International Journal of Korean History (Vol.18 No.1, Feb. 2013) 39
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu*
Cho, Yun Jae (Cho Yunjae)**
Introduction
Before Nanchao, there had already been frequent exchange of people throughout the Han Dynasty, three Kingdoms and Wei-Jin period. Thus perception towards the Western Regions has been matured. But the frequency and scale of cultural exchange were varied depending on political tuburlence of China. In particular, conflicts between the south and the north during the Nanchao period, had distracted the direct contacts and exchange of goods and people. On the other hand, internal political turmoil within Roman Empire affected the cultural exchange network between the west and east. Relations between the Beichao and the Western Regions were active with a favored geographic environment and shared historical ties1. However, the diplomatic relationship between Nanchao and the Western Regions had never been cut off2. Paths were more diversified by securing west- south route and the southern coast route, facilitating the direct contact with the Western Regions3. Even the cultural exchange between Nanchao and Beichao was more flexible and active than we assume. In particular,
** This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant funded by the Korean Government (KRF-2009-32A-A00026). ** Assistant Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, Inje University 40 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
various trade schemes of Nanchao have been underestimated, compared to those of Beichao. The simple biased view to understand Chinese ancient traffic routes led to assumption that interchange between Nanchao and the Western Regions was repressed due to political conflicts between Nanchao and Beichao. Nanchao maintained cultural exchange with the Western Regions via Tuyuhun with a stronghold in Bashu utilizing Yangtze river traffic resource. In addition, it indirectly kept relation with South-East and Southern Asian empires via maritime routes along the East-south coastline. Indirect cultural exchange between Nanchao and the Western Regions through impressions of the western regions embedded in Beichao culture was recognized. Such socio-political situations played a role in leaving the trace of cultural impressions of the Western Regions in the cultural relics of Nanchao. The context and details of relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions was recorded in the text, which provides factual evidence to explain their relations. In this paper, literature and related archaeological records were reviewed and the process of cultural exchange and the attitude of Nanchao towards the Western Regions to reveal a part of west- east cultural exchange.
Diplomacy of Nanchao (the Southern Dynasties) toward Western Regions
Indirect interchange though the relations with the Northern Dynasties
After fall of Western Jin(西晉), the upper class society with a traditional stronghold in the Lo-yang(洛陽), the capital of Jin and its surrounding regions, migrated to the south. Thus Lo-yang lost its position as the cultural core of China. The long-term warfare and frequent invasions of the Northern tribes made Eastern Jin based in the south of Yangtze river, so called as Jiangnan(江南), to be considered as the sole legitimate regime for Han people. Such intensive and constant conflicts among ethnic Cho, Yun Jae 41 groups caused the chaotic state all over China. Despite this complicated political situation, exchange of people and goods, visits between the south and the north had never been ceased. All the regimes in the north attempted to remain in touch with the Eastern Jin during the Five Barbarians and the Sixteen Kingdoms period (Wu Hu; 五胡十六國時期). Later, in Northern Dynasties, one emperor of the Northern Wei, Xiao Wen Di (孝文帝) even tried to adopt Jiangnan culture actively. Such attitudes created new cultural atmosphere in both societies, and also opened up the path for the Western Regions’s exotic culture in the Northern Dynasties (Beichao) to be introduced to the Southern Dynasties, so called Nanchao, later.
The direct interchange through so called ‘Henan Circuit (河南道)’, the Southwestern Silkroad
The traditional route to the Western Regions passing through Hexi or Gansu Corridor (河西走廊), Yumen (玉門), Yangguan (陽關), was occupied by the Northern Dynasties. Thus Nanchao secured a new route to the Western Regions via Yizhou(益州) by opening the diplomatic relations with several regimes in Liangzhou (諸凉). That is so called ‘Henan Circuit(河南道)4. The Western Region regimes posted delegates for economic benefits and political negotiations to Nanchao under permission of Tuyuhun (土谷 渾). These include Jushi-gaochang (麴氏高昌), Baishi-guic i(白氏龜玆), Hotan (于闐), Gepantuo (葛盤陀), Roulan (柔然)5, Ephtal (壓達), Sogd (粟 特), Sassanian Persia (波斯), Northern India (天竺國), Baitimoju (白題末 局). This served as an opportunity for the Western Regions’ goods to be introduced to Nanchao.
Direct and indirect cultural exchanges through Southwestern maritime route.
The main sea voyage route between the ancient China and the Western Regions runs through the South Sea and the Indian Ocean6. Along the 42 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
coast of the Indian Ocean, it sets off via the Mediterranean to get to Europe. That route is so called the ‘Maritime Silk Road’. The exploration of Southwestern sea route was already recorded in Han Shu 漢書- the book of the Han Dynasty. However, it could be traced back to 222 BC. After unification of China by the Chin Dynasty, the conquering expedition on Nanyue Province became intensified and the use of sea route in the Southwestern coast was eased by setting up pro- Chinese colonial regimes such as 閩中郡 (minzhongjun), 南海郡 (nanhaijun), 桂林郡 (guilinjun), 象郡 (xiangjun). Later, the cultural exchange became more intensive and frequent during the Han Dynasty7. Opening up the cultural exchange in the earlier period eventually led to a favourable environment for Nanchao occupying the Jiangnan and Lingnan provinces to have active extravert activities. For Nanchao, cultural exchange with the southern sea region had been continued since the Emperor Wu of Han(漢武帝). Roman and Persian merchants had expanded their market to the Southern Sea and toward inland of China.
This private trades led to form direct diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions.
Context of diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions.
Diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions
Few contextual evidence about diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions are known. It appears that the lack of detailed record must be due to instable political situation of that time8. The articles stating the diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions in the historical texts are mostly about delegates posted from the Western Regions to Nanchao. Although there was a few delegates from Nanchao to the Western Regions, which was a rare occasion of sending envoys due to a need for coordinating military affairs.
Envoys from the Western Regions to Nanchao
Relations (offerings) between the Date Reference Western Regions and Nanchao 439, 元嘉十六年 沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『魏書』卷一百二·西域傳 『南史』卷二·宋本紀 442, 元嘉十九年 沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『魏書』卷三十九·李寶傳 443, 元嘉二十年 沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『宋書』卷五·文帝紀 444, 元嘉二十一年 沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『資治通鑑』卷一百二十四·宋紀 459, 大明三年 沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『宋書』卷六·孝武帝本紀 502~519, 天監年間 鞠氏高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『太平廣記』卷八十一·梁四公 535~546, 大同年間 鞠氏高昌 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 503, 天監二年 白氏龜玆 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷六·梁本紀 521, 普通二年 白氏龜玆 envoy to Nanchao(梁) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 510, 天監九年 于闐 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 44 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Relations (offerings) between the Date Reference Western Regions and Nanchao 于闐 envoy to Nanchao 514, 天監十三年 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 (波羅波步障) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 519, 天監十八年 于闐 envoy to Nanchao (琉璃器) 『南史』卷六·梁本紀 541, 大同七年 于闐 envoy to Nanchao (玉佛) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 546, 梁中大同元年 渴盤陀 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 『南史』卷二·宋本紀 442, 元嘉十九年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『宋書』卷五·文帝本紀 『南史』卷二·宋本紀 463, 大明七年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳 467, 泰始三年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『宋書』卷八·明帝紀 468, 泰始四年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『宋書』卷八·明帝紀 471, 泰始七年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『宋書』卷八·明帝紀 472, 泰豫元年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『宋書』卷九·后廢帝紀 『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳 480, 建元元年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao(方物) 『南史』卷四·齊本紀 柔然 envoy to Nanchao (齊), 483~493, 永明年間 (醫員, 工匠, 指南車 demanded 『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳 for 南齊 rejected) 515, 天監十四年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao9* 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 516, 天監十五年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀 520, 普通元年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『梁書』卷五十四·諸夷傳 528, 大通二年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 529, 中大通二年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀 538, 大同四年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 『梁書』卷三·武帝紀 541, 大同七年 柔然 envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 壓達(Ephtal) envoy to Nanchao 516, 天監十五年 『梁書』卷五十四·諸夷傳 (方物) 『梁職貢圖』10* 520, 普通元年 壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物) 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 526, 普通七年 壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物) 『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
Cho, Yun Jae 45
Relations (offerings) between the Date Reference Western Regions and Nanchao 535, 大同元年 壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物) 『梁書』卷三·武帝紀 541, 大同七年 壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物) 『梁書』卷三·武帝紀 441, 元嘉十八年 粟特(Sogd) envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷二·宋本紀 粟特(Sogd) envoy to Nanchao 457~464, 大明年間 『南史』卷二·宋本紀 (火浣布, 獅子, 汗血馬) 波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao 530, 中大通二年 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳 (佛牙) 533, 中大通五年 波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 535, 大同元年 波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao 『梁書』卷三·武帝紀 503, 天監二年 中天竺國 envoy to Nanchao (梁) 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀 504, 天監三年 北天竺國 envoy to Nanchao (梁) 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀 『南史』卷七·梁本紀 524, 普通元年 白題末國 envoy to Nanchao (梁) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
Envoys from Nanchao to the Western Regions
Relations (offerings) between the Date Reference Western Regions and Nanchao 428, 元嘉五年 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 河南國11* 文獻記載 間의 記述이 相異 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然 477~479, 升明年間 『資治通鑑』卷一百三十五·齊紀 (military coalliance) 479, 建元元年 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然 & 河南 『南齊書』卷五十九·河南傳 485, 永明三年 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然 & 河南 『資治通鑑』卷一百三十六·齊紀 『南齊書』卷五十九·河南傳 490, 永明八年 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 河南國 『南史』卷七十二·丘冠先傳 491~493, 永明年間 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 丁零(高車) 『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳
Expeditions of Buddhist monks
Apart from the official diplomatic relations, attention should be paid to frequent visits of the foreign buddhist monks travelled from Western Regions and Chinese monks from Nanchao to the Western Regions12.9 46 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
The traffic route linking to the outer world and internal expansion of culture is highly associated with the diffusion route of Buddhism, in particular the route via capital by monks.
Relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions revealed through archaeological evidence
The majority of artifacts with the Western Regions’ origin discovered inside the capital city of China during ‘Wei Jin Nan-Bei Chao’ are currency (coins) of that time, golden and silver dish, fabric, and glassware13.10The majority of them was found in the sites belonging to Beichao period. Relatively, The number of artifacts originating in the Western Regions’ found in the territory of Nanchao are relatively smaller.
Artifacts with influence of the Western Regions in Nanchao area
Glassware Glassware discovered in the Southern China, so far, are mainly excavated from the mound tombs of Estern Jin period. 18 glassware in total were found in the 15 mound tombs in Liuchao. Just one mound tomb is thought to belong to Nanchao period. Use of glassware seems to be very unusual at that time. Introduction and gradually increased use of glassware in the Southern China is highly related to Liuchao’s general (cultural and social) context. Thus, glassware made prior to Nanchao period has to be considered all together. Previously, glassware from Liuchao’s mound tomb were suspected to be “Roman glass” based on the results of analysis on raw material of glass. But the recent research raised the possibility that they might be the products from Persia, Kushan or Bartria14.11In particular, the origin of raw material and the place of manufacturing has to be distinguished. Such a detailed research could reveal the actual process of glassware production and their distribution covering several variables such as diffusion of technology, trade and, immigration of non-indigenous population.
48 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Glassware discovered in the Southern China
1. Hubei Ezhou Wulidun M4012(湖北 鄂州 五里墩 M4012) 2. Nanjing Xiangshan M7(南京 象山 M7) 3. Nanjing Xianheguan M6(南京 仙鶴觀M6) 4. Jiangsu Province Jurong liusong yuanjia 16 years tomb(江蘇省 句容 劉宋元嘉十六年墓) 5. Guangdong Province Zaoqingping Eastern Jin Daning 3 years tomb (廣東 肇慶坪 東晉太寧三年墓) 6. Nanjing Fuguishan M14(南京 富貴山 M4)
Glassware found from Six Dynasty period
tomb period quantity color, height(cm) Hubei Province 1 echeng gangyinliaochang Eastern wu 1 colorless-transparent (湖北 鄂城 鄂鋼飮料廠墓) Hubei Province colorless-transparent Late western Jin 2 ezhou wulidun 2 yellowish green ~Early Eastern Jin (湖北 鄂州 五里墩墓) 9.4cm Nanjing xiangshan colorless-transparent 3 Early Eastern Jin 2 (南京 象山墓) yellowish green, 10.4cm Nanjing xianheguan 4 Early Eastern Jin 1 transparent cyan, 7.0cm (南京 仙鶴觀墓) Nanjing fuguishan transparent light blue, 5 Early Eastern Jin 1 (南京 富貴山墓) 7.8cm Nanjing Univ. beiyuan 6 Early Eastern Jin 1 colorless-transparent (南京大學 北園墓) Nanjing shangfang licun 7 Early Eastern Jin 1 transparent blue (南京 上坊 李村墓) Nanjing shimenkan 8 Early Eastern Jin 1 green (南京 石門坎墓) Cho, Yun Jae 49
tomb period quantity color, height(cm) Anhui Province 9 dangtu lailongfu Early Eastern Jin 1 light green (安徽 當塗 來村墓隴 ) Guangzhou Province 10 shizigang Early Eastern Jin 1 blue (廣州 獅帶崗墓) Guangdong Province transparent light green, 11 zaoqingping shigang 325, Eastern Jin 1 6cm (廣東 肇慶坪 石崗墓) Hubei Province hanyang 12 Early Eastern Jin 1 transparent yellowish green caidian (湖北 漢陽 蔡甸墓) Nanjing qilundianjichang Mid-term of transparent light blue 13 2 (南京 汽輪電機廠墓) Eastern blue Nanjing guijiashan colorless-transparent 14 Late Eastern Jin Fragments (南京 郭家山墓) blue, green Jiangsu Province Liusong, Southern transparent light blue, 15 jurong chuncheng 1 Dynasties 6.5cm (江蘇 句容 春城墓)
Trade of glassware through maritime silkroad in ancient East Asia
* James W. Lankton, 2010, 『Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific Analysis』 50 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Main glassware manufacturing places in Central Asia
coin as currency Sassanian-persian coins discovered in China are from Gaochang, Tulupan, Lo-yang and Xian. 24 Sassanian coins from Nanchao mound tombs located in Guangdong and one from Nanjing were reported15.12 Sassanian coins from Guangdong were considered to have been transported from the Persian gulf to Guangdong via the sea route. The silver coins found in the farthest east is the one mint during the reign of the King, Piruz(Peroz) from Nanjing. During Qi(齊) and Liang(梁) period, kunlun- slave from Southeast Asia, musicians, and officials from the Western Regions had lived in Jiankang city.
From the buried pit sites of Nanjing(南京東八府塘國稅大廈 南朝窖藏), a large amount of 梁(liang) 鐵五銖(wuzhuqian) and golden and silver dishes were accompanied with Sassanian-persia coins. It might be possible to trace the chronological date of burying pits, given that it was Cho, Yun Jae 51
Reconstructed Silkroad routes map
* Shapur III type: 1, 2 * Yazdegerd II type: 3, 4 * Peroz A type: 5, 6 * Peroz B type: 7, 8 likely associated with the stability of political situation. Uprising of Houjing(侯景) at the last year of the Emperor Wu of Liang (梁武帝)’s reign, triggered the chaos in the society and illegal production of coins became common. Thus Wuzuqian (鐵五銖) used since Putong of Liang (梁 普通) year of 4 (523 AD) lost its function as currency and burial of Wuzuqian (鐵五銖) was practiced. It corresponded to the time when Sasan Dynasty and Liang initiated the diplomatic relations.
1. Guangdong yingde Nanqi tomb Peroz coins 2. Guangdong Qujiang Southern Dynasties tomb Peroz coins 3. Nanjing Dongbafu Southern Dynasties cellars Peroz coins 52 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Golden and Silver dishes Golden and silver dishes with Western Regions’ origin during Nanchao period are not many. All of them are excavated from mound tombs and pits. Golden and silver dishes are thought to have been produced under the cultural influence of Sassanian-Perisa, as evidenced by decorative motifs and inscription in Persian language.
A silver dish with a Persian language inscription from 廣東遂鷄南朝窖藏
Golden and Silver dish discovered in the Balkan Peninsular and Sogdian district
Cho, Yun Jae 53
A golden bowl discovered in Guangdong suixi Southern Dynasties’ cellars
Sassanian coins from Nanchao mound tombs
Date Location Coins and discovery context Reference Piruz A type and Piruz B type found 『考古』 497년 廣東英德南齊墓 inside the red coloured wooden bowl with a cover 61.3 『考古』 5세기말 廣東曲江南華寺墓 Piruz 83.7 Shapur Ⅲ (383-388) and Yazdgerd Ⅱ (438-457) 『考古』 5세기말 廣東遂溪南朝窖 藏 Piruz A type and Piruz B type found 86.3 inside the jar with a cover: all coin are percolated in center Piruz C type with wuzhuqian(鐵五銖) of 『中國錢幣』 6세기초 南京東八府塘國稅大廈 Liang 04.1
Grave goods from mound tombs Ceramic figurines with the Western Region’s appearance in the mound tombs indicates the presence of people from the Western Regions in Jiangnan and Jiankang City indirectly16.13Such terracota figurines in a shape of people from the Western Region’s indicates the cultural exchange between Nanchao and the Western Regions. Further evidence of the Western Regions’ cultural influence is bronze decoration of a winged angel shape from the tombs located at Xiangfan city in mid- Yangtze basin. 54 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
In 2008, one very special artifact was discovered from a brick-built tomb of Wei and Jin Nan-Beichao found during the road construction at the Xiangfan City Hobei Province. A bronze winged angel was the firstly found in the mound tombs of the southern area. Its shape has a similarity with angels of Miran temple. They exhibit artistic styles observed in the Eastern Rome or the West Asia, which are considered as diffused cultural traits. Given Miran temple site’s function as a Buddhist monastery, in specific, eastward expansion of Gandhara style might be the direct medium of cultural diffusion. However, the number of such figurine sharply decreased in the Nanchao era, compared to the Eastern Jin, so that the diplomatic relations appear to have been rather restrained. Some of discovered goods exhibit elements of foreign origins, distinguishable from traditional traits.
Grave goods from Six-Dynasty mound tombs
1 2
1. Terracota from Nanchao tomb 2. Bronze figurine of winged angel
Xinjiang Province Miran Temple angel(M-III, V)
Cho, Yun Jae 55
Figures of angels drawn upon the ceiling of the sacred container of Buddha’s statue in Hadda Begram Afghanistan
The Western Regions’ traits observed in Nanchao’s architectural style.
The main characteristics of Nanchao’s royal and aristocrat’s graveyards, are stone statue displayed on the ground. In particular, gravestone, stone animals and stone columns are not observed in the graveyards of earlier times.
Graveyard statuary The most distinctive characteristics in the royal tomb statuary of the Nanchao era are stone sculptures in the both sides of the spirit way, which is also peculiar in that of Wei Jin Nan-Beichao. They are lined by a succession of statues, pillars and stale. The stone pillars and animal statues are special, which began to appear since the Han Dynasty and likely derived from the Han Dynasty era. Perhaps these are the consequences of cultural adoption through interchange with Rome and Persia17.14 Stone sculptures stood at both sides of the spirit way, serve as a mark of the tomb and they varied over time. The array of stone sculptures follows the order of stale - stone pillar- stone animal. Placing stone animals on the ground appears to have started from the Eastern Han period. The origins of stone columns: The gigantic column is one element of architectural style of Percepolice, the capital of 56 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Achaemenid Dynasty. The construction period of Percepolice is B.C 515- 330. In the Sasan Persian’s Shapur palace, the stone column is observed. Completion of the palace was right before or after the death of Shapur Ⅰ(272 AD). Before the Han Dynasty, such tradition of stone column has not been found, so introduction from outer place is presumed, Given the interaction and trade between China, Persia and Northern India, the cultural diffusion route is likely to have begun in this area, But the fact that it became a part of graveyard decoration components in China, exhibiting a different function from the original is noticeable.
Liang Xiaoshun and Xiaojing mausoleum columns, Southern Dynasties
A columns of Persepolis and King Asoka column of India, Maurya Dynasty
Cho, Yun Jae 57
Graveyard of Nanchao’s gravestone patterns and the Western Region religion On the gravestone surface of Nanchao, the symbol of main religion of the Western Regions, Zoroaster, the alter of fire is embodied. Thus introduction of religion was thought to have occurred. In addition, decorative motifs related to Zoroaster remain in the head and sides of gravestone in the spirit way.
A decorative motif of Zoroaster in the head of XiaoHong gravestone
A decorative motif of Zoroaster in the head of Sogdian Sabao Anjia gravestone
58 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Pictorial and stamped motifs on bricks and stones In the Nanchao era, a brick-built tomb is usually decorated with pictorial slabs and bricks. The subjects of pictorical bricks’ motifs include Buddhism, expedition, epics, grass, portrait of people, mystic animals. In particular, a vase shaped motif appears to have originated from Persia and later adopted in the Nanchao era. In addition, a portrait of people with Western Regions’ physical characteristics is considered to be one of used motifs. Their appearance has a similarity with angels of Miran temple. They exhibit artistic styles observed in the Eastern Rome or the West Asia, which are considered as diffused cultural traits. Given Miran temple site’s function as a Buddhist monastery, in specific, eastward expansion of Gandhara style might be the direct medium of cultural diffusion.
Grave goods from Six Dynasties mound tombs
Influence of the Western Regions on the Nanchao’s Buddhist culture
Buddhist art and culture had been highly sophisticated during Nanchao Cho, Yun Jae 59 period, far surpassing that of Northern Wei. In particular, Liang Dynasty’s Buddhism had a profound impact on emperors, the upper classes, and intellectuals’ philosophical perception. The large number of Buddhism related sites and artifacts are dispersed in this region with this historical background. Among them, the Buddhist sites and goods found in Sichuan province are significant. The sites and statues belonging to Nanchao in this region have often inscribed date and exhibit distinctive characteristic of that time in style. They provide very crucial information to understand chronological development of Buddhist art and culture. The Statue of a Buddha imitating the King Ashoka (阿育王像) from the mid Nanchao’s Buddhist temple, Wanfosi (萬佛寺) shows a strong influence of Gandhara style, and a representative of infusion of the western region’s Buddhism. In particular, Buddha imitating the King Ahsoka (阿育王像) of Liang Dynasty dated to 551 AD found at the Xian Street (西安路) in the capital of Sichuan Province, indicates the obvious foreign cultural traits observed in the head style and beard on face18.15
The Statue of a Buddha from Wanfo Temple, Sichuan Province
60 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Conclusions
The dynamic interchange between the Western Regions and Nanchao are supported by rich archaeological data. Beyond geographic limitation, cultural exchange had maintained using the existing traffic routes and diplomatic relations with the Western Regions, might have been more intensive than we previously thought. Therefore, it calls for more updated and detailed discussion on this issue , emphasizing the cultural network between the east and the west civilizations. I believe it will serve as a pre- requisite to explore another intriguing topic regarding the relations between the Korean peninsular and the Western Regions.
Notes :
1 Shi Yuntao, Sānzhìliùshìjì sīchóuzhīlù de biànqiān [Changes of the Silk Road in three to six century], (Wénhuàyìshùchūbǎnshè, 2007). 2 “Weilue (魏略),” 『Xīróngchuán, in Sanguozhi weishu (三國志·魏書)』 wuhuanxianbeidongnanyizhuan(烏桓鮮卑東南夷傳). 3 Liangshu [梁書] (Hainan zhuguo zhuan). 4 Tang Zhangru, “Nanbei chaoqijian Xiyu yu nanchao de liudao jiatong” [Western and southern mainland road traffic in Northern and Southern Dynasties period], in Weijin Nanbei Chaoshi Lun Shiyi [History of the Weijin nanbei chao] (Beijing: Zhonghuashuju, 1983). 5 “Changjinghe Nandao er diyizhou Nanqishu,” 『nanqishu(南齊書)』 vol.59 (卷五十九·茹茹虐傳): “常經河南道而抵益州.” 6 Shi Yuntao, Zaoqi Zhong-Xi jiaotong yu jiaoliu shigao [Early communications with the China-West and exchanges in the Historical Manuscript] (Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanse, 2003) 7 ChenYan, Haishangsichou zhilu yu zhongwai wenhua jiaoliu (Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, , 1996). 8 Yu Taishan, Xihan weijin Nanbei chao yu Xiyu guanxi shi yanjiu [Study on relations history of West Northern and Southern and Western Regions] Cho, Yun Jae 61
(Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1995). 9 After a request for sending craftmn and offerings was rejected during the Yong-Ming periods, the number of envoys to Nanchao from Roulan decreased. 10 Su Bai, “Zhongguo jingnei faxian de zhongya yu xiya yiwu” [Central Asian and Western Asian relics found within Chinese territory], in Zhongguo dabaike quanshu kaoguxue (Beijing: Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1986). 11 James W. Lankton, “Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific Analysis” (paper presented at Eleventh Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Busan Museum, 2010). 12 Wang Zhigao, “Liuchao muzang chutu bolirongqi mantan—jian lun Chaoxian bandao sanguo shidai boli rongqi de laiyuan” [Talk for Six Dynasties tombs unearthed in glass containers – sources of glass containers on the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period] (paper presented at the Thirteenth Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Gyeonggi Provincial Museum, 2011). 13 Sun Li, “Sashan yinbi zai Zhongguo de fenbu jiqi gongneng” [Distribution of Sassanian Silver Coins and their functions in China], Kaoguo Xuebao 1 (2004). 14 Shao Lei, “Nanjing chutu Sashan beilu si yinbi kao lue” [Research on unearthed Sassanian Peroz silver coins in Nanjing], in Yeshan Cungao (Beijing: Fenghuang Chubanshe, 2004). 15 Nanjing Shi Bowuguan, “Jiangsu Nanjing shi fuguishan liuchao mudi fajue jianbao” [Excavation of a tomb from the Eastern Jin to the Late Southern Dynasties at Fuguishan in Nanjing, Jiangsu], Kaogui 8 (1988). 16 Fu Xinian, Zhongguo gudai jianzhushi—Sanguo Liang Jin Nanbei chao suiting wudai jianzhu [History of architecture of ancient China -Three Kingdom, Western and Eastern Jin, Southern & Northern Dynasties] (Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Ongye Chubanshe, 2001). 17 Lin Shuzhong, “Zongjiao zaoxiang yishu,” in Liuchao Yishu (Nanjing: Nanjing Chubanshe, 2004). †
Submission Date: 2012. 11. 15. Completion Date of Review: 2012. 12. 25. Accepted: 2013. 1. 19. 62 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Cho, Yun Jae
Previous studies have reported that China had frequent correspondence and exchanges with western countries through the Three Kingdoms period and the Disunity period from the Han Dynasty period. Thus, it is thought that the Nanchao regime's awareness and understanding of the western countries already reached a matured phase. However, the frequency and scale of exchanges show different aspects depending on China's own political changes. China sharply stood face to face in terms of political domination because of its two civil divisions into north and south regimes, especially during the Nanchao period. During the Nanchao period the direct approach to and negotiations with western countries was somewhat inconvenient. In the meantime, the Roman Empire's internal political vortex also had a significant impact on the network in East-West cultural exchanges. On the other hand, the Northern dynasties' bargaining with western countries proceeded with very active exchanges due to geographical environment and history. However, the bargaining between the Southern Dynasties and western countries was neither disconnected nor unfulfilled. Rather, the passage of negotiations became more diversified. In particular, since new bargaining routes were secured, direct contact with the west was still in progress. These external backgrounds left considerable cultural factors on the societies of the Southern Dynasties. This therefore enables us to conclude the bargaining between both parties. Since the specific bargaining situation between the Southern Dynasties and western countries is observed in records from archaeological data and in some literature, it serves to provide objective evidence. This paper attempts to look into Cho, Yun Jae 63 the aspect of East-West civilization exchanges at the time by reviewing archaeological materials related to literature records and at the same time discussing the Southern Dynasties' bargaining process and form.
Keywords : Western Countries, Nanchao, China, East-West Exchanges, Traffic Routes, Bargaining Process
64 Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
<국문초록>
西域과 南朝의 文物 交流
조윤재(인제대학교 역사고고학과 조교수)
주지하다시피, 서역과 남조의 교섭에 앞서 그 이전시기인 漢代부터, 三國, 魏晉 代를 걸쳐 중국은 서역과 잦은 왕래와 교류가 있어왔다. 그래서 남조정권의 서역 에 대한 인식과 이해는 이미 성숙된 단계에 이르렀다고 할 수 있다. 다만 중국 자 체의 정국변화에 따라 교류의 빈도와 규모가 각기 다른 양상을 보여주고 있을 뿐 이다. 특히 남조 시기는 정치적 판도가 남북으로 갈라져 첨예하게 대립하고 있던 상황이라 남조의 경우 서역과의 직접적인 접근과 교섭이 다소 불편했던 시기였다. 한편 로마제국 내부의 정치적 소용돌이도 동서문화교류의 네트윅에 상당한 영향 을 주었다. 반면 북조정권의 對西域 교섭은 지리적 환경과 역사성으로 인해 여전히 매우 활발한 교류를 진행하고 있었다. 그러나 남조정권과 서역의 교섭이 단절되거나 전 혀 이루어지지 않은 것은 아니다. 교섭의 통로는 사실 더욱 다양해졌으며 특히 서 남교통로와 남해 연안해로의 새로운 교섭루트가 확보됨으로써 서역과의 직접적인 접촉은 여전히 진행되었다. 이러한 대외적 배경은 남조사회에 적지 않은 서역의 문화적 요소들을 남기면서 양자의 교섭을 想定할 수 있게 되었다. 남조와 서역의 구체적 교섭상황은 고고자료 및 일부 문헌기록에서 관찰되고 있 어 당시의 대외관계를 설명하는데 객관적 증거를 마련해주고 있다. 본문은 이러한 문헌기록과 관련 고고자료를 함께 검토해 보고 또 남조의 對西域 교섭과정과 방 식에 대한 고찰도 병행함으로써 당시 동서문물교류의 일면을 조명해 보려한다.
주제어: 서역, 남조, 중국, 동서교류, 교통로, 교섭과정
1 Shi Yuntao, Sānzhìliùshìjì sīchóuzhīlù de biànqiān [Changes of the Silk Road in three to six century], (Wénhuàyìshùchūbǎnshè, 2007). 2 “Weilue (魏略),” Xīróngchuán, in Sanguozhi weishu (三國志·魏書)』wuhuanxianbeidongnanyizhuan(烏桓鮮卑東南夷傳). 3 Liangshu [梁書] (Hainan zhuguo zhuan).
4 Tang Zhangru, “Nanbei chaoqijian Xiyu yu nanchao de liudao jiatong” [Western and southern mainland road traffic in Northern and Southern Dynasties period], in Weijin Nanbei Chaoshi Lun Shiyi [History of the Weijin nanbei chao] (Beijing: Zhonghuashuju, 1983). 5 “Changjinghe Nandao er diyizhou Nanqishu,” 『nanqishu(南齊書)』vol.59(卷五十九·茹茹虐傳): “常經河南道而抵益州.”
6 Shi Yuntao, Zaoqi Zhong-Xi jiaotong yu jiaoliu shigao [Early communications with the China-West and exchanges in the Historical Manuscript] (Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanse, 2003) 7 Chen Yan, Haishangsichou zhi lu yu zhongwai wenhua jiaoliu (Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, , 1996). 8 Yu Taishan, Xihan weijin Nanbei chao yu Xiyu guanxi shi yanjiu [Study on relations history of West Northern and Southern and Western Regions] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1995).
10 Su Bai, “Zhongguo jingnei faxian de zhongya yu xiya yiwu” [Central Asian and Western Asian relics found within Chinese territory], in Zhongguo dabaike quanshu kaoguxue (Beijing: Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1986). 11 James W. Lankton, “Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific Analysis” (paper presented at Eleventh Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Busan Museum, 2010). Wang Zhigao, “Liuchao muzang chutu bolirongqi mantan—jian lun Chaoxian bandao sanguo shidai boli rongqi de laiyuan” [Talk for Six Dynasties tombs unearthed in glass containers – sources of glass containers on the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period] (paper presented at the Thirteenth Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Gyeonggi Provincial Museum, 2011). 12 Sun Li, “Sashan yinbi zai Zhongguo de fenbu jiqi gongneng” [Distribution of Sassanian Silver Coins and their functions in China], Kaoguo Xuebao 1 (2004). Shao Lei, “Nanjing chutu Sashan beilu si yinbi kao lue” [Research on unearthed Sassanian Peroz silver coins in Nanjing], in Yeshan Cungao (Beijing: Fenghuang Chubanshe, 2004). 13 Nanjing Shi Bowuguan, “Jiangsu Nanjing shi fuguishan liuchao mudi fajue jianbao” [Excavation of a tomb from the Eastern Jin to the Late Southern Dynasties at Fuguishan in Nanjing, Jiangsu], Kaogui 8 (1988). 14 Fu Xinian, Zhongguo gudai jianzhushi—Sanguo Liang Jin Nanbei chao suiting wudai jianzhu [History of architecture of ancient China -Three Kingdom, Western and Eastern Jin, Southern & Northern Dynasties] (Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Ongye Chubanshe, 2001). 15 Lin Shuzhong, “Zongjiao zaoxiang yishu,” in Liuchao Yishu (Nanjing: Nanjing Chubanshe, 2004).