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Open Thesis__Cifelli .Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School The Department of Nutritional Sciences ALL-TRANS-RETINOIC ACID REGULATES VITAMIN A HOMEOSTASIS A Thesis in Nutrition by Christopher J. Cifelli 2006 Christopher Cifelli Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2006 The thesis of Christopher Cifelli has been reviewed and approved* by the following: A. Catharine Ross Professor and Dorothy Foehr Huck Chair in Nutrition Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee John L. Beard Professor of Nutrition Professor-in-charge, Graduate Program in Nutrition Michael H. Green Professor of Nutrition Head of the Department of Nutritional Sciences Ronald S. Kensinger Professor of Animal Nutrition * Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ABSTRACT All-trans-retinoic acid (RA) is the active metabolite of vitamin A (VA) that mediates the majority of VA-dependent functions, such as embryonic development, cellular proliferation and differentiation, testicular function, and immune function. RA and its isomers and metabolites have been extensively studied for their ability to treat or prevent numerous disease conditions. For instance, isomers of RA have been used pharmacologically to treat diseases of the skin and to treat certain cancers. Because of the clinical impact of RA on different disease conditions, it is important to delineate the affects of acute and chronic RA administration on both whole-body and tissue specific retinol and RA utilization and kinetics. Therefore, the overall research hypothesis in the present study is that RA regulates retinol and RA homeostasis in rats. This hypothesis was addressed in four separate studies First, the effects of chronic dietary RA administration on retinol utilization and kinetics were determined in rats with low VA stores using compartmental analysis. The results showed that RA supplementation lowered the disposal rate and system fractional catabolic rate of VA, resulting in a positive VA balance. Moreover, the model-predicted traced mass and residence times of the liver, lung, small intestine, and kidney were higher in the LA + RA rats. In contrast, there was no major difference in VA kinetics in the eyes, testes, adrenal glands, or remaining carcass between the groups. Thus, we conclude that chronic administration of RA to rats with low VA status affects the recycling, uptake, and mass of VA at both the whole-body level and in specific organs. Second, the effect of VA-status on the distribution and metabolism of a dose of [3H]RA was examined in VA-deficient (VAD), VA-marginal (VAM), VA-sufficient iii (VAS), and VA-repleted (VAD + retinyl palmitate) rats. The results of our study demonstrate that VA status affects both the organ distribution and metabolism of RA in rats. Specifically, VA-deficiency increased the total amount of radioactivity recovered from the liver, lung, and small intestine, while significantly reducing the amount of [3H]- metabolites of RA recovered in liver, lung, and small intestine. In contrast, the ratio of metabolized to unmetabolized RA was highest in the VAS rats. Additionally, the administration of retinyl palmitate to VAD rats, in a 20-h period resulted in increased hepatic stores of retinol, which allowed them to metabolize the [3H]RA in a manner similar to the VAS rats. Overall, our results indicate that the uptake, recycling, and utilization of RA are altered in a tissue-specific manner in response to decreasing stores of vitamin A. Third, the effects of exogenous RA on hepatic CYP26A1 expression was examined in naïve and RA-pretreated (RA-primed) rats. Our results showed that the acute administration of an intravenous dose (10 µg / 100 g body weight) significantly increased CYP26A1 mRNA expression in a time-dependent manner. In addition, the mRNA expression of CYP26A1 was higher in the RA-primed rats than in the naïve rats. Similarly, hepatic CYP26A1 protein levels were significantly increased within 30 minutes in both the naïve and RA-primed rats. However, CYP26A1 protein levels returned to (RA-primed) or near (naïve) levels within 90 minutes. Additionally, CYP26A1 mRNA and CYP26A1-related protein levels were directly correlated in both the naïve and RA-primed rats between 0 and 60 minutes. Finally, the average formation of RA-metabolites was greater in the RA-primed rats than in the naïve rats and the amount of metabolites of RA generated by rat liver microsomes increased over time. iv In conclusion, the results of our study demonstrate that CYP26A1 mRNA expression, CYP26A1-related protein expression, and hepatic RA-metabolizing activity all rapidly increased in response to i.v. RA in both naïve and RA-primed rats. Fourth, we investigated the effects of RA and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial cell-wall component capable of stimulating an inflammatory response in rats, alone and in combination on the distribution and metabolism of a dose of [3H]RA in VA- marginal rats. The results showed that LPS significantly reduced the total amount of 3H recovered in the liver 10 and 30 minutes post-injection. Whereas LPS did not affect the total amount of [3H]-metabolites present in the liver, lung, or small intestine, RA pretreatment significantly increased the amount of [3H]-metabolites in each tissue at both 10 and 30 minutes. Moreover, this induction in RA metabolism occurred irrespective of LPS administration. Thus, the results of this study demonstrate that acute inflammation alters systemic RA homeostasis by disrupting the normal distribution of RA, while the conversion of [3H]RA to [3H]-labeled metabolites was significantly increased by RA alone indicating that LPS and RA independently affect RA metabolism in VA-marginal rats. Overall, the results presented here suggest that VA (retinol and retinoic acid) homeostasis is maintained through an autoregulatory process, with RA acting as the feedback messenger. In addition, we propose that tissue and plasma RA levels are homeostatically maintained within a narrow range despite nutritional and physiological stress, which allows the body to respond to minor alterations in whole-body VA status. v TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………ix List of Tables………………………………………………………………………….....x List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………xi Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….xiii Introduction and Hypotheses…………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1: Review of the Literature…………………………………………………..4 Introduction……………………………………………………………………....5 Vitamin A Metabolism…………………………………………………………..5 1) Digestion and Absorption……………………………………………5 2) Cellular Retinoid-Binding Proteins………………………………….6 3) Retinol Esterification and Storage…………………………………...8 4) Retinol Mobilization and Retinol-Binding Protein………………….11 5) Retinoic Acid………………………………………………………...14 6) Retinoic Acid and Retinoid X Receptors……………………………16 7) Retinoic Acid Catabolism…………………………………………...18 Vitamin A and Immunity………………………………………………………..24 1) Overview of the Immune System…………………………………...24 2) Inflammation, Lipopolysaccharide, and the Toll-like Receptors…...26 3) Cytokines and the Hepatic Acute Phase Response…………………28 4) Vitamin A and Immune Function…………………………………..30 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...33 vi Chapter 2: Retinoic Acid affects whole-body and organ-specific Vitamin A kinetics in Vitamin A-marginal rats……………………………………34 Introduction……………………………………………………………………35 Overview of Compartmental Analysis………………………………………...37 Research Design and Methods………………………………………………...42 Results and Discussion………………………………………………………...47 Chapter 3: Vitamin A status affects the distribution and catabolism of retinoic acid in rats…………………………………………………...62 Introduction……………………………………………………………………63 Research Design and Methods………………………………………………...65 Results…………………………………………………………………………70 Discussion……………………………………………………………………..79 Chapter 4: Exogenous retinoic acid can rapidly induce the transcription and translation of CYP26A1 in liver and increase hepatic retinoic acid metabolism in rat…………………………………………………………………….85 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...86 Research Design and Methods………………………………………………..88 Results………………………………………………………………………...93 Discussion…………………………………………………………………….100 Chapter 5: All-trans-retinoic acid distribution and metabolism in vitamin A-marginal rats…………………………………………………………….103 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...104 vii Research Design and Methods………………………………………………..107 Results………………………………………………………………………..111 Discussion……………………………………………………………………122 Chapter 6: Discussion and Conclusions…………………………………………...128 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..129 LRAT and CYP26 Regulate Retinoid Homeostasis…………………………130 Dietary Retinoic Acid Alters Vitamin A Kinetics in Rats with Low Vitamin A Status………………………………………………..131 Vitamin A Status Affects RA Distribution and Metabolism…………………133 Exogenous Retinoic Acid Rapidly Induces CYP26A1 mRNA and Protein Expression……………………………………………………134 Inflammation-Induced Changes in Retinoic Acid Metabolism………………137 Comparison of Retinoic Acid Doses…………………………………………139 Experimental Limitations and Future Directions…………………………….141 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………..142 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………147 Appendix A: Supplemental Figures………………………………………………..173 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Three-compartment model…………………………………………………….38 Figure 2 Mean observed and model-predicted fraction of injected dose in plasma………………………………………………………………………48 Figure 3 Mean observed and model-predicted fraction of injected dose in select organs………………………………………………………………..50 Figure 4
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