Notes

1 Primitivity

1. For two examples of commodity history one large, the other small, see Robert Delort, LeCommerce desFourrures enOccident iliafin du Moyen Age(vers 1300-vers 1450) (Ecole Francaise de Rome, Rome, 1978);F. M. L. Thompson, 'Nineteenth Century Horse Sense', Economic History Review, XXIX, No.1 (February 1976) pp. 6~1. 2. Jacques Nenquin, Salt A Study in Economic Prehistory (de Tempel, Brugge, 1961); Bernard Edeine, 'Les Techniques de Fabrication du Sel dans les sauneries pre et protohistoriques ainsi que Gallo-Romaines', Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest, Vol. 82 (1975) pp . 11-18; Jean-Paul Bertraux, 'L'Archeolog le du Sel en Lorraine: Le Briquetage de la Seille', Guy Cabour­ din (ed.), Le Sel et Son Histoire (Universite de Nancy II, Nancy, 1981) pp .519-38. 3. Peter S. Wells, 'Iron-Age Central Europe', Archaeology, Vol. 33, No . 5 (September-October 1980) pp. 6-11. 4. Nenquin, p. 53. 5. Giraldus Cambrensis, The Itinerary through Wales and the Description of Wales (Dent, London, 1919) p. 176. 6. Anthony P. Andrews, 'The Salt Trade of the Maya', Archaeology, Vol. 33, No.4 (July-August 1980) pp . 16-33. 7. Eric C. Thompson, Thomas Gage's Travels in the New World (University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1958) pp. 167, 204. 8. Ibid., p. 61. 9. Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa , Description of the Indies (c. 1620), tr, Charles Upson Clark (Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, 1968) para 467. 10. Miguel O. de Mendizabal, Influencia delaSol enladistribucion geographica delos grupos indigenas de Mexico (Mexico, 1928). 11. Father Joseph de Acosta, The Natural and Moral History of the Indies, 2 vols (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880) p. 155. 12. Vazquez de Espinosa, para 1437. Marianne Cardale-Schrimpff, 'Prehistoric Salt Production in Columbia, South America' (Colchester Archaeological Group), Salt, The Study of an Ancient Industry (Colchester, 1975) p. 84. 13. Chantal Caillavet, 'Le Sel d'Otavalo (Equateur) Continuites Indigenes et Ruptures Coloniales', Melanges de La Casa de Velazquez, Tome XV (1979) pp . 329-63. 14. Vazquez de Espinosa, para 1006. 15. Claude Levi-Strauss, Mythologiques IV, L'Homme Nu (Pion, Paris, 1971)p. 83. 16. Vazquez de Espinosa, para 1419. 17. Ibid., para 1954. 18. Alexander von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regionsof America during the Years 1799-1804, 3 vols (George Bell, London, 1881) II, p. 365. 19. Herbert Eugene Bolton, Span ish Exploration in the Southwest (Barnes and Noble, New York, 1959) p. 220. 20. Claude Levi-Strauss, 'The Use of Wild Plants in Tropical South America' , Julian H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indian s, Vol. 6, Physical

359 360 Notes

Anthropology, Linguistics and Cultural Geography of South American Indians (Cooper Square, New York, 1963) p. 482. 21. Humboldt, I, p. 179. 22. Claude Levi-Strauss, Mythologiques II Du MieI aux Cendres (Pion, Paris, 1966) p. 42; Mythologiques III Les Origines des Manieres de Table (Pion, Paris, 1968) p.470. 23. W. G. L. Randles, 'La Civilisation Bantou, son essor et son declin', Annales, Economies, Societe», Civilisations, 29:2 (March-April 1974) pp. 267-81; Thur­ ston Shaw, Nigeria Its Archaeology and Early History (Thames & Hudson, London, 1978). 24. P. Gouletquer and D. Kleinrnann, 'Structure Sociale et Commerce du Sel dans I'Economie Touaregue', Revue de l'Occident Musulman et de la Mediterranee, 21, 1976, pp . 131-9; Michal Tymowski, 'La Saline d'Idjil en Mauritanie', Africana Bulletin, 30 (1981) pp . 7-37. 25. Paul E. Lovejoy, 'The Borno Salt Industry', TheInternational Journal Of African Historical Studies, Vol. II (1978) no. 4, pp. 629-68. 26. Ibid., p. 629. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. J. Clauzel, L'Exploitation des Salines de Taoudenni, Institu de Recherches sahariennes (Universite d' Alger, Alger, 1960). 30. J. E. G. Sutton and A. D. Roberts, 'Uvinza and its Salt Industry', Anzania, 3 (1969) pp . 45-86. 31. Henry M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 2 vols (Sampson Low, Lon­ don, 1878) I, 508. 32. Charles M. Good, 'Salt, Trade, and Disease: Aspects of Development in Africa's Northern Great Lakes Region', International Journal of African Histori­ calStudies, Vol. 5 (1972) no . 4, pp. 543--86. 33. Duke Adolphus Frederick of Mecklenburg, In the Heart of Africa (Cassell, London, 1910) pp. 191-2. 34. Ibid., p. 192. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid. 37. Paul Pascon, 'Le Commerce de la Maison d'IIigh d'apres Ie registre compt­ able de Husayn b. Hachem (Tazerwolt, 185G-1875)', Annales, Economies, Societe«, Civilisations, 35:3--4 (May-August 1980) pp . 70G-729. 38. Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds), Pre-ColonialAfrican Trade, Essays on Trade in Central and Eastern Africa before 1900 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1970) p. 34. 39. Michael G. Kenny, 'Salt Trading in Eastern Lake Victoria', Azania, Vol. IX (1974) pp . 225-8, p. 226. 40. Good, p. 557. 41. Ibid. 42. Tadeusz Lewicki, WestAfrican Food in theMiddle Ages(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1974). 43. Ibid., p. 79. 44. Ibid., p. 116. 45. Ibid., pp . 116--17. 46. Ibid., p. 121. 47. Ibid., p. 218. 48. For an exception to this generalization, see I. B. Sutton, 'The Volta River Salt Trade: The Survival of an Indigenous Industry', Journal of African History, 22 (1981) pp . 43--61. Notes 361

49. Levi-Strauss, Mythologiques 111, p. 355. 50. Nancy Lee Swan, Food and Money in Ancient China (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1950) p. 347, quoting Han-shu 24:24b. 51. Robert P. Multhauf, Neptune's Gift, A Historyof Common Salt (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1978) p. 4. 52. Derek Denton, The Hunger for Salt, An Anthropological, Physiological and MedicalAnalysis (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1982). 53. E. A. Wallis Budge, Syrian Anatomy, Pathology and Therapeutics or 'The Book of Medicine', 2 vols (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1913) I, 339. 51. Charaka-Samhita, Translated and published by Kaviraj Arinash Chandra Kaviratna, 5 vols, Calcutta, 1896--1912, I, 9. 55. Ibid ., II, 452. 56. Ilza Veith, Huang Ti Nei Ching Su Wen, The Yellow Emperor's Classicof Internal Medicine (Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1949) pp . 120, 23. 57. Wallis Budge, I, 506. 58. Charaka-Samhita, II, 529, 532, 535. 59. Ibid., II, 532. 60. Veith, p. 141. 61. James E. Latham, The Religious Symbolism of Salt (Editions Beauchesne, Paris, 1982) p. 161. 62. Latham, p. 163. 63. S. C. Aggarwal, The Salt Industry in India (Government of India Press, New Delhi, 1976) p. 6. 64. For such diseases in one particular area, see James L. Maxwell, The Diseases of CMlla (ABC Press , Shanghai, 1929) pp . 137-203 on Protozoal and Metazoal parasites. 65. Mirko D. Grmek, Les maladies a l'aube de la Civilisation Occidentale (Payot, Paris, 1983). 66. Levi-Strauss, Mythologiques 11, pp . 406--7, Mythologiques 111, p. 397.

2 Antiquity

1. Ronald P. Legon, Megara The Political History of a Greek City-state to 330 BC (Cornell University Press , Ithaca and London, 1980) p. 25. 2. Dio Chrysostorn, Orations, The Thirty-Sixth, or Borysthenitic Discourse. 3. Pliny, Naiuralis Historia , Book XXXI, 39. 4. David Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century after Christ, 2 vols (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1950) p. 1312; Speros Vryonis, The Declineof Medieval Hellenismin AsiaMinor and the Process ofIslamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1971). 5. Strabo, Geographia, Book XVI , 3, 3. 6. Pliny, Book XXXI, 39. 7. Paul Veyne, Le Pain et LeCirque, Sociologie Hisiorique d'un Pluralisme Politique (Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1976). 8. Dio Cassius, Romaika , Book XLIX. 9. Livy, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, Book II, 9. 6. 10. Livy, Book XXIX, 37, 3. 11. Tenney Frank (ed .), All Economic Survey of Ancient Rome,S vols (Pageant, Paterson, New Jersey, 1959) I, pp. 140, 151. 12. L. Wickert (ed .), Corpus Inscription urn, Latinatum, Vol. 14, Supplement (Gruyter, Berlin, 1938) p. 78, S 4285; Hermann Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectee, Vol. II, part 1 (Weidmann, Berlin, 1902) pp . 556--7, no. 6178. 362 Notes

13. Leon Homo, Essai sur Ie Regne de l'Empereur Aurelien (Bretschneider, Paris, 1904) p. 179. 14. Clyde Pharr, The Theodosean Code (Greenwood Press, New York, 1952) . pp . 412, 312. 15. Oswyn Murray, 'The Greek Symposion in History', Times Literary Supple­ ment, 6 November 1981, pp . 1307-8; Denis Roussel, Tribu et Citt (Universite de Besancon, Paris, 1976). 16. ~ . Grimal and Th. Monod, 'Sur la veritable nature du garum', Revue des Etudes Anciennes, Vol. 54 (1952) pp . 27-38. 17. W. B. Fisher (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. I, The Land of Iran (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1968) p. 139. 18. Ibid., p. 69. 19. Daniel Potts, 'On Salt and Salt Gathering in Ancient Mesopotamia', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XXVII, 3 (October 1984) pp.225-71. 20. Richard W. Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1975). 21. Pliny, Book XXXI , 39. 22. Strabo, Book sv, 1, 30. 23. Hsuan-tsang, Si-qu-ki, Buddhist Records oftheWestern World, trn Samuel Beal, 2 vols (Paragon, New York, 1968). 24. Charaka-Samhita, II, 452;A. L. Basham, TheWonder that was India (Grove, New York, 1959)p. 498; F. Ashton, 'The Salt Industry of Rajputana', TheJournal of Indian Art andIndustry, Vol. 9 (1902) pp . 23-32, p. 30; Aggarwal, pp. 42~21. 25. Sir George Dunbar, History of India from Earliest Times to1939, 2 vols (Nichol- son and Watson , London, 1949)1,76. 26. Shu-ching, Part Ill, Book I, part 1, ch. 4, vv 24-6. 27. Shih-chi, 32. 28. Ibid., 129. 29. Ssu-ch'uanyen-fa-chih (Treatise on the salt laws of Szechwan), Ting Pao-chen, comp ., 40 chuan, Chengtu, 1882, ch 4, 39. 30. Han-shu, 91. 31. Shih-chi, 106. 32. Lewis Maverick (ed.), Economic Dialogues in Ancient China , Selections from the Kuan-tzu (Lewis A. Maverick, Carbondale, Illinois, 1954). 33. Ibid., p. 113. 34. Ibid., p. 149. 35. Ibid. 36. Han -shu, 24. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Chin-shu, 26; L. S. Yang, Studies in Chinese Institutional History (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1961) pp. 18S-9. 40. Shih-chi, 129. 41. K. C. Chang (ed.), Food in Chinese Culture, Anthropological and Historical Perspectives (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1977). 42. L. S. Yang, 'Great Families of Eastern Han', E-tu Zen Sun and John de Francis (eds), Chinese Social History (American Council of Learned Societies, Washington DC, 1956) pp . 103-34, p. 106. 43. Maverick, p. 113. Notes 363

3 The Dark and Light Ages

1. For the link between military and monastic institutions in Western Europe, see Alexander Murray, Reason and Society in the Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1978). 2. For salt production on the Tuscan coast, see Rutilius Namatianus, De Reditu Suo, which describes a solar salt field. Since there is mention of 'many small ponds', multifidosquelacus, this passage has been taken to refer to successive basin evaporation. There is no suggestion, however, that the brine was moved from one pond to another, nor that sodium chloride was distin­ guished from calcium and magnesium compounds. It would seem most natural, therefore, to interpret what the poet saw as a battery of single basins like those at Katwe, or, most probably, those at the mouth of the Tiber. 3. He-tung yen-fa chih (Treatise on the He-tung salt laws), Yung-cheng edition, 2 vols (Taipei, 1966) p. 10. 4. Chung-kilo Yen-chengshih-lu(Veritable records of the Chinese salt administra­ tion) (Taipei, 1954). 5. He-tung yen-fa-chih, Vol. I, p. 103; Vol. II, p. 973. 6. W. F. J. Jenner, Memories of Loyang, Yang Hsuan-chi and the Lost Capital (493-534) (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1981). 7. William T. Graham, The Lament for the South, Yii Hsin's Ai Chiang-nan FII (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980). 8. He-tung yen-fa-chih, I, pp. 82-9. 9. Ibid., II, p. 974. 10. D. C. Twitchett, Financial Administrationunderthe Tang Dynasty (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1965) pp . 165-72. 11. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1954) Vol. I, pp . 220-23. 12. John Henry Newman, An Essay in aidof A Grammar of Assent (Burns, Oates, London, 1870) p. 425. 13. Muhammed Hanazir Ahsan, Social Life under the Abbasids 170-289 A.H., 786-902 A.D. (Longman, London and New York, 1979) p. 104. 14. E. Ashtor, 'Essai surl'alimentation des diverses classes sociales dans l'Orient medieval', Annales, Economies, Socittl!s, Civilisations, 23:5 (September­ October 1968) pp . 1017-53, p. 1028. 15. Charles M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2 vols (Cape, London, 1936)I, pp .267-8. 16. For the distinction IslamJIslamdom, see Daniel Pipes, Slaves Soldiers and Islam. TheGenesis ofa MilitarySystem(Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1981). 17. J. Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (Hakiuyt Edition, London, 1896) Vol. II, p. 467. 18. R. Mantran, Istanbuldanslaseconde moitiedu XVW siecle (Maisonneuve, Paris, 1962) p. 181. 19. Ahsan, p. 104. 20. Doughty, II, p. 488. 21. Richard W. Bulliet, 'Botr et Beranes: Hypotheses sur L'Histoire des Berbe­ res', Annales, Economics, Societes, Civilisations, 36:1 (lanuary-Pebruary 1981) pp. 104-16, p. 109; Claudette Vanacker, 'Geographie economique de I'Afrique du Nord selon les auteurs avabe de IX' siecle au milieu du XU­ siecle', Annales Economies Societe« , Civilisations, 28:3 (May-June 1973) pp. 659-80, p. 675. 364 Notes

22. Edmond Bemus, Touraregs Nigeriens, Uniteculturelle et Dioersiie regionale d'un people pasteur (Editions de l'office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre Mer, Paris, 1981) pp. 233-5. 23. Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs (Macmillan, London, 1940) p. 343. 24. Doughty, I, p. 340. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., II, p. 88. 27. Ibid., pp. 419-420. 28. Ibid., II, p. 501. 29. H. St. J. Philby, Arabia of the Wahhabi (Cass, London, 1928) p. 154. 30. Pierre Lernonnier, Paludiers de Guerande, Production du Sel et Histoire econ­ omique (Institut d'Ethnologie, Paris, 1984) pp. 25-33; Aggarwal, pp. 155, 181-2, 199,202,44. 31. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, DeAdministrando Imperio, ed. and trans. G. Y. Moravsik and R. J. H. Jenkins, 2 vols (Budapest and London, 1949-1962) I, 137-8. 32. William Roscoe Thayer, A Short History of Venice .(Macmillan, New York, 1905) pp. 9-10. 33. Latham, p. 116. 34. Dom Gregory Dix, The Shape of theLiturgy(Dacre, Westminster, 1954) p. 745; A. Vasiliev, 'Economic Relations between Byzantium and Old Russia', Journal of Economic and Business History, 4, Feb. 1932, pp. 314-34. 35. Marcus Nathan Adler (ed .), The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela (Philipp Feldheim, New York, 1907) p. 13. 36. Michel Mollat (ed .), Le Role du Sel dans L'Histoire (Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1968) p. 13. 37. See Bernard Edeine, pp. 1-4. 38. H. C. Darby, TheDomesday Geography of Eastern England (Cambridge Univer­ sity Press, Cambridge, 1952) pp. 69-71, 246--8. 39. H. C. Darby and I. B. Terrett, The Domesday Geography of Midland England (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1954) pp . 251-6. 40. H. C. Darby and I. S. Maxwell, (eds), The Domesday Geography of Northern England (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1952) pp. 362-4. 41. Dorothy Whitelock, The Beginnings of English Society (Penguin, Harmonds­ worth, 1952) p. 115. 42. Marion Dechamps, Portrait of Brittany (Robert Hale, London, 1980) pp.89-90. 43. Edeine, p. 6. 44. Gwyn Jones, A History of theVikings (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1969) p. 211. 45. Michel Parisse, 'Un Pays du Sel: Le Saulnois en Lorraine (XII-XII siecles)', in Guy Cabourdin (ed.), Le Sel et Son Histoire (Publications Nancy II, Nancy 1981) pp. 37-50. 46. Pierre Joubert, Les Structures du Latium Medieval (Ecole Francaise de Rome, Rome 1973) pp. 641-51, 681-3, 966, 972. 47. A. Dupont, 'L'Exploitation du Sel sur les etangs de Languedoc (IXe-XIW siecle)', Annales du Midi, Tome 70, 1958, fasc. 1, pp. 7-25, p. 22. 48. Darby and Terrett, p. 285. 49. Whitelock, p. 116.

4 The Middle Ages

1. Ching Pen-po, Yen-wu ko-ming shih (A history of the revolution in the salt Notes 365

administration) (Ching-yen tsung-hui yen-cheng tsa-che she, Nanking, 1929). 2. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1958) p.209. 3. Ibid., p. 188. 4. Donald F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I, The Century of Discovery, Book One (University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1965) p. 144. See also M. A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1962) p. 224 for an estimate of pepper sales in Europe in 1621. 5. K. C. Chang, p. 144. 6. Yuan-shih, 97, 19a. 7. For Yuan salt figures, see Herbert Franz Schurmann, Economic Structure ofthe Yuan Dynasty (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1956) pp . 175-92, which translates Yuan-shih, 94. 8. For the history of He-tung, see the Ho-tung yen-fa chih: also Esson M. Gale and Ch'en Sung -ch'iao, 'China's Salt Administration: Excerpts from Native Sources', Journal of Asiatic Studies, 2.11 (lune 1959) 273-316, pp . 288-93. 9. Karl A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, History of Chinese Society, Liao (907-1125) (The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1949) p. 340. The authors wrongly quantify the shih at 1 cwt instead of, at this date, 1/2cwt. 10. Marco Polo, pp. 165-6. 11. Ibid., pp. 142-3. 12. China , Imperial Maritime Customs, Salt: Production and Taxation, V Office Series, Customs Papers, No. 81 (The Statistical Department of the Inspecto­ rate General of Customs, Shanghai, 1906) p. 229. 13. Edmund H. Worthy, 'Regional Control in the Southern Sung Salt Adminis­ tration ', in John Winthrop Haeger (ed.), Crisisand Prosperity in Sung China (University of Arizona, Tucson, 1975) pp . 101-141, p. 115. 14. Marco Polo, pp. 180-81. 15. Ibid., p. 200. 16. Hubert van Zeller, TheBenedictineIdea (Burns & Oates, London, 1959)p. 225. 17. Pierre Chaunu, Le Temps des Reformes (Fayard, Paris, 1975) p. 47. 18. For institutionalization in early medieval Europe, see Caroline Walker Bynum, Jesus as Mother, Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982); also Alexander Murray. 19. For the ordines salis, see particularly the works of Jean-Claude Hocquet: 'Metrologie du sel et histoire comparee en Mediterranee', Annales, Econ­ omies, Socie/is, Civilisations, 29:2 (March-April 1974) pp . 383-424; LeSelet La Fortune de Venise, Vol. I, Production et Monopole (Universite de Lille, Lille, 1978); 'Ibiza, carrefour du commerce maritime et temoin d'une conjoncture mediterraneenne (1250-1650 env .)', Studi in Memoria di Federigo Melis (Gian­ nini, Naples, 1978); 'Capitalisme marchand et ciasse marchande aVenise au temps de la Renaissance', Annales, Economies, Socieu», Civilisations, 34:2, (Feb.-March 1979)pp . 279-304; LeSeletLaFortune deVenise, Vol. II, Voiliers et Commerce en Mediterranee 1200-1650 (Universite de Lille, Lille, 1979). 20. Jacques Heers, Genes au XV' steele, activiU iconomique et proolemes sociaux (S.E.V.P.E.N. , Paris, 1961) pp . 349-56. 21. Alberto Mori, LeSaline della Sardegna, Memoriedi Geografi Economica, Anno II. Luglio-Decembre 1950, Vol. Ill, Napoli; Italy, Ministero delle Pinanze, Azienda Dei Sal, Relazione e Bilancio Industriale, Rome, 1898-1919. 22. J. Vila Valenti, 'Ibiza y Formentera, islas de la Sal', Estudios Geographicos, 366 Notes

August 1953, pp. 363-408; Jacqueline Guiral, 'Le Sel D'Ibiza et de La Mata a la fin du Moyen Age', Cabourdin, pp. 93-108. 23. Vila Valenti, p. 365. 24. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 12. 25. Ibid ., pp. 489, 521. 26. Christiane Villain-Gandossi (ed.), Comptes du Sel de Franceso di Marco Datini poursa compagnie d'Avignon 1376-1379 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, 1969). See also Christiane Villain-Gandossi, 'Le tirage du sel de Peccais a la fin du XIV" siecle d'apres des livres de comptes de Francesco Datini (1368-1379)', Mollat, pp. 173-81; and Edouard Baratier, 'Production et debouches du sel de Provence au bas Moyen Age' Mollat pp . 133-71. 27. Yves Grava, 'La Fiscalite du sel: pouvoir et societe en Provence au XIV" siecle . La Gabelle de Berre', Cabourdin, pp. 229-42. 28. J-G Gigot, 'Notes sur Ie sel dans l'histoire du Roussillon', Mollat, pp. 199-202; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 a 1324 (Gallimard, Paris, 1975) pp. 29-30 . 29. Philippe Dollinger, The German Hansa (Macmillan, London, 1964). See also Delort, pp. 989-90, 1192. 30. Multhauf, pp. 41-8, 253-62; [ean-Francois Bergier, Une Histoire du Sel (Presses Universitaires de France, Fribourg, 1982) pp. 71-81. Otto Volk, Salzproduktion und Salzhandel Mittelalterlicher Zisterzienser-klceter (Thorbecke, Sigma ringen, 1984). 31. Hoquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 182. 32. J. Steven Watson, A History of the Salters' Company (London, 1963); A. R. Bridbury, England andtheSaltTrade in theLater Middle Ages(Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1955); Elizabeth K. Berry, 'The Borough of Droitwich and its Salt Industry, 1215-1700', University of Birmingham Historical Journal, 6:1 (1952) pp. 39-61. Professor Bridbury, p. 145, doubts whether the Salters were any more concerned with the salt trade than any other city company. The evidence provided by Steven Watson seems to me, however, to go against this view. 33. Henri Touchard, 'Le Sel Breton dans I'Atlantique et les Mers etro ites au XV" at XVI" siecles', Mollat, pp. 39-45. 34. Bridbury, p. 106. 35. Claude-Isabelle Brelot and Rene Locatelli, Les Salines de Salins, un Millenaire d'Exploitalion du Selen Franche Comte (CRDP, Besancon, 1981); H. Dubois, 'Le Temeraire, Les Suisses et Le Sel', Revue Historique, 526 (April-June 1978) pp. 309-33; Diana Cooper-Richet, 'Les Mines de Sel de Wieliczka', L/Histoire, 16, 1979, pp. 82-4 . 36. Henri Dubois, 'Du XIII"siecle aux portes de la modernite: une societe pour l'exploitation du sel comtois', Cabourdin, pp. 67-91. 37. Multhauf, p. 40. 38. Schurmann, p. 190.

5 Late Tradition, Early Modernity

1. J. J. L. Ratton, A Handbook of Common Salt (Madras, 1877). 2. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Les Paysans de Languedoc, S.E.V. P.E.N ., 2 vols (Paris, 1966) p. 139. 3. Jean-Louis Flandrin, 'Le Gout et la Necessite: sur I'usage des graisses dans les cuisines d'Europe occidentale (XIV-XVIII" siecle)'. Annales, Economies, Societe« , Civilisations, 38:2 (March-April 1983) pp. 269-401. Notes 367

4. Gerard Sivery, 'Les profits del'eleveur et du cultivateur dans Ie Hainaut ala fin du Moyen Age', Annales, Economies, Societe«, Civilisations, 31:3 (May-June 1976) pp . 604-630; Marie-Jeanne Tits-Dieuaide, 'L'Evolution des techniques agricoles en Flandre et en Brabant, XIV-XVI siecle', Annales, Economies, Socieus, Civilisations, 36:3 (May-June 1981) pp . 362-81; Paul Servais, 'Les structures agraires du Lirnbourg et des pays d'Outre-Meuse du XVII" au XIX" siecle', Annales, Economies, SocieUs, Civilisations, 37:2, (March-April 1982) pp . 303-19; Marie-leanne Tits-Dieuaide, 'Les Campagnes Flamandes du XIII·,au XVKIII" siecle ou les succes d'une agriculture traditionaelle', Annales Economies, SocieUs, Civilisations, 39:3 (May-June 1984) pp . 590-610. 5. See Chapter 4, note 19 and Bibliography . 6. H. G. Koenigsberger, The Government of SicilyunderPhilip II of Spain (Staples Press, London and New York, 1951). 7. Pierre Chaunu, Seville et L'Atlantique, Vol. VIII, part one, (S.E.V.P.E.N., Paris, 1959) p. 607. 8. H. van der Wee, TheGrowth of theAntwerp Market and the European Economy, 3 vols (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 196,3). 9. Fernand Braudel, Civilisation materielle, Economie et capitalisme, XV'-XVIII' siecle, 3 vols (Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 1979)Vol. III, LeTemps du Monde, p.118., 10. J. A. Goris, Etude sur les Colonies Marchandes Meridionales (Portugais, Espag­ nols, lialiens) II Anvers de 1488 II 1567, Contribution II L'Histoire des Debuts du Capitalisme Hoderne, (Librairie Universitaire, Louvain , 1925) pp. 465-77. 11. D. W. Davies, A Primer of DutchSeventeenth CenturyOverseas Trade (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1961); Aksel E. Christensen, Dutch Trade to the Baltic about 1600 (Einar Munksgaard and Martinus Nijhoff, Copenhagen and The Hague, 1941). 12. Chaunu, Seville, VIII, part one, p. 218. 13. Albert F. Calvert, Saltin Cheshire (Spon and Chamberlain, London and New York, 1915); Brian Didsbury, 'Cheshire Saltworkers', in Raphael Samuel (ed.), Miners, Quarrymen and Saltworkers (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1977) pp . 138-203. 14. J. U. Nef, The Rise of the British Coal Industry, 2 vols (George Routledge, London, 1932); Joyce Ellis, 'The Decline and Fall of the Tyneside Salt Industry 1660-1790, A Reexamination', The Economic History Review, Second Series, Vol. XXXIII, No.1 (February 1980) pp . 45-58. 15. Calvert, p. 431. 16. Otto Karrnin, La Question du Sel pendant La Revolution (Paris, 1912). 17. Marcel Delafosse and Claude Laveau, LeCommerce du Selde Brouage aux XVII' et XVIII' siecles (Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 1960). 18. Marcel Blanchard, 'Sel et Diplomatie en Savoie et dans les Cantons Suisses au XVII"; et XVIII" siecles', Annales, Economies, Societs, Civilisation, 15:6 (November-December 1960) pp . 1076-92; Philippe Gem, 'La Vente du Sel franc-comtois et lorrain aux cantons suisses au XVII" siecle', Cabourdin, pp . 391-403. Georges Livet, 'La Suisse, Carrefour diplomatique de sels europeens', Cabourdin, pp. 405-33; Lucien Febvre, Philippe II et la Franche ComU (Flammarion, Paris) 1970. 19. Charles Hiegel, 'Vente du sellorrain en Suisse du milieu du XVI" siecle a la guerre de Trente Ans', Cabourdin, pp . 327-46; Yves Le Moigns , 'Le sel lorrain et la diplomatie lorraine et francaise au XVIII" siecle', Cabourdin, pp . 435-53, esp. p. 443 for the introduction of coal fuel. 20. Kuno Ulshofer and Herta Beutter (eds), Hall und das Salz, Beitriige zur 368 Notes

hiillischen Stadt und Salinengeschichte (Ian Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen, 1983). 21. Multhauf, pp. 80-81. 22. Ibid., p. 91. 23. For early modern Wieliczka, see Diana Cooper-Richer, pp. 82-4; Multhauf, pp. 40-41 , 74, 110-12, 118-19, 269-70; Bergier, p. 76; Antonina Keckova, 'Polish Salt-Mines as a State Enterprise (XVII-XVIII centuries)" Journal of European Economic History, 10(3) (1981) pp . 619-81. 24. John P. LeDonne, 'Indirect Taxes in Catherine's Russia; The Salt Code of 1781', Jahrbucher fur Gesch ichte Osteuropas, 23:2, 1975, pp. 161-90; Mark Mancall, Russia and China , Their Diplomatic Relations to 1728 (Harvard Univer­ sity Press , Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1971) pp. 165-7, 176, 347-8; R. E. F. Smith and David Christian, Bread and Salt, A Social and Economic History of Food and Drink in Russia (Cambridge University Press, 1984) pp. 27-73. 25. R. Mantran, Alexandre Bennigson etc., Le Khanai de Crimee dans les Archives du Musee du Palais de Topkapi (Mouton, Paris) 1978; Berger, pp . 8, 92-3. 26. Irfan Habib, TheAgrarian Systemof Mughallndia (1556-1707) (Aligarh Muslim University, Asia Publishing House, 1963); Ashton; Aggarwal, pp. 464, 488, 37. 27. Ashton, p. 26. 28. Gilbert Rozman , Urban Networks in Ch'ing Chinaand Tokugawa Japan (Prince­ ton University Press, 1973). 29. Franco ise Sabban, : Le systerne des cuissons dans la tradition culinaire chinoise' r Annales, Economies, Socieus, Civilisations, 38:2 (March-April 1983), pp. 341-68; K. C. Chang, pp. 261-375. 30. Louise Stallard, The Szechuan and Hunan Cookbook (Sterling , New York, 1981). 31. M. A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz; Sarasin Viraphol, Tributeand Profit, Sino-Siamese Trade 1652-1853, Council on East Asian Studies (Harvard University, Cam­ bridge, Mass. and London, 1977). 32. China, Salt: Production and Taxation , p. 2. 33. Ibid ., p. 194. 34. Britain, Parliamentary Papers, ChinaNo.5 (1904), 'Report by Consul-General Hosie on the Province of Ssuch'uan', pp. 13, 17. 35. S. A. M. Adshead, 'An Energy Crisis in Early Modern China', Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, Vol. 1Il, no . 2 (December 1974), pp. 20-28. 36. Ssu-ch'uant'ung-chih (Szechwan provincial gazetteer), Chia'ch'ing 21 edition, Vol. 50, chuan 71; Hsii-chou fu-chih (Hsu-chou prefecturel gazetteer), Kuang-hsu 21 edition, chiian 19; Lung-chiang ch'uan-ch'ang-chih (Treatise on the Lung-Chiang Shipyard) (Nanking, 1553). 37. Yueh-tso chi-shih (Essentials of the Kwangtung salt administration) (Canton, 1927). I am grateful to Dr James Hayes for the gift of this valuable book and much other material and help in connection with the history of salt in Liang-kuang. See also Liang-kuang yen-fa-chih (Treatise on the salt laws of Liang-kuang) (Canton, 1884); S. Y. Lin, 'Salt Manufacture in Hong Kong', Journal of theHong Kong Branch of the Royal AsiaticSociety, 7 (1967) pp. 138-51. 38. Nankai University, Department of History, comp., Ch'ing shih-Iu Ching-chi tzu-liaochi-yao (A compendium of economic materials on the Ch'ing shih-Iu) (Chung-hua shu-chu, Peking, 1959) p. 804. 39. Fu-chien yen-fa-chih (Treatise on the salt laws of Fukien) (Foochow, 1830). 40. Tao-chang Chiang, 'The Production of Salt in China, 1644-1911', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 66, no . 4 (December 1976) pp. 516-30, p. 526. Notes 369

41. Chung-kuo yen-cheng shih-Iu (Veritable records of the Chinese salt administra­ tion), 4 vols (Nanking, 1933) I, 327. 42. Ch'ing-shih (History of the Ch'ing dynasty), 8 vols (Taipei, 1961), chuan 124, 37233a; Chiang, '1644-1911', p. 526. 43. Gale and Ch'en, p. 290. 44. Ferdinand von Richthofen, Baron Richthofen's Letters 1870-1872, North China Herald office (Shanghai, 1903) p. 135. 45. S. A. M. Adshead, 'Compensatory Urbanism and Dominant Rurality: Ho­ tung Salt Division under the Late Empire and Early Republic' , Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Asian Studies, 1982 (Asian Research Service, Hong Kong, 1982) pp . 1-7. 46. S. A. M. Adshead, 'Ch'ang-lu Salt Division: Bureaucracy and Moderniza­ tion', Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Asian Studies, 1983 (Asian Research Service, Hong Kong, 1983)pp . 9-15; Yen-cheng tsa-chih (Salt administration magazine), (Peking, 1912-1915) nos 16-19. 47. Pierre-Etienne Will, 'Un cycle hydraulique en Chine: la province de Hubei du XVIeau XIxesiecles', Bulletin de/'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient, 68 (1980) pp .261-87. 48. Ta Ch'ing li-ch'aoshih-Iu (Veritable records of successive reigns of the Ch'ing dynasty) (T'ai-wan hua-wen shu-chu, Taipei, 1963), Tao-kuang, 462:7-9. 49. Yen-cheng shih-lu, Nank ing, II, 1267. 50. Alexander Hosie, 'The Salt Production and Salt Revenue of China', Nine­ teenth Century and After, 447, May 1914, pp . 1119-43, p. 1121. 51. Thomas A. Metzger, 'The Organizational Capabilities of the Ch'ing State in the Field of Commerce: The Liang-huai Salt Monopoly, 1740-1840', in W. E. Willmott (ed.), Economic Organization in Chinese Society (Stanford University Press, Stanford, California, 1972) pp . 9-45, 417-19; Jonathan D. Spence, Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor, Bondseroant and Master (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1966) Ch. 5, 'Liang-huai Salt Administra­ tion', pp . 166-212. 52. Nankai, Cn'tng shih-lu, p. 832. 53. Metzger, 'Organizational Capabilities', p. 33. 54. Ch'ing-shih, Chuan 126, 37224a. 55. Thomas A. Metzger, TheInternal Organization ofCh'ing Bureaucracy (Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1973); William T. Rowe, Hankoto, Commerce and Society in a Chinese City 1796-1889 (Stanford, 1984). 56. S. A. M. Adshead, 'The Border Salt Trade in Northwest China, 1900-1950', Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Asian Studies, 1981 (Asian Research Service, Hong Kong, 1981)pp . 1-8; 'Further Sources on the Otogh Salt Lakes', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. XLVI, part 2 (1983) pp . 333-5.

6 Modernity

1. Maurice Lombard, 'Un probleme cartographie: Le Bois dans la Mediterranee musulmane (Vll''-Xl" siecles)', Annales, Economies, Socieus, Civilisations, 14:2 (April-June 1959) pp . 234-54. 2. Multhauf, pp . 84-5, 90; Jean-Marie Augustin, 'Administration et Justice dans les salines De salins sous les Habsbourg' Cabourdin pp. 269-318, p. 306; Le Moigne, p. 443. 3. Bergier, pp. 232-5. 4. Multhauf, pp. 69, 99. 370 Notes

6. Claudia WaDis, 'Salt: A New Villain', Time, 15 March 1982, pp . 48-56. 7. For monosodium glutamate, see Sabban, pp . 351, 362. 8. The leading member of the Eurasian school was Petr Nikolaevich Savitsky . His chief contributions are to be found in the volume of essays he published in Moscow in 1921 in collaboration with Prince Nikolai Trubetskoy and others, Iskhod k Vostoku (Exodus to the East). The Eurasians, though anti­ Bolshevik, were the Russian version of Haushofer's Geopolitics. 9. A. and N. L. Clow, TheChemical Revolution (Batchworth, London, 1952);'The Chemical Industry: Interaction with the Industrial Revolution', in Charles Singer, E. J. Holyard , A. R. Hall, and Trevor Williams (eds), AHistory of Technology, 5 vols (Clarendon, Oxford, 1954-1958) IV, pp. 230-57; W. J. Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries, A History, 2 vols (Oxford University Press, London, 1970-1975); Kenneth Warren, Chemical Foundations:TheAlkali Industry in Britain to 1926 (Clarendon, Oxford, 1980). 10. Pierre Chaunu, Eglise, Culture et Societe (S. E. D. E. S., Paris, 1981). 11. Didsbury in Samuel, p. 166. 12. Etienne [uillard, L'Europe Rhenanc (Armand Colin, Paris, 1968). 13. Jean Coud ert, 'La Naissance et Le Developjpement] de L'Industrie du Sel dans Le Bassin de la Meurthe (1843-1911), Cabourdin, pp . 157-87; [uillard, pp. 112, 115. 14. Mario Pinna, 'II Giacimento di Salgemma del Volterrano, Studio di Geogra­ fia economica', Contributi alia Geografia della Toscana (Universita di Pisa, Pisa, 1958--59). 15. Great Soviet Encyclopaedia (Sovietskaia Entsiklopediia Publishing House, Moscow, 1970), 2-3746, 3-57a. 16. Ella Lonn, Salt as a Factor in the Confederacy (University of Alabama Press, Alabama, 1965). 17. J. Sampaio Fernandes, Industria do Sal (Rio de Janeiro, 1939); Dioclecio D. Duarte, A Industria extativado Sale a sua imporiancia na economia do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1941); George Hawrylyshy, 'Revamping of the Salt Industry Improves Future Prospects', Brazilian Business, 55(5), May 1975, pp . 28-30. 18. A. E. Wileman, 'Salt Manufacture in Japan', Transactionsof theAsiatic Society of Japan, Vol. 17 (1889) pp . 1-66. 19. Donald F. Lach, pp . 664, 676-7, 687. 20. Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Handbook ofJapan (Office of the Prime Minister, Tokyo, 1969) p. 56. 21. 1. B. Sutton. 22. Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds), Pre-colonial African Trade, Essays on Trade in Central and Eastern Africa before 1900 (Oxford University Press, London, 1970) p. 75. 23. Edmond Bemus. 24. Sutton and Roberts. 25. Tymowski; Bergier, pp. 96-8. 26. Ottoman Public Debt Administration, Annual and Special Reports, 1904-5 to 1907-8, 1909-10 to 1913-14, 1919-20, 1922-3. 27. Indian Tariff Board, Evidence Recorded during Enquiry on the Salt Industry, 2 vols (Calcutta, 1930). 28. Sadananda Choudhury, Economic History ofColonialism, A Study of British Salt Policy in Orissa (Inter-India Publications, Delhi, 1979);Aggarwal, pp . 55-82. 29. Indian Tariff Board, II, 820. 30. Ibid., I, 35. 31. Ibid., 277. Notes 371

32. Ibid., 572. 33. Ibid., II, 148. 34. Ibid., I, 589. 35. Ibid., II, 839. 36. Ibid., pp. 348--77. 37. Ashton, pp. 26-7. 38. Indian Tariff Board, I, 409. 39. Ibid., 433. 40. S. A. M. Adshead, 'Tzu-liu-ching, the Chinese Face of Industrialization-Evi­ dence, Facts Explorations', Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Asian Studies, 1980 (Asian Research Service, Hong Kong, 1980) pp . 1-10. 41. Ferdinand von Richthofen, p. 171. 42. Scientific American, Supplement, 18 November 1916, quoted in Sir Richard Dane, Report on the Reorganization of the Salt Revenue Administration in China, 1913--1917. There is a copy of this report in the Library of Congress. 43. G. R. G. Worcester, The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, 1971) p. 147; G. R. G. Worcester, Notes on the Crooked-bow and Crooked-stern Junks of Szechwan , China, The Maritime Cus­ toms, III, Miscellaneous Series: No. 53 (Shanghai, 1941) p. 13. 44. Gale and Ch'en, p. 311. 45. Ta Ch'ing shih-lu, Hsuan-t'ung, 24:14-13. 46. Ibid., 23:44-5. 47. 'Chung-kuo yen-cheng yen-ko shih' (A history of the development of the Chinese salt administration), Yen-cheng tsa-chih, No. 19, Chuan-chien 2:1-16, August 1915. 48. Reports by the District Inspectors, Auditors and Collectors on the Reorgan­ ization of the Salt Revenue Administration in China, 1919-1921, pp . 20, 1101, 17; 1913--1917, p. 40. 49. Reports etc. 1913--1917, pp . 103, 276. 50. Reports etc. 1919-1921, p. 79. 51. Peter Fleming, One's Company (Cape, London, 1940) p. 79. 52. Reports etc., 1913--1917, p. 14. 53. Dane, p. 98. 54. Reports etc., 1913--1917, p. 14. 55. Reports etc., 1919-1921, p. 21. 56. Yen-cheng tsa-chih, No. 17, isa-lu, 1, February 1915. 57. Sabban, p. 362. 58. Reader, I, 224-6. 59. Hou Teh-pang, 'The Yungli Company: Pioneer of Chemical Industry in China', China Reconstructs 4:3, March 1955, pp. 21-4. 60. 'Light Industry in Communist China ', excerpts from Chung-kuo ch'ing-kung­ yeh, 1955(United States Joint Publication Research Service, New York, 1959). 61. First Five-Year Plan from Development of the National Economy of the People; Republic of China in 1953-1957 (Foreign Languages Press, Peking, 1956) pp . 49-50, 91. 62. 'Light Industry', p. 21. 63. Ibid., p. 22.

7 The Venetian Salt Administration

1. Toubert, pp . 646, 974. 2. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 613. 372 Notes

3. E-tu Zen Sun (ed.), Ch'ing AdministrativeTerms, (Harvard University Press , Cambridge. Mass., 1961) p. 168. 4. Pierre -Etienne: Will, Bureaucratie et Fam ine en Chine au 18' siicle (Mouton, Paris, 1980) p. 178. 5. Yen-cheng tsa-chih, No. 18, chuan-chien 2, April 1915. 6. For Venice, see the works of Jean-Claude Hocquet cited above Chapter 4, note 19, especially Le Sel, Vol. II; also Marco Brazzale, 11 Mercato delSale nella Repubblica Veneta nella seconda meta del XVI secolo, (Universita di Venezia, Venezia, 1971); Frederic C. Lane , Venice A Maritime Republic (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1973). 7. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. I, pp. 166-8. 8. Ibid. , Vol. II, pp . 66G--61. 9. Jean-Cl aude Hocquet, :Venise etle marche du sel dans la seconde rnoitie du XVI' siecle', Annales Economies, Societis, Civilisations, 34:3, pp . 619-624h, May-June 1979, p. 621. 10. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, pp . 217, 351, 426. 11. Ibid., p. 670. 12. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. I, pp. 123-4, 114-16. 13. Ibid., pp. 148-53. 14. Ibid., Vol. II, pp . 447-52, 48G--81. 15. Ibid., pp. 128-32, 512-16, 122-3, 139, 142. 16. Ibid., Vol. 1, p. 340. 17. Brazzale , pp . 27-8. 18. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, pp . 41G--11 . 19. Jean-Claude Hocquet, 'Le burchio, outil privilegie du transport du sel en Venetie', Cabourdin, 117-38. 20. Metzger, Internal Organization, pp. 57, 78--9, 292-3 . 21. China, Salt: Production and Taxation, pp . 218, 101, 106, 216-17. 22. Hocquet, Le s«, Vol. II, pp . 412-13, 415-17, 419-21, 426, 43G--31. 23. For fedi and delays in their payment, see Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, pp . 372, 443, 458--9, 465-6. 24. Hocquet, Le sn, Vol. II, p. 429. 25. Ibid., pp . 41G--11 . 26. Ibid. , pp. 415, 43G--31; for current interest rates, see p. 486. 27. Hocquet, Le se:Vol. II, pp . 42G--21. 28. For an instance, see the loans ~f the Priuli, Hocquet, LeSel, Vol. II, pp. 475-8. 29. Evelyne Patlagean, Pauurete Ecollomique et Pauorete Socia Ie d Byzance, 4'-7' siecles (Mouton, Paris, 1977);Jean Baechler, The Origins of Capitalism (Black­ well, Oxford, 1975). 30. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, pp. 20G--201. 31. Ibid., pp. 436-7. 32. Hocquet, 'Capitalisme marchand et classe marchande', p. 297. 33. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 473. 34. Ibid., p. 486. 35. Ibid., p. 478. 36. Carlo Poni, 'Les moulins a soie dans les etats Venetiens en 16'_18' siecles', Annates, Economies, Societes , Civilisations, 27:6 (November-December 1972) pp . 1475-96. 37. Hugh Trevor-Roper, The Rise of Christian Europe (Thames & Hudson, Lon­ don, 1970) p. 184. 38. Hocquet, 'Capitalisme marchand et classe marchande', pp . 287-8 . 39. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 196. Notes 373

40. Lane, p. 237. 41. Hocquet, LeSel, Vol. II, p. 388. 42. Jean-Noel Biraben, Les Hommes et laPeste en France et dans lesPays europeens et mediterraneens, Tome II, Les Hommes face II la Peste (Mouton, Paris, 1976). 43. Ch. Carriere, M. Courdurie and F. Rebuffat, Marseille, VilleMort, La Peste de 1720 (Maurice Garon, Marseille, 1968). 44. Hocquet, LeSel, Vol. II, pp . 390, 425, 309. 45. Ibid., pp. 390-92, 398. 46. Ibid., pp . 220-21. 47. Donald F. Lach, Vol. I, pp . 30-48. 48. Colin Renfrew, TheEmergence ofCivilisation, TheCyclades andtheAegean in the Third Millennium Be (Methuen, London, 1972). 49. For a summary of 'The Westward flow of techniques', see Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China , Vol. I, pp . 240-43. 50. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. IV, part 3 (1971) pp .613-15. 51. Needham, Vol. I, p. 219. For John of Rupescissa, see especially E. F. Jacob, 'John of Roquetaillade', Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 39, 19456-7, pp . 75-95. Since Jacob wrote, much has been learnt about Taoism in China, and the Taoist character of John's medical alchemy is much more evident. 52. Marco Polo, p. 177. 53. Ibid., p. 166. 54. Ibid., p. 176. 55. Ibid. , p. 177. 56. Ibid., p. 200. 57. Hocquet, LeSel, Vol. II, p. 433.

8 The French Salt Administration

1. D. Dessert and J-L [ournot, 'Le Lobby Colbert', Annates, Economies, Societes, Civilisations, 30:6, pp . 1304-29, November-December 1975. Surprisingly the Gabelle has not yet attracted a large, sophisticated modern study. Of older books, I have relied on J. Pasquier, L']mpot des Gabelles en France aux XVlJ' et XVllJ'siecies (Paris, 1905; Slatkine Reprints, Geneva, 1978);Of newer books, M. Delafosse and Cl. Laveau, LeCommerce deSeldeBrouage aux XVlJ'et XVllJ' siecle« (Armand Colin, Paris, 1960), and articles in Cabourdin. Unfor­ tunately, Jean-Claude Hocquet, LeSelet lePouuoir, Del'An Mil II laRevolution franca ise(Albin Michel, Paris, 1985), reached me too late to affect the main lines of this study. 2. Schurrnann, p. 4; Ata-Malik [uvaini, TheHistory of the World Conqueror, trns John Andrew Boyle, 2 vols (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1958)I, 209-10, II, 599-600, 605-6; Parhs M. Coble, Jr., TheShanghai Capitalists and the Nationalist Government 1927-1937 (Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1980). 3. R. J. Knecht, Francis] (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982) p.385. 4. Pasquier, p. 2. 5. J. F. Bosher, French Finances 1770-1795 from Business to Bureaucracy (Cam­ bridge University Press, Cambridge, 1970) p. 305. 6. George T. Matthews, The Royal General Farms in Eighteenth Century France (Columbia University Press, New York, 1958). 7. J. F. Bosher, 'French Administration and Public Finance in their European 374 Notes

setting', in A. Goodwin (ed.), The New Cambridge Modern History Vol. VIII, The American and French Revolutions 1763-93, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1965) pp . 565--91. 8. Louis Dermigny, La Chine et L'Occident, LeCommerce aCanton au XVIII' siede 1719-1833,3 vols (S.E.V.P.E.N., Paris, 1964) I, 349-52. 9. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Le Carnaval de Romans (Gallimard, Paris, 1979) pp.324-5. 10. Hiegel in Cabourdin, interventions of Mme Ros. and M. Livet, pp. 342-6. 11. Jean-Marie Augustin, 'Administration et [utice dans les Salines de Salins sous les Habsbourg', Cabourdin, pp. 289-318, p. 307. 12. Francois Vion-Delphin, 'Salines et Forets au XVIII" siecle: Le Cas des Salines de Montmarot', Cabourdin, pp. 347-62. 13. Knecht, pp . 385--9. 14. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie and Michel Morineau, Histoire Economique et Socia Ie de la France, Tome I, De 1450 a1660, Vol. 2, Paysannerie et Croissance (P.U.F., Paris, 1977) pp . 824-35. 15. J. H. M. Salmon, Society in Crisis, France in the Sixteenth Century (Berm, London, 1975) pp. 35--7. 16. Henri Preville, L'Intendance de Bretagne 1689-1790, 3 vols, (Plihon, Rennes, 1953) I, 26, II, 316-19, III, 148. 17. On the technology involved, see Edeine. 18. Madeleine Foisil, La Revolte des Nu-pieds et les revoltes normandes de 1639 (Paris, 1970); Yves-Narie Berce, Croquants et Nu-Pieds (Gallimard/Iulliard, Paris, 1974). 19. Dermigny, II, pp . 654-5, 662-3, 667-8. 20. For Richelieu, see Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de la France lllustree, Tome VI, Deuxieme Partie, ]. H. Mariejol, Henri IV et Louis XIII 0598-1643 (Hachette, Paris, 1911)pp. 425--30 and Henri Hauser, La Pensee et tAction Economique du Cardinal de Richelieu (P.U.F. Paris, 1944) p. 176. For Calonne, see Pasquier, pp .144-7. 21. Pasquier, p. 6. 22. Pierre Racine, 'Le Sel dans la Plaine du Po: Salsomaggiore entre les Com­ munes de Parme et Plaisance (XII"-Xm" siecles)' (Cabourdin) pp . 51-65, pp . 57-8, 62, 64; Hocquet, Le se: Vol. II, p. 414. 23. Edouard Perroy, The Hundred Years War (Eyre & Spottiswoode, London, 1951) p. 153. 24. Robert D. Harris, Necker, Reform Statesman of theAncienRegime (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1979). 25. Jacques-Louis Menetra, Journal demaVie, ed . Daniel Roche (Montalba, Paris, 1983). 26. G. Pages, La Monarchie d'Ancien Regime France (Armand Colin, Paris, 1946) p.215. 27. H. R. Trevor-Roper, Historical Essays (Macmillan, London, 1957) p. 48. 28. Jean Delumeau, La Peur en Occident (XIV'-XVIII' siecies) : Une Cite Assiegee (Fayard, Paris, 1978). 29. Arthur Young, Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788, 1789, ed. M. Betham-Edwards (Bell, London, 1913) pp . 315--16. 30. Georges Clauss, 'La Contrebands du Sel en Argonne a la Fin de I'Ancien Regime', Cabourdin, 363-88, pp. 370, 383, 388. 31. l- B. Colbert, Lettres, Instructions, Memoires, Imprimerie Nationale, 8 vols (Paris, 1861-1882, Kraus Reprint, Nenideln, Liechtenstein, 1979). 32. Colbert, II, 736, 477, 630-31; II, 488-9; II, 531, 667, II, 606. Notes 375

33. Colbert, IV, 311, 574. 34. Arthur Young, pp. 32, 56. 35. Bergier, pp. 225-31, Appendix by Albert Hahling. 36. Tihomir J; Markovitch, 'La Crossance industrielle sous L'Ancien Regime', Annales, Economies, Societis, Civilisations, 31:3 (May-June 1976) pp. 644-55. 37. Cabourdin, pp. 452-3 Intervention of M. Hocquet. 38. On salt diplomacy, see Philippe Cern, 'Le Vente du Sel franc-camtois et lorrain aux cantons suisses au XVIII" siecle', Cabourdin, pp. 391-403, and Livret and Le Moigne, Cabourdin, pp. 405-53 . 39. Alain Dubois, 'Economie Alpine et Capitaux Urbains: Les investissements du Genevois Hippolyte Rigaud en Valais au debut du XVII" siecle', Schweizerische Zeitschrift fUr Geschichte, 29:1 (1979) pp. 287-300. 40. Francoise-Therese Charpentier, 'Art et Economie: Solvay et l'Ecole de Nancy'; Cabourdin, pp . 15-23 .

9 The Habsburg Salt Administration

1. For this period of Habsburg history, we rely particularly on R. J. W. Evans , The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1979), and on Victor-L Tapie, Monarchie et Peuples du Danube (Librairie Artherne Fayard, Paris , 1969). For salt and salt administration my leading authority is Rudolf Palme, Rechts-Wirtschafts und Sozial Geschichie der Inner alpinen Salzwerke bis zu deren Monopolisierung (Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt and Berne, 1983). 2. William M. Johnston, The Austrian Mind, An Intellectual and Social History 1848-1938 (University of California , Berkeley , 1972) p. 48. 3. Tapie, pp. 65, 95. .. 4. Osterreich, Finanzministerium, Statistische Mitteilung jiber das Osterreichische Salzmonopol im Jahre 1907-1908, 1912, 1913, Vienna, 1910 and 1914. 5. Chang Chien, A Plan for the Reform of the National Salt Administration (The National Review Office, Shanghai, 1913) pp. 35-36 . 6. Jean Berenger, Finances et Absolutisme Autrichien dans La Seconde Moitie du XVII' siecle (Sorbonne, Paris, 1973). 7. Eckart Schrernmer, 'Saltmining and the Salt-trade:A State-Monopoly in the XVth-XVIIth centuries.A Case-study in Public Enterprise and Development in Austria and the South German States', Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 8, (1979) pp . 291-312, p. 293. 8. Evans, p . 376. 9. Royal Society, Philosophical Transactions, Vol. I, 1665, 'O f the Mundus Subter­ raneus of Athanasius Kircher', pp. 109-117, pp. 117, 111, 112. 10. Athanasius Kircher, Mundus Subterraneus (Amsterdam, 1665), Vol. I, p. 345, Vol. II, Proemium; also Vol. J, pp. 38, 298. 11. Evans, pp. 361-2; N. J. Girardot, Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism , The Themeof Chaos (hun-tun) (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1983). 12. Evans, pp. 363-4, 36&-7, 371-2 . 13. Schrernmer, pp. 298-9. 14. Multhauf, p. 45. 15. Ibid., p. 139. 16. Evans , p . 360. 17. Schremmer, p. 298. 18. Keckova, p. 631. 19. Tapie, pp . 295, 319. 376 Notes

20. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, p. 674. 21. Ibid., pp. 327-8. 22. Janes M. Bak and Bela K. Kiraly (eds), From Hunyadi to RQlc6czi, War and Society in LAte Medieval and Early Modern Hungary (Brooklyn College Press, New York, 1982). 23. Bak and Kiraly, p. 303. 24. Ibid., p. 360. 25. Ibid., pp. 37l}-71. 26. Otto Karrnin, LA Question du Sel pendant la Revolution (Paris, 1912). The French government considered handing the Pays de Salines over to Beust. 27. Cabourdin, pp. 412, 414. 28. Hocquet, Le s«, Vol. II, pp. 625, 633, 635; Cabourdin, p. 415. 29. E. Rambot-Stilmant, 'Une Tentative de monopole d'Etat: La Raffinerie d'Os­ tend, 1756-1770', Contributions tl L'Histoire economicue et sociale, Brussels, Vol. 5, 1970, pp. 25-86. 30. Le Moigne in Cabourdin, p. 446. 31. Joel Mokyr, Industrialization in the LowCountries 1795-1850 (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1976). 32. Archibald Little, The Far East (Oxford, 1905) p. 69. 33. Anton Einstberger, Hans de Witte, Finanzmann Wallensteins, Vierteljahrschrift fur Sozial- und Wirtschaftgeschichte, Beiheft (Cologne, 1954). 34. Keckova, pp. 63l}-31. 35. Berenger, pp. 365-73. 36. Evans , pp. 136, 220; Anton Gindely, Gegenreformation in Bohmen (Duncker and Humblott, Leipzig, 1894) pp. 307-26. 37. Renee Simon (ed .), Le P. Antoine Gaubil S. J. Correspondence de Pekin 1722-1759 (Librairie Droz, Geneva, 1970) pp. 576, 696, 761. 38. Schremmer, p. 294. 39. Heinrich Ritler von Srbik, Studienzur Geschichte des Osierreichischen Salzwesens (Innsbruck, 1917). 40. Hermann Schreiber, The History of Roads, From Amber Route to Motorway (Barrie & Rockliff, London, 1951) p. 261. 41. Cabourdin, p. 400. 42. John Stoye, The Siege of Vienna (Collins , London, 1964) p. 115.

10 The Ottoman Salt Administration

1. For the Ottoman public debt administration, see Ottoman Public Debt, Annual and Special Reports, 1904-5 to 1907-8, 1909-10 to 1913-14, 1919-20, 1922-23; also Donald C. Blaisdell, European Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire (Columbia University Press, New York, 1929). 2. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System (Academic Press, New York, 1974). 3. Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. II, Reform, Revolution and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808-1975 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977); Roderick H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1886-1876 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963). 4. For synarchy, see John King Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on theChina Coast, The Opening of the Treaty Ports 1842-1856, 2 vols (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1953), notably I, p. 465. 5. Mantran, pp. 444, 162, 202. Notes 377

6. Alexandre Bennigsen, etc., p. 5; Le Donne, p. 168. 7. Stanford J. Shaw, The Financial and Administrative Organization and Develop­ ment of Ottoman Egypt 1517-1798 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey , 1962); Stanford J. Shaw, Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century (Harvard University Press , Cambridge, Mass ., 1962); Stanford J. Shaw, Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1964); British Parliamentary Papers, Lord Cromer's Fi­ nancial reports, Egypt No. 3 (1892), Egypt No .3.(1893), Egypt No. (1894), Egypt No .1 (1895), Egypt No.2 (1895), Egypt No. (1896), Egypt No.2 (1897), Egypt No.1 (1898), Egypt No.3 (1899), Egypt No.1 (1900), Egypt No.1 (1907). 8. C. Max Kortepeter, Ottoman Imperialism during theReformation: Europe andthe Caucasus (New York University Press, New York, 1972), p. 55. 9. Hocquet, Le Sel, Vol. II, pp. 685-6, 699, 200, 321, 314, 317. 10. Shaw and Shaw, pp. 104-5. 11. Ibid., p. 101. 12. Ibid., pp. 104-5. 13. Ibid., p. 223. 14. Ibid., p. 211. 15. British Parliamentary Papers, Papers Relating to Administrative and Financial Reforms in Turkey, 1858-61, Bulwer to Russell, 12 November 1860. 16. Annette Destree, Les Fonctionaires Belges au service delaPerse 1898-1915 (Brill, Leiden, 1976);W. Morgan Shuster, The Strangling ofPersia (New York, 1912); Arthur C. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, A Clinic for theNew International­ ism (Washington, 1946); Persia, Quarterly Reports of the Administrator General of the Finances of Persia, 1923-1928. 17. Stanley F. Wright, Hart and theChinese Customs (Mullan Belfast, 1950). 18. S. A. M. Adshead, The Modernization of the Chinese Salt Administration 1900-1920 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1970). 19. British Parliamentary Papers, Papers Relating to Administrative and Financial Reforms in Turkey, 1858-61, Bulwer to Russell, 16 November 1860. 20. British Parliamentary Papers, Papers Relating to Administrative and Financial Reform in Turkey, 1858~1 , Bulwer to Russell, 12 November 1860. 21. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report 1909-10, pp. 8-9 . 22. Ibid., p. 30. 23. Shaw and Shaw, pp . 104-5. 24. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report 1909-10, p. 9. 25. Ottoman Public Debt , Special Report 1905-6, p. 23. 26. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report 1907-8, pp. 29-30. 27. Ibid., p. 30. 28. Ottoman Public Debt , Special Report 1909-10, p. 31. 29. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report 1910-11, p. 32. 30. Blaisdell, p. 124. 31. Ibid., p. 128-9. 32. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report, 1905-6, pp. 24, 25-6, 27, 30. 33. Ottoman Public Debt, Special Report 1907-8, pp. 29-30. 34. Blaisdell, p. 118. . 35. British Parliamentary Papers, Papers Relating to Administrative and Financial Reforms in Turkey 1858-61, Bulwer to Russell, 12 November 1860. 36. Blaisdell, p. 118. 37. Ibid., p. 7. 38. Ibid., p. 118. 378 Notes

39. Ibid., p. 6. 40. 40 Shaw and Shaw, p. 41. Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914-1918 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1968). 42. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. Ill, 1914-1916 (Heinemann, Lon­ don, 1971) pp. 307-11.

11 The Indian Salt Administration under the Raj

1. H. Furber, John Companyat Work, A Study of European Expansion in India in the Late Eighteenth Century (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass ., 1951). 2. See Curzon's remarks to the Japanese ambassador in July 1919, E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler (eds), Documents on BritishForeign Policy, Vol. VI, June 1919 to April 1920 (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1956) p.614. 3. Indian Tariff Board, Salt Enquiry, Preliminary Evidence Volume, Calcutta 1930; Indian Tariff Board, I and II as above Note 27 to Chapter 6; see also Aggarwal whose first edition appeared in 1936. 4. Somendra Chandra Nandy, Life and Times of Cantoo Baboo (Krishna Kanta Nandy) The Banian of Warren Hastings, Vol. I, The EarlyCareer of Cantoo Baboo (1742-1772) and his Trade in Salt and Silk (Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1978) p.97. 5. A. M. Serajuddin, 'The Condition of the Salt Manufacturers of Bengal under the Rule of the East India Company', Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (Dacca), 18:1 (1973) pp . 54-73. 6. Ashton, p. 24. 7. Salt Enquiry, p. 73. 8. Sir George Dunbar, History of India from Earliest Times to 1939. 2 vols (Nicholson and Watson, London, 1949) II, p. 556. 9. Salt Enquiry. pp. 260, 273. 10. Salt Enquiry, pp. 281-2; Indian Tariff Board, II, pp. 445-7, 472. 11. Salt Enquiry, p. 274. 12. Ashton, p. 26. 13. Ibid., pp. 26-27. 14. Salt Enquiry. p. 271. 15. Ibid., pp . 278-9. 16. Ibid., p. 271. 17. Ibid., p. 281. 18. Ibid., p. 261. 19. Ibid., p. 93. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., p. 94. 25. Ibid., p. 93. 26. Ibid., p. 98. 27. Ibid., p. 106. 28. Ibid., p. 283. 29. Ibid., p. 256. 30. Ibid., p. 223. Notes 379

31. Ibid ., p. 1-2. 32. Ibid., p. 66. 33. Ibid., pp . 136-7. 34. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 35. Ibid., p. 183. 36. Ibid., p. 186. 37. Ibid., p. 188. 38. Ibid., p. 235. 39. Ashton, p. 23. 40. Salt Enquiry, p. 216. 41. Ibid., p. 237. 42. Ibid., p. 218. 43. Ibid., p. 217. 44. Ibid., p. 223. 45. Ibid., p. 73. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid., p. 75. 48. Ibid., p. 85. 49. Ibid., p. 256. 50. Ibid., p. 225; see also Indian Tariff Board, II, pp . 378-80. 51. Salt Enquiry, p. 253. 52. Aggarwal, p. 265. 53. Salt Enquiry, p. 240. 54. Ibid., p. 89. 55. Ibid., p. 254. 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid., p. 253. 58. Ibid. , p. 80. 59. Ibid., p. 202. 60. Ibid., p. 203. 61. Sir Richard Dane, Report by Sir Richard Dane, KCIE, on the Reorganiza­ tion of the Salt Revenue Administration in China, 1913-1917 (Chief Inspec­ torate of the Central Salt Administration, Peking, 1918) p. 77. 62. Ibid., p. 79. 63. Ibid., p. 150. 64. Sahyasachi Bhattacharyya, Financial Foundations of the British Raj (Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla, 1971) pp . 197-202, p. 290; Sir John Strachey, India, Its Administration and Progress (Macmillan, London 1911) pp . 175-83; W. W. Hunter, TheIndian Empire, Its People,History andProducts (Truebner, London, 1884) pp . 452-5, 622-3 . 65. India, Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. The Publication Division, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, XLIII (March-June 1930), Ahmedabad, 1971, p. 167. 66. Salt Enquiry, p. 74. 67. Dane, p. 38. 68. Salt Enquiry, p. 223. 69. Ibid., p. 210. 70. Ibid., p. 88. 71. Dunbar, II, p. 543. 72. Ibid. 73. Salt Enquiry, p. 276. 74. Ibid. 380 Notes

75. Ibid., p. 237. 76. Ibid., p. 219. 77. Ibid., p. 254. 78. Ibid., p. 205. 79. Ibid., p. 136. 80. Indian Tariff Board, II, pp . 445-7, 472; Aggarwal, pp. 360-66 . 81. Indian Tariff Board, II, pp . 401-3 . 82. Ibid., pp . 411-13. 83. Ibid., pp. 157-80. 84. Salt Enquiry, p. 86. 85. Ibid., p. 205. 86. Indian Tariff Board, II, pp. 836-7. 87. Salt Enquiry, pp. 220-21. 88. Ibid., p. 256. 89. Ibid., p. 239. 90. Ibid., p. 240. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid., p. 254. 93. Pramathanath Bannerjee, A History of Indian Taxation (Macmillan, London) p. 271. 94. Ibid., pp . 275-6 . 95. K. T. Shah, Sixty years of Indian Finance (King, London and Bombay) pp . 213, 240, 46. 96. Salt Enquiry, p. 74. 97. Ibid., p. 78. 98. Aggarwal, pp . 103-10, 115, 88. 99. Salt Enquiry, p. 77. 100. Ibid., p. 6. 101. Ibid., p. 11-29. 102. Ibid., p. 30. 103. Ibid., p. 91. 104. Ibid ., p. 85. 105. Aggarwal, pp . 69-71.

12 Chinese Salt Administration under the Late Empire and Early Republic

1. Thomas A. Metzger, 'T'ao Chu's Reform of the Huaipei Salt Monopoly', Harvard Papers on China, 16 (1962) pp . 1-19; Metzger, Internal Organization. 2. Samuel C. Chu, Reformer in Modern China, Chang Chien 1853-1926(Columbia University Press, New York and London, 1965). 3. Dane, p. 101. 4. Ibid., p. 102. 5. Ibid., p. 70. 6. Ibid., p. 180. 7. Ibid., p. 200. 8. Reports etc., 1919-1921, p. 215. 9. David D. Buck, Urban Change in China, Politics and Development in Tsinan , Shantung, 1890-1949 (University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1978). 10. Dane, p. 116. 11. Ibid., p. 122. 12. Ibid., pp. 124-5. 13. Ibid., p. 91. Notes 381

14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., p. 92. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., pp . 92-3. 19. Ibid., p. 152. 20. Ibid., p. 153. 21. Reports etc., 1913-1917, p. 34. 22. Dane, pp . 206-7. 23. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, The Phenomenon ofMan (Collins, London, 1966), p.175. 24. Dane, p. 18. 25. Ibid., p. 17. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., p. 18. 28. Ibid ., p. 17. 29. Ibid., p. 125. 30. Ibid., p. 38. 31. Ibid., p. 36. 32. Ibid. , p. 35. 33. Ibid., p. 36. 34. ibid ., p. 51. 35. Ibid. p. 39. 36. Ibid ., p. 64. 37. Ibid., p. 77. 38. Ibid., p. 110. 39. Ibid., p. 111. 40. Ibid., p. 116. 41. Ibid., p. 215. 42. Ibid., p. 174. 43. Ibid., p. 60. 44. H. R. Trevor Roper, Historical Essays (Macmillan, London, 1957) p. 129. 45. He-tung yen-fa-chih, Vol. II, p. 715. 46. Ralph William Huenemann, The Dragon and the Iron Horse, The Economics of Railroads in China 1876-1977 (The Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1984) 461. 47. Ta Ch'ingli-ch'ao shih-lu (Taipei 1963), Kuang-hsu, 592:9. 48. Dane , p. 179. 49. Ibid. 50. Reports, etc. 1913-1917, p. 253. 51. Reports, etc., 1918, p. 76. 52. Reports , etc., 1918-1921, p. 52. 53. Reports, etc., 1919-1921, p. 52. 54. Reports, etc., 1922, p. 65. 55. Taiwan Diplomatic Documents, Box h, Min-kuo 11.2, Japanese Legation, 9 February 1922. 56. Andrew J. Nathan, Peking Politics, 1918-1923, Factionalism and the Failure of Constit.utionalism (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976). 57. Piere-Etienne Will, Bureaucraiie et Famine enChineau 18' siicle(Mouton, Paris) p.178. 58. Chihli River Commission, Final Report and Grand Scheme 1918-1925 (Hua Pei Press, Tientsin, 1925) p. 6. Select Bibliography

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Aargau 138, 139, 239 Alba Julia 242 Abalai 172, 52 Albania 91, 185, 199, 268, 269, 271 Abbasid caliphate 56, 59, 62 Albertus Magnus 201 Abd er Rahman II 63 Alcazar do Sal 63 Abdulaziz 259, 265 Aleppo 60, 157, 269, 271 Abdulhamit II 260, 265, 281, 283 Alexander III, pope 183 Abdulmecit I 259 Alexander Severns, Roman Abele, Christoph Ignaz 232 emperor 33 Adana 157 Alexandria 28, 29, 34, 58, 66, 74, 87, Adelaide 155 89, 186 Aden 151, 159, 160, 161, 281, 290, Algeria 62 293, 294, 296, 297, 309, 318, 319, Algiers 86, 102 320 Alicante 62 Aden salt works 159 Alsace 211, 231, 236, 237, 256 Adige 255 Amadro 16 Adrianople 158 Amazon river 9 Adriatic sea 62, 63, 64, 183, 184, amber 6 186, 187, 189, 193, 196, 198, 200, Americas 5, 9-15, 22, 23, 99, 100, 240, 241, 245, 248 102, 111, 113, 141 Aegean sea 71, 63, 272 Amiens 6 Aethelbald, king of Mercia 67 Amorium 58 Afion Karahissar 158, 271 Amritsar 285 Africa 3, 5, 6, 15-23, 28, 29, 58, 60, Amsterdam 103, 104, 108, 246, 253 61, 62, 65, 99, 136, 145, 156, 158, An Ch'i 126 159, 293, 319 An Lu-shan 52, 55, 62 Agde 210, 224 An Ssu-shun 55 Agra 115, 116 An-i 124 Agrippa 32, 33 An-i hsien 39, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 61, Ahmad Shah 116 75, 77, 123, 124, 186, 288, 349 Ahmedabad 300, 308, 314 An-pel 52, 55 Ahmet Cerdet Pasa 265 Anaphlystos 28 Ahyolu 115 Anatolia 8, 30, 66, 157, 158, 262, Aigues-Mortes 90, 91 269, 270, 271, 275 Aigun 350 Anchialos 115 Airan Kol 60 Ancona 102, 185, 198,245 Aix 91 Ancus Martins, king of Rome 29, Aixone 28 32,34 Akbar the Great, MughaI Andaran 58 emperor 116, 285 Andes 11, 12, 13 Aksu 61 Andrews, Anthony P. 10 Al-Bakri 59 Andulusia 30 Al-Mutasim 57 Aneyza 58, 60 Alabruka 52 Angola 16, 19, 113 Alagoas 154 Angoulerne 213 Alashan 76, 124, 134, 172, 173, 182, Angoumois 212 335,336 Anhwei 53, 54, 78, 83, 118, 122,

393 394 Index

Anhwei cant. Aunis 209, 212, 213 128, 163, 171, 325, 330, 331, 332 Aurelian, Roman emperor 33, 35, Ankara 158,269,271,277 45,177 annona 32, 33, 45 Aushaziya 60 Anonymous of Ravenna 17 Aussee 93, 110, 233, 236 Antioch 28, 30, 34, 47 Australia 55, 99, 106, 140, 146, 152, Antioquia 11 155, 156 Antwerp 103, 104, 246, 247, 249 Austria 198, 199, 230--5, 240, 241, Ao-t'un-mou 348 242, 243, 246--9, 251, 255, 257, Appalachia 9, 113 263, 265, 282 Appenines 86 Austrian Netherlands 214, 216, 245 Appenzell 256 Auvergne 6, 209, 212 Aprica pass 255 Avignon 90,91 Apulia 62, 64, 102, 186, 245 Awlil 16 Aquitaine 95, 212 Aynos 115 Arabia 30, 58, 59, 60, 159, 319 Azerbaijan 262 Arabs 21,22 Aztecs 9,10 Aragon 86, 87, 91 Aral Sea 36 Babylon 30 Aratu 154 Bacon, Roger 201 Arbe 64,240 Bactrian Greeks 37 Arc 140, 165, 169 Baden 138, 228, 236, 256 Arc et Senans 211, 212, 216, 225, 228 Badja 59 Arcadius, Roman emperor 33 Baghdad 58, 66, 158, 262, 263, 270, Archangel 112, 224 271,277 Archipelago, the 115 Bahamas 140, 152 Argonne 222 Bahia 113, 154 Aristophanes 28 Bakeland, Leo Hendrik 144 Aristotle 28, 31, 32 bakelite 144, 147 Arizona 12 Bakhmut 152 Arkansas 13 Baku 152 Aries 90,91 Balachna 112 Armenia 35,47,271 Balearic islands 29, 90 Arno, river 91 Baltic sea 6, 69, 88, 92, 94, 100, 104, Arnold of Villanova 201 106, 107, 112, 146, 208, 216, 223, Arnold, Georg Bernhard 244 224,239 Ars 209 bananas 16, 21, 22 Artemovsk 152 Bandar Abbas 36 Artern 110, 139, 149 Bangalore 305 Artois 107, 214 Banjaras 116, 289 Ascuncion 12 Bantu 15, 16, 19, 20, 21 Asia Minor 30, 34, 35, 275, 276 Barabinsk 153 Aspendus 30 Barcelona 86, 87, 90, 151 Assam 116, 159, 292, 319 Bari 62 Astrakhan 112, 113, 152 Barkol 60, 61 Ataturk, Kemal 281 Barletta 102, 151 Athanasius Kircher 139, 252 Barnstaple 113 Athens 28, 29, 63 Baroda 286, 294, 300, 317, 318 Aucare 11 Baroncelli 103 Aude river 91, 224 BASF 143, 149 August von Hallerstein 252 Basil II Bulgaroctonus, Byzantine Augustus, Roman emperor 32, 33 emperor 47 Index 395

Basle 138, 211, 228, 239 Bolckow and Vaughan Basques 7, 87, 196 company 138, 147 Bavaria 6, 93, 109, 110, 140, 149, Bolivia 9, 10 236, 238, 239, 245, 253, 256, 257 Bombay 116, 158, 159, 160, 161, Bay of Biscay 67, 94, 95, 100 287, 292, 293, 297, 298, 300, 301, Bayer company 149 302, 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, Beaucaire 91 311, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 320 Becher, Johann Joachim 235 Bordeaux 67, 208, 213, 214, 223 Bedouin 57 Bordunaria 68 beer 5, 249, 254 Bornu 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 29 Beirut 157, 271 Bororo 14, 15 Bela III, king of Hungary 177 Borth 138 Belgium 6, 19,35,231,245,246,247 Bosnia 91, 185, 198, 199, 243, 244, Benevento 103 247, 263, 264 Bengal 71, 106, 116, 146, 15&-61, Bosphorus 65, 264, 270 286, 287, 290, 292-4, 296, 297, Boston, England 95, 103 299, 301, 302, 307, 309, 310, 313, Botswana 16, 19 314, 316, 318-20 Boulogne 214 Benghazi 271 Bourbons 211, 245, 247, 250, 254 Benguela current 16 Bourg Dessus 96, 97 Beni 9 Bourgneuf 67, 94, 95, 103, 104, 107, Benjamin of Tudela 66 148, 217, 224 Beowulf 8 Bouteilles 69 Berchtesgaden 93, 110, 149 Brabant 101, 245 Bergamo 194 Brandenburg 224 Bergen 92 brass 15 Berlin 271 Brazil 113, 151, 152, 154, 252 Berne 108, 228 Bregenz 256 Bernina 255 Breisgau 237, 256 Berre 91, 148, 205, 209, 210 Brescia 194 Bertaux, Jean-Paul 4 Breslau236, 250, 257 Besancon 144 briquetage 4, 5, 12, 40, 64, 70 Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von 245 Bristol 96, 106 Bevara 269 Britain 4, 5, 6, 7, 143, 147, 171, 263, Bex 108, 109 281,284 Beyoglu 264, 273 British East Indies 146 Beziers 68, 224 Britanny 5, 6, 69, 94, 107, 213, 214, Bharatpur 61, 71, 116, 298 215, 216, 217, 224 Bihar 116, 159, 161, 286, 290, 292, Brouage 67, 94, 95, 103, 104, 105, 317 106, 107, 148, 208, 209, 210, Billingham 138, 145 214-17, 220, 224, 227, 239, 246 Bilma 16, 17, 20, 156 Bruges 89, 92, 94 Black Sea 29, 63, 64, 71, 87, 115, Brunner Mond company 143, 147, 158,273 171 Block, Sir Adam 267, 268, 269, 272, Brussels 230, 235, 246 273, 274, 275, 278, 279, 281, 282 Bucharest 115 Bochnia 96, 111, 149,232,239,240, Buckinghamshire 69 241, 248, 250, 257, 275 Budapest 242, 248 Bocskai, Istvan 242 Buddhism 38, 47, 48, 56 Bohemia 93, 110, 233, 235--8, 240, Buffalo, New York 153 242, 249, 250, 251, 253, 255 Bug, river 29, 64, 239 Bokhara 62 Bukovina 239 396 Index

Bulgaria 47, 158, 276, 281 Carinthia 185, 235 Bulwer, Sir Henry 265, 267 Carniola 185, 187, 235, 253 Burgarella, Agostino 151, 159, 296, Carolingians 47, 177 318 Carpathian mountains 8, 100, 242 Burgundy 90,97, 219 Carston 5 Burma 159, 185, 292, 293, 294, 309, Carthage 29 317, 319, 337 Carthagena 34 Burundi 16, 18, 21 Casimir the Great 97, 239 butter 8, 100, 116, 141, 142 Caspian sea 152, 262 Buxar 290 Cassiodorus 64 Byzantium 48, 58, 63, 64, 71 Cassiquiare canal 12 Castile 86 cabotage 21, 71 Castle rock 302 Cacica 150 Castner/Kellner process 142, 143, Cadiz 62, 113 154 Caduveo 14, 15 Catalonia 5, 151 Caen 209 Catherine the Great 112, 261 Caesar, Julius 4-8 Cato 33,46 Caesarea 30 Cattaro 64, 199 Caffa 64, 65, 115, 261 Cavit Bey 267, 274, 278, 282 Cagliari 86, 87, 89, 151, 186 Cekmese 115 Caicos islands 152 Central Board of Revenue 290, 293, Caillard, Vincent 267, 277 294,297 Caillavet, Chantal 11, 12 Central Provinces 290, 300, 301 Cairo 17, 157, 261 Cephalonia 64 Calais 214 Cervia 89, 90, 182, 198 Calcutta 160, 161, 290, 294, 295, Ch'a-k'a 172 296, 300, 307, 309, 313, 314, 317, Ch'ang Ch'u 41 318 Ch'ang-an 42,53,54 California 120 Ch'ang-ch'un 168, 328 Calonne, Charles Alexandre 217, Ch'ang-lu 49, 76--8, 82, 123--8, 130, 220,226 133, 134, 165-7, 172, 181, 182, Camargue 90, 91, 107, 148, 205, 210 184, 185, 190, 202, 203, 270, Cambridgeshire 70 327-32, 334, 335, 340--2, 350, 357 Camera Salis 183, 184, 191, 192, 195, Ch'ao-ch'iao 330, 339, 340, 344 197 Ch'ao-chou 121 Camp Verde 12 Ch'en Ch'un 82 Campagna 29 Ch'eng-te 335 Campeche 113 Ch' i, kingdom of 39-45, 51, 178 Canada 140, 152 Ch' i-chuech-ching lakes 60 Canal du Midi 210, 224 Ch'ien-lung emperor 122, 126, 182, Candia 63 328 Canton 120, 121, 185, 190, 248, 323, Ch'in Shih-huang-ti, emperor 44 339, 344, 350, 355 Ch'in, kingdom of 41-4 Cap Cervera 62 Ch'ing dynasty 50, 76, 99, 120, Cape Cod 113 123--32, 134, 170, 179, 181, 182, Cape Comorin 308 217, 221, 322, 323 Cape Gardafui 159 Ch'ing-chou 40 Capodistria 89, 102, 182, 186, 187, Ch'iung-chou 42, 51 199, 240 Ch'u-chou 332 Cappadocia 25 Ch'uan-chou 84, 333 Cardona 5, 86, 102, 151 Ch'uan-nan 247 Index 397

Ch'uan-pei 247, 248, 339 Cherbourg 107 Chahar 52, 55, 335 Cherson 64, 65 Champa 74 Chersonese 29 Chanchiang 173 Cheshire 67, 70, 95, 99, 1O!Hl, 132, Chang Chien 231,322 140, 145-7, 159, 160, 216, 239 Chang Hsien-chung 131 chi-an 164, 165 Chang Li Kung Ssu 329 chi-ch'u 164, 165 Chang Lo-hsing 180 Chia -ch'ing emperor 122, 131, 336 Chang Lu 51 Chia -ching, emperor 78, 79 Chang Shih -ch'eng 180 Chia -hsing 53 Chang T'ang 44 Chia -ling river 42, 132 Chang Tao-ling 51, 137 Chia-ting 41, 132 Chang-ch'i hsien 61 Chiang-che 84 Chang-chou 333 Chiang-hsi 84 Chang-ti 44, 45, 178 Chiang-huai 53, 54 Chang-tsung 77 Chiang-tung 74 Chao 43 Chiao-chou 124 Chao Erh-hsun 164, 165, 324, 327, Chiapas 10 351, 354 chien 48, 50-4, 241 Chao K'ai 79,80 Chien-chou 81 Chao-ti 44 Chien-nan 51 Chaonia 28 Chien-wei 41, 80, 81, 132, 139, 164, Charaka-Samhita 25, 38, 39 171 Charente 213, 220 Chihli 55, 76, 78, 117, 125, 126, 167, Charleroi 148 185, 328, 350, 356, 357 Charles III, duke of Burgundy 108 Chilantai 52, 76, 134, 172, 335 Charles of Anjou 209, 210, 218 Chile 12 Charles of Lorraine 252 chili 117 Charles the Bold, duke of Chin dynasty 75, 127 Burgundy 97 Chin-ch'uan rebellion 126, 182 Charles the Sufferer, king of Chin-chou 350 Spain 230 Chin-hua 332 Charles V, king of France 205, 218, Chin-pel 55, 166, 335 229 Chin-t'ang 81 Charles VII, king of France 218 China 26, 27, 35, 39-46, 47, 4&-56, Charles X, king of Sweden 239,257 57, 58, 62, 63, 71-85, 92, 98, 99, Charles, count of Provence 205 114, 117-35, 136, 137, 138, 140, Chateau Salins 108, 148, 211 154, 155,158, 162-74, 178, 179, Chauderette 96, 97 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, Chaux 109, 140, 211, 225 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 197, 201, Che-hsi 54 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, cheese 57, 70, 85, 100, 105, 141, 142 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 217, 218, Chefoo 170, 339 220, 221, 225, 229, 230, 231, 251, Chekiang 74, 81-3, 121, 122, 130, 253, 259, 266, 270, 273, 286, 287, 181, 213, 323, 331, 332, 333, 339 292, 306, 308, 315, 321-58 Chen-tsung 74 Chinese Eastern railway 168 Cheng-hu 53 Chinese Turkestan 57 Cheng-hua 53 Ching Hsueh-Iing 170 Cheng-yang-kuan 331, 342 Ching Pen-po 170, 171, 179, 181, Chengtu 41, 42, 80, 119, 132, 247, 303,322 326 Ching, emperor 42 Chenonceaux 208 Ching-ho 60, 172 398 Index

Chingleput 305, 306 Congress of Berlin 265 Chining 173 Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Chinkiang 54 Byzantine emperor 64, 65 Chioggia 65, 182, 183, 184, 189, 201, Constantine, Roman emperor 33 231 Constantinople 33, 34, 58, 65, 66, Chittoor 305 99, 115, 116, 157, 158, 177, 260, Chiu-ta salt refining company 170 261, 263, 271, 273, 274, 277, 278, Chola empire 71 282 Chou, kingdom of 40 Copenhagen 224 Christchurch 6 copper 6, 42, 132, 179, 223, 249, Chromatius of Aquileia 64 253, 254, 321 Chronography of 354 33 Cordillera 9, 10, 11 Chu Kung 41,46 Corfu 6, 102, 185, 199 Chu Yuan-chang 180 cotton 106, 113, 114, 124, 144, 146, Chu, T. C. 323 193, 194, 200 Chuan-nan 248 Council of Ten 187 Chubut 12 Covelong 308 Chuguchak 60, 61 Covelong Nithyakalyanasami Salt Chung-chiang 81 Licensees' Cooperative 306 Chung-chou 81 Cracow 97, 239, 240, 241, 248, 257 Chung-wei 39 Crawford, Sir Richard 274, 280 Chungking 248 Crete 31, 63, 102, 185, 262, 268 Chusan archipelago 122, 123, 185, Crimea 64, 87, 89, 113, 115, 186, 213, 332, 339 240, 261, 270 Claudius Nero 32 Croatia 90, 185, 186, 198, 241, 242, Clazomenae 34 248 Cleveland, England 139 Cromer, Lord 261 Cleveland, Frederick A. 323 Cuanza 19 Cluny 68 Cumae 32 coal 99, 105, 106, 108, 110, 119, 132, Curzon, Lord 284, 307, 316 137, 139, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, Cuzco 11,13 154, 173, 212, 224, 237, 246, 247, Cyclades 63 313, 318, 319 Cyprus 28, 30, 61, 64, 87, 89-91, Cobenzl, Johann-Karl 246, 247 101, 102, 157, 185, 186, 192, 196, coca 13 198, 200, 262, 283 coconuts 22 Cyrenaica 30 Coipasa 113 Czechoslovakia 153 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 100, 204, 205, Czernowitz 111 206, 213, 215, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 246, 247, 253 Dabholkar, Sir Vasantrao Colchester 5, 6 Anandrao 301 Colima 11 Dacia 9, 30, 35 Collegio del Sal 183, 184, 191, 192 Dahomey 156 Cologne 149 Dairen 168 Colombia 11 Dalmatia 31, 64, 149, 150, 185, 232, Comacchio 89, 182 240,241 Committee of Union and Damascus 61,271,277 Progress 260, 267, 274, 279 Damietta 28, 60, 115, 157 Concepcion 12 Dampier 155 condensation 30, 31, 37, 49, 69, 120, Dandolo, Enrico, doge of 168 Venice 197 Congo 15, 16, 19, 21, 156 Dane, Sir Richard 73, 164, 189, 268, Index 399

272, 306, 308-10, 314, 322, 323, Orin river 91, 102 325--33, 335--40, 342-4, 346, 347, Drohobycz 111 350-2, 355-8 Droitwich 67, 69, 70, 95, 105 Dantzig 94, 98 Duisburg 138 Danube river 150, 230, 237, 238, Dunkirk 214 240,253 Durance 91 Dardanelles 270, 283 Durazzo 64, 269 Darfur 16, 17, 20, 60 Durham 67, 105 Datini, Francesco di Marco 90, 91 Durrnberg 4, 5, 149 Dauphine 90 Dwarka 160 de Acosta, Jose 11 Dyrrachium 64 de Chardonnet, Count Hilaire Bemigaud 144 Eastern Europe 6, 47, 231, 249, 252, de Poitiers, Diane 208 258 de Witte, Hans 249 Eastern Sanuki 155 Dead sea 262 Ebensee 110, 233, 234, 253 decree of Muharrem 157,259, 265, Eberhard II, Archbishop 238 274, 279, 281 Ebi-nor 60 Delhi 61, 115, 116, 291 Ebro river 62, 86, 91 Denmark 92, 223 Ecuador 113 Dermigny, Louis 210 . Edeine, Bernard 4 Deutsche Brucke 92 Edirne 271 Dharasna 301 Edo 155 Dhrangadhra 285, 317, 318 Eduljee Dinshaw salt works 160, Diadora 64 294,298 Didwana 38, 49, 161 Edward III, king of England 229 Dieppe 209 Egypt 28, 57, 60, 61, 115, 142, 159, Dieuze 69, 108, 148, 211, 212, 216, 261, 262, 266, 270, 272, 281, 293 225,228 Emilia 185, 198 Dio Cassius 32 Engelszell 93 Dio Chrysostom 29, 64 England 19, 67, 69, 94, 95--6, 99, Diocletian, Roman emperor 36 1~, 107, 114, 136, 138, 139, Ditchling beacon 7 143, 145, 146, 147, 159, 170, 213, Diwan Chand 291, 292, 294, 300, 217, 226, 227, 245, 265 307,308 Ennin 56 Djavid Bey 267, 274 Ennore 305, 311, 315 Djebaul 269 Ephesus 28 Djerba 61 Epirus 28, 31, 271 Djibouti 159 Er-lien 55 Dnepropelrovsk 152 Erasmus 222 Dnieper, river 28, 29, 64, 65 Erhlien 173 Dodecanese, the 64 Eritrea 16, 156, 319 Dogana da Mar 184 Erzerum 157, 158, 270 Dolon nor 335 Eskisehir 158, 271, 277 Dombasle 138, 148 Essex 5, 6, 29, 67, 70 Domesday book 67, 69, 70 Esztergom 232 Donauworlh 238, 252 Eupatoria 152 Donets 152 European Economic Dorgon 125 Community 147 Dorpat 92 evaporation 4, 5, 10, 11, 17-19, 23, Dorset 5 28-31, 35, 38-41, 44, 47-50, 52, Drake, Edwin L. 153 60-3, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 400 Index evaporation cont. 258, 263, 265, 272, 321 7S-82, 84-90, 92, 94, 96, 99, 101, Franche Comte 29, 35, 68, 96, 108, 107, 110, 112, 113, 116, 119-24, 139, 140, 148, 199, 211, 212, 216, 127, 128, 134-9, 146--8, 151-9, 220, 228, 248 165, 167, 169, 182, 186, 202, 208, Francis I, king of France 205, 212, 210, 215, 233, 241, 245, 246, 248, 217, 225, 226 278, 288, 294, 298, 299, 303, 304, Franconia 238 307, 313, 326, 327 Frankfurt 5, 149, 234, 254, 255 Evesham 69 French Franciscan 201 Exeter 96, 217 Fribourg 228 Exmouth gulf 155 Frisia 101 Friuli 184, 192, 240 Fachi 16, 17 Frois, Luis 155 fagara 55, 118 Fu-shun 42, 51, 81, 132, 162 Fagum 28 Fukien 49, 82, 84, 120, 121, 122, Falk, Hermann Eugen 146 130, 133, 166, 185, 329, 330, 332, Fan Hsu-tung 171 333,343 Fan Li 41, 46 Fulani 23, 156 Farfa 68 fur 3, 13 Farley, James Lewis 273 Furieuse, river 96 Fecamp 69 Felvidek 242, 250 gabelle 34, 67, 104, 107, 164, 204-29, Feng clan 42 230, 231, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, Feng Kuang-hsiung 123, 124, 130, 254, 257, 261, 265, 270, 271, 284, 134 287, 307, 330, 338, 348 Feng Yii-hsiang 356 Gabor Bethlen 243 Feng-hsiang 133 Gage, Thomas 10 Feng -yang 78 Galata bankers 265, 273, 282 Fengtien 128, 164, 166, 168, 327, Galatia 8,9 328, 342, 356 Galicia 8, 98, 149, 150, 153, 231, Ferdinand II, emperor 257 232, 239, 240, 241, 247, 248 Ferd inand III, emperor 235 Gallipoli peninsula 115 Ferdinand, archduke 236 Gambia 156 Ferrara 198, 201 Gamble, Sir Reginald 335 filtration 5, 10, 11, 17, 18, 28, 76, Gandhara 38 81, 120, 122, 215 Gandhi, Mohandas fish 7, 8, 12, 13, 22, 27, 34, 37, 40, Karamchand 307 45, 46, 57, 66, 69, 70, 74, 85, 92, Ganges valley 116 100, 112, 118, 119, 141, 142, 249 Ganjam 305 Five Dynasties 72, 79 Gao 20 Flanders 101, 107, 214, 246 Garonne 94, 107, 213, 220, 224 Florence 151 garum 34 Foochow 333 Gascony 212, 213 Fort Olympo 12 Gaul 4, 6, 8, 9, 31 Foscari, Francesco, doge of Gaulter Gap 5 Venice 197 Gazi Osman Pasa 265 Fosse 7 Genichesk 152 France 5, 67, 82, 86, 91, 94, 106, Genoa 8S-92, 101, 102, 106, 108, 107, 108, 110, 114, 138, 143, 144, 148, 185, 196, 198, 227, 245 147-50, 154, 155, 182, 199, Geological Survey of India 287 204-29, 230, 242, 245, 246, 249, Germany 4, 31, 66, 68, 93, 106, 109, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 110, 111, 114, 138, 147-50, 213, Index 401

236, 238, 239, 244, 245, 253, 256, guano 12 265, 282, 293 Guatemala 10 Gerrha 30 guava 22 Gibraltar 103 Guayaquil 113 ginger 118 Gudha 310 Giraldus Cambrensis 8 Guelderland 138 Giray khan 261 Guerande 148, 224 Gironde estuary 67 Guernsey 5, 6 Giudecca 184, 187 Gujerat 38, 287, 297, 298, 300, 301, Glasgow 146 302, 317, 320 Glenk, Carl Christian 138 Gulf of Edremit 269 Gloucester 69, 95, 100 Gulf of Kutch 161, 286, 294, 298, Gloucestershire 69 320 Goa 302 Gulf of Mexico 154 Gobi Desert 173 gum 20 gold 13, 20, 37, 85, 202, 282, 285 Guptas 37 Golden Horn 271, 273 Guvenne 212 Gorze 68 Gwallia 8 Goteborg 224 Goths 47 Habsburg empire 111, 147, 149, 150, Gotland 224 182, 211, 228, 230-58, 259, 260, Goundam 20 263, 264, 270, 272, 278, 279, 284, Gradisca 199 321 Grado 185 Hadji Bektash 269 graduation 108-10, 140, 155, 212, Hal-chou 78 225,237 Hai-k'ou 78 Gramanga 11 Hai-ling 53 Grand Banks 224 Hainan 121, 123, 173, 185 Grand Canal 52, 53, 54, 125--7, 130, Hainaut 101, 107, 214 162, 270, 323, 324, 331, 357 Hajeebhoy 318 Grand Canal (Venetian) 196 Hajeeboy Aden salt works 159, 318 Grand Council (Chinese) 181 Halai Aixomedes 28 Grand Council of Venice 183, 196, Halford Mackinder 153 200 Hall in Tyrol 5, 6, 7, 8, 149, 228, Grande Saunerie 96-8, 108, 140 232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 248, 252, Granvelle, Cardinal 108 256 Grax Ltd 161, 294, 295, 296, 298, Hall, Charles Martin 144 312 Halle 5, 68, 93, 109 110, 139, 149, Graz 199, 250 236,240 Great Rift valley 16 Hallein 4, 5, 29, 68, 93, 110, 149, Great Wall of China 76, 162, 167, 150, 228, 232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 287 242,248 Greece 29, 37, 151, 231, 262, 268, Hallstatt 4, 5, 6, 8, 29, 68, 93, 233, 278,282 234 Gregory of Tours 29 Halys 30, 157, 158 Grenada 87 Hama 271 Grenus, Francois 108 Hamburg 296, 297 Grisons 228, 255, 256 Hami 60 grocers 95 Hampshire 6, 92 Groningen 101, 139 Han dynasty 10, 27, 39-46, 51, 52, Grossensalza 109, 149 55, 71, 72, 76, 127, 137, 178, 181, groundnuts ?2, 118 197,350 402 Index

Han river 121, 333 Homer 27 Han Wu-ti 44, 178 Honan 39, 52, 53, 54, 75, 76, 124, Han Yu 54 125, 126, 128, 130, 167, 185, 329, Han-ku 167 330, 331, 334, 335, 342, 356, 357 Hang-chou 53, 74, 81, 82, 83, 84 honey 13, 14, 15, 37, 39, 65, 92, 112 Hangchow 332 Honfleur 209 Hangchow bay 122, 339 Hong Kong 121, 168 Hankow 190, 323, 329, 350, 356 Honorius, Roman emperor 33, 34 Hanseatic League 69, 92, 94, 95, 96, Honshu 155 104,146 Hopei 39, 40, 52, 54 Haoge 131 Hormasji Manelje Harbin 168 Bhiwandiwalla 301 Haroun al-Rashid, caliph 47 Hoyle, A. L. 292 Harrach, Archbishop of Prague 251 hsi 49, 50, 75, 77, 123, 124, 163, 168 Harsha, Indian emperor 37, 38 Hsi Hsia 75 Hart, Sir Robert 268 Hsi-an 325 Haydarpasa 271, 277 Hsi-liang 354 Hayil 59,60 Hsi-pa 342 Hebrews 37 Hsi-pei 131 Hei-ching 132, 336, 337 hsi-shai 52, 75, 76, 123 Heidelberg 108 Hsia dynasty 40 Heilungkiang 164, 168, 209, 220, Hsia-suan 337 328, 331, 340 Hsiang river 323 Hengelo 138, 139 Hsiang-an 325 Hengistbury head 6 Hsiao-Sung 55 Henry II, king of France 211, 213, Hsiao-ch'Ing ho 127 214, 216, 225, 226 Hsiao-wen 41 Henry IV, king of France 225 Hsiao-wu 51 Heraclius, Byzantine emperor 63 Hsien-tsung, emperor 54 Herefordshire 69 Hsin dynasty 39 Herodotus 28, 29, 36, 40, 64 Hsin-t'lng 53 Heroult, Paul L. T. 144 Hsiung Hsi-ling 328, 357 Hertfordshire 70 Hsu Shih-ch'ang 328 Herzegovina 243, 247, 263, 264 Hsuan Wu-ti 50 Hesse 68, 109 Hsuan, emperor 42, 43 He-chou 336 Hsuan-tsang 37, 38 Ho -fei 54 Hsuan-tsung, emperor 47, 51, 52 Ho-ti 42 Hu-chou 53 He-tun 52 Hu-kuang 350 He-tung 48, 49, 62, 75-9, 83, 123-5, Hu-lo 52,55 128, 130-4, 163, 166-8, 181, 190, Hu-pu 345 288, 326, 330, 334, 336, 341, 342, Hu -t'u-pi 61 348, 349, 356 Hua-ma chih 52, 55, 124, 133, 134 Ho-tung yen-fa-chih (treatise on the Hua -ma lakes 336 He-tung salt laws) 50 Hua-pei-kuo 167 Hobart-Hampden, Admiral August Hua-ting 166, 335, 336 Charles 264 Hua-yang kuo-chih (Record of the Hohenlohe, Prince 109 Country South of Mount Hokkaido 155 Hua) 41 Holland 101, 138, 139, 216 Hua i, river 51, 53, 82, 123, 331 Holy League 183, 199 Huai-hsi 53 Holy Roman Republic 68 Huai -nan 51, 53, 74, 76, 78, 80-84, Index 403

128-31, 135, 136, 159, 163--71, Incas 9, 13, 15 182, 190, 202, 208, 323, 324, 325, incense 30 326, 329, 331, 332, 339, 341, 343, India 27, 30, 37-9,56-8, 61, 71, 99, 344,356 115-17, 124, 136, 140, 151, Huai-nan chien 130 157-62, 177, 182, 246, 276, 277, Huai-nan tsung-chu 324, 325 281, 284-320 Huai-pei 49,78,79,82,83, 128-30, Indo-Aden salt works 159, 160 134, 166-70, 172, 202, 272, 322, Indonesia 22, 118, 140 324, 326, 329, 330,331, 342 Inn river 236 Huan, duke of Ch'i 40, 43, 178 Innsbruck 236, 250 Huang Ho 334 Inntal 93, 255 Huang-ch'ao ching-shih wen-pien 180 Ionia 28 Huang-he 134 Ionian islands 64, 185, 186 Huang-ti nei-ching Su-wen 25 Iran 35 Hui-chou 121, 332 Ireland 66, 95, 105, 106, 107, 216 Hui-tsung, emperor 72 Irkutsk 113, 153 Hui-wen 41 iron 7, 15, 21, 28, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, Humboldt, Alexander von 12, 13, 44, 46, 76, 77, 82, 83, 105, 140, 15 155, 223, 237, 249, 253, 254 Hunan 83, 118, 121, 128, 129, 130, ironstone 6 163, 165, 170, 171, 325, 327, 329, Irsaliyye 261, 262 330, 344, 350 Irtysh 113 Hung Hsiu-ch'uan 163 Irwin, Lord 285 Hung-chih emperor 80 Ischl river 110, 231, 233, 234, 253 Hung-wu emperor 73, 78, 80, 84 Isere 210 Hungary 98, 111, 150, 153,231,232, Islam 15, 20, 22, 23, 47, 48, 56-61, 235, 241, 242, 243, 247, 248, 250, 63, 71, 99, 115-17, 136, 137, 156, 252, 253, 255, 258, 265, 282 157, 162, 259 Hupei 52, 83, 128, 129, 130, 131, Isle of Ely 70 132, 163, 165, 166, 171, 325, 327 Isonzo 199 Hyeres 86, 87, 91, 148, 210 Istria 150, 185, 200, 232, 240 Italy 6, 32, 47, 62, 64, 89, 90, 102, 147, 148, 150, 151, 159, 192, 200, I Tun 40, 41, 46 213, 218, 231, 236, 265, 268 I, Prince 126, 328 ivory 20,21 I-cheng 54 Ivuna 18 I. G. Farben 143 Ibiza 31, 62, 87, 89, 90, 91, 94, 101, 102, 104, 113, 114, 140, 151, 186, Jagellons 97 196, 198, 230, 245 Iaipur 116, 286 Ibn Battuta 17 Japan 139, 140, 141, 151, 152, 154, Ibn Saud, king 281 155, 167, 168, 252 Ibo 16 [ativa Indians 12 Iboland 15, 156 [ehol 335 Iceland 140 [elurn 37 ICI 138, 143, 145, 147 [en-shou 51, 80, 81 Iconium 30 Jenne 16,22 Idjil 16, 17, 19, 156 Jenne [eno 21 lie de Re 67 Jerusalem 115 lIek 112 Jhapog 310 IIi 60, 61, 126, 172, 182 Jodhpur 38, 116, 160, 286, 307 Illinois 113 John II, king of France 205, 218 404 Index

John of Rupescissa 201 Katanga 16, 18 John Sobieski, king of Poland 241, Kathiawar 286 257 Katwe 18, 21, 49 John Tzimisces, Byzantine Kayseri 269 emperor 65 Kazakhstan 113 John X, pope 68 Kazan 113 John XIII, pope 177 Kazembe 18 Ju-kuang 53, 167 Kenya 156 Jumieges 69 Kerch 64 [ung-ch 'ang 79 Khamas 16 [ung-hsien 51, 81, 162 Kharaghoda 287,298,299,300,305, Iung-yang 126, 357 311, 314, 318 Jura 96 Khatan 61 [urched 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Khewra 37, 161, 286, 287, 288, 289, Justinian, Byzantine emperor 33 290, 291, 292, 305, 311 jute 106, 160, 313, 314, 318 Kheybar 60 Khoi 158, 270 K'ai-feng 72, 74, 75 Khorasan 36,58,59, 62 K'ang-hsi emperor 125, 128, 328, Khuzistan 28, 36 336 Ki-hei 333 K'ou-pei 166, 335 Kiangsi 83, 122, 123, 163, 171, 325, K'uei-chun 353 329, 332, 350 K'ung Chin 44 Kiangsu 39, 42, 51, 54, 74, 122, 128, Kabaka 16 130, 163, 166, 184, 325, 330, 331, Kaifeng 53 332, 339, 340, 356 Kaksingiri 18 Kiaochow 155, 168, 170, 330, 331 Kalabagh 37, 161 Kibero 18 Kalgan 166, 335 Kilas 115 Kallay, Benjamin von 243 Kimmeridge 5 Kama 112 Kinburn 113, 115, 152, 261 Kan l-chi 78 Kirin 164, 168, 209, 220, 328, 331, Kan river 323 340 Kan Fa-chang 164 Klamath Indians 13 Kan-pai 121 Koko-nor 172, 173, 336 Kanara 301 Kolaba 287, 300, 301, 317 Kanawha 113, 138, 153 Kollonich, Cardinal 232 Kanem 16 Kolomiyya 111 Kano 16 Koloszvar 252 Kansas 153 Kolovrat, Ulrich Franz 232 Kansu 39, 52, 131, 133, 134, 336 Konia 157, 158 Kanta Babu 286 Konigsberg 92 Kao-chou 121 Konigsborn 110, 139 Karabogaz bay 36 Konya 269, 271, 277 Karachi 160, 161, 294, 295, 298, 299, Korea 127, 167, 168, 340 311, 312, 313 Kosen 110, 139, 149 Karambalam 305, 311 Kosice 242 Karashahr 61 Kotch Hissar 269 Kasenyi 18 Kotschau 110, 149 Kashgar 61 Kou-chien, king of Yueh 41 Kasimpasa 273 Krasnovodsk 152 Kassa 242, 243, 250, 252 Krasnoyaisk 153 Kassel 68 Kremsmunster 232 Index 405

Krim Tartary 64 Lake Edward 18, 21 Ku Yen-wu 322 Lake Elton 112, 133, 152 Kuan Chung 40, 43 Lake George 18 Kuan-hsien 41, 326 Lake Maracaibo 12 Kuan-nei 55 Lake Mareotis 28 Kuan-t'ai 127 Lake McLeod 155 Kuan-tzu 43, 46, 55 Lake Mweru 18 Kuan-tzu 40, 43, 51, 178 (see also Lake Rukwa 18 Kuan Chung) Lake Tanganyika 18, 21 Kuang-han 42 Lake Tatta 30, 158, 269 Kurcha 61 Lake Urmia 36, 158, 262 Kucuk Kaynarca 261 Lake Victoria 18, 21, 22 Kuei-te 53 Lallement, Jerome 12 Kung Yuan 351 Lambare 12 Kung , H. H. 323 Lan-t'ing 53 Kung-ching 162 Lancashire 139 Kung-yuan 352 Lanchow 173, 335, 336 Kunming 132, 336, 337 Languedoc 209, 210 Kuo tsung 41, 46 Larnaca 28, 31, 61, 64, 87, 90, 186 Kuo Tzu-i 55 Latakia 58 Kuo Wu-ch'ang 78 Latium 68 Kuomintang 170, 172, 204, 205, 323, Lattas, Michel 263 330, 347, 352, 354 Laurentia 9 Kurdistan 199, 271 Le Treport 209 Kushans 37 League of Cambrai 90, 197, 201 Kustenland 240 Lebanon 60 Kwangsi 121, 326, 329, 330, 337, Leblanc process 142, 143, 146, 147 344, 346, 347, 355 Lechlade 95 Kwangtung 49, 84, 121, 130, 132, Ledoux, Claude-Nicholas 109, 140, 163, 166, 170, 186, 188, 190, 206, 212,225 327, 329, 330, 332, 333, 339, 340, Lei-chou peninsula 121 344,355 Leichow peninsula 173 Kweichow 131, 132, 164, 218, 248, Lenaland 153 326,344 Leo Africanus 22, 58 Kyoto 155 Leo VIII, pope 86 Leo X, pope 22 La Concordia 10 Leopold I, emperor 230, 236, 252, La Mata 31, 62, 87, 88, 89, 102, 151 254,257 La Panne 5 Leopold William, archduke 235 La Rochelle 94, 107, 208, 209, 212 Leopold , duke of Burgundy 108 La Suda 262 Lepanto 64 La Touche 208 Leptis 34 Labunka, Miroslav 8 Lesbos 158 Laibach 235, 252 Lesotho 16 Lake Abakanskoe 153 Leszcynski, Stanislas 211 Lake Albert 18 Leupold, Jacob 109 Lake Amatitlan 10 Levi-Strauss, Claude 13, 14, 23, 24 Lake Baskuncak 152 Lewicki, Tadeusz 21, 22 Lake Bebedero 12 Lhasa 173 Lake Chad 17 Li Hung-chang 327, 328, 354 Lake Chilwa 18 Li Ping 41 Lake Constance 93, 256 Li Shih-ch'ien 123 406 Index

Li Wen 322 Loango 19 Liang 51 Lockhart, Oliver C. 323 Liang dynasty 43, 51 Loire river 35, 67, 70, 94, 97, 107, Liang-che 53, 74, 8~4 , 94, 120, 215,224 122, 123, 130, 133, 154, 163, 166, Lombardy 184, 185, 192 170, 181, 182, 186, 202, 208, 213, London 29,69,87,92,95, 96, 330, 331, 332, 333, 339, 340, 343 103-5, 141, 156, 264, 313 Liang-hua i 78, 83, 128-30, 133, 135, Lons Le Saunier 68 169, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 190, Lorraine 5, 29, 35, 68, 97, 108, 132, 191, 210, 218, 324, 356 138, 139, 143, 148-50, 177, 211, Liang-kuang 12~2, 130, 133 216, 220, 224, 227, 228, 241, 246 Liao dynasty 127 Lotharingia 68, 69, 97, 106, 108, 114 Liao river 323 lou-shai 121, 130, 163 Liao-hsi 127 Louis the Pious, Holy Roman Liao-tung 155 emperor 68 Liaotung 327 Louis XIV, king of France 205,223, Libanius 34 251 Libya 268, 269, 271 Louis XV, king of France 211 Lien-shui 53 Louisiana 12, 136, 138, 153 . Lilienfeld 232 Loyang 50 Lille 148 Lu [ung-t'mg 344, 355 Lillers 138 Lu Shang 40 Lima 11 Lu Tsung-yu 328 Limousin 212, 213, 214 Lu-kang 328, 329 Limpus, Sir Arthur 280 Lu-shou 54 Lin-ch'iung 42, 137 Lu-ssu 122, 170 Lin-p'ing 53 Lu-t'ai 167, 341 Lincolnshire 67, 95, 103, 105 Lu-Tung 332 Ling-chou 51, 52, 79, 137 Lualaba 18 Ling-huai 128 Luanda 21 Linz 252 Lubeck 92, 93, 94 liquor 3, 188.. 310, 354 Lucca 86 Lisbon 62, 63, 113 Lucerne 228 Litang 173 Ludwigshafen 143, 149 Lithuania 92, 97, 98, 111, 240, 241, Ludwigshalle 138 258 Lunaris 298, 299, 312 Little Aden Salt Industrial Luneburg 68, 92, 93, 94, 149, 233 company 159 Lunghai 350 Liu Fou-ho 123 Luxemburg 228, 246 Liu Hung-shou 333 Luxmi 294, 298 Liu P'i 42 Luxmi salt works 161 Liu Ping-chang 353 Lvov 111 Liu Tsung-yuan 50, 52 Lymington 92 Liu Yen 52, 53, 54, 72, 73, 178, 197, Lyons 86, 90, 91, 148 202, 204, 322, 338, 341 Lytton, Lord 287 Liu-ho 339 Liverpool 103-6, 113, 114, 296, 297 Macao 252 Livy 28, 29, 32 Macau 154 Ljubljana 186 Macedonia 29,268 Lo P'ou 42 Maceio 154 Lo-shan 41 Madras 71, 116, 158, 160, 161, 287, Lo-yang 75 292, 293, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, Index 407

308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, Massawa 159 315, 316, 320 Massilia 6 Madrid 230 Massowah 297 Magadha 38 Masterman, C. H. 292 Magdeburg 93 Mato Grosso 13, 14 Magellan, Gabriel 131 Mauretania 17, 156 Magna Graecia 29 Mauryas 37 Magni, Valerian 251 Maurypur 298, 299, 300, 311 Maharaja of Dharangadhra 317 Maximilian I, emperor 97,233,236, Maharaja of Nawanagar 286 244 Mahmud of Ghazni 61, 62 Maximilian II, emperor 234 Mahmut Nedim Pasa 264 Mayas 9, 10, 19, 49 Maier, Michael 234 Mayo, Lord 309 Maimonides 57 Mazowia 240 Maine (France) 215 Mecca 58, 60, 156 maize 12, 13, 22, 117 Medina 60 Makarikari 19 Mediterranean 6, 7, 20, 27, 34, 35, Malawi 16, 18 37, 39, 43, 45, 62, 66, 69, 86--91, Malaysia 140 95, 100-2, 106, 114, 120, 145, Mali 16 148, 159, 160, 187, 189, 194, 198, Malines 246 200, 224, 227, 241, 245, 259, 275, Malwa 300 298 Manas 60,61 Megara 28 Manche 215 Megasthenes 37 Manchuli 168 Mehmet Ali 261 Manchuria 49, 118, 123, 127, 128, Melos 28,63 133, 155, 164, 166--8, 172, 209, Menetra, Jacques-Louis 221 270, 323, 327, 328, 329, 330, 340, Meng Shen 55 347, 350, 356 Mercers 95 Manfredonia 62, 64, 102 Mercia 69 Mang-ku-li 126 Merovingians 47, 177 Manga 16,17 Metz 68, 69, 211, 228 manioc 13, 22 Meurthe 148. Mantua 198 Mexico 9, 10, 11, 13, 113, 140, 152 Mao Tse-tung 172 Michigan 136, 138, 153, 233 Marans 209 Milan 86, 151, 192, 198, 199, 228, March of Ancona 185 231, 244, 245, 255, 256 Marco Polo 74, 77, 80, 83, 84, 202, millet 17, 22, 23, 45, 141, 278 218 Millspaugh, Arthur C. 266 Marcus Livius 32, 33 Min river 51, 54, 119, 120, 132, 333 Marennes 209,214 Mincio river 192 Margaret Maultasch 236 Ming dynasty 49, 50, 72-85, 99, Margherita di Savoia 62, 151 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, Maria Theresa, empress 239,252 132, 134, 167, 180 Maritsa 115 Ming-ju 125, 126 Marmora 115 Ming-shih 78, 84 Maros 242, 243, 252 Misma 59 Maros valley 111 Mithraism 35 Maros-Ujvar 149, 243, 248 Mo-hei-ching 336 Marsai 6 Modoc 13 Marseille 91, 148, 205, 223 Moldau 230 Massachusetts 113 Moldavia 150 408 Index

Monastir 271, 277 Narew 239 Monelor, [ean-Roux 212 Nauheim 5, 109 Mongolia 133 Nawa 310 Mongols 75, 78, 80 Naxos 63 Monomatapa 16 Ndemba 19, 21 Montagu-Chelmsford reforms 285, Ndongo kingdom 19 310 Neckar valley 138 Monte Christo 113 Necker, Jacques . 206, 220, 226 Montenegro 199, 281 Negapatam 306,308 Montmorot 148, 211, 212, 216 Negus 16 Montpellier 210 Nei-chiang 51, 81 Moon salt company 161, 298 Nei-uiu-iu 126, 127 Moravia 98, 235, 236, 240 Nejd, the 57, 59', 60 Morbihan 5, 6, 67 Nenquin, Jacques 4, 5 Mornard, Joseph 266 Neretva river 91, 102 Morocco 17, 59 Netherlands 265 Morris, William 138 Neuburg 93 Moselle river 29, 35, 67 Neuchatel 228 Mossi 16 Nevada 12 Mosul 262,269, 270, 271 New Orleans 113 Mou-hui 121 New Tang History 55 Mount T'ai 40 New York 12, 103, 113, 136, 138, Moutiers 108, 109 153 Moyenvic 6, 69, 108, 148, 211, 228 Newcastle 105 Mozambique channel 16 Newehwang 118, 170 Muawiya 61 Newfoundland 224 Mudhnib 60 Nice 86 Muggia 89, 102, 186, 187, 199, 235 Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine Mughal empire 99, 115, 116, 159 emperor 63 Mukden 127, 166 Nicopolis 64 Muller, Philip 237 Niedernhall 109, 149 Multhauf, Robert P. 109 Nieh T'ang-ku 171 Murcia 63 Nien rebellion 180 Mures 242 Niger 15, 17, 21, 156 Muscovy 100, 111,224 Nigeria 16, 22 mustard 118 Nijni Novgorod 113 Mysore 301, 305 Nile 28 Mytilene 115, 158, 269, 271, 281 Ninghsia 52, 55, 75, 76, 134, 182, 335,336 Ningpo 332, 333, 339 Na-yen-ch'eng 134 Nishapur 36, 58, 60 Nagyszombat 252 Nobelindustries 145 Nambikwara Indians 14, 15 Noirmoutier 67,69 Nan-chao 79 Nongpo 122 Nan-pu 42 Norfolk 5 Nan-tu 42 Normandy 67, 69, 107, 216 Nancy 138, 144, 148, 229, 230 North Areot 305 Nanking 130, 163, 324, 339, 347, 355 Northern Dvina 111 Nantes 69, 107, 223 Northwich 139, 143, 147 Nantwich 105 Norway 223, 224, 245 Naples 86, 91, 102, 199, 245 Novgorod 92 Narbonne 68, 210 Novosibirsk 153 Index 409

Nymegen 211 Pages, Georges 222 Pago 64, 65, 89, 90, 102, 186, 187, 199, 235, 240, 241, 247 O-an 325 Over-t'ai 132 Par-ching 336, 337 Ocna-Mures 150 Pai-sha 54 Pakhoi 121, 339 Oder river 236 Palatinate 211, 216, 245 Ohio 153 Palavaram 305, 311 oil 32, 33, 36, 37, 68, 100, 148, 153 162 ' Palermo 101, 102, 200 Palmyra 36 Oirat 181 Pamphylia 30, 64 Okha 286, 294, 295, 296, 317 Pan Ku 42,43 Okha salt works 161 Panchungling 169 Olbia 29 Pantanal 12, 14 Old T'ang History 55 Paotow 173 Omeljan Pritsak 65 Papal States 245 Onondaga 12, 153 Ontario 152 Para 154 Orange 91,96 Paraguay 12 Parana 154 Ordos 52, 124 Paris 86, 148, 156, 206, 209, 212, Oregon 13, 15 214, 216, 228 Orenburg 112 Orinoco river 12 Parma 237 Orissa 71, 159, 286, 292, 308, 317 Paros 63 Ormuz 60, 158 Pas-de-Calais 138 Orontes river 35 Patna 290, 313 Osaka 155 Pays de Grande Gabelle 205, 207-9 Osh Turfan 61 Pays de Petite Gabelle 205, 207-9 207, 211, 212, 216, Ost~nd 103, 214, 245, 246, 247 Pays de Salines Ostia 29, 31, 41 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 230 Pays exempts 207, 214, 215 216 220 Otavalo 11, 113 270 ',, Otogh lakes 52 Otto 1, Holy Roman emperor 68, 92 Pays redimees 207, 208, 212, 213, 214, Otto II, Holy Roman emperor 177 215, 220, 248, 270 Ottoman empire 57, 65, 101, 115, Pazin 240 157-9, 162, 182, 231, 242, 244, Peace of Westphalia 211, 244, 246 253, 257, 259-83, 284, 285, 312 Peccais 90, 91, 107, 108, 148, 205, 321 ' 210, 216, 220, 224, 228 Oudh 116 Pei-ching 132 Peking 76, 77, 117, 119, 125, 127, Overijssel 138 164, 166, 184, 203, 252, 271, 323, Oxfordshire 69 329, 342, 345, 355, 356, 357 Pelusium 28, 30 P'eng-ch'i 132 Pemba 19, 156 P'eng-shui 51, 81 Pennsylvania 153 P'iao-an 165 pepper 55, 74, 102, 118, 193, 195 P'ing-kuei 330 Pepperers 95 P'ing-nan-kuei 339, 340, 344 Perekop 64, 65, 113, 115, 152, 261 P'o-yang 117 Perigord 212 Pa, kingdom of 42 Pernambuco 154 Pachbadra 286, 311 Peru 9 Pacific Alkali Company 171 Perugia 198 Padua 194 Petrus Bonus 201 410 Index

Phanar 115 Proooeditori di Sanita 199, 200 Philip II, king of Spain 101, 103, Prussia 92, 110, 149, 245 104, 108, 183, 245 Przemysl 239 Philip IV, king of Spain 108 Pu Yang 43 Philip IV, king of France 205, 229 Public debt administration Phocea 115, 157, 158, 269, 271, 274, (Ottoman) 259, 262, 264, 266, 275, 276, 278 267, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, Phoenicians 6 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283, Phrygia 58 284, 312, 321 Piacenza 218 Puits a Muire 96, 211 Pien-an 164, 165 Pukow 166, 168, 323, 350 Pien-chou 53 Punjab 38, 61, 116, 161, 287, 290, pimento 13-15 291 pineapples 22 Punjab Salt Range 37, 177 Piran 89, 90, 102, 185, 186, 187, 199, Pydna 28 235, 240, 241 Pyrenees 91 Pisa 86,90 Pissard, M. Leon 267 Quarantia 183 Plate 102 Quart Bouillon 107, 154, 207, 214, Pliny 7, 30, 31, 34, 36, 37, 41, 177, 215, 216, 220 269,285 Questenburg, Caspar von 251 Plutarch 8 Quito 11, 13 Po river 102, 182, 198 Po-hai 39 Ragusa 64, 87, 102, 185 Podlachia 240 Railway Board 289 Pohai Chemical Industries Rain, Johann Frieduich von 234 company 171 Raittenau, Wolf Dietrich von 237 Poitou 94, 212, 214 Rajasthan 38, 49, 61, 62, 116 Pola 185 Rajput Pratiharas 37 Poland 150, 153, 199, 231, 239, 240, Rajputana 116, 161, 286, 290, 300, 241, 243, 245, 248, 250, 257, 258 307 Polanyi, Karl 12 Rakoczi , Ferenc II 243 Pomposa 89 Rangoon 160 Pondicherry 305 Rann of Kutch 38, 49, 160, 285, 287, Pont-Saint-Esprit 91 298 poppy 118 rape 118 pork 29, 33, 35, 47, 55, 57, 74, 100, Ras al-Makhbaz 31, 61, 87, 89, 186 118, 141, 222 Rastatt 245 Port Hedland 155 Ratnagiri 301 Port Said 159, 160, 296, 297, 313 Ravenna 30, 89, 182 Port Said Salt Association 159 Rawalpindi 37 Porto 68 Recife 113, 154 Portugal 29, 94, 208, 245 Red sea 15, 146, 151, 159, 160, 161, Posen 239 272,282 potatoes 12, 22, 117 Reichenbach, Georg von 110, 140 Potosi 113, 142 Reichenhall 93, 109, 110, 140, 149, Pozsony 250 228, 236, 237, 238, 239, 253, 256, Prague 250, 251, 255, 257 257 Priene 28 Reiffenstuhl, Hans 110, 140, 237, Provence 86, 90, 91, 107, 205, 209, 238 210,248 Restitutianus Cornelianus 33 Provveditori al Sal 183, 197, 184 Reval 92,94 Index 411

Rhazes 201 Saindhavas 38 Rhenania 147 Saint Malo 6 Rhine 108, 139, 150, 199, 220, 237, Saint-Laurent-de-la Bree 209 256 Sainte Menhould 222 Rhodesia 156 Saintonge 94, 107, 208, 209, 212, Rhone 90, 91, 94, 97, 107, 205, 209, 213 210 Salamanca 103 rice 22, 37, 38, 45, 74, 116, 117, 118, Salamis 28 137, 141, 155, 261, 313, 319 Salem (Germany) 93, 238 Richelieu, cardinal 211, 216, 217, Salem (India) 305 225, 226, 229, 232, 256 Salif 158, 159, 269, 276, 281, 282 Richthausen, Johann Konrad 235 Salignac 208 Riga 92,112 Salinas Grandes 12 Rio de Janeiro 154 Salins 96, 97, 108, 109, 140, 144, Rio Grande do Norte 154 148, 211, 212, 216, 225, 228, 230 Rio Negro 12 Salona 64 River Transportation company 169 Salonika 157, 158, 269, 271, 274, 277 River Weaver Navigation act Salsomaggiore 218, 237 (1721) 106 Salt Chamber of Commerce 146 Riyadh 60 Salt Importers' Association of Rochefort 208 Bengal 296 Romagna 185, 198 Salt Union 146, 159, 296 Roman empire 4, 6, 8, 28, 29-35, Salt Wharf 95 39, 49, 55, 66-70, 210, 233 Saltville 113, 153 Romania 150, 231 Salvador 10 Rome 296 Salwarp 67 Ronaszek 111, 149, 150, 242, 243, Salzburg 4, 93, 110, 150, 230, 236, 248 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 248 Roscoff 217 Salzkaminergut group 110 Rosenheim 149 Salzkammer 233 Rosenmein 110 Salzkammergut 93, 149,232, 233, Rosetta 157, 261 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, Rouen 69 241, 242, 248, 252, 253, 257 Roussillon 91 Salzmonopol 232, 247, 248, 250, 254, Rovigo 185 255, 259, 270, 271, 279, 284 Ruaha valley 21 Samarkand 66 Rudolf II, emperor 234, 237, 238 Samarra 57,58 Rudolf the Founder, duke 236 Sambhar 116, 124, 160, 161, 162, Ruhr valley 139, 140 173, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, Rumelia 157, 158, 269, 281 292, 294, 298, 300, 305, 307, 308, Runcorn 146 310, 311, 312, 314, 334 Rus 47,65 Samos 64, 268 Russell, Lord John 265 Samsun 271 Russia 111-14, 136, 138, 151-3,263, San Lazaro 64, 186, 199 265, 270, 283 San Lucar de Barrameda 63, 87, 94, Rustichello da Pisa 202 96, 151 Rutilius Namatianus 30, 41 San Luis 12, 154 Rwanda 16, 18, 21 San Luiz 113 Sang Hung-yang 44, 197,204 Saarland 228 Sanikatta 301, 302 Sables-d'Olonne 224 Sankt Peterhof 92 Sacapulas 10 Santa Catalina de las Salinas 11, 113 412 Index

Santa Maura 102 Shah Abbas 262 Santo Domingo 113 shai 48, 52, 71, 77, 78, 79, 82, 84, Sao Paulo 154 120, 122, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, Saratov 112 133, 136, 137, 140, 154, 159, 160, Sardinia 86, 90 162, 167, 169, 170, 172, 241 Saruhan 115 shai-sh« 120, 121 Saurashtrakas 38 shai-shui 120--22 Sauvirakas 38 Shanghai 42, 81, 123, 171, 185, 271, Sava 187 332,347 Savoy 107, 108, 245 Shansi 39, 48, 50, 52, 55, 75, 123, Saxony 149 124, 134, 330, 334, 335, 349, 350, Schaffhausen 228, 256 356 Schiappalaria 103 Shantung 39, 40, 49, 51, 54, 76, 78, Schonbrunn 247 82, 123, 126-30, 133, 166-8, 172, Schonebeck 109, 149 182, 190, 330, 331, 336, 339, 340, Schouwen 103 342, 356 Schuster, George Sir 294 Shao-hsing 122, 332, 333 Schwabisch Hall 93, 108, 109, 138, Shark bay 155 149,244 Shawneetown 12, 113 Schweizerhalle 138, 239 She-hung 132 Schwyz 228 Shen-kan 164 Scythians 29 Shensi 39, 52, 75, 131, 133, 134, Sebaa 269 330, 334, 335, 336, 342, 349, 356 Sebastiano Ziani, doge of Shih-chi 40 Venice 183 Shih-erh-we i 83, 169, 324, 325, 326, Sebastopol 64, 152 331, 339, 341, 343 Sebenico 64, 102, 185, 186, 187, 199 Shih-fang 42 sebkhas 48, 75, 86, 87, 90, 124, 133, Shih-kao ching 132 186, 189, 261, 269, 318, 335 Shih -se 123 Seerdt 271 Shikoku 155 Seifferheld, Georg Friedrich 108 Shiroda 301 Seille valley 5, 68, 148 Shropshire 69 Seine river 94, 97, 107, 209 Shu, kingdom of 39-41,44,46, 79, Sejanus 68 180 Selim I, sultan 261 Shun-chih, emperor 131 Selim II, sultan 261 Shuo-fang 55 Senans 140 Shuster, W. Morgan 266 Sendivogius 234 Siam 118, 140, 152 Senegal 16, 22, 60, 156 Sian 133, 356 Senussi 156 Siberia 112, 113, 153 Septimius Severus, Roman Sicania 28 emperor 33 Sicily 28, 29, 62, 64, 66, 86, 101, 200 Serbia 158, 231, 276, 281 Sigean 210 Serenissima 182, 185, 186, 195, 197, Sigismund of the Tyrol , 198, 201, 231, 240, 258, 262 archduke 236 sesame 118, 124 Silesia 98, 231, 236, 257 Setubal 62, 63, 94, 96, 102-7, Silivri 115 112-14, 154, 224, 230, 239, 246 Simla 286 Severn Valley 69 Sinan 261 Seville 63, 67, 102, 103, 113 Sind 38, 297, 299, 301, 302 Sforza, Francesco 200 Singapore 158, 276 Sha-chuan-tse 173 Sining 336 Index 413

Sinju 83 St Gallen 228, 256 Sinkiang 60, 164, 172, 173 St Helens 106, 146 Sinkiang Salt Administration 172 St Mary's, York 67 Sinzendorf, Georg Ludwig von 232, St Petersburg 103 250 St Thomas 12 Siponto 62, 64, 89 St Valery-en-Caux 209 Sirr 60 St Valery-sur-Somme 209 Sivas 157, 269 Staffordshire 139 Siwa 28,30 Stagno 64, 240 Skane 92, 103 Stalingrad 112 Slanic 115, 150 Stanley, H . M. 18 slave trade 15, 145, 156 Staraya Russa 112 slaves 17, 18, 20, 21, 45, 46, 57, 65 Stassfurt 93, 138, 139, 143, 149, 150 Slovakia 111, 240, 242, 253 Staszic, Stanislaw 111 Slovenia 187 Stato da Mar 184, 185 Smyrna 102, 115, 157, 158, 269, 271, Stato da Terra 184, 185, 187, 190, 272, 273, 281 193, 206, 218 Sofia 271 Stelvio 255, 256 Sogdia 44 Stilfserjoch 255, 256 Sokoto 16 Strabo 6, 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 158 Soligalic 112 Strachey, Sir John 287, 316 Solikamsk 112 Strahov 251 Solinus Salzthal 235 Strasbourg 108, 148, 211 Solothurn 228 Strathie, D. N. 293, 296, 297 Solvay process 142, 143, 147, 148, Strugnano 240 151, 166, 171, 229, 244 Stuttgart 109 Somalia 58 Styria 230, 233, 235 Somes 242 Su wu-shu 122, 166, 213, 332, 333, Songhay 16 339,340 Soochou 122 Su-tsung, emperor 52 Soochow 332 Suabia 236, 244, 256 Sooden 68, 109 Subiaco 68, 177 Soong, T. V. 204 Sublime Porte 263 Soovar 111, 149, 242, 243, 248, 252 Suez 318 sorghum 16 sugar 13, 37, 39, 57, 112, 114, 141, Sorley , H . T. 293 154, 193, 261 South Manchurian railway 168 Sui dynasty 51 South Shields 105 Sui-ning 81 Soviet Union 139, 152, 153 Suiyuan 55 soy 74, 118, 119, 142 Sukhoma 111 Spain 8, 29, 62-4, 66, 69, 88, 96, 97, Sultan of Toro 19 102, 150, 151, 199, 211, 228, 293, Sultanpur 61 297 Sulz 109, 149 Speyer 108, 244, 245 Sulza 109 Spinalonga 262 Sumadi 305 Spire 228 Sun Shih-i 329 Spoleto 64, 198 Sun Yat-sen 183, 352 Ssu-ch'uan yen fa-chih (Treatise on the Sunderland 105 salt laws of Szechwan) 41, 51, Sundgau 256 80, 181 Sung dynasty 43, 50, 72-85, 99, 122, Ssu-chou 53 154,202 Ssu-ma Ch'ien 40, 41, 42, 43, 45 Sung-chou 53 414 Index

Sung-kiang 42, 166, 333, 339 326, 328, 332, 334, 352, 353 Sung-shih 76, 78 Taiwan 126, 140, 152, 155, 182, 185, Sungari river 323 333 Sungkiang 122 Taiyuan 335 Surat 287, 298, 301, 307 Takamatsu 155 Susa 36 Tali 132, 336 Swatow 333, 339 Tamil Nadu 49, 71, 161 Swaziland 16 Tanganyika 156 sweet potatoes 22, 117 Tanzania 19 Switzerland 97, 107, 139, 185, 198, Tanzimat 259, 263, 264, 278, 280, 199, 211, 216, 224, 228, 231, 236, 281 237, 238, 239, 255, 256 Tao-kuang 122, 126, 322, 328 Synesius of Cyrene 59 Taoism 47, 48, 51 Syracuse 113, 153 Taoudenni 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 Syria 36, 58, 60, 61, 90, 102, 142, Tarentum 29 270,272 Tariff Board 158, 159, 160, 161, 285, Szamos 242, 252 292, 294, 297, 317 Szatmar 242 Tarim basin 61 Szechwan 39, 41, 42, 46, 51, 52, 54, Tarragona 87 72, 75, 76, 79, 80, 82, 105, 112, Tawantinsuyu 13 114, 117-19, 130-4, 137-40, 154, Teesside 138, 147 162-9, 171, 172, 180, 181, 218, . Teguidda 16, 17 230, 247, 248, 258, 270, 272, 322, Tennessee 113 323, 324, 326, 327, 330, 331, 336, Tenochtitlan 10 339, 340, 344, 347, 350, 351, 353, Terra da Mar 102 354,356 Teuditz 110, 139, 149 Szemao 132, 336 Texas 136, 138, 153 Teyma 60 T ai, river 40 Thames river 5, 35, 69, 70, 105 T'ai -chou 325, 332, 339, 356 Thana 287, 300, 301, 317 T'ai-tsung, emperor 50, 55, 73 Theodosia 64, 152 Tang Chi-yao 355 Theophilus, Byzantine emperor 64 Tang dynasty 47, 48-56, 71, 72, 75, Thessalonika 28, 63 76, 79, 83, 85, 154, 166, 168, 178, Thessaly 200 180, 202, 322, 337, 338, 357 Thirty Years' War 199, 211, 216, T'ang-ch'ao-ch'u 60 226, 233, 256 T'ang-ku 342 Thrace 28, 268 Tao Chu 129, 130, 131, 169, 272, Thucydides 28 322, 323, 324, 326, 327, 328, 329, Thurgau 228 331 Thuringia 109 T'ien -shui 39 Tiber river 29, 32, 35, 49, 68, 177 To, river 42, 51, 132, 165 Tibet 79, 126, 173 T'ung-ch'uan 81, 132 Tien-mou 121 Tung-chou 122, 170, 325, 356 Tientsin 99, 125, 126, 130, 166, 167, T'ung-ta 170, 171 168, 170, 171, 184, 190, 323, 328, T'ung-yi works 170 329, 341, 342, 350, 356, 357 Ta-ning 79 Tilly 257 Ta-pan 60 Timbuktu 17, 18, 20 Taghaza 16, 17, 20 tin 28, 132 Tai-shan 122 Ting Pao-chen 41, 164, 181, 322, Tai-tsung, emperor 52, 72, 178 323, 324, 326, 327, 328, 353 Taiping rebellion 129, 163, 169, 322, Ting-chou 121 Index 415

Ting-hai 122 Tung-kuo Hsien-yang 44 Tinos 63 Tung-t'ing 117 Tirant 10 blanc 9 Tunisia 61, 62, 266, 281 Tirgu-Ocna 150 Tupi indians 14, 15 Toba Wei 50 Turfan 60, 61 tobacco 3, 13-15, 22, 114, 166, 188, Turgor, Anne Robert Jacques 214, 206, 264, 266, 268, 274, 278, 279, 226, 227 354 Turkey 58, 61, 90, 102, 151, 158, Tobolsk 113 260, 267, 276, 277, 281, 282 Tokat 157 Turk islands 152 Tolen 95, 103 Tuscany 86, 91, 151 Tolfa 86 Tusi 16 tomatoes 117 Tuticorin 161, 303, 305, 306, 308, Torda 111, 149, 150, 242, 243, 248 313,320 Tortosa 62, 86, 87, 102 tuz emin 260 Toulon 86 Tuz Golu 8, 30, 158, 269 Toulouse 6, 68, 148 Tuzkoy 269 . Tragasae 28 Tuzla 243, 244, 247, 269 Trajan, Roman emperor 36 Tyneside 105, 106, 139, 143, 146, Trans-Siberian railway 153 147 Transvaal 19 Tyrnau 252 Transylvania 111, 177, 232, 241, Tyrol 5, 149, 199, 236 242, 243, 248, 253, 258 Tzu-chou 51, 81 Trapani 31, 101, 102, 151, 159, 186, Tzu-kung 162, 165 198, 245, 318 Tzu-liu-ching 42, 139, 162, 163, 164, Trau 64 165, 167,327, 339, 352 Traun 233, 234 Traunkirchen 233 Udu 299 Traunstein 110, 149, 238, 239, 256 Ufa 113 Travancore 49, 71 Ufficiodel Sal 183, 184, 188, 189, Treaty of Ryswick 228 190, 194, 195, 196, 204, 231, 247 Trebizond 157, 268, 269, 271 Uganda 18, 19, 21 Trier 29, 69, 108, 211, 216, 227, 228 Ugogo 21 Trieste 148, 240, 241, 246 Ujvar-Sugatag 242, 248 Tripoli 61, 89, 269 Ukraine 111, 113, 153 Trois Eveches 211 Umbria 28 Ts'ai Ch'uan 126 Union Salinera de Espana of Ts'ai-Ching 72, 73, 75, 79, 204 Barcelona 296 Ts'en Ch'un-hsuan 324 United Alkali company 143 Ts'ing-ho 172, 173 United Kingdom 105 Tsai-tse, duke 220, 346, 347 United Provinces 290,300,312 Tseng Kuo-fan 163, 169, 322, 323, United States 136, 138-47, 151-3 324, 326, 327, 329 Unterwald 228 Tsinan 168, 190, 330, 342 Upanishads 27 Tsingtao 168 Upper Tisza valIey 243 Tso Tsung-t'ang 164, 326, 332, 353, Upper Volta 16 354 Uri 228 Tsui Ao 50 Uruguay 154 Tu Yu 50 Urumchi 61 Tuareg of Air 20 Uskudar 158 Tuaregs 17, 59, 156 Usole Sibirskoye 153 Tubingen 237 Utica 31 416 Index

Utrecht 245 von Sanders, Liman 280 Uvinza 18, 21, 156 Vorarlberg 256 Uyuni 113 Vychegda 111 Uzhgorod 153 Waitz von Eschen 109 Val Camonica 255 Wallachia 8, 115, 150 Valais 227, 228, 245 Walton 5 Valence 91 Wan -an 325 Valencia 62, 63, 88 Wan-hsien 51 Valens, Roman emperor 33 Wan-Ii emperor 76, 78 Valentinian I, Roman emperor 33, Wang An-shih 73 233 Wang Ch'eng 129 Valhikas 38 Wang Chien, king of Shu 79, 180 Valladolid 230 Wang Mang, emperor 24,39,42, Valona 64,269 44,178 Valtelline 199, 255, 256 Wang Yen-ch'uan 170 Vardar 157 Wang-kang 127 Vaud 108, 245 Wao 318 Vazquez de Espinosa 11, 12, 113 Warcha 37, 161, 292, 311 Vedas 27 Warsaw 153, 240 Veii 29 Warwickshire 69 Veneto 184, 192 Wash, the 5, 70 Venezuela 9, 12 Weald, the 7 Venice 31, 63, 64, 65, 68, 87-90, 92, Weaver river 106, 140 94, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108, 112, Wei basin 131, 133 150, 177-203, 204, 205, 206, 207, Wei, kingdom of 43,76 217, 218, 221, 225, 227, 229, 230, Wei-yuan 51 231, 235, 240, 241, 245, 247, 250, Weissbach 109 251, 253, 255, 256, 258, 260, 262, Wejh 59,60 313, 314, 318, 321, 350 Wells, Peter 4 Vera Cruz 113 Wenchow 332,333 Verona 194 Werl 139 Veyne, Paul 32 West river 119, 355 Via Salaria 29 West Sunit 55 Vic 5,6,69 West Virginia 138, 153 Vienna 230, 235, 241, 242, 244, 245, Western Australia 155 246, 247, 250, 252, 255, 257, 258, Western Europe 47, 48, 61, 67, 70, 263,268 71, 72, 85, 117, 139, 242 Vietnam 185 Westminister abbey 69 Vikings 67,69,92,94, 103 Whitby 67 Vilui 153 White Lotus rebellion 126, 182 Vindolanda 35 White Russia 98 Virginia 113, 153 White Sea 111 Vistula river 239, 240 Widnes 143, 146, 147 Vizagapatam 305 Wieliczka 96-8, 110, 111, 149, 150, Vladivostok 168 202, 236, 239, 240, 242, 248, 250, Volga river 112, 113, 152 257, 275 Volo 200 Wigan 106 Vologda 112 Wilhelmshall 149 Volta river 156 Wilton 138, 147 Voltaire 223 Wimpfen 138 Volterra 151 wine 19, 33, 68, 69, 213, 223, 238 Index 417

Winnington 143, 146, 147 Yen-chou 52 Winsford 106, 139, 146, 147 Yen-t'ieh lun (Discourses on salt and Winterswijk 138, 139 iron) 43,73 wood 28, 46, 52, 67, 79, 83, 96, 97, Yen-t'ing 51 106, 112, 119, 132, 139, 140, 144, Yin-rang, prince 125, 126 148, 212, 223, 225, 260, 321 Yocalla 113 Wood, Sir Charles 286 Yoruba 16, 22 wool 106, 193, 233 Yu, emperor 40 Worcester 67, 162, 165 Yu-kung 40 Worcestershire 67, 68, 69, 70, 95, Yu-yao 122, 123, 332, 339 105 Yuan dynasty 50, 72, 75-8, 83, 84, Wu, kingdom of 39, 42, 50, 51, 53, 94, 121-4, 204, 218, 348, 355 55,76 Yuan Shih-k'ai 328, 342, 347, 354, Wu-su basin 61 355,357 Wuchow 344, 355 Yuan-shih 74, 78, 84 Wuhan 190, 191 Yuan-ti, emperor 44 Wurttemberg 5, 93, 109, 138, 149, Yucatan 10, 19, 41, 49, 113 238,239 Yueh-chou 53 Yugoslavia 244 Yaguana 113 Yun-ch'eng 124, 341, 349 Yakub Beg 164 Yun-yang 51, 79, 81 Yakutia 153 Yung-ch 'iao 53 yams 16, 20, 22 Yung-cheng emperor 84, 122, 125, Yamvsh 113 126, 130, 131, 133, 328 Yami 11, 13 Yung-fou 127 Yang clan 42, 51 Yung-li 127, 171 Yang Kuei-fei 51 Yung-p'ing fu 329 Yang Ying-chu 121 Yunnan 131-3, 164, 166, 185, 190, Yang-chou 53, 54, 83, 182, 190, 202 218, 326, 334, 336, 337, 344, 347, Yangchow 169,324,325, 341, 343, 355,356 356 Yangtze river 39, 42, 51, 53, 54, 81-3, 117, 119-22, 128-30, 132, Zambezi 18 164-9, 171, 185, 218, 323, 324, Zara 64, 89, 185, 186 325, 326, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, Zarzis 61, 89 339, 340, 343, 344 Zealand 246 Yarkand 61 Zecca 192 Yellow river 50, 75, 78, 125-7, 134, Zeeland 95, 103, 105 182, 334, 335, 336, 342, 357 Zend Avesta 27 Yemen 158, 159, 269, 276, 281 Zevenbergen 103 Yen Ch'i 74 Zimbabwe 16 Yen Hsi-shan 356 zinc 132 Yen, kingdom of 127 Zipaquira 11 Yen-ch'eng 53 Zollverein 238 yen-cheng 40, 43, 45, 49, 72, 123, Zoutpansberg 19 180, 201, 230, 231, 321, 334, 338, Zug 228 348, 350, 351 Zungharia 113, 182 Yen-cheng tsa-chih (Salt Zurich 228, 256 Administration Miscellany) 179 Zweibrucken 228 Yen-ching 77 Zwettl 255