample ML06-7 of off-white rhyolite with 50% quartz and plagioclase phenocrysts, and 50% glassy groundmass (Fig 3.4c, d).

Fig 3.2 Simplified geological map of Yilin Formation rhyolite section ML06

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Fig 3.3 Photograph of perlite mine in the Yilin Formation rhyolite, location see Fig 3.2

Fig 3.4 Photomicrographs of thin sections of the Yilin Formation rhyolite (a) Perlite in cross polars, (b) perlite in plane polarized light, (c) rhyolite in cross polars, (d) rhyolite in plane polarized light

Field geology and petrography

3.2.2 Wulaga goldmine granite porphyry (JY21)

The Wulaga Gold Mine is also named the Tuanjiegou gold deposit. It is located at Tuanjiegou village, near Wulaga town which lies between Jiayin and Hegang cities (Fig 3.5), in the northeastern part of the Lesser Xing’an Range. As one of the largest gold deposits in China, it has more than 60 years’ of development history and annual gold production of 1000 kg. The main gold pit lies along a fault zone inside a granite porphyry.

Samples JY21-1, JY21-2, and JY21-3 were selected from the western part of the gold mine (Fig 3.6a), where hornblende granite porphyry invaded into the Ningyuancun Formation tuff and sandstone (Fig 3.6b). The hornblende granite porphyry consists of 50% phenocrysts and 50% felsic groundmass. Most of the phenocrysts are 1 mm in length and are mainly plagioclase (40%), brown hornblende (25%) and biotite (25%), with minor quartz (10%) (Fig 3.7a, b).

Samples JY21-4, JY21-5, and JY21-6 were selected from the eastern part of the gold mine, where the granite porphyry intrudes the Mashan Complex khondalitic rocks (Fig 3.6c). The granite porphyry here consists 50% phenocrysts and 50% felsic groundmass. The phenocrysts are mainly quartz (55%) and plagioclase (45%), most of which are 1 mm in diameter.

The boundary between the hornblende granite porphyry and the granite porphyry is not clear because of faulting, hydrothermal alteration, and overlap of mine waste.

Fig 3.5 Satellite image of the Wulaga goldmine showing geological boundaries

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Fig 3.6 Photographs of Wulaga goldmine showing sample location (a) Wulaga goldmine; (b) boundary between hornblende granite porphyry and Ningyuancun Formation; (c) boundary between granite porphyry and Mashan Complex metamorphic rock.

Fig 3.7 Photomicrographs of thin sections of hornblende granite porphyry (a) cross-polarized light, (b) plane-polarized light

Field geology and petrography

3.2.3 Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt (HG20)

The section (HG20) is located at a site (47°34′52″N, 130°23′49″E) to the northeast of the Hegang city (Fig 3.8). The road section extends for 30 m in length (Fig 3.9). The Songmuhe Formation basalt lies above the Houshigou Formation white mudstone and sandstone. The columnar joints in the basalt are perpendicular to the underlying mudstone which dips 220/36° (Fig 3.9). The basalt at the bottom of the section is not fresh but samples HG20-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 selected from the middle to top of the basalt layer as shown in Fig 3.9 are very fresh. The basalt is black in color, with a brown weathered surface, and is fine- to medium- grained with an intergranular texture. It consists of ~70% plagioclase, 20% augite, 5% olivine and 5% Fe oxides.

Fig 3.8 Geological map of the Hegang Basin

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Fig 3.9 Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt section

Fig 3.10 Photomicrograph of thin section of the basalt: (a) cross-polarized light, (b) plane-polaraized light. Pl=plagioclase, Aug=augite, mag=magnetite

Field geology and petrography

3.2.4 Hegang Houshigou Formation tuff (HG02)

The Houshigou Formation is conformably overlain by the Songmuhe Formation basalt. The age of the tuff in the Houshigou Formation not only represents the time of volcanism, but also provides a reference for the age of the Songmuhe Formation basalt. Section HG02 is at a fish pond (47°19′39″N, 130°22′44″E) on the western side of the Haluo Highway (Fig 3.8). The section is about 200 m long. In the lower part, it consists of a thin layer of sandstones (Fig 3.11a), mudstone (Fig 3.11b) and conglomerates with lenticular fluvial channel sand bodies (Fig 3.11c). The strata dip 179/19°. In the upper part, there is a 5 m thick white tuff layer (Fig 3.11d) where sample HG02-4 (white rhyolitic tuff) was collected. Sample HG02-4 consists of 40% crystal and glassy fragments and 60% tufaceous matrix.

Fig 3.11 Photographs and section sketch of the Hegang Houshigou Formation section HG02 (a) black fine-grained sandstone; (b) black mudstone with thin layer yellow sandstone; (c) sand body; (d) white tuff; (e) section sketch

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3.2.5 Composite dyke and its country rock in the Huanan region: granite porphyry with diorite enclaves (HN18)

A Type-2 composite dyke is located along the road (46°19′39″N, 130°58′23″E), halfway between the Shuangyashan City and Huanan Town. The road section extends over a length of 50 m and consists of one 11m wide composite dyke which is sub-vertical and trends north–south, with a thickness of 11 m (Fig 3.12a). Nine samples were collected from the composite dyke, from the margin to the interior. Samples HN18-1 to HN18-5 are andesite porphyry (Fig 3.12b); samples HN18-6 to HN18-9 are rhyolite porphyry. Sample HN14-1 is an diorite enclave in the granite porphyry, whereas samples HN14-2 to HN14-12 are granite porphyry (Fig 3.12c).

Fig 3.12 Huanan composite dyke (a) Photograph of the composite dyke showing sample locations; (b) Andesite porphyry from the composite dyke margin; (c) Granite porphyry with diorite enclaves

Field geology and petrography

The country rock is granitic porphyry with andesitic enclaves. The granitic porphyry has 25% red K-feldspar phenocrysts 2 mm in size, and 75% pale yellow felsophyric ground mass. The andesitic enclaves are mostly rounded with a diameter of 5 cm. Some enclaves are more irregular, but have the same mineral composition. Samples HN14-2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 are from the granitic porphyry of the country rock. Sample HN14-1 is andesite from the enclave.

The composite dyke is a typical Type-2 composite dyke. It has a 5 m wide acidic interior and 3 m wide mafic margins. The acidic interior is pale yellow rhyolitic porphyry which has 10% 0.2-0.5 mm quartz phenocrysts and 90% cryptocrystalline matrix (Fig 3.13a, b). The mafic margin is black andesitic porphyry which has 50% 50 um plagioclase phenocrysts. The cryptocrystalline matrix contains minor plagioclase crystals (Fig 3.13c, d).

Fig 3.13 Photomicrographs of thin sections of andesite porphyry and rhyolite porphyry (a, c) Plane-polarized light; (b, d) Cross-polarized light

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3.2.6 Jiamusi bimodal dykes (JD)

A bimodal composite dyke is located in the Jiamusi Block along the 201 State Highway, 35 km south of Jiamusi City, in eastern Heilongjiang Province. On the 1:200 000 geological map, the country rock consists of volcanic rocks of the Cretaceous Songmuhe Formation (Fig 3.14).

Fig 3.14 Geological map of the Jiamusi area

The road section extends over a length of 125 m and consists of 10 rhyolite dykes and 14 dolerite dykes which are both sub-vertical and dominantly trend north–south, with thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 10 meters (Fig 3.15).

The country rocks consist of andesite (Fig 3.16a) and spherulitic rhyolite (Fig 3.16b) of the mid-Cretaceous Songmuhe Formation. The Songmuhe Formation consists of two members: the lower Xigemu Member consists of basalt and andesite, whereas the upper Aoqi Member mainly consists of rhyolite. The road section is at the boundary between these two members (Fig 3.14) and it appears likely that the andesite belongs to the Xigemu Member whereas the spherulitic rhyolite belongs to the Aoqi Member. Unfortunately, the boundary is not clear, since it is disrupted by the emplacement of the dykes.

The rhyolite dykes have sub-horizontal cooling joints (Fig 3.15b) which are not found in the country rocks and the contacts between the dykes and country rocks are sharp and straight. The rhyolite is off-white to pale yellow, fine-grained and massive, with a felsophyric texture and micro-spherulitic structure. It mainly consists of approximately equal amounts of quartz and feldspar, and minor Fe/Ti oxides (Fig

Field geology and petrography

3.16c, d).

The dolerite dykes intruded into both the country rocks and the rhyolite dykes. The dolerite is dark green to black, fine-grained and massive, with a sub-ophitic texture. It consists of 50–60% plagioclase, 20–30% clinopyroxene, 10–20% Fe oxides and ~5% olivine (Fig 3.16e, f). Pyroxene and olivine are variably altered to chlorite.

Fig 3.15 Section showing the Jiamusi bimodal dykes

(a), (b), (c) and (d) are photographs of the Jiamusi bimodal dyke section in the road cutting along the 201 State Highway, 35 km south of Jiamusi City, eastern Heilongjiang Province; (e) shows Jiamusi bimodal dyke lithological profile

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Fig 3.16 Photomicrograph of the andesite country rock sample JD12 (a), silica microsphere in the rhyolite country rock sample JD27 (b), rhyolite sample JD14 (c, d), and dolerite sample JD07 (e, f). Pl=Plagioclase, Aug=Augite, Mag=Magnetite; (a, b, d, f) Cross-polarized light; (c, e) Plane-polarized light

Geochronology

4 Geochronology

4.1 Method

Zircon, as one of the most common accessory minerals in igneous rocks, is geochemically stable and not easily affected by weathering and alteration, so its isotopic system is usually not disturbed. In addition, its closure temperature is higher (about 800°C) compared to the Rb-Sr, K-Ar and Ar-Ar isotopic systems. Hence zircon is an ideal mineral for U-Pb isotopic dating. In situ zircon U-Pb dating also has the advantages of faster speed and lower cost than conventional ID-TIMS dating. During the past thirty years, zircon U-Pb dating has been widely applied to the geochronology study of igneous rocks.

Two kinds of analytical instruments were specifically designed for isotope analysis: (1) the ion microprobe mass spectrometer including the SHRIMP and CAMECA 1280; and (2) the laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS). The former has a smaller spot size and higher precision, but high maintenance costs. The latter has faster analytical speed and low maintenance costs. However, laser ablation will permernantly destroy the zircons. In this research, all zircons were dated by SHRIMP II. The procedure is as follows:

Approximately 5-10 kg of rock were collected for each sample for zircon separation. Zircon crystals were extracted by crushing and heavy liquid and magnetic separation at the Langfang Geological Services Corporation, Hebei Province, China. The zircons were then mounted in epoxy resin along with standard zircons and polished to reveal the grain centres. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were taken using a Philips XL30 Scanning Electron Microscope at Curtin University, the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of CAS, and the Beijing SHRIMP Center.

Samples ML06-7, JY21-1, JY21-4, HN18-1, and HN18-6 were dated using the SHRIMP ion microprobe at the John de Laeter Centre of Mass Spectrometry (JdLCMS) at Curtin University, with zircon standard BR266 (559 Ma, U = 909 ppm, Stern 2001); samples JD07, JD14, HN14-2, and HG02-4 were analyzed at the Beijing SHRIMP Center, with standard zircon SL13 and TEM-1 (Black et al., 2003) for U concentration and age calibration, respectively. The analyztical procedure was similar to that described by Williams (1998) and Wan et al. (2005). The mass

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All of the zircon grains are transparent, pale yellow and euhedral prismatic. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images (Fig 4.1) show that most of them are typical magmatic zircons with concentric oscillatory zonation.

Fig 4.1 Zircon Cathodoluminescence (CL) images; sample numbers shown on each image (a) to (i)

Geochronology

4.2 Age of the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Zircon SHRIMP results are presented in Table 4.1.

Zircons from rhyolite sample ML06-7 are mostly 80 to 200 μm long with about 2:1 aspect ratios. Thirteen zircon grains were analyzed. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 123 to 683 ppm and from 43 to 1463 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.35 to 2.48. Thirteen analyses gave a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 104 ± 1 Ma (MSWD = 0.85) (Fig 4.3a), representing the eruption time of the rhyolitic magma.

Zircons from the granite porphyry samples JY21-1 and JY21-4 are 150 to 250 μm long with about 2:1 aspect ratios. Twelve zircon grains were analyzed from hornblende granite porphyry sample JY21-1. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 270 to 963 ppm and from 98 to 1351 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.29 to 1.4. One grain with a relatively high 206Pb/238U age of 117 ± 1 Ma is considered to be an inherited zircon. The remaining eleven analyses gave a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 104 ± 1 Ma (MSWD = 0.85) (Fig 4.3b), representing the emplacement time of the hornblende granite porphyry.

Seven zircon grains were analyzed from granite porphyry sample JY21-4. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 429 to 663 ppm and from 121 to 317 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.27 to 0.52. The weighted mean 206Pb/238U age is 104 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 4.6) (Fig 4.3c), representing the emplacement age of the granite porphyry, which is as same age as the hornblende granite porphyry, consistent with the field observation that they belong to one intrusive body.

In summary, the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry both formed at 104 ± 1 Ma.

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4.3 Age constraint on the Songmuhe formation basalt

Seventeen zircon grains were analyzed from tuff sample HG02-4. The results are presented in Table 4.2. All zircons are transparent, pale yellow and euhedral prismatic. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images show that most of them are typical magmatic zircons with concentric oscillatory zonation and 2:1 aspect ratios. The measured U and Th concentrations varied from 195 to 1119 ppm and from 89 to 645 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratio ranged from 0.40 to 0.66. Most of the grains are 150-200 um long. One ~400 um elongate grain with an aspect ratio of 4:1 has a Th/U ratio of 0.4 and an age of 257 ± 7 Ma and is considered to be an inherited zircon and excluded from the age calculation. The remaining 16 analyses give a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 103 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 1.7) (Fig 4.3d) representing the time of eruption of the tuff in the upper part of the Houshigou Formation. Zircon SHRIMP ages of the dykes invading the Songmuhe Formation are all 100 ± 2 Ma (see Chapter 4.5).

In this thesis, the age of the Songmuhe Formation basalt is based on field relation with respect to the tuff sample HG02-4, because the Ar-Ar data are still not available. The Houshigou Formation is overlain conformably by the Songmuhe Formation, so the age of the tuff (sample HG02-4) in the Houshigou Formation represents the oldest possible age of the Songmuhe basalt; the Songmuhe Formation was also invaded by dykes, hence the ages of the dykes define the youngest possible age of the Songmuhe Formation.

Hence, the Songmuhe Formation basalt formed between 103 ± 2 Ma to 100 ± 2 Ma.

4.4 Age of Huanan composite dyke and its country rock

Zircon SHRIMP dating results are presented in Table 4.3.

Zircons from the granite porphyry sample HN14-2 are mostly 80 to 150 μm long with 2:1 aspect ratios. Eighteen zircon grains were analyzed. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 206 to 1419 ppm and from 188 to 2221 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.65 to 2.48. The weighted mean 206Pb/238U age is 100 ± 1 Ma (MSWD = 1.0) (Fig 4.3e).

Geochronology

Zircons from the andesite porphyry sample HN18-1 range from 200 to 250 μm with about 3:1 aspect ratios; have many needle-shaped apatite inclusions. There are also some fluid inclusions and a few unknown red non-transparent mineral inclusions. All spots were selected on clean and bright surfaces and the spot of SHRIMP is very shallow, so few inclusions were inside the spot and analyzed. Twelve zircon grains were analyzed from andesitic porphyry sample HN18-1. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 465 to 1285 ppm and from 165 to 1233 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.35 to 0.96. The weighted mean 206Pb/238U age is 100 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 2.9) (Fig 4.3f).

Zircons from the rhyolite porphyry sample HN18-6 range from 200 to 250 μm with 3:1 aspect ratios; also have many needle-shaped apatite inclusions. Twelve zircon grains were analyzed. One large zircon grain with a different aspect ratio from the other grains has an age of 272 ± 3 Ma and Th/U ratio of 0.12. It is hence considered to be an inherited zircon. The other 11 grains have measured U and Th concentrations varying from 272 to 1264 ppm and from 123 to 507 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratio ranges from 0.34 to 0.64. These 11 analyses give a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 100 ± 1 Ma (MSWD = 1.16) (Fig 4.3g). Some grains have young ages, however, they are not considered in singles. It is because (1) granitic rocks have a lot of protogenic zircons (2) granitic rocks can hardly inherit zircons from country rocks (3) the age data satisfy normal distribution.

The age data of samples HN18-1 and HN18-6 are consistent with the field observation that they are from one composite dyke, as there are no obvious age differences between them. The country rock also records the same age suggesting that the dyke was emplaced immediately after the granite porphyry solidified.

Fig 4.2 Photomicrograph of inclusions in zircons from the andesite porphyry sample HN18-1 (a) needle-shaped apatite inclusions; (b) dark red granular mineral inclusion; (c) quartz inclusions

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4.5 Age of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes

The bimodal dykes consist of both rhyolite and dolerite. The dolerite dykes were emplaced after the rhyolite dykes, based on their field relationships. Zircons from the rhyolite are mostly 50 μm long, however, zircons from the dolerite range from 40 to 160 μm; both have 2:1 aspect ratios. Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb results are presented in Table 4.4.

Sixteen zircon grains were analyzed from rhyolite sample JD14. The measured U and Th concentrations vary from 467 to 727 ppm and from 275 to 558 ppm, respectively. The Th/U ratios ranged from 0.57 to 0.84. One grain was excluded from the calculations because of reverse discordance and the remaining 15 analyses gave a weighted mean age of 100 ± 2 Ma (MSWD=1.4), representing the time of rhyolite emplacement (Fig 4.3h).

Eighteen zircon grains were analyzed from dolerite sample JD07. With two exceptions, the measured U and Th concentrations ranged from 289 to 687 ppm and 138 to 486 ppm, respectively, with Th/U ratio ranging from 0.49 to 0.73. One elongate grain with an aspect ratio of 6:1 has a Th/U ratio of 0.23 and an age of 401 ± 11 Ma and is considered to be an inherited zircon. Another zircon grain is excluded 206 204 * 206 * because of high Pbc and Pb / Pb ratio. The remaining 16 analyses give a weighted mean age of 100 ± 2 Ma (MSWD=1.4) (Fig 4.3i), which is exactly the same as the age of the rhyolite dyke.

An alternative interpretation for the dolerite is that some of the grains are inherited and should be excluded from the age calculation. Then the remaining 16 analyses would define two age peaks: at 96 ± 3 Ma for 5 grains and 102 ± 2 Ma for 11 grains. The age of 96 ± 3 Ma is younger than the rhyolite dykes and is taken to represent the time of dolerite emplacement. The 102 ± 2 Ma age is older than the rhyolite dykes and is thus considered as the average age of inherited zircons from either the country rock or from the rhyolite dykes. Yet another possibility is that all of the grains are inherited, so the age of the dolerite is younger than 96 ± 3 Ma.

Magmatic zircons define the age of the rhyolite dyke at 100 ± 2 Ma. However, the age of the dolerite dyke is more problematical, since zircons are rare in mafic volcanic rocks, with the possibility that all the zircons are inherited. It is difficult to

Geochronology justify separating the older and main group, whereas the younger age may be the result of Pb loss. Zircon Hf-isotopic ratios are useful for dividing mantle and crust-derived zircons. The Hf isotope results (Fig 4.4) shows that zircons from the dolerite have high εHf(t) values of +9 to +16, near primitive mantle values. In addition, the εHf(t) ratios cannot be used to divided the zircons into two groups following their ages; they do not correlate with the 206Pb/238U ages. All results suggest that these zircons have juvenile signatures and were not inherited from older continental crust. Overall, the age of 100 ± 2 Ma for 16 zircons is regarded as the best estimate of the emplacement age of the dolerite.

It still needs discussion that whether zircons in the dolerite were all/partly inherited from the rhyolite. If the rhyolite was derived from older continental crust, it is easy to say that the zircons in the dolerite were mantle-derived rather than inherited, since they have near primitive mantle value εHf(t) ratios. Unlucky, the rhyolite seems not derived from older continental crust, since it also has zircons with εHf(t) ratios as high as primitive mantle. So the rhyolite was possibly fractionated from the dolerite (mafic magma). However, if this is true, a new problem stands up that it is difficult to answer why the rhyolite dykes emplaced earlier than the dolerite dykes. Overall, this is a tricky problem to determine the source of the zircons in the dolerite.

Previous studies suggest that mid-Cretaceous mafic magmatism was widespread in the Jiamusi Block, with a dolerite dyke in the south of the Jiamusi Block recording an 40Ar–39Ar age of 100 ± 4 Ma (Zhu et al., 2009) and a gabbro dyke from the northern part of the Jiamusi Block recording a SHRIMP zircon U–Pb age of 98 ± 2 Ma (Zhang et al., 2009). Various pieces of evidence show that the tectonic regime of eastern NE China changed to compression in the Late Cretaceous, for example the inversion of the Songliao Basin (Feng et al., 2010).

Hence the balance of evidence suggests that it is most likely that the dolerite and rhyolite were both formed at 100 ± 2 Ma.

4.6 Summary

The late Mesozoic igneous events in the Jiamusi Block occurred over a short time-span from 104-100 Ma. The acidic magmatism represented by the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry formed at 104 ± 1 Ma; the basic

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University magmatism represented by Songmuhe Formation basalt formed between 103-100 Ma; the bimodal magmatism represented by the Huanan composite dyke and Jiamusi bimodal dykes occured at 100 ± 2 Ma.

Fig 4.3 Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb concordia diagrams

(a) Muling rhyolite, (b) Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, (c) Wulaga granite porphyry, (d) Hegang Houshigou Formation tuff, (e) Huanan granite porphyry, (f) Huanan andesite porphyry, (g) Huanan rhyolite porphyry, (h) Jiamusi rhyolite dyke, (i) Jiamusi dolerite dyke

18 18 Rhyolite Dolerite 16 DM 16 DM

14 14

12 12

Hf(t) Hf(t)

10 10

8 8

6 6 85 90 95 100 105 110 85 90 95 100 105 110 Ma Ma Fig 4.4 εHf(t) vs. 206Pb/238U age diagrams for zircons from the rhyolite sample JD14 and dolerite sample JD07,Data from Table 5.12 in Chapter 5.4.2

Geochronology

Table 4.1 Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb data for the Muling rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

207 235 206 238 206 206 204 207 207 206 Pb/ U Pb/ U U Th Pb Pbc Pb Pb Pb Pb %Disc- Th/U 206 ±% 206 ±% 235 ±% 238 ±% error (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) / Pb / Pb / U / U ordant Age(Ma) 1σ Age(Ma) 1σ

ML06-7 Rhyolite

ML06-7-1 276 685 2.48 3.8 0.6 0.0003 208 0.0435 23 0.0971 24 0.0162 1 0.06 9 94 21 103 2

ML06-7-2 148 72 0.49 2.0 0.9 0.0005 165 0.0443 29 0.0951 29 0.0156 2 0.06 7 92 26 100 2

ML06-7-3 683 1463 2.14 9.5 0.1 0.0001 44 0.0482 2 0.1077 2 0.0162 1 0.31 0 104 2 104 1

ML06-7-4 173 92 0.53 2.5 0.7 0.0004 35 0.0441 6 0.1030 6 0.0169 1 0.12 8 100 6 108 1

ML06-7-5 187 96 0.51 2.6 2.6 0.0015 35 0.0519 17 0.1169 17 0.0163 1 0.07 8 112 18 104 1

ML06-7-6 123 43 0.35 1.8 2.1 0.0012 50 0.0428 22 0.1006 22 0.0170 2 0.07 11 97 20 109 2

ML06-7-7 377 216 0.57 5.2 1.6 0.0009 28 0.0360 11 0.0802 11 0.0162 1 0.10 24 78 8 103 1

ML06-7-8 128 65 0.51 1.8 2.7 0.0015 51 0.0361 32 0.0808 33 0.0162 2 0.06 24 79 25 104 2

ML06-7-9 320 155 0.49 4.5 0.9 0.0005 94 0.0426 17 0.0955 17 0.0163 1 0.06 11 93 15 104 1

ML06-7-10 279 179 0.64 3.9 1.2 0.0007 16 0.0472 4 0.1066 4 0.0164 1 0.15 2 103 4 105 1

ML06-7-11 284 117 0.41 4.1 0.0 0.0000 19 0.0645 5 0.1512 5 0.0170 1 0.15 32 143 7 109 1

ML06-7-12 288 151 0.52 4.0 0.3 0.0001 38 0.0504 3 0.1118 3 0.0161 1 0.41 5 108 3 103 1

ML06-7-13 283 161 0.57 3.9 0.0 0.0000 24 0.0581 4 0.1295 4 0.0162 1 0.16 20 124 5 104 1 JY21-1 Hornblende granite porphry

JY21-1-1 750 386 0.51 10.4 0.0 0.0000 18 0.0560 3 0.1242 3 0.0161 1 0.30 15 119 3 103 1

JY21-1-2 270 98 0.36 3.8 0.0 0.0000 29 0.0537 4 0.1207 4 0.0163 1 0.34 11 116 5 104 2

JY21-1-3 381 141 0.37 5.4 0.0 0.0000 109 0.0609 10 0.1389 10 0.0165 1 0.11 25 132 13 106 1

JY21-1-4 362 227 0.63 5.1 5.0 0.0000 25 0.0491 23 0.1104 23 0.0163 2 0.09 2 106 23 104 2

JY21-1-5 343 101 0.29 4.8 0.0 0.0000 58 0.0603 10 0.1365 10 0.0164 1 0.13 24 130 12 105 1

JY21-1-6 963 1351 1.40 15.2 0.0 0.0000 448 0.0503 8 0.1272 8 0.0183 1 0.11 4 122 9 117 1

JY21-1-7 331 180 0.54 4.6 0.0 0.0000 19 0.0634 3 0.1425 3 0.0163 1 0.26 30 135 4 104 1

JY21-1-8 379 160 0.42 5.4 0.0 0.0000 25 0.0650 6 0.1484 6 0.0166 1 0.17 33 141 8 106 1

JY21-1-9 323 127 0.39 4.5 0.0 0.0000 21 0.0665 5 0.1487 5 0.0162 1 0.18 36 141 6 104 1

JY21-1-10 340 107 0.31 4.8 0.2 0.0001 252 0.0483 10 0.1102 10 0.0166 1 0.10 0 106 10 106 1

JY21-1-11 608 320 0.53 8.5 0.4 0.0002 130 0.0484 8 0.1089 8 0.0163 1 0.12 1 105 9 104 1

JY21-1-12 400 150 0.37 5.6 0.2 0.0001 192 0.0488 7 0.1091 7 0.0162 1 0.13 1 105 7 104 1 JY21-4 Granite porphryry

JY21-4-1 451 121 0.27 6.3 0.0 0.0000 52 0.0575 7 0.1300 7 0.0164 1 0.12 18 124 9 105 1

JY21-4-2 433 138 0.32 6.1 0.0 0.0000 88 0.0542 7 0.1227 7 0.0164 1 0.16 12 118 8 105 1

JY21-4-3 430 138 0.32 6.1 0.0 0.0000 60 0.0607 11 0.1375 11 0.0164 1 0.10 25 131 14 105 1

JY21-4-4 588 308 0.52 8.3 0.0 0.0000 326 0.0499 11 0.1131 11 0.0164 1 0.09 3 109 12 105 1

JY21-4-5 429 137 0.32 6.3 0.0 0.0000 58 0.0570 7 0.1336 7 0.0170 1 0.16 17 127 9 109 1

JY21-4-6 528 253 0.48 7.2 0.0 0.0000 19 0.0580 3 0.1271 3 0.0159 1 0.23 19 122 4 102 1

JY21-4-7 663 317 0.48 9.2 0.8 0.0005 37 0.0437 6 0.0974 6 0.0162 1 0.13 9 94 6 103 1

Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc indicates common lead.

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Table 4.2 Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb data for the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt

207 235 206 238 206 206 204 207 207 206 Pb/ U Pb/ U U Th Pb Pbc Pb Pb Pb Pb %Disc- Sample No. Th/U 206 ±% 206 ±% 235 ±% 238 ±% error (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) / Pb / Pb / U / U ordant Age(Ma) 1σ Age(Ma) 1σ HG02-4 Tuff HG02-4-1 353 141 0.40 12.5 1.5 0.0008 24 0.0503 7 0.2816 7 0.0406 3 0.40 2 252 16 257 7 HG02-4-2 1119 614 0.55 15.7 1.1 0.0006 22 0.0476 5 0.1057 6 0.0161 3 0.50 1 102 5 103 3 HG02-4-3 666 324 0.49 9.1 1.5 0.0008 29 0.0412 9 0.0892 10 0.0157 3 0.30 14 87 8 100 3 HG02-4-4 329 212 0.64 4.7 1.6 0.0009 55 0.0516 15 0.1175 15 0.0165 3 0.21 7 113 16 106 3 HG02-4-5 195 89 0.46 2.9 4.1 0.0022 32 0.0452 25 0.1033 25 0.0166 3 0.13 6 100 24 106 4 HG02-4-6 422 165 0.39 5.9 1.9 0.0010 33 0.0469 12 0.1033 12 0.0160 3 0.25 2 100 12 102 3 HG02-4-7 1022 497 0.49 13.9 0.8 0.0004 30 0.0487 5 0.1053 5 0.0157 3 0.53 1 102 5 100 3 HG02-4-8 754 319 0.42 10.6 0.9 0.0005 33 0.0470 7 0.1049 8 0.0162 3 0.38 2 101 7 103 3 HG02-4-9 684 339 0.50 8.5 1.3 0.0007 24 0.0461 7 0.0911 7 0.0143 3 0.40 3 89 6 92 3 HG02-4-10 295 185 0.63 4.2 3.0 0.0016 29 0.0438 18 0.0961 18 0.0159 3 0.17 9 93 16 102 3 HG02-4-11 887 485 0.55 11.9 0.9 0.0005 30 0.0461 6 0.0986 6 0.0155 3 0.45 4 96 6 99 3 HG02-4-12 848 413 0.49 11.7 0.9 0.0005 32 0.0507 5 0.1113 6 0.0159 3 0.49 5 107 6 102 3 HG02-4-13 544 223 0.41 7.6 1.0 0.0005 36 0.0565 6 0.1255 7 0.0161 3 0.46 17 120 8 103 3 HG02-4-14 862 338 0.39 12.4 1.4 0.0008 29 0.0450 8 0.1026 8 0.0165 3 0.34 6 99 8 106 3 HG02-4-15 641 269 0.42 9.2 1.5 0.0008 27 0.0429 8 0.0976 9 0.0165 3 0.33 10 95 8 106 3 HG02-4-16 1115 645 0.58 15.9 0.8 0.0005 35 0.0501 5 0.1141 6 0.0165 3 0.48 4 110 6 106 3 HG02-4-17 249 150 0.60 3.6 4.2 0.0023 34 0.0499 25 0.1118 25 0.0162 3 0.13 4 108 26 104 3

Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc indicates common lead.

Geochronology

Table 4.3 Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb data for the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock

207 235 206 238 U Th 206Pb 206Pb 204Pb 207Pb 207Pb 206Pb %Disc- Pb/ U Pb/ U Sample No. Th/U c ±% ±% ±% ±% error (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) /206Pb /206Pb /235U /238U ordant Age(Ma) 1σ Age(Ma) 1σ HN14-2 Granite porphyry HN14-2-1 226 231 1.02 3.2 4.2 0.0023 33 0.0462 27 0.1008 27 0.0158 3 0.10 4 98 25 101 3 HN14-2-2 465 407 0.88 6.2 1.2 0.0007 45 0.0514 9 0.1080 9 0.0152 2 0.20 7 104 9 97 2 HN14-2-3 410 283 0.69 5.5 2.1 0.0012 31 0.0464 13 0.0971 13 0.0152 2 0.17 3 94 12 97 2 HN14-2-4 208 188 0.90 2.8 4.4 0.0025 25 0.0479 21 0.1001 21 0.0152 2 0.11 0 97 20 97 2 HN14-2-5 555 578 1.04 7.8 1.1 0.0006 33 0.0474 7 0.1056 8 0.0162 3 0.33 1 102 8 103 3 HN14-2-6 344 422 1.23 4.9 2.2 0.0012 35 0.0422 16 0.0948 16 0.0163 3 0.18 12 92 14 104 3 HN14-2-7 479 584 1.22 6.6 0.6 0.0003 31 0.0479 4 0.1052 5 0.0159 2 0.47 0 102 5 102 2 HN14-2-8 355 272 0.77 4.9 1.1 0.0006 23 0.0440 5 0.0957 6 0.0158 2 0.42 8 93 5 101 3 HN14-2-9 299 273 0.91 4.1 1.4 0.0008 27 0.0506 7 0.1105 8 0.0158 2 0.32 5 107 8 101 2 HN14-2-10 238 220 0.92 3.2 1.7 0.0009 31 0.0467 10 0.0991 11 0.0154 3 0.30 3 96 10 99 3 HN14-2-11 492 454 0.92 6.7 1.0 0.0006 18 0.0468 4 0.1016 5 0.0157 2 0.51 2 98 5 101 2 HN14-2-12 1419 2221 1.57 19.3 0.4 0.0002 26 0.0465 2 0.1008 3 0.0157 2 0.73 3 98 3 101 2 HN14-2-13 506 1255 2.48 6.9 0.9 0.0005 13 0.0472 5 0.1029 6 0.0158 2 0.41 2 99 5 101 2 HN14-2-14 206 212 1.03 2.9 2.3 0.0012 27 0.0440 15 0.0975 15 0.0161 3 0.19 8 94 13 103 3 HN14-2-15 499 406 0.81 6.6 0.6 0.0003 4 0.0465 2 0.0976 4 0.0152 4 0.84 3 95 4 97 4 HN14-2-16 215 264 1.23 2.9 2.3 0.0012 27 0.0438 12 0.0915 13 0.0152 3 0.21 8 89 11 97 3 HN14-2-17 336 218 0.65 4.6 1.4 0.0008 28 0.0424 8 0.0910 9 0.0155 2 0.27 11 88 7 100 2 HN14-2-18 655 528 0.81 8.4 0.4 0.0002 36 0.0474 3 0.0970 4 0.0148 3 0.63 1 94 4 95 3 HN18-1 Andesite porphyry HN18-1-1 594 291 0.49 8.0 0.0 0.0000 28 0.0555 5 0.1204 5 0.0157 1 0.20 15 115 5 101 1 HN18-1-2 696 279 0.40 9.3 0.0 0.0000 45 0.0608 8 0.1302 8 0.0155 1 0.12 25 124 10 99 1 HN18-1-3 628 258 0.41 8.6 0.0 0.0000 67 0.0537 7 0.1181 7 0.0159 1 0.13 11 113 8 102 1 HN18-1-4 465 202 0.43 6.3 0.0 0.0000 513 0.0495 14 0.1084 15 0.0159 2 0.10 3 105 15 102 2 HN18-1-5 685 292 0.43 9.2 0.0 0.0000 19 0.0567 3 0.1229 4 0.0157 1 0.25 17 118 4 101 1 HN18-1-6 541 199 0.37 7.0 1.2 0.0007 43 0.0405 11 0.0839 11 0.0150 1 0.08 15 82 9 96 1 HN18-1-7 479 165 0.35 6.4 0.5 0.0003 8 0.0471 2 0.1004 3 0.0154 1 0.33 2 97 2 99 1 HN18-1-8 1081 549 0.51 14.8 0.0 0.0000 20 0.0542 3 0.1189 3 0.0159 1 0.27 12 114 3 102 1 HN18-1-9 760 266 0.35 10.3 0.0 0.0000 31 0.0525 3 0.1146 3 0.0158 1 0.25 9 110 3 101 1 HN18-1-10 583 377 0.65 7.7 0.3 0.0002 201 0.0483 10 0.1030 10 0.0155 1 0.09 1 100 10 99 1 HN18-1-11 1285 1233 0.96 17.6 0.0 0.0000 96 0.0504 3 0.1107 4 0.0159 1 0.22 5 107 4 102 1 HN18-1-12 1156 606 0.52 15.9 0.0 0.0000 15 0.0544 2 0.1198 2 0.0160 1 0.36 12 115 2 102 1 HG18-6 Rhyolite porphyry HN18-6-1 827 507 0.61 11.1 0.0 0.0000 19 0.0582 3 0.1256 3 0.0157 1 0.23 20 120 4 100 1 HN18-6-2 359 123 0.34 4.8 0.0 0.0000 34 0.0591 4 0.1266 4 0.0155 1 0.20 22 121 5 99 1 HN18-6-3 450 157 0.35 6.1 0.0 0.0000 23 0.0596 5 0.1305 5 0.0159 1 0.17 23 125 6 102 1 HN18-6-4 578 295 0.51 7.6 0.0 0.0000 207 0.0510 14 0.1082 14 0.0154 1 0.08 6 104 14 98 1 HN18-6-5 927 470 0.51 12.5 0.0 0.0000 21 0.0582 3 0.1265 3 0.0158 1 0.23 20 121 4 101 1 HN18-6-6 457 209 0.46 6.1 0.0 0.0000 32 0.0588 6 0.1266 6 0.0156 1 0.21 21 121 7 100 1 HN18-6-7 1264 443 0.35 17.2 0.0 0.0000 44 0.0503 2 0.1096 2 0.0158 1 0.43 4 106 2 101 1 HN18-6-8 910 412 0.45 12.3 0.0 0.0000 45 0.0537 4 0.1165 4 0.0157 1 0.19 11 112 4 101 1 HN18-6-9 712 425 0.60 9.1 0.0 0.0000 183 0.0501 7 0.1031 7 0.0149 1 0.14 4 100 7 96 1 HN18-6-10 272 174 0.64 3.5 2.2 0.0013 99 0.0348 55 0.0713 55 0.0149 2 0.04 26 70 37 95 2 HN18-6-11 286 33 0.12 10.6 0.0 0.0000 41 0.0588 4 0.3500 4 0.0431 1 0.26 12 305 10 272 3 HN18-6-12 739 333 0.45 10.0 0.0 0.0000 48 0.0538 3 0.1172 3 0.0158 1 0.32 11 113 3 101 1

Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc indicates common lead.

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Table 4.4 Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb data for the Jiamusi bimodal dyke

JD07 Dolerite

JD07-1 289 138 0.48 3.9 1.8 0.0009 21 0.0473 9 0.1000 10 0.0153 3 0.32 1 97 9 98 3

JD07-2 479 290 0.60 6.7 0.8 0.0004 41 0.0489 6 0.1083 7 0.0160 3 0.43 2 104 7 103 3

JD07-3 586 133 0.23 32.4 0.3 0.0002 32 0.0538 2 0.4758 3 0.0642 3 0.82 1 395 11 401 11

JD07-4 462 264 0.57 6.2 1.1 0.0006 38 0.0462 8 0.0986 9 0.0155 3 0.34 4 96 8 99 3

JD07-5 566 392 0.69 7.4 1.5 0.0008 33 0.0490 9 0.1018 10 0.0151 3 0.32 2 99 9 96 3

JD07-6 600 366 0.61 7.1 2.4 0.0013 27 0.0458 12 0.0848 13 0.0134 3 0.24 4 83 10 86 3

JD07-7 384 196 0.51 5.3 1.6 0.0009 27 0.0421 10 0.0923 10 0.0159 3 0.29 12 90 9 102 3

JD07-8 508 300 0.59 6.5 1.3 0.0007 23 0.0493 6 0.1000 7 0.0147 3 0.44 3 97 6 94 3

JD07-9 623 439 0.71 8.2 0.8 0.0004 41 0.0467 6 0.0977 7 0.0152 3 0.43 3 95 6 97 3

JD07-10 359 178 0.50 4.7 1.8 0.0010 45 0.0506 15 0.1035 16 0.0149 3 0.20 5 100 15 95 3

JD07-11 509 304 0.60 6.9 1.4 0.0008 26 0.0484 7 0.1044 8 0.0156 3 0.38 1 101 7 100 3

JD07-12 573 367 0.64 8.1 1.1 0.0006 28 0.0488 6 0.1097 7 0.0163 3 0.43 1 106 7 104 3

JD07-13 515 324 0.63 7.2 0.8 0.0004 45 0.0516 6 0.1155 7 0.0162 3 0.41 7 111 7 104 3

JD07-14 687 486 0.71 9.8 3.2 0.0017 18 0.0455 12 0.1014 12 0.0161 3 0.23 5 98 12 103 3

JD07-15 425 232 0.55 6.0 1.3 0.0007 47 0.0491 10 0.1100 11 0.0162 3 0.27 2 106 11 104 3

JD07-16 455 267 0.59 6.4 2.2 0.0012 30 0.0459 13 0.1008 14 0.0159 4 0.27 4 98 13 102 4

JD07-17 640 406 0.63 9.0 0.5 0.0003 20 0.0510 3 0.1146 4 0.0163 3 0.66 6 110 5 104 3

JD07-18 1515 1456 0.96 21.3 0.6 0.0003 27 0.0478 3 0.1068 4 0.0162 3 0.63 1 103 4 104 3

JD14 Rhyolite

JD14-1 468 275 0.59 5.9 1.0 0.0005 38 0.0511 8 0.1031 8 0.0146 3 0.35 6 100 8 94 3

JD14-2 508 282 0.55 7.1 2.6 0.0014 23 0.0426 13 0.0934 13 0.0159 3 0.22 11 91 12 102 3

JD14-3 606 490 0.81 8.3 2.0 0.0011 23 0.0527 8 0.1129 8 0.0155 3 0.35 9 109 9 99 3

JD14-4 612 401 0.66 8.3 2.2 0.0012 21 0.0415 10 0.0881 11 0.0154 4 0.33 13 86 9 99 4

JD14-5 536 345 0.64 7.5 1.4 0.0008 19 0.0510 6 0.1132 6 0.0161 3 0.46 6 109 7 103 3

JD14-6 587 387 0.66 8.3 1.9 0.0010 27 0.0498 9 0.1112 9 0.0162 3 0.31 3 107 10 104 3

JD14-7 467 344 0.74 6.8 1.8 0.0009 30 0.0505 9 0.1162 10 0.0167 3 0.30 5 112 10 107 3

JD14-8 468 284 0.61 6.4 1.3 0.0007 48 0.0457 12 0.0994 13 0.0158 3 0.23 5 96 12 101 3

JD14-9 727 558 0.77 10.5 2.4 0.0013 20 0.0382 11 0.0866 12 0.0164 3 0.25 20 84 9 105 3

JD14-10 484 305 0.63 6.8 2.4 0.0013 26 0.0401 14 0.0888 14 0.0161 3 0.21 16 86 12 103 3

JD14-11 487 306 0.63 6.8 3.2 0.0017 21 0.0450 13 0.0971 14 0.0156 3 0.24 6 94 13 100 3

JD14-12 617 463 0.75 8.6 1.8 0.0010 28 0.0518 9 0.1144 9 0.0160 3 0.32 7 110 9 102 3

JD14-13 628 424 0.67 8.2 1.8 0.0010 26 0.0472 9 0.0968 9 0.0149 3 0.31 1 94 8 95 3

JD14-14 471 280 0.59 5.8 1.7 0.0009 30 0.0495 9 0.0960 10 0.0141 3 0.34 3 93 9 90 3

JD14-15 489 322 0.66 6.8 2.3 0.0012 28 0.0412 14 0.0892 14 0.0157 3 0.22 14 87 12 100 3

JD14-16 510 312 0.61 7.0 2.8 0.0015 34 0.0476 18 0.1026 18 0.0156 3 0.17 1 99 17 100 3

Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc indicates common lead.

Geochemistry

5 Geochemistry

5.1 Major element

Major elements were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Center of Modern Analysis, Nanjing University. FeO (wt. %) was determined by wet chemical methods in the Nanjing Hydrology Laboratory using a spectrophotometer.

Fe2O3 (wt. %) was calculated from total Fe2O3 and FeO (wt. %).

The igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block in this research are geochemically bimodal, and distributed along the trend line of alkaline to sub-alkaline series (Fig 5.1). They plot in the calc-alkaline series in the AFM diagram (Fig 5.2) and high-K calc-alkaline series in the K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Fig 5.3). High-K calc-alkaline magmatism occurs widely in the modern circum-pacific volcanic belt, suggesting that the late Mesozoic Jiamusi area had a similar tectonic background to the modern circum-pacific active continental margin.

5.1.1 Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Major element analyses and CIPW norm calculations of the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry are presented in Table 5.1.

The Muling rhyolite samples have SiO2 contents of 71.27–71.61 %. Samples

ML06-2 and ML06-3 have high LOI of 7.1-7.7%, low Na2O and Al2O3 but high content of MgO, with Mg# of 0.57-0.61. The remaining samples have LOI of 5.5%,

K2O of 4.15-4.84 %, Na2O of 2.87-3.71 %, and low Mg# (0.26-0.28). Samples ML06-2 and ML06-3 may have undergone some alteration, but it is difficult to distinguish on the basis of the major element analyses.

The Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry samples (JY21-1, 2, and 3) have SiO2 contents of 69.04–69.21 %, low LOI of 1.83-1.88 %, Na2O of 3.37–3.43 % and K2O of 4.40–4.53 %, and all plot in the rhyolite field in the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1). They have high Mg# (~0.57), high Al2O3 (~16.1%) and TiO2 (~0.48%) contents.

The granite porphyry samples (JY21-4 to 6) have SiO2 contents of 70.46–70.87 %, high LOI of 3.00-3.18 %, Na2O of 2.51–2.61 % and K2O of 4.26–4.72 %, and also plot in the rhyolite field in the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1). Their Mg# are relatively low

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University from 0.42 to 0.46 whereas the A/CNK values are high (from 1.61 to 1.70), suggesting that they are S-type granites.

5.1.2 Hegang Songmuhe formation basalt

Major element analyses and CIPW norm calculations of rocks from the Songmuhe Formation basalt are presented in Table 5.2.

The Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt samples (HG20-1 to HG20-6) have SiO2 contents of 51.49 to 52.26 wt. %, Na2O of 4.21 to 4.28 wt. % and K2O of 1.32 to 1.35 wt. %, and all plot in the basaltic trachy-andesite field in the TAS diagram (Fig

5.1). They are characterized by high Al2O3 (17.83 to 18.96 wt. %) and low MgO (2.95-3.95 wt. %). The Mg# values of 0.42 to 0.45 suggest that the magma possibly experienced crystal fractionation. In the CIPW norms, the major minerals are plagioclase (63%), hypersthene (13%), orthoclase (8%), diopside (5%), olivine (5%), and illmenite plus magnetite (5%).

5.1.3 Huanan composite dyke and its country rock

Major element analyses and CIPW norm calculation of the rocks from the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock are presented in Table 5.3.

The granite porphyry samples HN14-2, 6, 10, and 12 from the country rock of the composite dyke have SiO2 contents of 70.60 to 76.10 wt. %, Na2O of 2.26 to 3.77 wt. %, K2O of 3.55 to 5.16 wt. % and LOI from 1.70 to 3.18 % and plot in the rhyolite field in the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1). They have variable Mg# (0.15–0.44) and A/CNK values (0.83–1.27) indicating that the acidic magma was possibly contaminated by basaltic material, or the granitic porphyry experienced various degrees of alteration.

The diorite enclave sample HN14-1 in the granite porphyry has an SiO2 content of

57.99 wt. %, Na2O of 4.19 wt. %, K2O of 3.70 wt. % and plots in the trachyte field in the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1). It may originate from basaltic magma that experienced a high degree of contamination by acidic magma: the granite porphyry host rock.

The andesite porphyry samples from the margin of the Huanan composite dyke form three groups. Sample HN18-1, which is close to the country rock, has an SiO2 content of 56.97 %, possibly contaminated by the country rock granite porphyry.

Geochemistry

Sample HN18-2 has the lowest SiO2 content of 44.47 %, with highest LOI of 9.02 %, MgO of 4.78 %, and Mg# of 0.58, representing the basic magma with the least contamination. Samples HN18-3, 4, and 5 have SiO2 contents of 62.04-62.54 % and LOI from 4.02 to 4.62. They were possibly contaminated by the acidic magma of the composite dyke.

The rhyolite porphyry samples from the interior of the Huanan composite dyke

(HN18-5 to HN18-9) have SiO2 contents of 72.77 to 73.23 wt. %, and LOI from 2.26 to 2.42 %. Four samples show uniform geochemical features, with 2.13-2.18 %

Fe2O3, 0.59-0.62% MgO, and Mg#=0.38-0.39, consistent with them showing little contamination by acidic magma. The contents of Na2O (2.45-2.51%), K2O

(4.18-4.40 %), CaO (1.09-1.34 %) and Al2O3 (12.87-13.06 %) give ASI values from 1.17 to 1.21; suggest that the rhyolite porphyry is an S-type granite.

5.1.4 Jiamusi bimodal dykes

Major element analyses and CIPW norm calculations of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes are presented in Table 5.4.

The rhyolite samples have SiO2 contents of 74.47–75.65 wt. %, Na2O of 2.52–4.83 wt. % and K2O of 2.68–6.22 wt. % and all plot in the rhyolite field in the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1). High Fe2O3 (1.99-2.36) but low MgO (0.01-0.18) suggest that they are Ferroan rhyolite.

The dolerite samples have SiO2 contents of 44.47–51.27 %, LOI of 3.97-5.94 %,

Na2O of 2.3-4.4 %, and K2O of 0.7-2.7 %. In the TAS diagram (Fig 5.1), the dolerite samples extend across the boundary between the alkaline and sub-alkaline series with four samples in the basalt field and three samples in the basaltic trachy-andesite field. In the AFM diagram (Fig 5.2), the dolerite samples plot mainly in the calc-alkaline field, as do most Late Mesozoic volcanic rocks of NE China (Wang et al., 2006b, Zhang et al., 2008b, and Zhang et al., 2011a). All the dolerite samples have high Mg# between 0.57–0.67.

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Table 5.1 Major element, selected trace element and CIPW calculations for the Yilin rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Samples ML06-1 ML06-2 ML06-3 ML06-4 ML06-5ML06-6 JY21-1 JY21-2 JY21-3 JY21-4 JY21-5 JY21-6

SiO2 71.59 71.27 71.52 71.48 71.59 71.61 69.04 69.21 69.16 70.87 70.83 70.46

TiO2 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.49

Al2O3 12.62 12.38 11.61 12.67 12.62 12.61 15.91 15.94 15.92 16.12 16.11 16.15

Fe2O3 1.00 0.98 1.19 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.67 1.60 1.67 1.11 1.12 1.21 MnO 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 MgO 0.16 0.59 0.84 0.18 0.17 0.17 1.01 0.96 1.00 0.43 0.43 0.40 CaO 0.82 1.78 2.08 0.83 0.81 0.81 1.47 1.52 1.47 0.39 0.40 0.35

Na2O 3.17 2.60 0.65 2.87 3.71 3.68 3.37 3.43 3.38 2.51 2.54 2.61

K2O 4.84 2.94 3.88 4.62 4.15 4.15 4.53 4.40 4.47 4.26 4.27 4.72

P2O5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 LOI 5.20 7.08 7.74 5.95 5.55 5.59 1.88 1.83 1.83 3.13 3.18 3.00 Total 99.55 99.77 99.62 99.74 99.74 99.74 99.52 99.51 99.52 99.50 99.55 99.57 Mg# 0.26 0.57 0.61 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.46 0.45 0.42 ASI 1.06 1.16 1.28 1.13 1.05 1.05 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.73 1.72 1.63 Volatile free

SiO2 75.54 76.72 77.54 76.02 75.81 75.86 70.36 70.50 70.46 73.17 73.16 72.65

TiO2 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.51 0.51 0.50

Al2O3 13.32 13.33 12.59 13.47 13.36 13.35 16.22 16.24 16.22 16.64 16.64 16.65

Fe2O3 0.33 0.33 0.40 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.49 0.47 0.49 0.36 0.36 0.39 FeO 0.66 0.66 0.80 0.66 0.65 0.66 1.09 1.04 1.09 0.71 0.72 0.78 MnO 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 MgO 0.17 0.63 0.91 0.19 0.18 0.18 1.02 0.98 1.01 0.44 0.44 0.41 CaO 0.87 1.92 2.26 0.88 0.86 0.86 1.49 1.55 1.49 0.41 0.41 0.36

Na2O 3.35 2.79 0.70 3.05 3.93 3.89 3.44 3.49 3.44 2.59 2.63 2.69

K2O 5.11 3.17 4.21 4.91 4.40 4.40 4.62 4.48 4.55 4.40 4.41 4.87

P2O5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 Sr 82 325 307 80 72 71 327 322 318 183 186 182 Ba 510 510 777 517 495 489 558 556 560 516 543 528 Ni 1 1 2 1 1 1 19 20 19 14 15 13 Cr 3 6 1 1 3 1 21 22 32 26 27 20 Zr 129 109 118 137 132 127 155 150 139 164 155 146 Q 33.98 42.76 50.53 36.76 33.50 33.74 27.70 28.02 28.04 39.87 39.60 37.01 Pl 32.82 33.37 17.47 30.38 37.68 37.40 36.02 36.81 36.02 23.37 23.62 23.97 Or 30.32 18.79 25.00 29.13 26.06 26.06 27.42 26.65 27.07 26.12 26.24 28.96 Ne 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C 0.70 1.78 2.70 1.51 0.57 0.61 3.13 3.08 3.20 7.19 7.11 6.60 Di 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 En 1.79 2.93 3.92 1.84 1.81 1.81 4.22 4.00 4.20 2.00 1.96 2.00 Ol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Il 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.97 0.99 0.97 Mt 0.16 0.16 0.19 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.19 Ap 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.32 0.30 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 Zr 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 Chr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 100.03 100.03 100.07 100.04 100.04 100.04 100.02 100.05 100.06 100.04 100.04 100.05

Geochemistry

Table 5.2 Major element, selected trace element and CIPW calculations for the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt Samples HG20-1 HG20-2 HG20-3 HG20-4 HG20-5 HG20-6

SiO2 52.26 51.71 51.69 51.53 51.77 51.49

TiO2 1.90 1.83 1.82 1.85 1.86 1.84

Al2O3 18.69 17.83 17.83 17.96 18.08 17.85

Fe2O3 8.81 10.64 10.63 10.58 10.08 10.60 MnO 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 MgO 2.95 3.93 3.95 3.70 3.41 3.66 CaO 7.05 6.83 6.79 6.81 6.85 6.78

Na2O 4.28 4.22 4.25 4.22 4.26 4.21

K2O 1.33 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.33

P2O5 0.33 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.32 LOI 1.80 0.77 0.77 1.09 1.41 1.28 Total 99.54 99.52 99.52 99.52 99.51 99.49 Mg# 0.42 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.43 ASI 0.89 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 Volatile free

SiO2 53.22 52.11 52.09 52.19 52.10 52.51

TiO2 1.94 1.84 1.84 1.86 1.87 1.89

Al2O3 19.04 17.97 17.97 18.29 18.16 18.34

Fe2O3 1.91 2.28 2.28 2.24 2.27 2.17 FeO 6.36 7.60 7.59 7.48 7.58 7.24 MnO 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.14 MgO 3.00 3.96 3.98 3.60 3.74 3.46 CaO 7.18 6.88 6.84 6.96 6.89 6.95

Na2O 4.36 4.25 4.28 4.28 4.27 4.32

K2O 1.35 1.32 1.33 1.33 1.34 1.35

P2O5 0.34 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.33 Sr 453 425 440 429 440 444 Ba 385 368 379 359 370 381 Ni 15 18 16 20 16 16 Cr 15 10 10 8 5 6 Zr 197 185 193 184 189 197 Q 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pl 66.08 62.93 63.00 63.87 63.45 64.11 Or 8.10 7.92 7.98 7.98 8.04 8.10 Ne 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Di 4.36 5.23 5.23 5.01 5.00 5.00 En 15.18 12.94 12.27 12.99 12.64 14.00 Ol 0.00 5.11 5.68 4.29 4.97 2.90 Il 3.72 3.55 3.53 3.57 3.61 3.63 Mt 1.32 1.58 1.58 1.55 1.58 1.51 Ap 0.81 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.76 Zr 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 Chr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 100.05 100.04 100.05 100.03 100.07 100.05

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Table 5.3 Major element, selected trace element and CIPW calculations for the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock Samples HN18-1 HN18-2 HN18-3 HN18-4 HN18-5 HN18-6 HN18-7 HN18-8 HN18-9 HN14-1 HN14-2 HN14-4 HN14-6 HN14-10 HN14-12

SiO2 56.97 47.92 62.04 62.30 62.54 73.23 73.01 73.19 72.77 57.99 70.60 75.22 73.79 72.44 76.10

TiO2 0.78 1.02 0.58 0.61 0.61 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.70 0.20 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.13

Al2O3 15.42 15.71 14.56 14.61 14.67 12.93 13.06 12.87 13.06 16.58 12.68 12.29 12.30 14.15 11.83

Fe2O3 6.15 7.77 4.38 4.43 4.44 2.18 2.13 2.18 2.13 4.97 1.74 1.78 2.07 1.79 1.62

MnO 0.09 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.16 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04

MgO 2.66 4.78 2.05 2.24 2.25 0.62 0.59 0.60 0.59 1.66 0.63 0.17 0.17 0.28 0.17

CaO 4.49 8.23 3.64 3.31 3.32 1.09 1.34 1.34 1.33 3.56 2.68 0.70 1.05 0.31 0.79

Na2O 4.27 3.72 4.12 4.09 4.15 2.45 2.46 2.49 2.51 4.19 3.41 2.26 3.77 3.25 3.02

K2O 3.10 1.58 3.45 3.37 3.41 4.40 4.21 4.18 4.34 3.70 4.40 5.16 4.60 4.75 3.55

P2O5 0.18 0.21 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.25 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

LOI 5.64 9.02 4.62 4.51 4.02 2.26 2.40 2.32 2.42 5.98 3.18 1.94 1.70 2.61 2.48

Total 99.77 100.12 99.67 99.67 99.63 99.54 99.57 99.55 99.53 99.74 99.64 99.70 99.68 99.77 99.76

Mg# 0.49 0.58 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.42 0.44 0.17 0.15 0.26 0.19

ASI 0.84 0.70 0.86 0.90 0.89 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.17 0.97 0.83 1.17 0.94 1.28 1.16

Volatile free

SiO2 60.38 52.67 65.05 65.26 65.17 74.93 74.81 74.94 74.59 61.69 72.93 76.71 75.07 74.39 78.04

TiO2 0.83 1.13 0.61 0.63 0.63 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.75 0.20 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.13

Al2O3 16.35 17.26 15.27 15.30 15.29 13.23 13.38 13.18 13.39 17.63 13.10 12.53 12.51 14.53 12.13

Fe2O3 1.73 1.81 1.22 1.23 1.23 0.69 0.68 0.69 0.68 2.92 0.46 0.77 0.89 1.29 1.02

FeO 4.31 6.05 3.04 3.07 3.06 1.39 1.36 1.39 1.35 2.13 1.21 0.94 1.10 0.49 0.58

MnO 0.10 0.17 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.17 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.05

MgO 2.82 5.26 2.15 2.35 2.34 0.63 0.60 0.61 0.60 1.76 0.65 0.17 0.17 0.29 0.18

CaO 4.76 9.04 3.82 3.46 3.46 1.11 1.37 1.37 1.37 3.79 2.77 0.72 1.07 0.32 0.81

Na2O 4.53 4.09 4.32 4.28 4.33 2.51 2.52 2.55 2.58 4.46 3.52 2.31 3.83 3.34 3.10

K2O 3.29 1.73 3.62 3.53 3.56 4.50 4.32 4.28 4.45 3.94 4.54 5.26 4.68 4.88 3.64

P2O5 0.19 0.23 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.26 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03

Sr 223 302 225 208 197 109 117 118 116 331 225 103 89 78 84

Ba 572 297 587 797 760 854 824 810 810 815 656 916 856 787 553

Ni 19 27 19 13 13 2 2 2 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Cr 91 140 107 55 59 3 2 1 2 50 189 349 436 152 135

Zr 144 122 133 147 146 141 146 152 140 234 147 120 117 142 123

Q 5.66 0.00 13.93 14.72 14.34 38.92 38.90 38.99 37.87 7.83 28.84 40.43 31.70 34.22 43.28

Pl 53.28 56.96 48.51 48.68 48.77 26.63 28.07 28.24 28.49 54.60 36.47 23.22 35.74 29.93 30.27

Or 19.62 10.34 21.57 21.04 21.22 26.77 25.65 25.47 26.48 23.46 27.01 31.20 27.78 28.96 21.57

Ne 0.00 0.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

C 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.32 2.17 1.98 1.96 0.00 0.00 1.74 0.00 3.20 1.66

Di 6.70 16.46 5.56 3.64 3.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 5.93 0.00 1.87 0.00 0.00

En 11.75 0.00 8.28 9.73 9.58 4.34 4.22 4.32 4.22 10.64 0.95 2.84 2.26 3.12 2.65

Ol 0.00 11.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Il 1.60 2.15 1.16 1.22 1.22 0.55 0.53 0.53 0.53 1.42 0.40 0.23 0.27 0.27 0.25

Mt 0.96 1.25 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.77 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.26 0.25

Ap 0.44 0.53 0.35 0.32 0.32 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.63 0.14 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.07

Zr 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

Chr 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.03

Total 100.05 100.07 100.09 100.07 100.07 100.05 100.05 100.04 100.06 100.07 100.07 100.09 100.13 100.09 100.06

Geochemistry

Table 5.4 Major element, selected trace element and CIPW calculations for the Jiamusi dykes Samples JD12 JD16 JD27 JD06 JD10 JD14 JD20 JD22 JD01 JD07 JD11 JD17 JD18 JD21 JD23

SiO2 59.63 72.47 71.36 74.67 74.99 74.47 75.65 75.52 51.16 47.97 49.89 44.47 46.33 45.85 51.27

TiO2 0.8 0.21 0.24 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.13 1.33 1.6 1.48 1.51 1.7 1.34 1.17

Al2O3 16.11 13.65 13.79 12.65 12.5 12.18 12.32 11.99 16.19 14.44 15.12 14.68 15.45 16.39 16.15

Fe2O3 6.49 2.26 2.87 2.36 2.01 2.23 2.15 1.99 8.28 9.79 8.53 10.8 10.74 9.61 9.26 MnO 0.12 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.2 MgO 3.12 0.32 0.26 0.02 0.18 0.13 0.01 0.11 5.01 8.03 7.83 8.98 6.8 8.12 6.1 CaO 5.51 0.57 0.83 0.41 0.69 0.52 0.43 1.13 7.85 8.25 5.79 10.33 9.85 8.93 6.64

Na2O 3.01 4.57 4.28 4.08 4.83 2.52 4.45 3.54 4.4 2.3 2.9 2.47 2.81 2.68 3.55

K2O 2.98 4.39 4.42 4.86 2.68 6.22 4.04 4.44 1.64 1.15 2.74 0.79 1.45 0.7 1.58

P2O5 0.23 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.29 0.42 0.36 0.51 0.7 0.28 0.22 LOI 1.96 1.19 1.46 0.43 1.7 1.16 0.47 0.75 3.97 5.91 5.28 5.59 4.13 5.94 4.16 Total 99.97 99.74 99.65 99.69 99.79 99.65 99.73 99.68 100.25 100 100.07100.33 100.13 99.99 100.31 Mg# 0.11 0.11 0.17 0.02 0.17 0.01 0.51 0.24 0.57 0.64 0.67 0.65 0.58 0.65 0.59 ASI 1.03 0.95 1.04 1.00 1.03 0.99 0.9 1.03 0.71 0.74 0.85 0.64 0.66 0.78 0.83 Volatile free

SiO2 60.82 73.34 72.42 74.99 76.29 75.35 76.01 76.09 53.27 50.98 52.67 47.10 48.32 48.75 53.49

TiO2 0.82 0.21 0.25 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.13 1.39 1.70 1.56 1.60 1.77 1.42 1.22

Al2O3 16.44 13.81 14.00 12.70 12.71 12.32 12.38 12.08 16.86 15.35 15.97 15.55 16.12 17.42 16.85

Fe2O3 3.61 1.14 1.25 1.30 1.46 1.02 1.09 1.03 3.82 5.94 3.64 4.61 5.54 4.52 2.94 FeO 2.71 1.03 1.49 0.96 0.53 1.11 0.96 0.88 4.32 4.02 4.82 6.14 5.10 5.12 6.04 MnO 0.12 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.15 0.16 0.19 0.18 0.16 0.21 MgO 3.19 0.33 0.27 0.02 0.18 0.13 0.01 0.11 5.22 8.54 8.27 9.51 7.09 8.63 6.36 CaO 5.62 0.58 0.84 0.41 0.70 0.53 0.43 1.14 8.18 8.77 6.11 10.94 10.27 9.49 6.93

Na2O 3.07 4.62 4.34 4.10 4.92 2.55 4.47 3.57 4.58 2.44 3.06 2.62 2.93 2.85 3.71

K2O 3.04 4.45 4.49 4.88 2.72 6.30 4.06 4.48 1.70 1.22 2.89 0.84 1.52 0.74 1.65

P2O5 0.23 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.31 0.44 0.38 0.54 0.73 0.30 0.23 Sr 461 94 112 59 218 133 48 64 158 447 349 434 487 303 297 Ba 441 511 621 48 247 124 42 36 201 402 670 350 478 216 274 Ni N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Cr 155 245 290 278 111 267 206 247 167 319 278 330 170 286 227 Zr 160 211 260 332 337 342 330 331 165 178 170 160 183 128 114 Q 12.40 26.54 26.26 30.29 34.33 33.93 32.45 34.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pl 48.37 42.01 40.96 36.71 45.28 24.23 39.70 34.10 57.78 48.41 47.54 48.13 50.12 57.22 56.17 Or 18.08 26.42 26.71 29.02 16.13 37.41 24.11 26.59 10.11 7.27 17.20 5.02 9.04 4.43 9.81 Ne 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.92 0.00 0.00 1.40 0.79 0.00 0.00 C 0.00 0.40 0.54 0.00 0.40 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Di 3.74 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.28 1.65 15.01 11.03 5.49 18.68 16.56 10.45 7.08 En 14.36 3.78 4.47 3.15 3.21 3.34 2.76 2.08 0.00 25.34 14.30 0.00 0.00 6.95 17.90 Ol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.57 2.11 10.30 20.78 16.76 16.02 4.79 Il 1.56 0.40 0.47 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.25 2.64 3.27 2.98 3.06 3.40 2.73 2.34 Mt 0.97 0.33 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.33 0.32 0.29 1.26 1.52 1.32 1.67 1.64 1.49 1.41 Ap 0.56 0.09 0.14 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.72 1.04 0.88 1.25 1.71 0.70 0.53 Zr 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 Chr 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.06 0.04 Total 100.10100.07 100.09100.09 100.07100.07 100.04100.06 100.07100.09 100.10100.09 100.08100.08 100.10

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

16 Volatile-free 1 5 10 14 2 6 11 3 7 12 phonolite 4 8 12 9 foidite tephri- phonolite trachyte 10 rhyolite phonote- phrite trachy- andesite 8 tephrite basaltic (ol<10%) trachy- 22 andesite 6 basanite Na O+K O (ol>10%)

4 dacite picro- andesite basalt basalt basaltic 2 andesite

0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

SiO2 Fig 5.1 TAS diagram After Le Maitre, 2002; Legend: 1 Yilin Formation rhyolite, 2 Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, 3 Wulaga granite porphyry, 4 Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt, 5 Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry sample HN18-2, 6 Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry, 7 Huanan composite dyke rhyolite porphyry, 8 Granite porphyry country rock to the Huanan composite dyke, 9 Diorite enclave in the granite porphyry country rock, 10 Rhyolite from the Jiamusi bimodal dykes, 11 Dolerite from the Jiamusi bimodal dykes, 12 Late Mesozoic volcanic rocks of NE China [data from Wang et al. (2006b), Zhang et al. (2008b), and Zhang et al. (2011a)]

* FeO 0.0 1.0

1 5 10 0.2 2 6 11 0.8 3 7 12 4 8 FB 9 0.4 BA 0.6 A B

D B Tholeiitic 0.6 Calc-alkaline BA 0.4 R A D 0.8 R 0.2

1.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Na22 O+K O MgO

Fig 5.2 AFM diagram Legend as in Fig 5.1; B: basalt, BA: basaltic andesite, A: andesite, D: dacite, R: rhyolite, FB: Ferro-basalt

Geochemistry

1 5 10 6 2 6 11 3 7 5 4 8 9

2 foidite

KO 3 - high K calc-alkaline 2

medium-K calc-alkaline 1 low- K tholeiitic 0 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

SiO2

Fig 5.3 K2O vs. SiO2 diagram Legend as in Fig 5.1

3.0

2.5 Metaluminous Peraluminous I-S boundary

2.0

A/NK 1.5

1.0 Peralkaline

0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 A/CNK Fig 5.4 A/NK - A/CNK acidic rocks discrimination diagram Legend as in Fig 5.1

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

5.2 Trace and rare earth element

Trace element analyses were carried out at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, using a Finnigan Element Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP–MS); and the State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research, Nanjing University, using a PerkinElmer Elan 6000 ICP–MS. The pre-treatment follows Li et al. (2007b). Firstly, 40 mg of each sample was weighed in Teflon beakers and dissolved in 1 M HF on a hotplate at 100°C for 4 hours to dissolve the silicate and liberate SiF2. Then, 1M HF+HNO3 mixture was added to the Teflon beakers and sealed with steel sleeves. The samples were boiled at high pressure for 48 hours at about 190°C to make sure that all of the powder was dissolved. The samples were then dried on a hotplate at 100°C and dissolved twice in

1M HNO3 to remove SiF2. They were then boiled again in 2ml 1M HNO3 at high pressure for 4 hours at 120°C. Finally, 1 ml of solution was pipetted and diluted in 5%

HNO3 solution spiked with an internal standard Rh (10 ppb) for analysis. The analytical precisions were 5–10% for REE, Rb, Sr, Cs, Ba, U, Th, Pb, Zr and Hf, and 20% for other trace elements.

Trace and rare earth element data for the Yilin Formation rhyolite and the Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry are presented in Table 5.5.

The Yilin Formation rhyolite samples (ML06) have REE contents in the range of

123-136 ppm, with high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 17.9–20.1], and moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.36–0.43) (Fig 5.5a). In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagram (Fig 5.5b), the rhyolite samples are rich in LILE including Rb, Th, U and K but depleted in Ba; they are also depleted in HFSE including Nb, Ta, P and Ti. Samples ML06-2 and ML06-3 have high Sr contents of ~310 ppm.

The Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry samples (JY21-1, 2, 3) have REE contents in the range of 85-89 ppm, with high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 17.5– 20.0] (Fig 5.5c) and Nb/Ta ratios of 10.6-11.0. In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagram (Fig 5.5d), they are rich in Sr (~320 ppm) but depleted in Ba, Th, Nb, Ta, Ti and P. The granite porphyry samples (JY21-4, 5, 6) have REE pattern similar to the hornblende granite porphyry, but have minor negative Eu anomalies and no Sr enrichment.

Geochemistry

1000 1000 (a) (b) ML06-1 ML06-1 ML06-2 ML06-2 ML06-3 ML06-3 100 ML06-4 ML06-4 100 ML06-5 ML06-5 ML06-6 ML06-6

1 0.1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Th K Ta Ce Pr P Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Er Yb Ba U Nb La Pb Sr Nd Hf Eu Gd Dy Ho Tm Lu 1000 1000 (c) (d) JY21-1 JY21-1 JY21-2 JY21-2 JY21-3 100 JY21-3 JY21-4 JY21-4 100 JY21-5 JY21-5 JY21-6 JY21-6

1 0.1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Th K Ta Ce Pr P Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Er Yb Ba U Nb La Pb Sr Nd Hf Eu Gd Dy Ho Tm Lu Fig 5.5 REE and spider diagrams for the Yilin rhyolite and Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry Chondrite and primitive mantle normalization values after Sun & McDonough, 1989

Trace and rare earth element data of the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt see Table 5.6.

The Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt samples (HG20-1 to HG20-6) have REE contents in the range of 116-122 ppm, with high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 5.4–5.7] and no Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.98–1.00) (Fig 5.6). The primitive mantle normalized spider diagram is characterized by positive spikes in Pb, and minor troughs in Nb, Ta, P, Ti and Y, with Nb/Ta ratios of 14.1–15.0.

1000 1000 (a) (b)

100 100

10 10

1 1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Th K Ta Ce Pr P Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Er Yb Ba U Nb La Pb Sr Nd Hf Eu Gd Dy Ho Tm Lu

Fig 5.6 REE and spider diagrams for the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

Trace and rare earth element data for the andesite and rhyolite porphyry, diorite enclave, and granite porphyry from the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock are presented in Table 5.7.

The andesite porphyry samples have REE contents in the range of 103-133 ppm, with high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 6.2–11.7] and negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.62–0.83) (Fig 5.7a). They are rich in LILE and Pb, depleted in Nb, Ta, Sr, P, and Ti (Fig 5.7b). The rhyolite porphyry samples have REE contents in the range of 142 to 146 ppm, with high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 17.6–18.4] and negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.49–0.52) (Fig 5.7a). They are rich in LILE and Pb, depleted in Nb, Ta, Sr, P, and Ti (Fig 5.7b). The REE patterns of the andesite porphyry and rhyolite porphyry cross between Nd and Sm (Fig 5.7a), similar to the pattern of the composite dyke samples described by Stern and Voegeli, (1987).

Fig 5.7 REE diagram and spider diagrams for the rocks of the Huanan composite dyke (a, b) andesite porphyry and rhyolite porphyry, (c, d) diorite enclave, and granite porphyry

The granite porphyry samples have REE contents in the range of 166-199 ppm, with * high LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 12.7–15.7] and negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu = 0.26–0.42) (Fig 5.7c). In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagram (Fig 5.8d),

Geochemistry they are characterized by positive spikes in LILE but troughs in Nb, Ta, Sr, P, Eu, and Ti, with Nb/Ta ratios of 10.0. The diorite enclave has a REE content of 180 ppm and a high LREE/HREE ratio [(La/Yb)N = 12.8], with minor negative Eu anomaly of 0.85. It is depleted in Nb, Ta, and Ti, but enriched in LILE, with Nb/Ta ratios of 13.9.

Trace and rare earth element data for the Jiamusi bimodal dykes are presented in Table 5.8.

The rhyolite samples have REE contents in the range of 224-289 ppm, with high

LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 27.8–37.9] and strong negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.06–0.12) (Fig 5.8a). In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagram (Fig 5.8b), the rhyolite samples are characterized by positive spikes in Rb, Th, U, K, and Pb, and troughs in Ba, Nb, Ta, Ti, Eu, Sr and P.

The dolerite samples have REE contents in the range of 90-232 ppm, with high

LREE/HREE ratios [(La/Yb)N of 19.4–46.0] and weak negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.85–1.02) (Fig 5.8c). In the primitive mantle normalized spider diagram (Fig 5.8d), they are characterized by positive spikes in Rb, K, Pb and P, and minor troughs in Nb, Ta, Ti and a more pronounced anomaly in Sr.

1000 1000 (a) (b)

100

1 0.1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Th K Ta Ce Pr P Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Er Yb Ba U Nb La Pb Sr Nd Hf Eu Gd Dy Ho Tm Lu 1000 1000 (c) (d)

100 100

10 10

1 1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Th K Ta Ce Pr P Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Er Yb Ba U Nb La Pb Sr Nd Hf Eu Gd Dy Ho Tm Lu

Fig 5.8 REE and spider diagrams for the rhyolite and dolerite of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes (a, b) rhyolite; (c, d) dolerite

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

Table 5.5 Trace and rare earth element for the Yilin rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Samples ML06-1 ML06-2 ML06-3 ML06-4 ML06-5 ML06-6 JY21-1 JY21-2 JY21-3 JY21-4 JY21-5 JY21-6

Rock type Rhyolite Hornblende granite porphyry Granite porphyry

Sc 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 4.3 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.8 4.2

Ti 496 472 457 514 524 504 2371 2344 2436 2350 2503 2433

V 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.9 1.5 38.8 42.1 43.9 37.6 41.4 38.6

Cr 2.6 5.8 1.4 0.9 3.1 1.4 20.9 22.0 32.0 26.4 26.6 19.8

Mn 227 228 40 244 238 233 202 179 218 341 353 240

Co 28.8 39.4 35.4 52.7 47.0 45.5 48.0 48.5 48.1 36.0 37.4 37.0

Ni 0.8 1.0 2.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 18.8 20.0 18.6 13.9 14.7 13.0

Cu 2.4 2.0 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.0 13.8 18.0 13.7 30.5 29.8 14.0

Zn 33.1 40.1 15.7 29.7 33.4 29.9 29.5 35.3 30.5 55.6 53.2 56.3

Ga 15.2 14.0 13.1 15.8 16.1 15.6 18.8 18.5 18.9 18.9 19.2 18.0

Rb 188 128 58 250 210 204 153 145 161 141 145 154

Sr 82 325 307 80 72 71 327 322 318 183 186 182

Y 12.3 12.7 12.4 12.8 13.0 12.3 8.3 8.3 8.4 7.5 8.1 7.5

Zr 129 109 118 137 132 127 155 150 139 164 155 146

Nb 12.0 11.4 10.1 12.2 12.1 11.9 6.8 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.0

Cs 5.8 10.9 1.5 9.7 8.6 8.3 8.8 8.0 8.7 8.3 8.4 8.2

Ba 510 510 777 517 495 489 558 556 560 516 543 528

La 36.1 33.4 35.4 37.6 34.1 33.4 18.3 18.9 18.5 18.2 18.6 19.0

Ce 62.0 55.4 57.9 61.0 57.8 56.9 36.5 37.2 36.5 37.0 37.2 39.0

Pr 6.23 5.73 5.87 6.31 5.88 5.78 4.23 4.35 4.25 4.39 4.26 4.41

Nd 19.5 17.2 18.0 19.0 18.0 17.7 15.8 15.8 15.4 15.9 16.0 16.0

Sm 3.21 2.92 2.93 3.20 3.03 2.98 3.17 3.19 3.13 3.08 3.18 3.14

Eu 0.34 0.31 0.37 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.75 0.76 0.67

Gd 2.54 2.24 2.30 2.49 2.31 2.28 2.49 2.44 2.49 2.40 2.50 2.43

Tb 0.40 0.38 0.38 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.35 0.32 0.35 0.33

Dy 2.30 2.21 2.19 2.29 2.24 2.23 1.77 1.79 1.72 1.68 1.74 1.61

Ho 0.46 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.32 0.30

Er 1.32 1.22 1.28 1.28 1.29 1.26 0.81 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.82 0.76

Tm 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11

Yb 1.40 1.26 1.29 1.34 1.35 1.34 0.75 0.76 0.74 0.65 0.76 0.71

Lu 0.20 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.11

Hf 4.34 3.74 3.90 4.38 4.25 4.17 3.92 3.79 3.59 4.31 4.02 3.74

Ta 1.54 1.41 1.39 1.50 1.49 1.49 0.62 0.62 0.63 0.66 0.66 0.67

Pb 20.3 18.6 19.5 20.1 20.2 19.6 17.3 17.3 17.1 18.3 18.7 21.8

Th 18.7 17.6 17.4 19.0 18.7 18.2 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.5 6.8

U 4.07 3.83 3.09 4.09 3.99 3.94 2.29 2.25 2.30 2.24 2.42 2.35

Geochemistry

Table 5.6 Trace and rare earth element for the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt Samples HG20-1 HG20-2 HG20-3 HG20-4 HG20-5 HG20-6

Sc 14.6 13.3 14.3 13.7 14.0 14.0 Ti 10546 10012 10229 10247 10336 10191 V 133 122 128 126 129 133 Cr 15 10 10 5 6 15 Mn 966 1044 1136 1035 1008 1016 Co 32.1 31.7 32.8 30.5 30.6 30.7 Ni 15.1 18.4 15.6 15.6 15.8 15.4 Cu 33.4 36.9 28.1 31.0 30.8 34.3 Zn 108 119 105 103 105 103 Ga 22.5 21.3 21.9 21.7 22.1 21.5 Rb 33 32 33 33 35 33 Sr 453 425 440 440 444 422 Y 28.5 26.3 28.4 27.7 28.7 27.0 Zr 197 185 193 189 197 182 Nb 14.2 13.3 13.9 13.5 13.9 13.2 Cs 0.88 1.35 1.23 0.74 0.78 0.76 Ba 385 368 379 370 381 363 La 20.9 20.5 21.1 20.0 21.0 20.4 Ce 44.3 43.3 43.8 41.7 43.5 42.0 Pr 5.78 5.43 5.67 5.42 5.73 5.47 Nd 23.5 22.1 23.2 22.5 23.6 22.6 Sm 5.63 5.30 5.53 5.30 5.62 5.25 Eu 1.85 1.75 1.83 1.77 1.84 1.73 Gd 5.83 5.55 5.89 5.55 6.03 5.60 Tb 0.93 0.90 0.94 0.92 0.96 0.90 Dy 5.52 5.21 5.53 5.32 5.60 5.33 Ho 1.13 1.10 1.13 1.12 1.13 1.08 Er 3.06 2.85 3.02 2.94 3.03 2.88 Tm 0.45 0.41 0.43 0.41 0.43 0.41 Yb 2.79 2.57 2.76 2.66 2.80 2.64 Lu 0.42 0.40 0.41 0.40 0.43 0.39 Hf 4.69 4.49 4.66 4.42 4.63 4.48 Ta 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.9 0.97 0.91 Pb 6.0 6.8 6.4 5.9 6.5 6.0 Th 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.9 4.0 3.8 U 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

Table 5.7 Trace and rare earth element for the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock

Samples HN18-1HN18-2 HN18-3HN18-4 HN18-5HN18-6HN18-7HN18-8HN18-9 HN14-1 HN14-2HN14-6HN14-10 HN14-12

Rock type Basaltic andesite Rhyolite Andesite Granitic porphyry Ad i Sc 17.9 26.2 17.7 11.5 12.2 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 10.0 4.2 3.0 3.5 3.5

Ti 4526 5905 4400 3037 3162 1465 1366 1381 1346 4364 1154 639 619 509

V 97 154 101 59 65 11 11 10 10 52 13 6 3 3

Cr 91 140 107 55 59 3 2 1 2 50 189 436 152 135

Mn 685 1167 658 584 592 304 310 318 302 1127 557 520 186 319

Co 22.3 28.6 20.9 18.6 20.8 18.7 19.9 22.7 19.4 11.6 3.1 2.0 0.7 1.1

Ni 19.1 27.4 18.9 12.8 12.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Cu 15.0 25.4 13.6 12.6 15.5 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.9 22.5 17.7 59.2 20.4 16.1

Zn 70 76 69 55 54 45 44 46 40 41 114 38 51 37

Ga 17.8 18.0 18.0 16.1 16.9 15.6 15.3 15.3 14.9 20.7 15.2 12.2 22.2 18.5

Rb 99 57 104 109 105 166 160 162 158 58 134 104 136 109

Sr 223 302 225 208 197 109 117 118 116 331 225 89 78 84

Y 20.8 24.3 20.9 19.1 18.6 13.7 13.1 13.6 13.1 30.0 26.5 22.1 19.1 21.4

Zr 144 122 133 147 146 141 146 152 140 234 147 117 142 123

Nb 9.1 7.7 9.2 9.7 9.7 10.3 9.9 10.1 9.8 12.2 10.5 11.1 12.5 10.1

Cs 4.49 6.21 4.59 2.85 2.83 7.19 6.61 6.37 6.36 5.74 1.84 0.95 2.52 3.27

Ba 572 297 587 797 760 854 824 810 810 815 656 856 787 553

La 26.7 19.0 25.3 29.8 31.0 37.8 36.0 36.9 36.3 39.2 43.8 41.0 51.0 47.8

Ce 51.8 38.6 49.1 56.8 56.9 64.9 65.7 64.0 63.5 78.8 79.3 73.9 88.7 83.1

Pr 5.93 5.00 5.78 6.35 6.28 6.95 6.81 6.97 6.83 7.49 6.69 6.77 8.32 7.36

Nd 21.5 19.5 21.1 21.6 21.8 22.3 21.8 22.3 21.7 30.5 26.3 25.9 31.3 27.6

Sm 4.33 4.28 4.26 3.98 3.96 3.72 3.57 3.76 3.58 5.81 5.29 4.34 5.51 4.62

Eu 0.96 1.19 0.92 0.75 0.76 0.54 0.52 0.52 0.49 1.44 0.62 0.44 0.41 0.33

Gd 4.01 4.47 3.97 3.44 3.56 2.73 2.69 2.68 2.59 4.61 3.86 3.35 3.68 3.39

Tb 0.65 0.71 0.62 0.56 0.56 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.41 0.58 0.49 0.48 0.45 0.43

Dy 3.76 4.20 3.75 3.28 3.36 2.40 2.41 2.43 2.42 4.95 4.31 4.13 4.07 3.79

Ho 0.78 0.89 0.77 0.69 0.69 0.50 0.48 0.49 0.47 0.86 0.75 0.75 0.68 0.68

Er 2.20 2.38 2.13 1.94 2.00 1.39 1.42 1.41 1.36 2.57 2.43 2.24 1.96 2.06

Tm 0.32 0.35 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.37 0.40 0.30 0.33 0.35

Yb 2.11 2.21 2.05 1.96 1.89 1.51 1.46 1.49 1.41 2.21 2.40 2.31 2.34 2.23

Lu 0.32 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.24 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.35 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.29

Hf 3.62 3.08 3.26 3.83 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.15 3.86 6.61 5.3 4.81 5.72 4.47

Ta 0.82 0.56 0.78 0.94 0.94 1.19 1.16 1.18 1.13 0.88 1.04 1.11 1.24 1

Pb 17.1 8.1 18.3 18.8 18.8 23.6 25.0 23.5 23.9 21.6 22.6 35.3 21.8 32.9

Th 8.5 4.0 8.4 11.1 11.2 15.7 15.4 15.6 15.2 7.8 19.9 18.4 20.3 20.4

U 2.2 1.1 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.1

Geochemistry

Table 5.8 Trace and rare earth element for the Jiamusi dykes

Samples JD12 JD16 JD27 JD06 JD10 JD14 JD20 JD22 JD01 JD07 JD11 JD17 JD18 JD21 JD23

Rock type Country rock Rhyolite dyke Dolerite dyke

Sc 14.5 3.5 5.4 2.9 2.6 2.4 1.7 1.7 13.4 9.1 13.0 10.4 11.2 10.4 14.6

Ti 4926 1066 1337 629 617 641 578 565 8016 9127 8982 8407 9406 8176 7066

V 109 7 9 4 7 5 3 5 171 174 174 193 201 213 198

Cr 155 245 290 278 111 267 206 247 167 319 278 330 170 286 227

Mn 783 463 562 397 369 388 365 378 848 1084 1197 1327 1318 1106 1408

Co 15.2 1.9 2.1 1.5 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.9 26.3 33.0 26.4 40.9 33.2 38.4 28.8

Ni N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Cu 37.5 35.0 42.3 38.7 19.8 32.3 24.9 30.8 56.6 54.4 58.3 52.7 43.6 82.5 40.4

Zn 36 44 41 26 25 44 33 36 76 127 189 142 169 103 134

Ga 16.1 14.3 17.4 17.0 13.6 14.3 19.3 17.7 22.0 25.9 17.1 23.1 23.4 24.9 18.7

Rb 52 160 163 199 110 293 171 181 67 29 119 30 47 28 59

Sr 462 94 112 59 218 133 48 64 158 447 349 434 487 303 297

Y 29.7 25.2 37.4 52.7 56.9 55.3 50.3 52.9 28.5 23.3 25.5 23.9 30.2 23.6 25.0

Zr 160 211 260 332 337 342 330 331 165 178 170 160 183 128 114

Nb 10.0 13.5 14.8 22.8 22.0 23.4 23.9 23.0 14.5 22.0 17.2 14.3 15.6 13.9 8.9

Cs 2.93 1.53 2.68 1.79 2.30 3.08 1.11 1.21 2.03 1.07 2.52 66.93 41.05 1.97 1.78

Ba 441 512 622 48 248 124 43 37 201 403 671 350 478 216 274

La 26.4 36.4 42.2 61.5 61.4 62.1 56.6 45.9 23.4 30.5 21.0 30.3 40.4 15.0 14.7

Ce 59.0 61.1 73.8 98.6 122.8 114.1 98.2 95.4 51.4 71.3 48.1 75.4 100.4 34.6 33.6

Pr 5.74 6.19 7.34 11.03 11.73 11.46 10.88 9.22 6.18 8.89 6.11 9.99 12.52 4.43 4.14

Nd 25.8 23.5 30.5 45.9 48.2 46.1 42.2 35.0 25.4 33.5 23.3 36.7 47.3 16.9 17.7

Sm 5.82 4.55 6.68 9.41 9.89 9.80 8.31 8.37 4.66 5.72 4.34 5.95 7.22 3.91 3.80

Eu 1.35 0.56 0.74 0.30 0.33 0.34 0.16 0.18 1.36 1.78 1.34 1.77 2.21 1.35 1.13

Gd 4.89 3.69 5.16 7.95 8.22 7.84 7.54 7.11 5.14 5.73 4.77 5.69 6.88 4.18 4.13

Tb 0.64 0.51 0.70 1.01 1.08 1.00 0.96 0.97 0.81 0.77 0.71 0.73 0.97 0.66 0.67

Dy 5.54 4.85 6.45 9.50 10.27 9.61 8.96 9.23 4.70 4.82 4.61 4.49 5.71 4.48 4.06

Ho 0.87 0.82 1.18 1.63 1.83 1.68 1.54 1.60 0.93 0.91 0.86 0.90 1.18 0.84 0.83

Er 2.73 2.73 3.52 4.92 5.71 5.26 4.74 4.83 2.91 2.76 2.74 2.68 3.11 2.69 2.61

Tm 0.40 0.39 0.55 0.78 0.89 0.80 0.77 0.76 0.44 0.37 0.39 0.38 0.46 0.39 0.41

Yb 2.66 2.90 3.82 4.97 5.65 5.22 5.01 4.97 2.67 2.00 2.19 2.18 2.73 2.29 2.28

Lu 0.40 0.43 0.57 0.72 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.78 0.42 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.45 0.41 0.39

Hf 5.21 7.02 8.48 10.52 11.44 11.26 10.91 11.62 3.98 4.44 3.53 3.7 4.32 2.8 2.91

Ta 0.92 1.24 1.28 1.65 1.88 1.91 1.8 1.8 0.82 1.04 0.79 0.65 0.76 0.8 0.51

Pb 13.4 31.9 25.2 25.5 22.9 18.1 29.6 19.7 8.4 5.3 5.3 4.9 6.8 3.1 5.8

Th 9.8 19.0 17.1 18.8 20.8 19.3 18.7 19.1 4.9 3.5 2.6 2.4 3.5 1.5 2.9

U 2.4 4.0 3.3 4.1 4.9 4.5 3.9 4.2 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.8

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

5.3 Sr-Nd isotopes

The Sr–Nd isotopes were analyzed at the State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research, Nanjing University, using a Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer (TIMS) Finnigan Triton TI and at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, using a Thermo Finnigan Neptune MC-ICP-MS. Sr isotopic ratios were normalized to a 86Sr/88Sr ratio of 0.1194, and Nd-isotopic ratios to a 146Nd/144Nd ratio of 0.7219. During the period of analysis, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the Sr standard NIST SRM987 was 0.710252±0.000016 (2σ, n=65), and the 143Nd/144Nd ratio of the Nd standard JNdi-1 was 0.512121±0.000016 (2σ, n=67). The calculation of the model age uses the measured SHRIMP 206Pb/238U ages. Calculation for Nd two-stage model age is based on contant (147Sm/144Nd)c = 0.115 (average continental crust, samples from Amazon, Yangtze, Mississippi rivers; Goldstein et al., 1984,

143 144 1988), and average depleted mantle ( Nd/ Nd)DM = 0.513151（Jacobsen and

147 144 Wasserburg, 1980, ( Sm/ Nd)DM = 0.2136 (Rehkamper & Hofmann 1997). Calculated εNd vs. initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios and other late Mesozoic mafic igneous rocks in eastern China are shown in Fig 5.9.

The Sr-Nd isotope results of the Yilin Formation rhyolite are shown in Table 5.9. The 87 86 rhyolite has similar εNd(t) values of +0.3-+0.7. However, the ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios are scattered and range from 0.702339 to 0.709684 whereas the 87Sr/86Sr ratios vary from 0.707172 to 0.7156054, and the 87Rb/86Sr ratios vary from 0.54 to 8.98. Hence the Sr isotope system was disturbed by alteration. Sample ML06-2 with the highest 87 86 εNd(t) value of 0.75, high Mg# of 0.51, high Sr content of 325 ppm, and ( Sr/ Sr)i ratio similar with the ratios of the Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, most probably is close to the primary melt composition.

The Sr-Nd isotope results of the Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry are shown in 87 86 Table 5.9. The (hornblende) granite porphyry has ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios at ~0.7055, and

εNd(t) values of ~ +0.5, similar with the Sr-Nd isotope of the basic rocks from the Songliao Basin and Great Xing’an Range, falling in the OIB field. There are slightly differences in the Sr isotopic ratios between the hornblende granite porphyry and the 87 86 granite porphyry: the hornblende granite porphyry has a slightly lower ( Sr/ Sr)i of 87 86 0.7054 whereas the granite porphyry has ( Sr/ Sr)i values of 0.7059.

The Sr-Nd isotope results of the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt are shown in

Geochemistry

Table 5.10. The isotopic data for the basalt are essentially similar, with εNd(t) values 87 86 of +2.92-+3.00, and ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios ~0.7057. These Sr-Nd isotopic features are similar to the dolerite sample JD01 of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes, indicating a 87 86 depleted mantle source. Their high ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios were possibly caused by contamination by a continental crust component or oceanic crust component like sea water altered basalt.

The Sr-Nd isotope results of the Huanan composite dyke are shown in Table 5.10. 87 86 The andesite porphyry has ( Sr/ Sr)i of 0.7089-0.7091, and εNd(t) of -1.06 to -3.26.

Sample HN18-2 has the highest εNd(t) value of -1.06. Samples HN18-3, 4, and 5 have 87 86 lower εNd(t) value of -3. The rhyolite porphyry has ( Sr/ Sr)i of 0.7089-0.7091, and

εNd(t) of -4.5. The Nd isotopes show that the contamination of basic rock is related to the distance to the acidic rocks. However, both the andesite porphyry and rhyolite porphyry have similar Sr isotope ratios, reflecting that Sr is more susceptible than Nd during contamination. The country rock granite porphyry has εNd(t) values of -3.06 to 87 86 -3.60, and ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios ranging from 0.707791 to 0.709550.

The Sr-Nd isotope results of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes are shown in Table 5.10. The

εNd(t) data for the rhyolite are essentially similar, ranging from +0.49 to +1.66, and single-stage Nd model ages ranging from 772 to 1149 Ma. However, there is a 87 86 two-fold subdivision based on the ( Sr/ Sr)i with groups at 0.7044 and 0.7062. The

εNd(t) data from the dolerite range from –1.22 to +3.26, and the single-stage Nd model ages range from 599 to 865 Ma and are thus younger than those of the 87 86 rhyolites. The ( Sr/ Sr)i data range from 0.705749–0.707404, and thus overlap with the higher values obtained from the rhyolite dykes.

Only the rhyolite porphyry of the Huanan composite dyke was solely derived from continental crust (see Chapter 6), whereas other types of igneous rocks in the Jiamusi Block were derived from mantle, mantle mixed with crust, or from oceanic crust. So only the Nd model age of the rhyolite porphyry from the Huanan composite dyke can approximate the age of the continental crustal protolith. The Nd model age shows that the Mesoproterozoic (~1.2 Ga) was an important period of the crustal growth of the Jiamusi Block (Fig 5.10).

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

87 86 Fig 5.9 The εNd(t) vs. initial Sr/ Sr diagram for mid-Cretaceous igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block Data for Songliao Basin after Wang et al. (2006b); data for Great Xing'an Range after Zhang et al. (2008b); data for Southeast China Late Cretaceous dykes after Ge et al. (2003), Zhang et al. (2007) and Qin et al. (2010); data for South China mafic rocks after Yan et al. (2008); data for North China Craton after Liu et al. (2008). Legend as in Fig 5.1.

Muling rhyolite Huanan andesite porphyry Wulaga biotite granite porphyry Huanan rhyolite porphyry 8 Wulaga granite porphyry Huanan granitic porphyry Hegang basalt

Number 4

0 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 C TDM (Ma)

Fig 5.10 Nd model age distribution for mid-Cretaceous igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block

Geochemistry

Table 5.9 Sr-Nd isotopes for the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Rb Sr Sm Nd 87 86 87 86 87 86 147 144 143 144 C Rb/ Sr Sr/ Sr±2σ (Sr/ Sr)i Sm/ Nd Nd/ Nd εNd TDM TDM (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

Yilin Formation rhyolite

ML06-1 188 82 6.64 0.7144130±5 0.704599 3.2 19.5 0.0996 0.512593±3 0.40 747 847

ML06-2 128 325 1.14 0.7071720±5 0.705484 2.9 17.2 0.1026 0.512611±4 0.73 742 822

ML06-3 58 307 0.54 0.7104860±6 0.709684 2.9 18.0 0.0982 0.512590±4 0.36 742 850

ML06-4 250 80 8.98 0.7156054±5 0.702339 3.2 19.0 0.1017 0.512600±25 0.51 752 839

ML06-5 210 72 8.39 0.7149723±6 0.702567 3.0 18.0 0.1016 0.512596±3 0.44 756 844

ML06-6 204 71 8.28 0.7156052±4 0.703366 3.0 17.7 0.1018 0.512591±3 0.34 765 853

Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry

JY21-1 153 327 1.35 0.7075003±5 0.705504 3.2 15.8 0.1214 0.512623±6 0.72 873 823

JY21-2 145 322 1.30 0.7074170±5 0.705498 3.2 15.8 0.1218 0.512631±3 0.85 864 812

JY21-3 161 318 1.47 0.7075063±5 0.705339 3.1 15.4 0.1229 0.512628±4 0.79 879 817

Wulaga granite porphyry

JY21-4 141 183 2.23 0.7092284±6 0.705928 3.1 15.9 0.1175 0.512623±3 0.76 838 819

JY21-5 145 186 2.24 0.7092320±5 0.705917 3.2 16.0 0.1201 0.512627±3 0.79 855 816

JY21-6 154 182 2.45 0.7095731±5 0.705948 3.1 16.0 0.1184 0.512618±4 0.66 853 827

c 143 144 143 144 147 144 147 144 λt 147 144 147 144 TDM = (1/λ)×ln{1+[( Nd/ Nd)m-( Nd/ Nd) c-[( Sm/ Nd)m-( Sm/ Nd)DM](e -1)]/[ Sm/ Nd]c-( Sm/ Nd)DM}}

147 144 143 144 ( Sm/ Nd)c = 0.115 (continent average, Goldstein et al., 1984, 1988)，( Nd/ Nd)DM = 0.513151 (Chen and Jahn, 1999),

147 144 ( Sm/ Nd)DM = 0.2136 (depleted mantle, Rehkamper & Hofmann 1997)，after Earthref.org。

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

Table 5.10 Sr-Nd isotopes for the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt, Huanan composite dyke and Jiamusi dykes

Rb Sr Sm Nd 147Sm/ 87 86 87 86 87 86 143 144 C Rb/ Sr Sr/ Sr±2σ (Sr/ Sr)i Nd/ Nd εNd TDM TDM (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 144Nd

Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt

HG20-1 33 453 0.21 0.7060176±6 0.705708 5.6 23.5 0.1451 0.512754±3 2.94 883 645

HG20-2 32 425 0.22 0.7060023±6 0.705688 5.3 22.1 0.1448 0.512753±3 2.92 883 647

HG20-3 33 440 0.22 0.7059775±4 0.705659 5.5 23.2 0.1443 0.512753±3 2.93 875 646

HG20-4 33 440 0.21 0.7059847±4 0.705673 5.3 22.5 0.1425 0.512755±4 2.98 850 642

HG20-5 35 444 0.23 0.7060395±4 0.705710 5.6 23.6 0.1441 0.512753±3 2.92 874 646

HG20-6 33 422 0.22 0.7059832±4 0.705659 5.3 22.6 0.1407 0.512754±4 3.00 830 640

Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry

HN18-1 99 223 1.29 0.7107640±6 0.708936 4.3 21.5 0.1219 0.512454±4 -2.64 1157 1084

HN18-2 57 302 0.54 0.7097021±6 0.708931 4.3 19.5 0.1330 0.512542±4 -1.06 1151 960

HN18-3 104 225 1.33 0.7108425±5 0.708949 4.3 21.1 0.1220 0.512451±4 -2.70 1165 1089

HN18-4 105 197 1.54 0.7113015±6 0.709108 4.0 21.6 0.1115 0.512415±4 -3.26 1098 1133

HN18-5 109 208 1.51 0.7113130±5 0.709173 4.0 21.8 0.1100 0.512417±4 -3.20 1079 1129

Huanan composite dyke rhyolite porphyry

HN18-6 166 109 4.38 0.7150638±6 0.708840 3.7 22.3 0.1009 0.512344±3 -4.51 1091 1232

HN18-7 160 117 3.97 0.7147430±6 0.709108 3.6 21.8 0.0991 0.512348±3 -4.41 1069 1224

HN18-8 162 118 3.97 0.7146458±6 0.709000 3.8 22.3 0.1017 0.512344±3 -4.52 1099 1233

HN18-9 158 116 3.92 0.7146941±5 0.709130 3.6 21.7 0.0996 0.512343±3 -4.53 1081 1233

Huanan composite dyke diorite enclave

HN14-1 58 331 0.50 0.7107180±2 0.710001 5.8 30.5 0.1150 0.512438±8 -2.86 1101 1102

Huanan composite dyke granite porphyry

HN14-2 134 225 1.72 0.7112080±74 0.708757 5.3 26.3 0.1216 0.512425±21 -3.20 1202 1128

HN14-4 204 103 5.71 0.7159290±4 0.707810 5.2 28.2 0.1117 0.512410±4 -3.36 1108 1141

HN14-5 144 115 3.62 0.7147010±4 0.709550 3.7 22.2 0.1009 0.512391±7 -3.60 1027 1160

HN14-6 104 89 3.38 0.7135230±13 0.708717 4.3 25.9 0.1011 0.512411±4 -3.21 1003 1129

HN14-10 136 78 5.08 0.7150120±10 0.707791 5.5 31.3 0.1064 0.512422±3 -3.06 1036 1118

HN14-12 109 84 3.75 0.7139270±7 0.708604 4.6 27.6 0.1013 0.512417±3 -3.09 996 1120

Jiamusi rhyolite dyke

JD06 199 59 9.70 0.719857±3 0.706068 9.4 45.9 0.1239 0.512635±2 0.87 877 807

JD10 110 218 1.46 0.708299±3 0.706221 9.9 48.2 0.1242 0.512666±5 1.47 827 760

JD14 293 133 6.40 0.713569±3 0.704481 9.8 46.1 0.1285 0.512650±3 1.10 898 789

JD20 171 48 10.28 0.719262±4 0.704655 4.6 23.5 0.1190 0.512672±10 1.66 772 745

JD22 181 64 8.22 0.716235±4 0.704558 8.3 42.2 0.1444 0.512629±4 0.49 1149 837

Jiamusi dolerite dyke

JD01 67 158 1.23 0.707494±3 0.705749 4.7 25.4 0.1112 0.512749±3 3.26 599 618

JD07 29 447 0.19 0.706809±5 0.706544 5.7 33.5 0.1033 0.512648±3 1.39 695 766

JD11 119 349 0.99 0.707647±12 0.706247 4.3 23.3 0.1127 0.512695±4 2.18 690 703

JD17 30 434 0.20 0.707689±3 0.707404 6.0 36.7 0.0979 0.512515±3 -1.14 838 966

JD18 47 487 0.28 0.707721±6 0.707321 7.2 47.3 0.0923 0.512507±4 -1.22 810 973

JD21 28 303 0.27 0.706388±4 0.706010 3.9 16.9 0.1405 0.512840±7 4.66 649 507

JD23 59 297 0.58 0.707071±5 0.706248 3.8 17.7 0.1299 0.512676±3 1.59 865 750

Geochemistry

5.4 Zircon Hf-O isotopes

5.4.1 Analytical method

Zircon oxygen isotopes were measured using a CAMECA IMS 1280 Secondary-Ion Microprobe Spectrometer (SIMS) at the Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis (CMCA) at the University of Western Australia. Zircon standard BR266 was used for monitoring and normalizing measurements on sample zircon grains. The analytical procedure is similar as that described in Valley (2004). The analyzed spots and mount were the same as those used in SHRIMP U-Pb dating.

Zircon hafnium isotopic analysis was performed at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, using a Thermo Finnigan Neptune MC-ICP-MS equipped with a Geolas-193 nm laser ablation system. The Penglai standard zircon was used for reference, with a recommended 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282900±0.00 (2σ, n=488), similar to the recommended 176Hf/ 177Hf ratio of ∼0.282906 (Li et al., 2010). The analyzed spots are the same sites as those used for SHRIMP U-Pb analyses. εHf(t) values were calculated based on the decay constant for 176Lu of 1.867 × 10− 11/year (Soderlund et al., 2004), the present-day chondritic ratios of 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282772 and 176Lu/177Hf = 0.0332 (Blichert-Toft and

Albarède, 1997). One-stage model ages (TDM) were calculated relative to depleted 176 177 176 177 mantle with a present-day ( Hf/ Hf)DM = 0.28325 and ( Lu/ Hf)DM = 0.0384 C (Griffin, et al., 2000). Two-stage model ages (TDM ) were calculated by forcing a (176 177 growth-curve through the zircon initial ratio with an assumed Lu/ Hf)C value of 0.015 corresponding to the average basaltic crust (Griffin et al., 2004).

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University

5.4.2 Analytical results

(1) Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

Thirty-seven hafnium and oxygen isotopic analyses were conducted on zircons from samples ML06-7, JY21-1 and JY21-4. The results are given in Table 5.11.

Zircons from the Muling rhyolite sample ML06-7 have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.28288 to 0.28307 and positive εHf(t) values. Most of the εHf(t) values are between 6.0 and

9.1, while one grain has a high εHf(t) value of 12.6. The one-stage model ages range from 277-518 Ma, with a peak of ~480 Ma; the calculated two-stage model ages C 18 (TDM ) range from 408-895 Ma, with a peak of 810 Ma (Fig 5.11b). They have δ O values in the range of 5.7 ‰ to 6.7 ‰ with a weighted mean value of 6.3 ± 0.2‰ (2σ, MSWD=1.4), higher than the mantle zircon δ18O value of 5.3‰ ± 0.6‰ (2σ) (Valley et al., 1998) but lower than the crustal zircon δ18O value of 8.0 ‰ (Stern et al., 1989), indicating that the magma source of the Yilin rhyolite is possibly mantle, mixed with a crustal component.

Zircons from the Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry sample JY21-1 have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.28288 to 0.28307 and positive εHf(t) values from 7.2 to 9.8, except two grains with high εHf(t) values of 11.2 and 12.1 (Fig 5.11b). They have δ18O values in the range of 7.1 ‰ to 8.1 ‰, with a weighted mean value of 8.0 ± 0.1‰ (2σ, MSWD=1.4), similar to continental crust zircon δ18O values (Stern et al., 1989; Binderman, 2008), indicating that the magma source is mainly crustal (Fig 5.11a).

Zircons from the Wulaga granite porphyry sample JY21-4 have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.28291 to 0.28304 and positive εHf(t) values from 6.3 to 9.4 (Fig 5.11b). They have δ18O values in the range of 8.0 ‰ to 8.2 ‰, with a weighted mean value of 8.1 ± 0.1‰ (2σ, MSWD=1.4).

In summary, the (hornblende) granite porphyry samples do not show much difference in their Hf-O isotope ratios; the Hf-isotopic feature of zircons from the Wulaga granite porphyry is also similar to zircons in the Yilin Formation rhyolite. However, the δ18O values of zircons from the Wulaga granite porphyry and Yilin rhyolite are different, suggesting that the former derived from crust whereas the latter has mantle component.

Geochemistry

Table 5.11 In-situ Hf-O isotopes for zircons from Yilin rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry

C 18 TDM TDM δ O 176 177 176 177 Spot# Age (Ma) Lu/ Hf 2σ Hf/ Hf 2σ εHf(t) 2σ 2σ (Ma) (Ma) (‰)

Yilin Formation rhyolite sample ML06-7 ML06-7-1 103.4 0.005317 0.000087 0.282975 0.000035 9.10 1.24 443 682 5.87 0.47 ML06-7-2 99.6 0.001659 0.000035 0.282931 0.000027 7.71 0.97 463 787 6.67 0.47 ML06-7-3 103.6 0.004201 0.000130 0.283073 0.000031 12.63 1.10 277 408 5.71 0.49 ML06-7-4 108.2 0.001439 0.000020 0.282945 0.000023 8.38 0.80 440 741 6.42 0.46 ML06-7-5 104.4 0.001761 0.000051 0.282907 0.000027 6.96 0.94 499 849 6.38 0.45 ML06-7-6 108.9 0.001449 0.000058 0.282876 0.000020 5.96 0.70 540 929 6.13 0.47 ML06-7-7 103.4 0.001572 0.000008 0.282926 0.000026 7.60 0.90 469 798 6.56 0.47 ML06-7-8 103.8 0.001201 0.000029 0.282916 0.000029 7.28 1.03 479 823 6.56 0.47 ML06-7-9 104.0 0.001687 0.000005 0.282921 0.000018 7.44 0.65 478 811 6.41 0.49 ML06-7-10 104.7 0.001723 0.000011 0.282946 0.000046 8.33 1.64 442 743 6.21 0.45 ML06-7-11 108.7 0.001132 0.000039 0.282888 0.000018 6.40 0.63 518 895 6.04 0.46 ML06-7-12 102.9 0.001803 0.000014 0.282894 0.000018 6.47 0.65 518 886 6.40 0.46 ML06-7-13 103.5 0.001350 0.000024 0.282918 0.000018 7.35 0.64 478 818 6.40 0.46 Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry sample JY21-1 JY21-1-1 103.0 0.001078 0.000042 0.282927 0.000016 7.66 0.56 462 793 7.96 0.45 JY21-1-2 104.2 0.000974 0.000012 0.282956 0.000015 8.74 0.54 418 710 8.09 0.46 JY21-1-3 105.7 0.001165 0.000012 0.282911 0.000016 7.15 0.57 486 835 8.10 0.47 JY21-1-4 104.2 0.001054 0.000018 0.282964 0.000019 8.99 0.68 409 691 7.07 0.46 JY21-1-5 105.0 0.001065 0.000028 0.282913 0.000017 7.21 0.59 482 830 8.16 0.44 JY21-1-6 117.1 0.001014 0.000031 0.283044 0.000033 12.11 1.19 295 459 7.44 0.50 JY21-1-7 104.2 0.000812 0.000012 0.282919 0.000016 7.43 0.57 470 813 8.09 0.46 JY21-1-8 105.8 0.001149 0.000011 0.282933 0.000021 7.93 0.73 454 774 7.85 0.46 JY21-1-9 103.8 0.000948 0.000009 0.282942 0.000016 8.24 0.58 438 749 8.11 0.45 JY21-1-10 105.8 0.001069 0.000041 0.282956 0.000017 8.77 0.59 420 710 7.83 0.44 JY21-1-11 104.3 0.001096 0.000026 0.283029 0.000029 11.29 1.04 317 513 7.98 0.46 JY21-1-12 103.8 0.000995 0.000012 0.282986 0.000022 9.77 0.77 377 630 7.97 0.45 Wulaga granite porphyry JY21-4 JY21-4-1 104.9 0.001194 0.000011 0.282974 0.000020 9.37 0.69 396 663 8.06 0.47 JY21-4-2 105.0 0.001039 0.000044 0.282950 0.000021 8.54 0.76 428 727 8.10 0.46 JY21-4-3 105.0 0.000732 0.000056 0.282961 0.000026 8.95 0.92 409 695 8.04 0.47 JY21-4-4 105.2 0.001045 0.000007 0.282949 0.000026 8.48 0.91 430 731 7.99 0.49 JY21-4-5 108.7 0.001275 0.000030 0.282942 0.000016 8.31 0.56 442 747 8.13 0.46 JY21-4-6 101.7 0.001001 0.000022 0.282906 0.000016 6.92 0.57 490 850 7.98 0.49 JY21-4-7 103.3 0.001011 0.000020 0.282948 0.000016 8.43 0.57 431 734 8.14 0.47 JY21-4-8 104.0* 0.000949 0.000022 0.282926 0.000017 7.66 0.61 462 795 8.11 0.49 JY21-4-10 104.0* 0.001040 0.000016 0.282945 0.000025 8.33 0.89 436 743 8.18 0.46 JY21-4-11 104.0* 0.001136 0.000033 0.282888 0.000020 6.32 0.69 517 898 8.20 0.46 JY21-4-12 104.0* 0.000961 0.000010 0.282935 0.000015 8.00 0.54 448 768 8.17 0.50 *No measured U-Pb age, using average age of the sample instead

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(2) Huanan composite dyke

Twenty-three hafnium and oxygen isotopic analyses were conducted on zircons from andesite porphyry sample HN18-1 and rhyolite porphyry sample HN18-6 of the composite dyke. The results are given in Table 5.12.

Zircons from the andesite porphyry sample HN18-1 have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 18 0.282749 to 0.282836, positive εHf(t) values from 1.28 to 4.41, and δ O values in the range of 6.43 ‰ to 7.0 ‰ with a weighted mean value of 6.6 ± 0.1‰ (2σ, MSWD=0.5), higher than the mantle zircon δ18O value of 5.3‰ ± 0.6‰ (2σ) (Valley et al., 1998) but lower than the crustal zircon δ18O value of 8.0 ‰ (Stern et al., 1989), indicating that the magma source is mantle, mixed with a crustal source (Fig 5.11a).

Zircons from the rhyolite porphyry sample HN18-6 have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 18 0.282732 to 0.282963, positive εHf(t) values from 0.69 to 4.77, and δ O values in the range of 6.69 ‰ to 6.97 ‰ with a weighted mean value of 6.8 ± 0.1‰ (2σ, MSWD=0.2), slightly higher than zircons from the andesitic porphyry. One inherited zircon from sample HN18-6 with a U-Pb age of 272 Ma, εHf(t) value of 12.4 and Hf C model age of TDM (Ma) = 550 Ma was excluded from the main population. The remaining analyses have one-stage model ages ranging from 582-748 Ma, with a C peak at ~650 Ma; the calculated two-stage model ages (TDM ) range from 1014-1330 Ma, with a peak of 1150 Ma (Fig 5.11b). The Hf model ages of the Huanan rhyolite porphyry support the view that the Jiamusi block experienced Mesoproterozoic crustal growth.

Geochemistry

(3) Jiamusi bimodal dykes

Twenty-five hafnium isotopic analyses were conducted on zircons from dolerite and rhyolite samples JD07 and JD14, respectively, from the Jiamusi bimodal dykes. The results are given in Table 5.12.

Zircons from the rhyolite have 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282921 to 0.283166 and positive εHf(t) values from 7.39 to 15.84. The two-stage Hf model ages range from 125-494 Ma, with no obvious peak.

Zircons from the dolerite have one inherited zircon with 206Pb/238U age of 401 Ma, C 176 177 εHf(t) of 7.72, and TDM (Ma) = 723 Ma. The remaining zircons have Hf/ Hf ratios of 0.282962 to 0.283154, εHf(t) values from 8.77 to 15.54, and Hf model age

TDM (Ma) from 142 Ma to 723 Ma.

Zircons from the bimodal dykes have more positive εHf(t) values than zircons from the other igneous rocks in the Jiamusi Block, suggesting that they were derived from a depleted mantle source.

(4) Summary

As shown in Fig 4.4 and Fig 5.11a, zircons from the dolerite and rhyolite of the

Jiamusi bimodal dykes have the most positive εHf(t) values of +9～+16, indicating a depleted mantle source; zircons from the porphyry of the Huanan composite dyke

18 have the lowest εHf(t) values of +1～+5 and low δ O values about 6.7; zircons from the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry have εHf(t) values of +6～+9, but the former have mantle-like δ18O values about 6.3 ‰, whereas the latter have crustal δ18O values about 8.0 ‰. The Mesoproterozoic was an important period of the crustal growth in the Jiamusi Block.

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Table 5.12 In-situ Hf-O isotopes for zircons from Huanan composite dyke and Jiamusi dykes

C 18 Age TDM TDM δ O 176 177 176 177 Spot# Lu/ Hf 2σ Hf/ Hf 2σ εHf(t) 2σ 2σ (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (‰)

Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry sample HN18-1 HN18-1-1 100.7 0.001201 0.000018 0.282816 0.000015 3.70 0.55 621 1098 6.50 0.45 HN18-1-2 99.3 0.001117 0.000008 0.282792 0.000016 2.83 0.56 653 1164 6.44 0.46 HN18-1-3 102.0 0.001228 0.000034 0.282804 0.000018 3.27 0.63 640 1132 6.43 0.48 HN18-1-4 101.6 0.001411 0.000043 0.282807 0.000021 3.38 0.74 637 1123 6.64 0.46 HN18-1-5 100.5 0.001471 0.000037 0.282799 0.000017 3.06 0.62 650 1147 6.72 0.45 HN18-1-6 96.1 0.001169 0.000033 0.282816 0.000019 3.60 0.67 620 1102 7.00 0.47 HN18-1-7 98.8 0.001314 0.000010 0.282749 0.000019 1.28 0.68 718 1283 6.55 0.46 HN18-1-8 101.8 0.001219 0.000017 0.282836 0.000018 4.41 0.64 593 1044 6.57 0.46 HN18-1-9 101.2 0.001153 0.000032 0.282777 0.000018 2.34 0.64 675 1203 6.65 0.47 HN18-1-10 98.8 0.001190 0.000005 0.282788 0.000019 2.65 0.66 661 1178 6.68 0.48 HN18-1-11 101.9 0.001131 0.000020 0.282797 0.000018 3.06 0.63 646 1148 6.79 0.46 Huanan composite dyke rhyolite porphyry sample HN18-6 HN18-6-1 100.2 0.001653 0.000029 0.282829 0.000018 4.09 0.66 611 1067 6.74 0.48 HN18-6-2 99.3 0.001095 0.000019 0.282838 0.000018 4.43 0.63 589 1041 6.75 0.47 HN18-6-3 101.7 0.001396 0.000023 0.282793 0.000017 2.89 0.62 657 1161 6.69 0.48 HN18-6-4 98.4 0.001753 0.000023 0.282799 0.000016 3.01 0.56 655 1149 6.71 0.46 HN18-6-5 100.8 0.001301 0.000019 0.282819 0.000016 3.79 0.58 618 1091 6.69 0.55 HN18-6-6 99.8 0.001602 0.000038 0.282848 0.000017 4.77 0.62 582 1014 6.89 0.48 HN18-6-7 101.1 0.001558 0.000012 0.282791 0.000017 2.80 0.60 663 1167 6.78 0.46 HN18-6-8 100.6 0.001583 0.000010 0.282732 0.000018 0.69 0.64 748 1330 6.77 0.47 HN18-6-9 95.6 0.001202 0.000019 0.282785 0.000018 2.48 0.62 665 1188 6.76 0.47 HN18-6-10 95.0 0.001648 0.000036 0.282820 0.000019 3.68 0.66 623 1095 6.90 0.47 HN18-6-11 272.3 0.001849 0.000021 0.282963 0.000017 12.40 0.62 420 550 6.97 0.49 HN18-6-12 101.1 0.001566 0.000023 0.282769 0.000016 2.01 0.57 695 1228 6.88 0.50 Jiamusi bimodal dykes dolerite sample JD07 JD07-1 98 0.001409 0.000004 0.282962 0.000020 8.78 0.71 415 703 JD07-2 102.6 0.002703 0.000057 0.282982 0.000032 9.50 1.15 400 650 JD07-3 401.1 0.002039 0.000047 0.282756 0.000021 7.72 0.77 723 1004 JD07-4 99.1 0.002469 0.000032 0.283154 0.000043 15.54 1.53 142 179 JD07-5 96.4 0.002129 0.000031 0.283011 0.000031 10.44 1.11 351 573 JD07-6 86 0.002521 0.000027 0.282971 0.000019 8.77 0.68 415 695 JD07-7 101.6 0.002580 0.000024 0.282986 0.000019 9.61 0.66 394 641 JD07-8 94.2 0.002127 0.000063 0.282977 0.000020 9.19 0.72 402 669 JD07-9 97.1 0.002978 0.000020 0.283108 0.000033 13.84 1.16 214 310 JD07-10 95 0.001998 0.000023 0.283015 0.000018 10.54 0.65 345 565 JD07-11 100.1 0.002377 0.000022 0.283069 0.000027 12.53 0.97 269 414 Jiamusi bimodal dykes rhyolite sample JD14 JD14-1 93.6 0.002624 0.000037 0.283166 0.000043 15.84 1.52 125 152 JD14-2 101.8 0.002583 0.000059 0.283017 0.000051 10.73 1.80 347 555 JD14-3 99.4 0.002951 0.000192 0.282934 0.000040 7.71 1.44 475 787 JD14-4 98.5 0.003828 0.000047 0.282974 0.000066 9.06 2.33 426 682 JD14-5 103 0.002497 0.000185 0.282966 0.000036 8.94 1.30 422 694 JD14-6 103.5 0.003485 0.000133 0.283106 0.000067 13.84 2.38 221 314 JD14-7 106.8 0.002275 0.000100 0.282939 0.000036 8.08 1.27 459 763 JD14-8 100.9 0.002620 0.000017 0.283103 0.000042 13.76 1.47 219 319 JD14-9 105 0.002936 0.000065 0.282921 0.000051 7.39 1.81 494 816 JD14-10 102.7 0.002237 0.000043 0.283091 0.000035 13.39 1.25 235 349 JD14-11 100 0.002609 0.000055 0.282970 0.000042 9.04 1.51 417 685 JD14-13 95.2 0.002711 0.000065 0.283066 0.000044 12.30 1.55 276 428 JD14-14 90 0.003237 0.000027 0.283101 0.000042 13.40 1.48 227 339 JD14-16 100 0.002748 0.000022 0.283055 0.000027 12.02 0.95 292 453

Geochemistry

14 13 (a) 12 11 10 9 8

)

T 7

(

H 6

ɛ 5 4 3 2 1 0 zircon Mantle 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 δO18 10

(b) Muling rhyolite Wulaga biotite granite porphyry 8 Wulaga granite porphyry Huanan andesite porphyry Huanan rhyolite porphyry

Number 4

0 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 C TDM (Ma)

18 Fig 5.11 (a) Zircon εHf(t) vs. δ O diagram; (b) Zircon Hf model ages distribution

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6 Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

6.1 High-Mg adakite: Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry

The Yilin Formation rhyolite is characterized by high SiO2 contents

(SiO2=71.27-71.61), enrichment in large-ion lithophile elements (LILE) and light rare earth elements (LREE), and depletion in high-field strength elements (HFSE).

The rhyolite has positive εNd(t) values of +0.3~+0.7, indicating an origin from 87 86 juvenile crust or a mantle-crust mixed source. However, the ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios are scattered widely from MORB toward upper continental crust, possibly because the Sr isotope system of some samples was not closed.

Sample ML06-2 with the highest Sr content of the Yilin Formation rhyolite has 87 86 ( Sr/ Sr)i value similar to the Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, implying that they have similar source or evolution progress. The other samples of the Yilin Formation rhyolite with low Sr content and various 87Sr/86Sr values were possibly alteration.

In summary, the Yilin Formation rhyolite, represented by sample ML06-2, has high Sr content, high Sr/Y ratio, high La/Yb ratio, and low Y and Yb content as shown in Fig 6.1. It also has high Mg# (0.57). These geochemical features show that the rock is a high-Mg adakite.

Fig 6.1 Adakite discrimination diagrams (a) Sr/Y vs. Y diagram; (b) La/Yb vs. Yb diagram after Castillo, 2012

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

Positive εNd(t) values of +0.75, high zircon εHf(t) values of 5.8-12.7, and low zircon δ18O values of 5.6-6.7 ‰, indicate that the magma source was from the mantle. Hence the Yilin Formation rhyolite is likely the product of partial melting of mantle peridotite which was metasomatized and affected by slab melt and fluid. Negative Eu and Ba anomalies and normal Y content imply that the residual minerals include plagioclase but not garnet, and the melting pressure was relatively low.

The Wulaga goldmine pluton has two types of granite porphyry, as discussed in Chapter 3.2.2. One is the hornblende granite porphyry which invaded into the early Cretaceous Ningyuancun Formation and the other type of granite porphyry has no hornblende, and invaded into the pan-African Mashan Complex khondalitic rocks.

The hornblende granite porphyry has high Sr (>300 ppm), low Y (~8 ppm), high

Mg# (~0.57), positive εHf(t) (6.3-12.7) and εNd(t) (~+0.5). These geochemical features show that the hornblende granite porphyry also belongs to high-Mg adakite, similar to the Yilin Formation rhyolite. Depletion of HREE and HFSE and no negative Eu anomalies indicate that the melting pressure is relatively high, with garnet, hornblende and rutile as residual minerals.

Adakite derived from continental crust is high-K; while adakite derived from oceanic slab is high-Mg (Wang et al., 2011). However, the hornblende granite porphyry is both high-K (4.26-4.72%) and high-Mg (Mg#=0.57). It has zircon with a continental crustal signature in δ18O (~8.0). However, this feature can also produced by partial melting of a subducted slab (δ18O = ~9.0) that experienced minor mantle contamination and assimilation (δ18O = ~5.5). So it is difficult to distinguish the source of the hornblende granite porphyry between continental crust and a subducted slab.

In the regional geological background, it was mentioned that the Jiamusi 100 Ma ferroan (A-type) rhyolite and Early Cretaceous extentional sedimentary basins do not support there was thick continental crust at this time. Thin crust can not provide enough pressure to produce adakite like the hornblende granite porphyry. On the other hand, the hornblende granite porphyry plots in the area of subducted slab-derived adakite (Fig 6.2). On the balance of the evidence, it is considered that the Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry was derived from partial melting of subducted oceanic slab.

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The granite porphyry (without hornblende) does not have geochemical features of adakite, like high Sr and depletion of HREE. Lower Mg#, higher ASI, but uniform log (Na2O/MgO) values, compared to the hornblende granite porphyry suggest that the former was derived from partial melting of upper continental crust triggered by adakitic magma upwelling and emplacement, rather than differentiation from the hornblende granite porphyry. Weak negative Eu anomalies and similar trace element patterns suggest that the granite porphyry was mixed with the adakitic magma and experienced exchange of trace elements.

In summary, both the Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry are high-Mg adakite. The former was derived from mantle which was matasomatised and assimilated by slab melt and fluid, whereas the latter was from patial melting of subducted slab.

90 Mantle melts Subducted oceanic 80 crust-derived adakites

70 Delaminated lower Muling crust-derived rhyolite 60 adakitic rocks Wulaga biotite granite 50 porphyry

Mg# 40

20 Thickened lower crust-derived adakitic rocks 10 Metabasaltic and eclogite experimental melts (1-4.0GPa) 0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

SiO2

Fig 6.2 Mg# vs. SiO2 discrimination diagram for source of adakite after Wang et al. (2011)

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

6.2 Depleted mantle upwelling and differentiation: Hegang basalt

The Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt has high SiO2 (52.09-53.22 %), high Al2O3 (17.97-19.04 %), low MgO (3.00-3.98 %), and low Mg# (0.46-0.48), indicating that the magma experienced a high degree of crystal fractionation. The lack of Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.98-1.00), flat LILE patterns, and positive εNd(t) values suggest that the basaltic magma experienced only minor crustal contamination. High 87 86 εNd(t) values (+2.9-+3.0) and low ( Sr/ Sr)i ratios indicate that the basalt was derived from a depleted mantle source, which was contaminated by dehydration or melting of altered basalt from a subducted slab. As shown in Fig 6.3, the basalt plots variously in the destructive plate margin basalt, calc-alkaline basalt, within-plate basalt, and intraplate basalt fields, all of which are consistent with the tectonic setting. In summary, the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt was derived from the depleted mantle, experienced a high degree of fractionation, and occurred in an intraplate extensional tectonic environment in the mid-Cretaceous.

Hf/3 Ti/100 (a) (b)

N-MORB

WPB P-MORB IAT MORB IAT

MARGIN BASALTS CAB DESTRUCTIVE PLATE WPB

Th Ta Zr Y*3 2Nb

20 (c) (d)

WPA

WPB

Zr/Y

P-MORB MORB WPT IAB & MORB

N-MORB IAB

VAB Y 1 Zr/4 10 100 1000 Zr Fig 6.3 Tectonic discrimination diagram for Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt (a) Hf-Th-Ta diagram; (b) Ti-Zr-Y diagram; (c) Nb-Zr-Y diagram; (d) Zr/Y vs. Zr diagram showing the tectonic regime of the Hegang basalt WPA: within-plate alkalic basalt, WPB: within-plate basalt, WPT: within-plate tholeiite, IAT: island arc tholeiite, CAB: calc-alkaline basalt, MORB: mid-ocean ridge basalt, P-MORB: plume MORB, N-MORB: normal MORB

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6.3 Magma mixing: Huanan composite dyke and its country rock

Geochemical results indicate that the andesite porphyry of the composite dyke and diorite enclaves in the country rock granite porphyry experienced various degrees of contamination by acidic magma. Andesite porphyry sample HN18-2, with the lowest

SiO2 content, is most representative of the composition of the initial basaltic magma

(Fig 6.4). The negative εNd(t) value of -1.06 implies that it was derived from enriched lithospheric mantle.

The rhyolite porphyry and the granite porphyry have similar geochemical features, including high SiO2, low MgO and Fe2O3, high Al2O3, and negative Eu, Ba, U, and Sr anomalies. Their source was the upper continental crust.

The Huanan composite dyke and its granite porphyry country rock with diorite enclaves show interaction between basaltic magma and continental crust. To identify the composition of their source, more data need to be compared.

In the Dy/Yb vs. La/Nd diagram (Fig 6.5a), rocks from the Yilin Formation rhyolite, Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt, the Huanan composite dyke and Jiamusi bimodal dykes form a linear array which possibly represents the plagioclase fractionation. The Wulaga (hornblende) granite porphyry is not on the trend, with depletion of HREE implying a different origin. Sample HN18-2 of andesite porphyry of the Huanan composite dyke plots together with the Hegang basalt and Jiamusi dolerite, and possibly experienced minor crustal contamination.

In the Nb/Ta vs. Th/U diagram (Fig 6.5b), sample HN18-2 of andesite porphyry plots together with the diorite enclave and the Hegang basalt. They have Th/U ratios similar to primary mantle, but low Nb/Ta ratios, possibly because of early-stage dehydration of a subducting slab. The andesite porphyry samples, except HN18-2, plot between the mafic and acidic groups, showing magma mixing features.

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

01234567891011m

SiO 80 2 SiO2 70 SiO2 60

50 10.00 CaO

CaO MgO 1.00 CaO MgO TiO 2 MgO PO25 TiO2 0.10 PO25 TiO2 MnO MnO MnO PO25 0.01 20 Al23O

Al23O 15 Al23O

10 T Fe23O T T 5 Fe23O Fe23O 0 1000 Sr Sr 100 Sr V

10 Sc V Sc V 1 Sc 1000 Ba Ba Ba

100 Rb Rb Rb La La La Th 10 Th Th

U U U 1 0.9 Eu/Eu* 0.7 Eu/Eu* 0.5 Mg# Eu/Eu* 0.3 Mg#

0.1 Mg# 15 Nb/Ta Nb/Ta Nb/Ta 10

5 εNd(t) 0 εNd(t) εNd(t) -5

-10 Margin Margin Country Core rock 01234567891011m Fig 6.4 Geochemical variations across the composite dyke

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2.60 (a) 1 4 5 10 2.50 2 6 11 2.40 ? 3 7 8 2.30 9 ? 2.20

2.10

2.00

Dy/Yb LCC SY UCC 1.90

1.80 Magma mixing ? 1.70

1.60

1.50 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10 La/Nd 23.00 (b) 1 4 5 10 21.00 2 6 11 3 7 19.00 8

N-MORB E-MORB PM 9 17.00

SY 15.00

Nb/Ta

13.00 UCC

11.00 Magma mixing

9.00 LCC

7.00 ? 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 Th/U Fig 6.5 Source discrimination diagrams of igneous rocks (a) Dy/Yb vs. La/Nd (b) Nb/Ta vs. Th/U Legend: 1 Yilin Formation rhyolite, 2 Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, 3 Wulaga granite porphyry, 4 Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt, 5 Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry sample HN18-2, 6 Huanan composite dyke andesite porphyry, 7 Huanan composite dyke rhyolite porphyry, 8 Granite porphyry country rock to the Huanan composite dyke, 9 Diorite enclave in the granite porphyry country rock, 10 Rhyolite from the Jiamusi bimodal dykes, 11 Dolerite from the Jiamusi bimodal dykes ; PM: Primary mantle; PM, N-MORB, and E-MORB, data from Sun & McDonough, 1989; UCC: Upper Continental Crust; LCC: Lower Continental Crust, data from Rudnick and Gao, 2004; SY: Songliao basin Yingcheng formation rhyolite average, data from Zhang et al., 2011a

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

Liu et al. (2006) and Liu et al. (2009) studied the geophysical structure of the Jiamusi Block and adjacent area. Both determined that the Jiamusi Block is characterized by high resistivity. Liu et al. (2006) also pointed that there is a low-resistivity layer within the Jiamusi Block, but did not give a geological interpretation.

As shown in Fig 6.6, the low-resistivity layer is at a depth of 15-20 km under the Huanan to Baoqing area of the Jiamusi Block. This is possibly direct geophysical evidence for the intrusion and cooling of basaltic magma within continental crust. As previous discussed, the low-resistivity layer is possibly related to mid-Cretaceous basaltic magma upwelling, consistent with the formation of Hegang basalt and

Huanan composite dyke.

Fig 6.6 Huanan to Raohe MT geophysical section, after Liu et al., 2006

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6.4 Basaltic and Ferroan (A-type) acidic magma: Jiamusi bimodal dykes

The rhyolites of the bimodal dyke suite are strongly depleted in Eu, Ba and Sr, indicating a high degree of crystal fractionation. In the discrimination diagrams of Whalen et al., (1987) (Fig 6.7), they all fall into the field of A-type granites. In Frost and Frost (2011)’ s ferroan granite discrimination diagrams (Fig 6.8), they plot in the Peraluminous Ferroan Granitoids field, ranging from the alkaline – calc-alkaline to calc-alkaline – alkaline Series, suggesting that they are derived from differentiation of basalt or by a low-pressure partial melting of quartzo-feldspathic crust (Frost and Frost, 2011).

On the εNd vs. initial Sr plot (Fig 5.9), the rhyolite forms two groups: two samples plot with the dolerite, suggesting they possibly formed by differentiation of basaltic magma. Three other samples have lower initial strontium ratios and possibly resulted from partial melting of juvenile continental crust.

The ferroan (A-type) rhyolite is strong evidence for a thinned continental crust, because of its origin by low pressure partial melting of continental crust.

10 1000 40 (a) (b) (c) 9 100 8

22 7 A-type A-type

FeO /MgO KO+NaO IS,& M Granites 10 A-type Granites Granites IS,& M 6 IS,& M

5 1 10 110110110 10000Ga/ Al 10000Ga/ Al 10000Ga/ Al 1000 100 1000 (d) (e) (f)

100 A-type Granites

Zr 100 10 A-type

,& Granites FeO /MgO IS M 10 22 IS,& M A-type ,& (K O+Na O)/CaO Granites IS M

10 1 1 110 10000Ga/ Al 100Zr+Nb+Ce+Y 1000 100Zr+Nb+Ce+Y 1000

Fig 6.7 A-type granites discrimination diagrams

T (a) K2O+Na2O vs. 10000Ga/Al; (b) FeO /MgO vs. 10000Ga/Al; (c) Nb vs. 10000Ga/Al; (d) Zr vs. 10000Ga/Al;

T (e) (K2O+Na2O)/CaO vs. Zr+Nb+Ce+Y; and (f) FeO /MgO vs. Zr+Nb+Ce+Y，after Whalen et al. (1987)

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

1.0 12 1.2 (a) (b) (c)

8 peraluminous 0.8 ferroan 1.0 metaluminous magnesian 4

ASI

MALI alkalic

Fe-index 0.6 0 0.8 alkali-calcic

calc-alkalic (a) -4 (b) calcic (c) 0.4 0.6 50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80 wt%SiO wt%SiO wt%SiO 2 2 2

Fig 6.8 Ferroan granite discrimination diagrams

(a) Fe-index = (FeO+0.9Fe2O3) / (FeO+0.9Fe2O3+MgO); (b) MALI (modified alkali lime index) =

Na2O+K2O-CaO; (c) ASI (aluminium saturation index) = Al / (Ca-1.67P+Na+K)，after Frost & Frost, 2011

The geochemical features of basaltic rocks are mainly controlled by the magma source, degree of partial melting, amount of fractional crystallization and crustal contamination; they can also be influenced by later alteration.

40 JD18 7 JD18 JD17 30 JD07 6 JD17 JD07

La JD01

Sm 5 JD01 20 JD11 JD11 JD23 4 JD23 JD21 JD21

10 3 JD01 JD07 20 4 JD18 JD11 JD07 16 JD18 3

Nb JD23 JD21 JD01 JD11 JD17 JD17 12 2 JD21 JD23 8 1 JD11 JD18 600 JD17 JD07 400 500 JD11 JD18 JD23 400 JD07 300 JD21

Ba JD17 300 JD23 200 200 JD21 JD01 JD01

100 100 100 120 140 160 180 200 100 120 140 160 180 200 Zr Zr Fig 6.9 La, Sm, Nb, Th, Ba, Sr vs. Zr diagrams after Hallberg (2001) and Li et al. (2008)

Varying degrees of alteration affect the dolerite dykes in the Jiamusi Block, according to the presence of secondary minerals and high LOI values (3.97–5.94%). Thus, the effect of alteration on chemical composition of these rocks needs to be evaluated. Zirconium in mafic igneous rocks is generally considered to be the most immobile element during alteration (Gibson et al., 1982; Li et al., 2008). A number of elements with different geochemical behaviors, including La, Sm, Nb, Th, Ba and Sr

PhD Thesis submitted to Curtin University are positively correlated with Zr (Fig 6.9), although there is considerable scatter. This suggests that most of the rare earth elements (REEs), high field strength elements (HFSEs, such as Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Th and U) and even large iron lithophile elements (LILEs, such as Rb, Sr and Ba) were relatively stable during alteration. In the following discussion, only the immobile elements are used for evaluating magma sources and processes.

0.24 24 4 (a)JD21 (b) (c) JD21 JD01 0.22 JD23 20 JD11 2 JD11 0.20 JD07 JD23 Contamination(?) JD07

16 JD17 Nd JD11

Nb/U JD01 Sm/Nd 0.18 Contamination(?) JD18 0 JD07 12 0.16 JD17 JD23 JD17 JD18 JD18 JD01 0.14 8 -2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 4 6 8 10 12 46 48 50 52 54 56 Nb/La SiO /MgO 2 SiO2

Fig 6.10 (a) Sm/Nd vs. Nb/La, (b) Nb/U vs. SiO2/MgO and (c) εNd(t) vs. SiO2 diagrams after Yao et al., 2012

That crustal contamination possibly occurs is suggested by the wide range of εNd(t) values. To evaluate this effect, some elements and element ratios were selected. The correlations (Fig 6.10) between Sm/Nd vs. Nb/La and Nb/U vs. SiO2/MgO may be caused by crustal contamination. However, the trends are not consistent, with different samples appearing to show greater degrees of contamination. Hence crustal contamination is possibly not significant.

T The negative correlations of MgO and Fe2O3 with SiO2 most likely indicate fractional crystallization of a common source (Fig 6.11a, b), although again there is considerable scatter. The plots of CaO/Al2O3 vs. Mg# and Cr vs. Y (Fig 6.11c, d) suggest that the dolerite most likely experienced clinopyroxene (Cpx) fractional crystallization. The Cr vs. Y diagram also shows that the magma source underwent a low degree of partial melting.

The high Mg# values (0.57–0.67) indicate that the chemical compositions of the dolerites are close to primary melts, and therefore could reflect the chemical conditions of the magma source. Weakly negative to weakly positive εNd(t) values (– 1.22 to +3.26) and Nd model ages of 599 to 865 Ma suggest that the magma source mainly comprised young enriched sub-continental lithosphere mantle, but may also contain some asthenospheric mantle component.

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

Depletion of high field strength elements (Nd, Ta), enrichment in large ion lithophile 87 86 elements (Rb, Ba, K, U) (Fig. 8d), and high ( Sr/ Sr)i values indicate that the magma source was influenced by sea water altered oceanic crustaal subduction and dehydration or continental sediments taken into the mantle.

10 11 JD17 JD17 (a)JD18 (b) 9 JD21 JD07 10

JD11 T 8 JD07 JD21

MgO JD18 JD23

7 Fe O 9 JD23 6 JD11 JD01 JD01 5 8 46 48 50 52 54 46 48 50 52 54 SiO2 SiO2 20% 1.2 10% Pl depletion PM (c)partial melting (d) 1.0 50% Ol Fe-Ti 10% 0.8 JD17 1000 Pl-Ol Cpx

JD18 Cr 0.6 JD07 Opx Ca/Al JD01 JD21 Cpx 0.4 JD23 JD11 100 0.2

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 5 10 50 Mg# Y Fig 6.11 Basalt partial melting and crystallization differentiation discrimination diagrams

T (a) MgO vs. SiO2, (b) Fe2O3 vs. SiO2, (c) Ca/Al vs. Mg#, (d) Cr vs. Y after Ohnenstetter et al. (1990), Primitive mantle data from Sun & McDonough (1989)

Nb and Ta share the same valence state (+5) and have similar atomic radii for octahedral coordination hence they behave identically during most geochemical fractionation processes. The chondritic Nb/Ta ratio (17.5) has long been regard as representative of the primitive mantle and the average Earth, whereas the value of continental crust is 12 to 13 (Sun & McDonough, 1989). Wade and Wood (2001) first suggested that the Earth's 'missing' niobium may be in the core. Xiao et al. (2006) and Xiong et al. (2011) suggested that the major missing reservoirs with high Nb/Ta ratios is not depleted mantle but residual subducted slab which releases low Nb/Ta melts and/or fluids during subduction and dehydration. Nebel et al. (2010) argued that deep mantle storage of the Earth's missing niobium is in late-stage residual melts from a magma ocean.

Three samples of dolerite dykes in this study have Nb/Ta ratios of ~17.5, similar to normal chondrite, whereas four samples have high Nb/Ta ratios of 20.4 to 22.0 (Fig 6.12). This possibly indicates that some dykes originated from mantle mixed with the residual oceanic slab. This provides further evidence that residual slab materials continue descending and ultimately influence the chemical composition of the mantle

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(Spandler and Pirard, 2013) and portions of ancient slabs may contribute to source materials for intraplate basaltic magmatism (Hofmann, 1997; Bebout, 2013).

24 24 (a) (b) 22 JD11 JD17 22 JD17 JD11 JD07 JD07 JD18 JD18 20 20

18 JD01 18 JD01 JD23 JD23 JD21 JD21 16 16

Nb/Ta

14 JD06 14 JD06 JD20 JD20 JD22 JD22 12 12 JD14 JD14 JD10 JD10

10 10 0.704 0.705 0.706 0.707 0.708 -20246 87 86 ( Sr/ Sr)i Nd(t)

24 24 (c) (d) JD17 JD17 JD11 22 JD11 22 Primitive mantle JD07 mixed with residual slab JD07 JD18 20 20 JD18

18 JD01 18 JD23 JD01 JD23 Primitive mantle Chondrite JD21 JD21

16 Nb/Ta 16

Nb/Ta Dolerite Rhyolite 14 JD06 14 JD06 JD20 JD20 JD22 Continental Crust JD22 12 JD14 12 JD14 JD10 JD10 10 10 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 1 10 100 SiO 2 Nb 87 86 Fig 6.12 Nb/Ta vs. initial Sr/ Sr, εNd(t), SiO2, and Nb diagrams, after Xiao et al. (2006)

In the Zr/Y vs. Zr diagram (Fig 6.13), the dolerite samples fall in the within-plate basalt field, suggesting that the dolerite dykes formed during intra-plate extension.

A - Within Plate Basalts B - Island Arc Basalts 10 C - Mid Ocean Ridge Basalts

Zr/Y

1 10 100 1000 Zr Fig 6.13 Zr/Y vs. Zr tectonic discrimination diagram, after Pearce and Norry, 1979

Petrogenesis: magma origin and evolution

6.5 Summary

Figure 6.14 summarizes the origin and evolution of 104-100 Ma igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block, and also compares them to the late Cretaceous to Cenozoic basalt in NE China. It is proposed that an oceanic slab was deeply subducted into the asthenospheric mantle, where it dehydrated and melted. Partial melting of the mantle metasomatized by this slab melt and fluid and partial melting of the oceanic slab formed two types of high-Mg adakite: Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry, indicating the start of mid-Cretaceous magmatism in the Jiamusi Block. Fluid triggered the melting of both asthenospheric and lithospheric mantle. Basaltic melt from enriched lithospheric mantle interacted with continental crust and formed the Huanan composite dyke and granite porphyry. Basaltic magma derived from depleted asthenosphere mantle fractionated within the crust, then erupted forming the Songmuhe Formation basalt. Underplating basalt triggered melting of the crust, and formed the ferroan (A-type) rhyolite. Partial melting and mixing of both asthenosphere and lithospheric mantle, contaminated by material derived from the residual oceanic slab or sediments, formed the dolerite of the Jiamusi bimodal dykes. Overall, the 104-100 Ma igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block are characterized by LILE enrichment, HFSE depletion, high 87Sr/86Sr, and low Nb/Ta, distinctively different from the late Cretaceous to Cenozoic basalt in NE China (Zhang et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2012).

Fig 6.14 Source and evolution diagram for 104-100 Ma magmatism of the Jiamusi block

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7 Geodynamics

7.1 Time sequence of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China

Based on data from this thesis and previous studies, the age and spatial distribution of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China can be divided into three separate areas, which are from west to east: (1) the Great Xing'an Range ~160-120 Ma, (2) the Songliao Block ~120-110 Ma, (3) and the Yanji–Yichun area and the Jiamusi Block ~110-90 Ma (Fig 7.1).

In the south of the Great Xing'an Range, intermediate-acidic volcanism mainly occurred from 165 to 131 Ma (Wang et al., 2006a; Zhang et al., 2010b; Ying et al., 2010a), resulting successively in the Manketouebo, Manitu, Baiyingaolao, and Meiletu formations. In the north of the Great Xing'an Range, bimodal volcanism started later and extended from 128 to 112 Ma, forming the Tamulangou, Shangkuli and Yiliekede formations (Zhang et al., 2010b; Ying et al., 2010b). The relationship between Cretaceous igneous rocks of the Great Xing’an Range and paleo-pacific subduction is commonly accepted; however, whether those Jurassic igneous rocks were also caused by paleo-Pacific subduction is still controversial.

In the Songliao Basin, the Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks of the Yingcheng Formation were buried by continental sedimentary strata. Samples investigated in previous research were mostly from drill core and SHRIMP U–Pb zircon ages for the Yingcheng Formation rhyolites range from 115 ± 2 Ma to 109 ± 2 Ma (Zhang et al., 2011a).

In the Yichun area, andesite from the Meifeng Formation records a SHRIMP zircon age of 106 ± 2 Ma (Zhang, 2010). In the Jiamusi Block, mid-Cretaceous bimodal volcanism occurred widely and is represented by the Songmuhe Formation and coeval basic and acid dykes. A dolerite dyke from the south of the Jiamusi block gives an 40Ar–39Ar age of 100 ± 4 Ma (Zhu et al., 2009) and a gabbro from the middle of the Jiamusi Block records a SHRIMP zircon U–Pb age of 98 ± 2 Ma (Zhang et al., 2009). The rhyolite from the the Khingan-Olonoi zone of the Khingan-Okhotsk volcanic belt records a 40Ar–39Ar age of 100 ± 1 Ma (Sorokin et al., 2005). In the Nadanhada Terrane to the east of the Jiamusi Block, the granite

Geodynamics porphyry plutons have zircon ages of 95-90 Ma (Yu et al., 2013).

In terms of petrology and geochemistry, volcanic rocks in NE China mostly belong to the intra-plate series. The basic rocks are characterized by depletion in high field strength elements (HFSE), suggesting that the mantle source was affected by oceanic subduction. On the εNd vs. initial Sr isotope plot (Fig 5.9), late Mesozoic volcanic rocks of NE China show characteristics similar to those of the Great Xing'an Range, Songliao Basin and Jiamusi Block. Thus, the late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China shows an eastward temporal migration (Fig 7.1b). Calculation shows that the rate of the temporal migration was about 1.8 cm/y from west to east. This rate is consistent with the order of magnitude of potential movement of the paleo-Pacific/Pacific plate. Hence the migration most likely relates to plate tectonics.

115° 120° 125° 130° 135° Age(Ma) (a) 125 126 128 (b) 132 126 ? 122 160 133 133 124 158 Jurassic 157 135 151 Cretaceous 115 139 160-120 Ma 50° 140 125 50° 140 119 115 eastward migration 120-110 Ma 1.8cm/y 140 110-95110-90 Ma 118 95-90 Ma 160 143 100 116 108 111 123 119 106 163 146 113 90 163 128 Yichun 148 116 147 95 141 123 A 124 104 A' Hailar Basin Jiamusi 124 100 98 100 100 90 124 128 Great 138Xing'an Range 135 125 1300 12001000 800 600 400 200 0 128 Jixi 153 150 129 99 131 131 114 45° Distance from the presumed arc (km) 45° 115 AA' 156 151 109 133 112 104 129 122 116 139 125 113 165 Songliao Basin 116117 138 133 Legend 165 120 155 Yanji 154 156 106 Dolerite Granitic porphyry 108 Basalt Dacite Andesite Rhyolite 120° 125° 130°

Fig 7.1 NE China Late Mesozoic igneous rock ages

(a) Spatial distribution; (b) Time-scale plot as projected on cross section Data from Wang et al., 2006a; Zhang et al., 2010b; Ying et al., 2010a; Zhang et al., 2010b; Ying et al., 2010b; Zhang et al., 2011; Zhang, 2010; Zhu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009; Sorokin et al., 2005

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7.2 Geodynamics of the late Mesozoic in NE China: views from magmatism, geophysics and plate tectonics

In the late Mesozoic, geological events in NE China were controlled by two tectonic domains: the closure of the Okhotsk Ocean and the subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate. Some researchers believe that the early stage of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China was related to Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean subduction, especially the magmatism in the Great Xing’an Range (Meng et al., 2003). However, most researchers believe that the late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China was related to paleo-Pacific subduction (Zhang et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2010a). Jahn et al. (2009) and Zhang et al. (2011a) indicated that the distribution of magmatism in the Great Xing’an Range trends nearly north-south, whereas magmatism in the Mongolia-Okhotsk region has a nearly east-west trend (see Fig.4, Jahn et al., 2009). So magmatism in the Jiamusi Block in the late Mesozoic has no relationship with the Okhotsk suture.

Zhang et al. (2008) questioned the view that the paleo-Pacific plate subducted toward the east margin of the Eurasian continent in the Early Cretaceous. However, the presence of Triassic to Jurassic accretionary complexes (Faure et al., 1995; Kemkin, 2008; Kemkin and Taketani, 2008) which were covered by mid-late Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic strata indicate that the paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) plate subducted beneath the Jiamusi Block.

Overall, the subduction history of paleo-Pacific plate is significant for understanding the late Mesozoic tectonic evolution. The paleo-Pacific plate includes three plates located at the same place as the present Pacific plate; they are Izanagi (IZA), Pheonix (PHX), and Farallon (FAR) plates.

Maruyama et al. (1997) reviewed and reconstructed the movement of the Izanagi and the Pacific plates (Fig 7.2). Three views expressed in that paper are widely cited by later researchers. They are (1) the Izanagi Plate moved northward at a fast rate in the Early Cretaceous; (2) The ridge between the Izanagi and Pacific plates subducted toward South China, North China and Japan; (3) There were variations in the subduction direction. The first view is widely used for interpreting the formation of late Mesozoic sedimentary basins (Okada et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2007; Kirillova et

Geodynamics al., 2009); the second view is applied for interpreting the formation of adakite and gold mineralization in eastern China (Sun et al., 2010, 2011); the third view is cited for interpreting the multi-stages and unconformities recorded within the sedimentary basins (Sliter et al., 1993; Feng et al., 2010).

Fig 7.2 Movement of the Izanagi and Pacific plates between 150-90 Ma After Maruyama et al., 1997

However，the model of Maruyama et al. (1997) only considered movement of the Izanagi and Pacific plates and the ridge between them. The movement of the Izanagi plate toward the Eurasian continental was actually controlled by three ridges and three plates including the ridges between IZA and PHX, IZA and FAR, IZA and PAC, and plates of FAR, PAC, and PHX, as shown in Fig 7.3 (Muller et al., 2008).

Fig 7.3 Age-area distribution of the ocean floor PAC, Pacific Plate; FAR, Farallon Plate; PHX, Phoenix Plate; IZA, Izanagi Plate; KU, Kula Plate; AUS, Australian Plate; PC, Proto-Caribbean; EB, Enderby Basin; AB, Amerasian Basin; C, Cocos Plate. Active mid-ocean ridges are represented as white lines, and subduction locations as black lines and triangle symbols. After Muller et al., 2008

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Fig 7.4 Global plate tectonic evolution from 140 Ma to 60 Ma (After Seton et al., 2012, five-pointed star indicates the Jiamusi area)

Geodynamics

Based on global plate tectonic evolution (Seton et al., 2012) reconstructed using the software GPlate, the high speed of subduction of the Izanagi plate occurred in the Late Cretaceous at about 80 Ma, not in the Early Cretaceous; ridge subduction between the Izanagi and the Pacific plates occurred in the Cenozoic, not in the late Mesozoic; the directional change of the Pacific plate, as reconstructed by sea mounts, possibly did not influence the direction of the Izanagi plate; the direction of the Izanagi plate subduction in the Early Cretaceous was nearly perpendicular to the Eurasian continental margin, not oblique to it.

Hence, the late Mesozoic tectonic evolution of NE China is intimately related to the paleo-Pacific plate (Izanagi) subduction, and rules out variations in subduction speed and direction, and ridge subduction.

Fig 7.5 Geophysics evidence and model for deep slab subduction and magmatism (a) A-A’ section; (b) B-B’section; (c) Global Cenozoic volcano distribution and section locations; (d) Model for deep slab subduction and magmatism; after Zhao, 2004

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Liu (1999) studied the Cenozoic basalts in NE China and indicated that the paleo-Pacific plate should have subducted into the mantle beneath NE China before the opening of the Japan Sea. Zhao (2004) presented geophysical evidence of oceanic slab subduction to the mantle transition zone, based on P-wave tomography from natural earthquakes. Zhao (2004) also indicated that Cenozoic volcanism in NE China is related to Pacific-plate deep subduction and stagnant slab within the mantle transition zone; the Cenozoic volcanos of Changbaishan and Wudalianchi belong to intraplate volcanism; thus supporting the model that the stagnant slab was within the mantle transition zone and triggered igneous processes (Fig 7.5). In the several studies (Zhao et al., 2007; 2009; 2010), more evidence suggests that the whole north-eastern Eurasian continental margin records phenomenan related to a slab stagnant. It appears likely that Zhao’s model is not only applicable for interpretation of Cenozoic magmatism, but also for late Mesozoic magmatism. However, the model provided by Zhao et al. (2004; 2007; 2009; 2010) is fixed with respect to the position of the subducting slab, with no time-dependant variation, so it cannot be used to interpret the temporal evolution of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China.

Collins and Richards (2008) introduced a model that gets over this difficulty by suggesting a rollback-roll forward model that is time dependent. Their model well-illustrates the formation of back-arc basins, fold belts and S-type granites. However, the rollback-roll forwad model is not applicable for the Jiamusi Block, because there was no evidence for any roll forward or compression in the Early Cretaceous. In addition, the khondalitic rocks of the Mashan Complex, as an important component of the continental crust of the Jiamusi Block, can provide the source for S-type granites without any contribution from the circum-Pacific system.

Zhang et al. (2010b) and Zhang et al. (2011a) studied the igneous rocks in the Great Xing’an Range and the Songliao Basin. They introduced the idea of temporal evolution of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China, and proposed a paleo-Pacific subduction roll-back model prior to this study. Their model on slab roll back seems appropriate, but some revision is required. For example, the model in Zhang et al., 2011a shows that the paleo-Pacific plate subducted to the base of the Songliao Block passing by the North China Craton, and the subduction direction was from south to north. In this study, the subduction direction is considered to be from east to west, the same as the present day; and the North China Craton that the slab passed by is

Geodynamics emplaced by the Jiamusi Block. Both models of Zhang et al. (2010b) and Zhang et al. (2011a) did not consider how deep the oceanic slab was subducted to, with no constraints for the shape of the stagnant slab. In this study, process within the stagnant slab at the mantle transition zone is evaluated. As shown in Fig 7.6, a new subduction model is introduced to show that the paleo-Pacific slab likely subducted to the mantle transition zone and that the eastward temporal migration of late Mesozoic magmatism in NE China possibly resulted from asthenospheric upwelling and intraplate extension, triggered by roll-back of the paleo-Pacific plate. Before the Late Jurassic, the paleo-Pacific plate extended more than 1300 km westward below the Hailar Basin to the west of the Great Xing’an Range, reaching the mantle transition zone (Zhang et al., 2011a; Kuritani et al., 2011). Since ~165 Ma, dehydration of the subducted oceanic plate caused partial melting and led to extension and magmatism in the Great Xing’an Range. This situation did not change until ~120 Ma. From ~120 to 110 Ma, the subducted ocean plate rolled back, triggering upwelling of the asthenosphere and lithospheric thinning of the Songliao Block (Zhang et al., 2011a), resulting in the formation of rift basins and eruption of the Yingcheng Formation intermediate–acid volcanic rocks. From ~110 to 95 Ma, the oceanic plate continued to roll back eastward beneath the Jiamusi Block, leading to the mid-Cretaceous bimodal magmatism here.

(?) AA' Xing'an Block Songliao Block Jiamusi Block Legend

(?) Continental crust

Subcontinental mantle lithosphere

160 Ma-120 Ma Oceanic crust Oceanic mantle lithosphere (?) AA'Convection Xing'an Block Songliao Block Jiamusi Block Dehydration

Asthenosphere upwelling 100 km Bimodal Intra-plate Volcanism Roll-back 120 Ma-110 Ma Bimodal Intra-plate Intrusions

Arc Magmatism (?) A A' Accreted complex Xing'an Block Songliao Block Jiamusi Block Oceanic plate subduction direction

(?) Not found yet may be present 110 Ma-95 Ma

Fig 7.6 Model for slab subduction and rollback and igneous processes, based on late Mesozoic temporal evolution of igneous rocks in NE China

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Conclusions 1. Late Mesozoic magmatism in the Jiamusi Block occurred at 104-100 Ma. The Yilin Formation rhyolite and Wulaga granite porphyry record ages of 104 ± 1 Ma; the Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt is constrained at 102-101 Ma; the Huanan composite dyke and its country rock and the Jiamusi bimodal dykes were all emplaced at 100 ± 2 Ma. 2. The mid-Cretaceous igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series with a bimodal signature; all are enriched in LILE and HREE, depleted in HFSE, and formed at an active continental margin with intraplate extension. 3. The Yilin Formation rhyolite and the Wulaga hornblende granite porphyry are both related to high-Mg adakite. The former formed by partial melting of mantle peridotite metasomatized by slab melt and fluid, with residual of plagioclase, and low melting pressure; the latter formed by partial melting of an oceanic slab, with residual of garnet, and high melting pressure. 4. The Hegang Songmuhe Formation basalt was derived from depleted asthenosphere mantle, which was affected by seawater alteration due to subducting oceanic crust. The basaltic magma experienced a high degree of crystall fractionation, and formed at an active continental margin/intraplate setting. 5. The Huanan composite dyke has a rhyolite porphyry interior formed by melting of upper continental crust, and two andesite porphyry margins derived from enriched lithospheric mantle. The magma of the composite dyke experienced rapid cooling, together with the granite porphyry, indicating various interaction between lithospheric mantle and continental crust. 6. The Jiamusi bimodal dykes consist of dolerite and rhyolite. The rhyolite is ferroan (A-type), sourced by differentiation of basalt and low pressure partial melting of the crust, associated with high temperature basaltic magma upwelling. The dolerite was formed by different degrees of mixing of basaltic magma derived from both the asthenosphere and lithosphere mantle. 7. Igneous rocks of the Jiamusi Block can be related to slab dehydration and partial melting, extension and thinning of the lithosphere, mantle upwelling, and mantle-crust interaction, all of which were related to the paleo-Pacific subduction. 8. The late Mesozoic igneous rocks in NE China show an eastward temporal migration at a rate of about 1.8cm/y, which can be interpreted by the subduction-rollback model of the paleo-Pacific plate.

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgement Thanks to my supervisors Prof. Hanlin Chen and Prof. Simon A. Wilde. They concern and support me on both study and everyday life during my postgraduate research period. They also teach me a lot on ethics and how to be a professional geologist. The experimental chances, adequate funding provided by them are important grarantees for completion of my study. Also thanks to Prof. Shufeng Yang and Prof. Zhengxiang Li for their trust and help. Thanks to Dr. Fengqi Zhang, Prof. Chuanwan Dong, and Dr. Xueqin Zhao for their instructions and help during the fieldwork and thesis writing. Thanks to Prof. Borming Jahn, Xuanxue Mo, Yaoling Niu, Yongfei Zheng, Xinmin Zhou, Zilong Li, A.A. Sorokin, Qi Zhang, Fuyuan Wu, and Wuxian Li for discussion. Thanks to Dr. Touping Peng and Xuance Wang for their helpful discussions on petrogenesis of igneous rocks. Thanks to Prof. Xisheng Xu and Shaoyong Jiang from Nanjing University; Chao Yuan and Zhongyuan Ren from Gangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS for their support on analytical experiment. Thanks to Nanmei Li and Jian Liu from Sinopec 18th Mine lab; Yuruo Shi and Hangqiang Xie from Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences; Saihong Yang from Institute of Geology and Geophysics, CAS; Mengqun Zhang, Tao Wang, Haizhen Wei and Wei Pu from Nanjing University; Ying Liu, Jie Li, Guangqian Hu, Jinlong Ma from Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS; Dr. Allen Kennedy, Mr. Adam Frew, Ms Elaine Miller, Mr Hao Gao from Curtin University; Dr. John Cliff and Dr. Laure Marin from University of Western Australia for their help during experimental analysis. Thanks to staffs Ninghua Chen, Zhongyue Shen, Xiaohua Shen, Meiyun Zheng, Jianli Zhu, Dayuan Zhu, Suqing Deng, Chao Tan, Xiaogan Cheng, and Ancheng Xiao from Zhejiang University for their help during the past nine years. Thanks to my colleagues Xiubin Lin, Lei Wu, Lifeng Meng, Xing Yu, Zhongyan Shen, Limei Tang, Jun Xiao, Yan Xu, Minna A, Genhui Gong, Kang Li, Kefeng Zhang, Dongxu Chen, Min Zhu, Yinqi Li, Xiaoqiang Yang and Nan Su from Zhejiang University and Weihua Yao, Liping Liu, Ni Tao, Chongjin Pang, Kongyang Zhu, Shan Li, Qian Wang, Yingchao Liu, and Jeffery Huang from Curtin University. The time spent with them is memorable for ever. Thanks to my parents for their trust and support of my study.

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