CEU eTD Collection Advisor: Professor Maria Kovacs ACCOMMODATION OF SUBSTATE NATIONS THROUGH ACCOMMODATION OFSUBSTATE TERRITORIAL AUTONOMY: SOUTH TYROL ANDTHE AUTONOMY: SOUTH TERRITORIAL In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BASQUE COUNTRY COMPARED BASQUE Nationalism Studies Program Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Petra Chaloupková Petra Master of Arts Master Submitted to Submitted 2011 By CEU eTD Collection my research project. in trusting for much very you Thank Fund. Visegrad and University European the Ihad without receivedfrom Country Basque scholarships the Central would not be thisable in my toaccomplish and thesis research SouthTyrol and and research staff in EURAC for their useful tips for my research. Lastly, I thankfulalso Kymlicka,Eduardo RuizVieytez, Pogonyi, Will very to Szabolcs I am project. onthis my work guidance during and support her for supervisor, I would like myto deepestgratitudeexpress toProf.my Maria Kovacs, Acknowledgements - 2 - - CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY...... - 82 - APPENDICES...... - 79 - 71CONCLUSION...... - - CHAPTER THREE: THE 46BASQUE ...... - - AUTONOMY CHAPTER TWO: THE SOUTH TYROLEAN 19 ...... - - AUTONOMY CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL 8 ...... - - FRAMEWORK 4 ...... - - INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS...... - 3 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... - 2 - Table of Contents D B A A A 3.4. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. 1.2. 1.1. OOKS ANDOOKS OCUMENTS PPENDIX PPENDIX PPENDIX Relation between Basques and the 66 European ...... - - Union Relation between Basques and 65 ...... - - the State Political Parties and Elections 62 - Results...... - Internal Basque Plurality...... - 59 - The Autonomous Statute of the Basque Country...... - 56 - The Spanish 53 ...... - Constitution - Basque Position 49 ...... - - in Spain Basques and 47Basque ...... - - Territory Parallel Societies and Ethnic Tensions...... - 38 - Impact of Particular Actors...... - 36 - The Current Statute 31 ...... - - of Autonomy The Italian 28 Constitution ...... - - Aftermath – From Compliant to the United Nations to the Package Solution...... - 26 - The First Statute of 25Autonomy...... - - The 22 Paris ...... - - Agreement South 21Tyrol ...... - - and Italy O T T H O T I H S T TALIAN UBSTATE HE HE HE HE 3: 2: 1: ISTORICAL ISTORICAL UTCOMES OF UTCOMES OF A ...... - ...... M M M P S P D RTICLES LURALITY OF PANISH LURALITY OF AP AP AP EBATE ON EBATE R 3. 2. 1. EGIONAL N L P T D D ATIONS OSITION OF ANGUAGE HE A ...... - ...... EVELOPMENTS INTHE EVELOPMENTS EVELOPMENTS INTHE EVELOPMENTS A A UTONOMOUS B UTONOMY UTONOMY E ASQUE FFECTS OF FFECTS A A S – YSTEM CTORS CTORS S TATELESS G S C ROUPS IN ROUPS OUTH OUNTRY ...... - ...... - ...... - ...... - ...... - ...... S A TATE UTONOMY T YROL N S ...... - ...... - ...... ATIONS VS S OUTH B OUTH ASQUE ...... - ...... - ...... - 3 - - T T YROL T YROL . ERRITORY K IN A -S T CCORDING TO ERRITORY TATE ...... - ...... M INORITIES ...... - ...... 2001 ...... - ...... C ENSUS ...... - ...... 81 82 85 80 79 67 59 52 47 42 34 28 21 16 8 ------CEU eTD Collection Littlefield Publishers, pp.1-3. 2004), Facing EthnicConflict: Toward aNew Realism 1 quite far away from that solution. be might aims their though even concerned, parties both for compromise best the is which while integrity preservingterritorial Inotherwords,autonomy state. the of is astabilizingtool concerns has aboutautonomy it, in many asolution ethnic it puts as advantages conflicts, sincegeneral can to to directly respond Hannum Hurst As etc. political minority cultural, personal, territorial, autonomy: rights of (especiallykinds of avariety between distinguish Scholars nation-state. a minorities within “silence” be to a beused indeed flexiblepolitical to which tool can very Autonomy inorder appeared when minorities are territorially forcertain general this thesis. applicability find to strive also will I studies, case the on be will focus main the Although successful. them concentrated) if can call we and thus, stabilizing are accommodations is these whether case studies, two the with autonomy in betested My main will which question, status. research special language of certain degree territorial of form some through usually nations, substate of accommodation countries the politics implemented ofassimilation the strategy whichpreviously to turned of scholars interestedtraditional world of nation-states which practiced their nation-building policies. Majority of in is inchallenging they theiraltered attitude few fact The decades. during past in their goals this field admit which have demanding more become in nationsEurope particularly substate There areseveral that in response an importantIntroduction shift took place and Hurst Hannum, "Territorial Autonomy: Permanent Solution or Step toward Seccession?" in 1 - 4 - - , Andreas Wimmer ed. (Lanham: Rowman & CEU eTD Collection 2 awish leadunavoidably to for secession. form in maintainingSuch morea majority. unitsconditions whichthey can on keen political theymightlanguage,or economicbe education regardingcontrol decisions over development, nationality. their of regardless Only people, all to belongs state the then, that believes example for Kymlicka people can freely enjoy Will end.their that lead measuresto which try tonegotiateestablishmentany obliged of to culture. In case minoritiesfeel should States necessity. as anabsolute perceiveaccommodation such otherauthors Yet, do not have Citizenship them. accommodate that states unitary of borders within self-governance of level and independence certain them assure also they autonomous statuses which not only allow its citizens maintain of elements their but culture, enjoy advanced Tyrol) both (South of Province Bolzano/Bozen Autonomous andthe Country) example, RuizandKallonen; 2003). The BasqueAutonomous Community (The Basque (for very rare is Their comparison cases. other to compared or usually separately but works, in their scholars many by discussed heavily already been have Both autonomy. territorial The biggest partof the thesis focus ontwowill case studies flexibilitywhich will test of thesis. this of standpoint the be will chapter theoretical first the in debate this of overview autonomy,yet another group of scholars is worried about its damaging effects. A short destabilizing effects of autonomy is wide. Some authors strive to perceive balancing force of and stabilizing or disadvantages and advantages non-success, or success on The debate easily enjoy their minority rights within the original nation-state. statehood,minority becauseparticular separated for look likely will less suchminority can a autonomy), aterritorial example (for accommodation aproper negotiate successfully Will Kymlicka, ed., (Oxford: Oxford University pp. 2001), 139-140. Press, Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism,Multiculturalism and 2 In other words, Kymlicka assumes that if you - 5 - - CEU eTD Collection statuses of autonomy. After discussing mentioned plurality of actors the last part of the and constitutions state particular the in detail, concretely willbediscussed arrangements developedview.of manifestwhich Current clearly point actors howdifferent their and arrangements current the to led which history modern rather from moments particular into changes or stagnation in negotiations about the autonomous statute, in both cases I will look development,meaningsome in case Since whichshows of time this wetalkaperiod about aspect willbe into account. taken this Therefore, for balancedautonomy arrangements. asapowerful determinant be perceived itcan hence, and role mighthave endadecisive inthe organization) international (kin-state, international actor thepresence of international platform. discussedon Yet, autonomy was (cross-border) by members minority (Austria). its of kin-state protected kin-state Their are inhabitants Tyrolean South of Majority issue. internal is opinions and actors of plurality different type of substate nation. Basques are stateless nation (nation without state). The studies because thetwo represent precisely development, distinct Both cases demonstrate arrangements. autonomous notable they conclude or were able to bedeterminant of will and successof stability and autonomous compromise statute perhapsthe aproper tonegotiate and willingness their and diversity of their opinions,view. For purposes of this thesis, which I will focus on theis plurality typical of different actors in very bethe furthercomplex can and it analysis. many Stability perceivedfrom deserves of points disputefor both cases.is issue This region? inthe stability overall The guarantees relation this of position establishment that claim of thosehowever, we, Can actors autonomy. from benefit – minority and state the – parties main both Thus, - 6 - - CEU eTD Collection compromise. negotiate particular all to were willing who to andactors benefits bringingof states preserving minorities, easingethnic conflicts, substate unity silencing tendencies of separatist either will which results bring will confirmcomparison final the that am expecting I authors. of amount or reject flexibility test conceptof of the hasbeenautonomy which big by overwhelmingly discussed a idea thatConsequently, autonomy a very accommodation,uniquecan comparisonwork autonomy of options different two bring can comparison the of as result final the of end the In a theseuniversal two case studies as offersstabilizingthe an pluralityopportunity andmakemore can generally cases better study the also applicable. to tool offor help might tounderstandboth us differences cases moremuch similar.are which Conversely, actors favors generally which study comparative a for be obstacle not will and approach This different. their involvementbe reflect absolutely identical very not isindeed theiras wehaveto reality which particular into put final comparison in of case conclusion, the studies might though two structure the the in both willbe cases both analysis, is a ofcomparative study this framework As themethodological cases differs. will orratherdisputableexamination of be stabilizing aspects positive done. overall where autonomy of final outcomes evaluation of to bededicated will analysis - 7 - - CEU eTD Collection strategy how to face state nation-building and, thus, requires different accommodation from howface nation-buildingaccommodation differentstrategy requires to thus, state and, a adopted certain groups minority these because each way,inof aproper be addressed immigrants andindigenous peoples. All between and thosegroups disputes the State have to solution as universal and distinguishes between several types minorities:of substate nations, Importantly, Kymlickamulticultural isdefenderof not present although policies, hedoes any central the state. through exercises level majority group substate the the that at andculture itsexpress language diffuse to and samepowers many of the minority giving basically sovereignty and state limitation of certain implies Such accommodation units. territorial by creating of country the diversity cultural 4 iseconomicone. and social recognizes centralized and does not in principle seek toreflect cultural diversity. The type of diversity it 3 federalism multination he calls what within minorities of accommodation Will Kymlickahasin aliberal developed hiswork whichis very opinion supportive towards limitation). territorial negotiations, (proper application its andcomplexity with state) of of unity preservation or of secession prevention tensions, ethnic The most of focusauthors in their works on positive impact that autonomy has (easing of nations substate tool forof accommodation is asauseful perceived commonly general) which There is a vast literature on the topic of concept1.1. of territorial autonomy (and autonomy in Chapter One: Theoretical Framework Diversity Will Kymlicka, more is which federalism mononational from be distinguished isto federalism Multinational The DebateonEffectsofAutonomy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007),p.141. Multicultural Odysseys: Navigating theNew International Politics of 4 - 8 - - 3 which which recognizes CEU eTD Collection conflict nor violence andthe itneither reduces states homogenous create not does secession first, claims that or minority oppression. Donald Horowitz state. the of given unity of andpreservation movement anti-secessionist Moreover, the rightnormative autonomy which of defendsAnother group rathera viewpoint, to authors relates to secede is according to rights. human and democratization liberalization, injustices, promote inequalities and preserve peace,reduce helpedethnic to also approach multicultural but policies, social redistributive their sustaining difficulty more multicultural Above havehadnostrong whichadopted all,policies application. countries inits factors positive significant buthe perceives also advantageous, federalism multination In addition,not only Kymlicka that minorities finds accommodation of substate within regions accommodate within state,confirms unity the preserved of its biggest advantage. to ability has autonomy territorial that fact the be secession, may goals such of As one goals. 5 nationalism of force the silence to ability its in successthe of multinational minorities inof federalism accommodation is substate based on mobilizedautonomy and lines. nationalist theirgroupalong partly Substate nations which andgovernmentlanguage rights,ortreaty are andlandrights claimslegal or exemptions. in self- the policies, multicultural of form some include may focus accommodation This state. the of this thesis typically demanded some form of 8 Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues inEurope 7 6 p.2001), 23. Political Theory andEthnicRelations in EasternEurope Will Kymlicka and Magda Opalski, eds., Will Kymlicka, Will Kymlicka, “Multiculturalism and Minority Rights: West and East,” Ibidem,24. p. Multicultural Odysseys 8 …, pp. 136-137.…, pp. Can Liberal Pluralism BeExported? Western 4 (2002), p. 11. - 9 - - 7 that those groups used in order to pursue their to in used groups order those that (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6 According to Kymlicka Journal on 5 CEU eTD Collection 11 10 Democracy ethnic isits a conflicts Hannum to bestadvantageof as solution autonomy claims the autonomy. territorial is through be accommodated can minorities national how way The strong national cultures canindeed easily continue developing evenwithout their own states. Hannum,however, believesif human members rights of that minority groups areprotected, government. central a by rejected been have rights minority or self-government for demands reasonable in case or violations rights human of cases in only community international the by be carefullyshould supported how be secession will Therefore, boundaries drawn. matter minoritiesSimilarly Hannum abouttrapped Hurst existtalks which never will ceaseto no be simply survivein statehood. able to a separated secession is nor feasible, neither desirable; mainly,because some of those groups would not world, their inthe ethnic groups of arethousands there account that into if wetake Indeed, dangerous. is downright option second because the it, minorities within andof accommodation state integrity for of the respect clearly prefers Horowitz imperfect results, produce formerwill encouraging participation in undividedstate the andlegitimating from exitit. Although the between debate, current characterizes which is achoice, always says,there Horowitz 12 pp. 16. 9 minorities. secessionist of grievances the of some alleviate to instruments helpful be might which autonomy, regional or federalism of adoption the including states, underminingHorowitz toachieve attempts interethnic accommodation undividedwithin Donald L. Horowitz, “The Cracked Foundations of toSecede.” of Rights Foundations the “The Donald Cracked L. Horowitz, Hurst Hannum, “The Specter of of Secession,” “TheHannum, Specter Hurst Ibidem,16. p. Ibidem,14. p. 10 14, no. 2 14,no. (April 6. 2003): p. - 10 - - Foreign Affairs 77, no. 2. 77,no. (March/April 1998): 9 In the end, the In Journal of 12 11 CEU eTD Collection 14 13 of arrangements reason this For them. between clashes or power of devolution on actors its usage proper at andfuture difficulties, opinions of different usually warnsabout regarding necessity establishto them in the way that allows their modification in future. Lapidoth points rather atthe or arrangements autonomous flexibility of indicates also Ruth Lapidoth Yet Kosovo employed a bloody war. and Krajina inCroatian conflicts disintegration, a peaceful through Slovaks wereresolved and among Czechs While conflictsdisputes weresolved. ways howthose between different distinguish also can we Here Czechoslovakia. or in Serbia Kosovo in Croatia, Serbs Krajina agenda: the on not was autonomy so lacked, willingness such when cases list easily can We strong willingness of livepeople to together. itpurposes has been used. And more it importantly, be can successful ifonly itisbased on and it stresses indeedis just of one tools which useful,remains but ifit only is clear for which autonomy territorial of concept the of with usage iscareful very hand,On Hannum other the both, majority concerns andminority demands. to the stability of the existingautonomous units are notbecoming sovereign. In this way, autonomy is basedinternational on contributingsince states, existing of integrity territorial the maintains which instrument an order.as and rights It is a compromise solution minority concerns about It isto response asuccessful culture. alsoperceivedas education, or responsive to overlanguage, powers judiciary independent legislature,or authority and financial separated flexibility.Autonomy may of a encompass includingrelationships constitutional wide range Ibidem,7. p. HurstHannum, Autonomy…, "Territorial pp.1-3. - 11 - - 14 13 CEU eTD Collection 17 16 Institute States of Peace Press, pp.34-35. 1996), 2007), p.2007), 45. 15 minorities. and states between compromise a viable for provides autonomy of has beenlong since states, international defender the community this accommodation, wouldas independentan state belimited.of its Because non-disturbingexisting impact on survivehappen when is or to their ability unlikelyto recognition statehood separated theirof the that notices group ethnic particular the when either option second-best the rather is it desired; not however, is, autonomy cases, some In homeland. its within self-governance form gain to someof ethnic group a particular expressesbut desire of boundaries, recognized change internationally aim to not does which claims, territorial oneamong is the only concept autonomy. says biggest Wolff Stefan the advantage ofterritorial is that autonomy this that listing authorsturn to advantages Alsowhen of and disadvantages talking about other minority livinggroup outside the territory cannot enjoy benefits.its the of members those while territory, autonomous in the residents to applies only it is that disadvantage its hand, other the On affairs. economic and social of range a wide to applies it lies in its wide scope. Territorial autonomy is notlimited to matters of culture or language, but minorities of for accommodation as atool autonomy territorial of success that Hannum says When advantages talking about and of disadvantages similarlyautonomy Lapidoth to future. in changes of introduction allows which flexible rather but be rigid, not should autonomy Stefan Wolff, Stefan Ibidem,40. p. Ruth Lapidoth, Ruth 15 Ethnic Conflict: A Global Perspective Autonomy: FlexibleSolutions to Ethnic Conflicts - 12 - - (Oxford: Oxford University Press, (Washington, DC:United 16 17 CEU eTD Collection University p.Press, 1997), 208. 18 some evolve minorities national after position their change only they and end that to come to usually hesitate states be devolved), to powers specific and decentralization specify degreeof serious intervention (mainly, into states structure amendments constitutions shouldto which very itAs requires in itfor areas. certain reasons are practical there even though principle, would states that autonomy accept this forAlso,should neverbe granted taken automatically nofixed rulesonhowmuch shouldbepower devolved is when regions.autonomy given to stresses Guibernau who Montserrat view has of point critical a rather that with In connection whether it wants to turn to autonomy at all. state which formis a neutral one and autonomy remains beingof vague concept with no rules. It isautonomy dependent on a “Balkanization.” lead may itas they to would like to very reluctant tograntadopt any forms autonomy and consider them as potential danger for stability usually andare states Many state. the of jurisdiction the domestic within falls autonomy of stateprinciple is also freegovernment) to decide recognizes rightof the self-determination (viastate within existing self- autonomy and for indigenous Peoples which of theRights Indigenous on Declaration in appeared thedraft already people.territorially or non-territorially concentrated minorities. Musgrave stresses that such approach Nevertheless, their to self-determination internal of aform as autonomy guarantee to obligation states on impose to possibility a mean basically would law wheninternational the of norms in approach it comes positive Any law. international of context the in autonomy of principle the see to how to substate International is widely dimension by Musgravelooksatdiscussed Thomas who thepossibility nations the Thomas D. Musgrave, Self-Determination and National Minorities 18 Therefore, the international law approach to autonomy - 13 - - (Oxford: Oxford (Oxford: CEU eTD Collection 21 19 or ethnic particular this device allows meaning that ethnicity, to connected a devicedirectly certain Yash inhisrisk. Ghai editedperceives volume Autonomy’ ‘Ethnicity as and autonomy take to is necessary it reason For this ethnicity. and autonomy between connection important on Many authors see otherthe handdangerinnot and ‘Balkanization’ do perceive an political participation. to citizens Those are general rules of human rights, such as prohibition of discrimination and the right of measuresother ethnic through whichdonotimplyconflicts changesstructure. instate’s solve their to strive they and experience) Yugoslav of because (perhaps autonomy adopt to Finally, most of CEE states might rather believe thatit is not always necessary and desirable intervention of state other to which members of autonomousthe group feel affiliated. interests and values orit certain inhabitants can violate other discrimination against perception can constitute of the state.and asLastly, a tool which causes establishment a lot secession towards isstep asafirst it because perceived mostly acceptable is not Autonomy of damage to the unity of of theautonomy state.minorities) is andnot viewed model ‘a autonomy easing as positive ethnic conflict solution.’ Also autonomymay bringin their arekin-state they cases of most (in minorities their fearof generally socialist region the risk of It is very visible especially in the Central-Easternalways brings certain disputes. Europe itand is smooth never (CEE)autonomy of ofestablishment process whole the Assuch, pressure. that countries in the post- 20 (Cambridge, UK: pp. Polity 1999), 37-38. Press, Ibidem, p. Montserrat Guibernau, Montserrat Ruth Lapidoth, Ruth 204. Autonomy: FlexibleSolutions Nations without States: Political Communities ina Global Age 19 21 - 14 - - …, p. …, 203. 20 CEU eTD Collection 1998), pp.1998), 11-12. Applications andImplications the andto cultures different of accommodation needfor tothe is more related view general autonomy. One of on application viewpoints of range awide offer scholars In summary, disadvantages. and its advantages assure balancebetween to in order measures other combined with socialor is Inbrief,disputes. a autonomy of type conflictit resolution,needs be but to economical political, to lead may which society inthe division of facilitation its in lies danger the Yet, a whole. as society on effect positive have can which pluralism cultural for provides mechanism whole end in the and affairs state the in minority of participation promote and points advantage sees AlsoHeintze of itsin ease Hans-Joachim autonomy ability ethnic to tensions that suppression of (Yugoslavia, Cyprus). minority cases in other yet successful not Spain), they were (Canada,India, within states some conflicts may only leadinAutonomy this sense.be arrangements appeared successful in to identity-baseddefusing to its resistance.beclaims explainedsimply cannot autonomy successful ornon-successful as that either tool negotiations for of which He diffusion importance are essential of proper conflicts. ethnic Autonomydemocratic and participatory way and institutionalcareful arrangements. Ghai again stresses can innegotiations a led law, andtherule of of democracy established traditions previously community, international of involvement are aspects such Among arrangements. actual of whichprecededconcluding events and accommodation innegotiations, importance indicates 24 23 States 22 concern. of special affairs over control exercise direct to group other Hans-Joachim Heintze, "On the Legal Understanding of Autonomy," in Ibidem,14-21. pp. Yash Ghai, ed., (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 8. 24 Autonomy and Ethnicity: Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-Ethnic 23 , Markku Suksi ed. (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, - 15 - - 22 Autonomy: Importantly, Ghai CEU eTD Collection understanding to‘ refers use rather authors which term the minorities in inspired national United classic Nations most of first, for. At arelooking nations needs substate specific be asthis determines done, nations needto term the substate of afurther specification casestudies the turningBefore to 1.2. end. asuccessful towards development the toleadin beemployed order negotiation should peace a proper istime when exactandthe this both can appear of casesthecombination In some conflict. the weaponworsening dangerous a or groups national substate of for accommodation tool be either asuccessful to out turn essential as it may is particularly step This determine final accommodation. the leadto which negotiations of importance future development of them are aware all of ethnic tensions, easingof the and integrity state of preservation of the conflict. mostImportantly, see of although authors of particular advantage inautonomy the Autonomy in the end can stand for flexibility idealwhich autonomy should represent. Together they state. favoring the second minority, favoring both of views–one combinethese of autonomy to preservewhich have to partly give up their sovereignty. The second general view focuses on the ability state’s and states avoidsimpliesof new cooperation This statehoods creation of culture. structure unity and preventfoundation of such structure, which would guarantee developmentsecession. of distinctive minority Majority of authors actually Substate Nations – Stateless Nations vs. Kin-StateMinorities vs. Nations –Stateless Substate Nations persons belongingtoethnic, religious and linguistic minorities - 16 - - .’ This .’ CEU eTD Collection 27 26 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998),p.19. 25 statehood. Basquesfall separated definition. this under Such minorities may be presented by radical nationalist and secessionistmovements wishing territory and wishing todecide which upontheirfuture lack political astate of their own. a clearly demarcated to attached common past, sharing communities which arecultural nations), (stateless states without nations on work her in talks Guibernau Montserrat first At In order to be clear we should also stress the difference between two types of substate nations. life. of ways traditional maintain to mainly is aim Their foreigners. as regard they into a stateby incorporated whom people were Basically,they arrangements. through treaty hand,beenforcehave peoples, bysettlers usageof or after ontheother usually either overrun they moved form one empire another; to they united with kingdom.another Indigenous state; larger a by annexed or conquered been have might they reasons: many for nations other past or may have sough for it. Substate national groups are in a position of sharing a state with in state such had have may they but majority, a form would they inwhich state lack currently categories:into nations two substate andindigenous peoples. nations Substate arenations who subdivided be can minorities national term the perception his In distinction. particular this minority whichgroup also needsa differenttype of accommodation. WillKymlicka employs people for of indigenous type different of stand as which clearly thegroup excludes term this for my nations I preferNevertheless, national usageof purposes or term the substate groups, workers). migrant or immigrants aliens, (refugees, minorities’ ‘new all andexcludes state of the citizens or nationals to status minority restricts clearly definition Montserrat Guibernau, Montserrat Will Kymlicka and Magda Opalski, eds., Preece, JenniferJackson Nations without States National Minoritiesand the EuropeanNation-States System Can Liberal Pluralism… - 17 - - …, p. 1. 25 , pp. 23-24. 26 27 CEU eTD Collection 28 the kin-state in order to protect the interests of their people. reunification its Also with danger the interventionkin-state. insuchcasesispotential for by homeland.original Suchminority may have irredentist tendencies, meaning it forseeks whichwith their is bordering usually state the territory of upona which kindended group of minority is aspecial Kin-state minority). minority (cross-border caseis Second a kin-state arrangements. autonomous whenimpact of testing be intoaccount needed taken to factors All these in game. the actors multiple involves and internationalized becomes usually issue the end the In state. host playsKin-state important role and an of protector tends tointervene with innegotiations the Cross-border minority, alone. its rights for fights group national stateless the thus, issue, as adomestic perceived on the other hand, itsis which integrity. territorial protects generally disputedispute with state the Such may look for the reunificationis in soit statehood, andown independence may seekfor nation Stateless maydiffer. they use with its kin-state. migration land.border their Based on aims in that and tools radical the of consequence trends as a or borders new as aconsequence established of border a treaty which sideof ‘wrong’ intoand cross-border newly minority incorporated emerged state, endedusually up on the stateless nations nations are usually were andwhich conquered bymajority ruled population Whereas face. minorities reality these stress different is to of In sum,this point distinction the nation. this substate type of represent Will Kymlicka and Magda Opalski, eds., Can Liberal Pluralism - 18 - - 28 German-speakers in South Tyrol …, p. 65. …, p. CEU eTD Collection (accessed on (accessedApril on 10, 2011). Tyrol inFigures,a 2010, 30 Minority Issues Minorities: South Tyrol, the Basque Country and the Aland Islands,” 29 Ladin-speakers. %were %were Italian-speakers and 4,32 speakers, 26,30 462 999(in reached(2001) 2009 population 503 were German- ofwhich69,38% 434), out Tyrolese population. The overall population of South Tyrol was according to the last census which make upSouth groups threeethnic (linguistic) accommodates The autonomy primarily attractiveness. touristic and development economic its of because position has its specific seem territory anymore, the doesnot significant importance strategic gateway to the Alps the position of South Tyrol was strategically important. As a Latin worlds. and Germanic between way communication of theeasiest centuries has for many been theareaincorporates, Pass, which theBrenner since territory, transit been ithasa always conversely, isolated; been neverhas empire. Thearea Austrian with connected in areas is historically Italy, oneof wealthiest the It Adige/Südtirol. Trentino-Alto occupying territory amountainous in northern isItaly, which part of autonomousthe region TyrolSouth (officially Autonomous Province of the isBolzano/Bozen) asmall province Two:Chapter South Tyrolean The Autonomy one. The basic laws are the Constitution, respective statute and acts of autonomy. Autonomy and of autonomy. acts statute respective Constitution, the are laws basic The one. without internal was model transformingintoafederal redistribution adopted power of the measures particular while existenceof A the preserving unitary state. decentralized model of Autonomous Province of South Tyrol – Provincial Statistics Institute (ASTAT), EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, MarkkoKallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European 2 (2002/2003): 2(2002/2003): pp. 250-252. vailable athttp://www.provinz.bz.it/en/downloads/Siz_2010-eng.pdf - 19 - - European Yearbook of 30 29 Italy Italy adopted Although the Although South CEU eTD Collection 32 Minorities…: p.257. 31 veto. minority and proportionality autonomy, segmental coalition, cooperation.cross-border Itis basedonfour principles of consociational democracy: grand and autonomy successful of example an as regarded frequently is Tyrol South Nowadays, government. isbasedwhich is guarantee for here conserving constitution asastrong perceived self- the on accommodation. minority sidethe of effect important an bequestioned as societies will parallel of mainly creation controversies, certain And third, community. andstate international kin- a as Austria of also but representatives, local Tyrolean South and government Italian only not of involvement particular without solved be successfully not casecould Tyrolese South that doubt is without It be analyzed. will in particular conflict inthe actors distinct of role the Second, of a hethe accommodation successful ethnic groups. on three response to side, other toassimilation irredentist and on side one which causedbyattempts conflict, ethnic was fromby makesruled development territory the souniqueisexactly Italy.What this this case This case study will firstlook into a particular development of the position of South Tyrol in goals. differentactors pursued because very different especially accommodation was complex, Ibidem,257. p. EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European 31 - 20 - - 32 But the route to this CEU eTD Collection 34 Macmillan, pp.122. 2004), of Europe Encyclopaedia end only left.70,000 Germany. In emigration to the heoffered andinstead Tyrolese them German-speaking South South Tyrol.religious and demographic identity foundations of ethnic the of German-speakingthe group of Even Hitler powerin the October 1922.This program systematicaimed atthe destruction of linguistic,the was not willing over when Mussolini took wasintroduced instead Italization a program of of However, that minorities. Ladin-speaking and German the to of well-being for assurances gave sacrificeItaly Germain, hisfirst, when inAtAustria Italy 1919 Tyrol awardedto of the South PeaceTreaty within St plans for the fate of may help usunderstand the success of their autonomy. 300,000 inhistory between events particular thatwerenegotiated and all involved documents parties bestandin of Going examples one Europe. autonomies those through the working of negotiations between several actors, and in the end South Tyrol became a prosperous province firstItaly,a period of through went assimilation, province a period of the through then 33 politically. nor economically culturally, neither – Italy South Tyrol 1919, Before any partof or land Tyrol old other formedhadnever partof ever As mentionedTyrolean South is history ratherconnected with German environment. speaking South Tyrol and Italy 2.1. Ibidem,122-123. pp. Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy," in inItaly," Community German-Speaking "The Wolff, Stefan Historical Developments in the South Tyrol Territory Tyrol South inthe Developments Historical 34 , Karl Cordell and Stefan Wolff eds. (New York: Palgrave - 21 - - 33 When South Tyrol became part of The Ethnopolitical CEU eTD Collection 37 36 p.2011), 4. http://www.provinz.bz.it/en/downloads/South-Tyrol-Autonomy.pdf January(accessed on 20, 35 the German-speaking element.’ of development economic and cultural andthe character ethnic ‘safeguard the to proclaimed parties both this document Italy. In with peacetreaty the to which wasattached Agreement As a resultof negotiationsprevious Italian Austrian concludedand government the 1946Paris The ParisAgreement be establishedprotection to by Italy. minority for legal insisted measures on Italy. they Pass However, with to Brenner the impactItaly. on Thatis why international community supported ideathe leaving of the area Austriaa suitable Tyrol it wasnot to havewouldeconomical because option, considerable South of Province strong economically an of return So, country. in the environment balanced anddevelop attitude thepro-Western choose would agenda, wasonthe takeover communist a of menace where Italy, assure that was to idea primal The considerations. political-strategic This aim was not based central onpoints of European politicsthe was to reconcile the relationship betweenidea Austria and Italy. of protection the of warone the after Consequently, speakers. forceGerman of main defending 1945 asa of minority rights (SVP), Party People’s by Tyrolese South led mainly the was campaign at that time, but upon Austria.a land This restored anti-Italian to Tyrolese demandedreturning South people part of one even and satisfied was parties of none II. War World the after that surprising not was It Ibidem Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking in Community Italy…,123. pp. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy: A Short Introduction,” available at , p. 123. 37 36 - 22 - - 35 which emerged in emerged which CEU eTD Collection 41 40 39 Minister of Foreign Affairs Karl Gruber. 38 Gasperi-Gruber called De This so clauses of the Paris Agreement were fulfilled. if andcheck power as protecting minority’s act to had right basically a kin-state as Austria, basis. established internationally and legally a had autonomy following on negotiations all and standing international an given was question Tyrol South the that so Treaty, In the end, all these provisions of the Paristhe document. Treaty were annexed in stipulated were Italy betweenAustria and and goods products characteristics quantities of to the 1947 Italian Peacebetween Northern validitythe freecertain the degrees andof transit university diplomas, andgoods passengers and Austria andrelations questions between the In particular, of citizenship, neighborhood Italy. Eastern Tyrolexecutive regional Andfinally,power. promisedestablish Italian government the to good and frontierand legislative autonomous of exercise granted the were populations the Additionally, traffic and local exchanges of certain with Italian-speakingthe Concretely inhabitants. itgranted: Ibidem,5. p. Ibidem,5. p. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… The agreement got its name after Italian Prime Minister Alside De Gasperi and Austrian 4) 3) 2) 1) more proportion appropriate of employmentbetween ethnical twothe groups. equality as of regards therights entering reaching upon officeswithpublic a viewto a years; in wereItalianized recent family which names re-establish German rightthe to as well as in bilingual naming; topographical documents, official and offices in public languages Italian and German of parification in elementary motherand secondary the teaching tongue; 40 38 agreement basically led to a complete equality of rights of a complete equality to led basically agreement - 23 - - 41 , p.5. 39 CEU eTD Collection (accessed on (accessedJanuary on p.10. 9, 2011), at available Perspective,” Comparative 44 43 42 resides. minority French-speaking avivid where d’Aosta inVal primarily wouldautonomy statute haveonsimilar minority situations elsewhere in country,the strong. In was still between groups suspicion and ofalienation thedegree because one, was a restrictive addition, Agreement Paris the which wasbasedon statute in newthe autonomy result the Therefore, the Italian governmentstill can affect the territorial stability of the state. had toas akin-state Austria accept that to for Italians meant which one was atemporary agreement bear on mindcircumstances,butmean did this not had thatAustria Tyrol. renounced South Clearly, the what an certain under best the perception their from effectperhaps was agreement The self-determination. to right the obtain to right their denied again a were Tyrolese newSouth that fact the with dissatisfied much very felt itself Austria worse even and Tyrol South of renunciation Austrian contain not autonomy the did Italian the from side, wasthat mainly thesecond problem, Yet, perceived offices, how the schooling in the two languages would work in practice etc. clearly position the in defined what of language are publicGerman provincewas,whatthe whetherit geographically interpreted be should orin an administrative sense. Itwasnot the entire populations of the two provinces. It was not clear what the word ‘regional’ means; was for example notclear whether the future autonomy would apply Southto Tyrol only or to It vague. was generally thatwording was Oneproblem relations. jeopardize inter-community whichas seriously would itselfa resultimplications, had agreement several the However, Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing as Conflict Resolution: South Tyrol in Ibidem,6. p. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… http://www.stefanwolff.com/files/STCPS.pdf - 24 - - 43 , p.6. 44 42 CEU eTD Collection 48 47 46 45 Tyrolese’s expectations. by the central (laws) approval required all matters regional a federation a regional state, but is not since Italy government Regionthe delegateitswas notobliged to administrative to powers Provincesthe andalso, Nevertheless, parliaments. two the of composition ethnic the in reflects portfolios of distribution Rome, whatIn institutional autonomy practice for whichrequiredthatthe provided power-sharing was certainly Parliament. Regional the of powers notadministrative and legislative of distribution to regard in accordanceby Italians. have outnumbered order German-speakers to with into the Trentino-Alto-AdigeSouth autonomous region (together with the Province of Trento), in sides. from appeared different statute the of interpretations different oppositely, problem. Quite hugecontributewith a successful sincenot disappointment, it a did to of settlement the itwas perceived parliament, finally Italian passedthe statute new autonomy When in1948a The FirstStatuteof Autonomy aboutAustria.irritated Tyrol Austria andSouth restriction imposed.were Italy of intervention see to like not did Italy dissatisfied. highly sides all left arrangements those All economic and social objectives (control over immigration, language issues, public sector). issues, public immigration, language over (control objectives and social economic whichinsufficient, the SVP at causedof abigdisappointmentfailure toachievetheir planned Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing…, p. 11. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing…, p. 10. 45 South South Tyrolese mainly dissatisfiedremained because included thestatus theprovince 47 The transfer of powers from region to the province was simply - 25 - - , p.7. This was very important matter in matter important very was This 124. 46 48 CEU eTD Collection 50 49 words, problemthe asnot presented issue was of self-determination, butminority asissueof other In for. asked had it self-government and self-administration the as so autonomy true a settlement basedon democratic principles bywhich minority Austrian the would enjoy a refused to grant autonomy to the Province of Bozen and thereforeItaly that Austriastated asks to bringcomplaint The about Right. Human on Comvention European the before complaint brought the South Tyrolposition beto involved. Thus, Austria representedby Foreignits Minister BrunoKreisky questionin a longer no is Austria before that and Agreement Paris in the stated requirements thethe fulfilled UN General Assemblyautonomy issue. current thatthe resolveheld refused The Italian claiming the to government and filled an interstate be talks that andItalian in requested living Italy government to minority German-speaking regarding concern its proclaimed Austria already in 1956when October started A bigdispute and at institutions.later 1961and emerging the European in1960 Nations United the Tyrol at question internationalize South the an to attempt led to andfulfill negotiationstwo countriesthe Agreement between several Paris the unsuccessful In the aftermath of establishment of the first statute Austria insisted that Italy fell short to Aftermath – From Compliant to the United Nations to the Package Solution system. educational national Italian of the part internal itwas an that said was explicitly it lines, ethnic reflected education the from indeed although by Also, faraway quite parification the promised Agreement. Paris the languageinlife, public but wasnot German namedanofficial language as Italian, which was Additionally,there were other cultural measures.For example, South Tyrolese could use their Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing…, p. 12. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… 49 - 26 - - , p.6. 50 CEU eTD Collection 53 pp.2008), 24-25. Governance andGroup RightsinSouth Tyrol 51 ground forthe PackageAgreement. became by Commission the final 1964,which end 1960s inApril presented of the outcome The place. took Italy and Tyrol South between negotiations direct when time first the actually South Tyroleans by appointingin “Commission September and the 1961composed of 19” of 11 Italians 8 with aim to overlook obtain internationalsolution this aimto issue.The to Italy responded attention was achieved. the situation find they Italy on andincreasedpressure negotiations Paris Agreement, to encouraged a and find of justTyroleanAlthough history. anything bring didnot reaffirmedSouth newand the they possible solutions.Finally, Assembly General the resolutions of 1960 and 1961werethemostevents important This was easier. resolution of previousthe conflict external, self-determination. internal,not but to wereentitled groups linguistic or religious Ethnic, UnitedNations. the meanings between same by acknowledged was of approach self-determination of distinction based full on autonomy for Province the within the framework minorityof protection. The status, which was rejected international of forown determination allow would self-determination external Concretely, as unfeasible. On the other hand, internal self-determinationgoal. the became version status) international one determine was to right (the external not internal its rights protection.Although Austrian believeddelegation inself-determination,but endthe 52 (Bolzano:European Academy pp. of 37-38. Bozen/Bolzano, 2000), MelissaMagliana, MelissaMagliana, Jens Woelk, Francesco Palermo and Joseph Marko, eds., 51 The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol ProvinceThe Autonomous ofSouthTyrol.A Model ofSelf-Governance? 52 This on agreement definition madeself-determination of the 53 - 27 - - (Leiden, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Tolerance through Law. Self ... , pp. 38-39. CEU eTD Collection 54 of scheme regional the by inspired basically was system This statutes. ordinary with 15 and Giulia) Friuli-Venezia Sicily, Sardinia, d’Aosta, Valle Adige, (Trentino-Alto statutes special with into20 regions– 5 for country of the division the The Constitution provided 1948 The Italian Constitution Autonomy. of Statute mainthe point of hereandreference need tobediscussed goinginto before analysis of the regional which system,was establishedby 1948Constitution.the Constitution is, The hence, Italian the of framework existing already on dependent largely however, was, implementation Thewhole ‘Package.’ abovediscussed was based onthe statute The newautonomous 2.2. identity. German finally obtainedthey speakers what wished – official theirrecognition of distinct proportions in publicthe and sector for distribution of public housing. principle of proportionality for the andrecruitment appointment of staff according ethnic to thepackageestablished the South Tyrol Moreover, elections. for Senate constituency to established asa in officiallanguage second Province German assignedathird and the 31 rules ofinterpretation.basically Thisdocument more powers to devolved Province,the The so called 137singlemeasures,25detailedcontained and ‘packagesolution’ provisions, Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. Italian Regional System Italian Regional - 28 - - 125. 54 Consequently, the Consequently, CEU eTD Collection 58 Cleavages in Differences” M. Amoretti andUgo Nancy eds., Bermeo 57 Longman 1991),p. 210. 55 based on a legislative assembly, an executive, and a president who enjoy number of powers. quest for self-rule wasgrants most themactive. a privileged A parliamentary and governments of regional creation for allows new Constitution the for the self-rule As autonomy system and the was status established of special in eachregionsgovernment. region to the areas whereThus, onlegislation their was highly establishment passedby depended central the the andpersonnel. lackedstructure years regions the of centralization regional system, dueto created in although facto Also,terrorism Constitution the de 1940s and1950s. occurred by motivated from strong protests side of with regions, in exception the Tyrol,South where authorities and the central government. regional between conflict hasbeenanextensive there beginning, the From authorities. much givegovernment financialhas local been autonomy to always too to reluctant the in practice However, autonomous. be financially enableto them to pass legislation for the main frame of reference within which regions can regulate themselvesstand hand,should other on the andThe State, should of decision-making. centers independent become also should and powers have should regions that acknowledges Constitution the summary, In country. of the to federalization turning high level without decentralization Second of SpanishRepublic,whichprovided the 56 Arrangements Autonomy Ibidem,186. p. Ugo M. Amoretti, Daniel J. Elazar, “Italy. Political Institutions and the Mobilization of Territorial Donald Sassoon, Donald (Baltimore,Johns Md.: Hopkinsp. University Press, 2004), 186. 57 Contemporary Italy:Politics,Economy, andSociety since 1945 Federal Systems oftheWorld: AHandbookof Federal, Confederal,and (Harlow, Essex, U.K.: Longman Current Affairs, 1991), p. 128. 55 56 The regionalization was slow and perhaps not - 29 - - Federalism andTerritorial (London: 58 CEU eTD Collection 60 59 other Onthe federation. which for is matters, typical so substate to directly related powers Hence, units bein havepossibility to the representedupperhouse where areendowed with land commerce and reclamation. publicly-owned housing,firefightinglabor services, relations, insurance, social industry, health, public interest, national in the expropriation mines, banking, regional and local and fishing, agriculture and forestry. In addition, special statute regions have competence over aqueducts and public works of regional nature, lakenavigation quarries,and ports, hunting libraries, town planning, servicesroads, interest, tourism, transportation, regional of public charities, health hospital and services, vocational schools,training,museum aid to and fairlocal local boundaries, organization of offices, markets, police, and government regional are powers complementary Among region. each of situation and needs specific laws to national of adaptation for powerswhichallows legislative andintegrative legislation, national of framework the within legislating to limited is council regional in which powers legislative complementary have regions of types Both regions. of development free totally permit The system is somewhat based on direct control of theValle d’Aostawhich has only 1. central government, which 7senators with withinproportionally is of eachregion region; exception each granted elected does not are butSenators for elected directly Deputies 5years, are Deputies and a315-member Senate. of Chamber a 630-member into divided is which Parliament Italian the of constitution in bicameral the arereflected Regions bicameralism. of is politics theircan voice opinions the Yet, degree of shared ruleOne modest. isvery ofinstitutional devices which through units Ibidem,130-131. pp. Daniel J. Elazar, Federal Systems oftheWorld 59 60 - 30 - - …, p. 130.…, p. CEU eTD Collection 65 64 Minorities…, p.258. 63 April 5, 2011). http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf (accessed on 62 61 Bolzano. Region of Trentino-Alto Adige consists of the Autonomous Provinces of Trento and Trentino-Alto Adige is asymmetry inYet, visiblethere Constitution of which another the structure defines today’s Region. Concretely, statute. special a with regions five lists and regions to approach asymmetrical defends still point 2 of the ArticleNow, the position 116of South Tyrol is particularly special.explicitly Current Constitution, revised in 2001, says that the center. role atthe someto play significant hand, as does Italy a typical unitary state not provide regions anyinstitutional with channels with a specificAs mentioned aboveon basisthe package,the whichof included detailed operational calendar sequencingThe CurrentStatuteof Autonomy of events and steps for settlementguaranteed by is Constitution the theprovincial nottheregionalone, one. to be completed, within Italy and withinits special regional whichframework, is guaranteed by the As far as the structure is concerned, Trentino-Alto degree of even autonomy by Tyrol.enjoyed greater South Adige/Sütirolyear period andfurther was in revised 2001 through constitutional reform which allowed for represents a peculiar was autonomy anddrafted statute wasimplemented in approved This overa 1972. statute 20 case Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing…, p. 12. EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European Ugo M. Amoretti, “Italy. Political Institutions…, p. 188. Constitution oftheItalian Republic, 62 In this sense the system is unique because the level of the strongest political power available at 61 - 31 - - 65 125. 63 64 a new CEU eTD Collection 67 66 Regional Parliamentwhich is who byproportional composed 70 deputies, of are elected The statute. new the in role a crucial plays proportionality of principle the Additionally, toprovinces. transferred werealso to sectors these related offices and andleisure. Administrative sport healthcare, and schools, trade and commerce, apprenticeships, promotion industrialof production, hygiene in legislativeregarding andsecondary teaching powers provinces primary secondary obtained employment exchanges, andvocational andtraining. publicworks, Moreover, school welfare, buildings school schools, nursery mines, interest, provincial of transport and communications protection thecountryside, hotel and health forestry, public of trade, and the tourism welfare, and agriculture – Provinces the to transferred were factors socials and economic important Concretely, although Region the beingthe remained primary legislative power,all most levels State-Province wherethe relationship of government importance. gains as various Theit now provides final ahierarchycommunity between works order). structure agencies, credit institutions, charitable commerce, of chambers hospitals, services, health forinterest population in provinces both (municipal fireboundaries, land records, services, residual functionssince holdthey while the autonomous powers the region as suchis body with very few which respects, in certain regions to equal are Tyrol) (South Bolzano of Province and the of Trento cannot theProvince words, provincesother Region.the inbetween whichconstitute In resources two be transferredfinancial and powers administrative and legislative of devolution its is others from different toTrentino makes what However, regionsPresident. its and Government, the Assembly, the organs: or whichby is primary three Trentino governed statute, special regionswith other Constitution. Like are simply common Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… MelissaMagliana, The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 67 - 32 - - , p.11. …, pp. 48-49. 66 CEU eTD Collection 70 69 68 impossibleforgot Ladins to highestthe political posts. frequently formed avoided 4%of just andit Ladingroupwhich population practically was own form of andvotinggovernment system.last Third, measures wereconnected to decideforce Romecome andapproval in to provincesof wereableto both on their order into longer the needed no laws Tyrol Parliament of South the question. Second, into brought be cannot autonomy the that meant basically which Tyrol, South the of nature guaranteed in inConstitution First, its 2001.Law Article 2 recognizedinternationally Constitutional the and The by developed were its provisions 1972 statute Italian further revision of the the seek acoalition. itis to necessary always Therefore, sufficient is not in parliament majority the a regular means that In that practice, Parliament. the to create a governmentimportantly,must ethnic of reflect the The most Tyroleseproportions government South the if that majority term. half the of comes fromhalf. Seat of theonly assembly also switchesone between Bolzanolinguistic members of Italianthe languageand German groups andin orderfor theopposite the secondand Trento for the firstbe must andAssembly Regional second the of Vice-President and president the of positions the group.term (currently both provinces have 35delegates). In addition, during half the first 5-yearthe of census in measuresrecent most as the populations upon is their respective contingent province representing and of number The Bolzano. delegates between Trento is divided representation, Ibidem,12-13. p. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… MelissaMagliana, 68 The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol - 33 - - , p.12. 69 70 …, pp. 49-50. CEU eTD Collection 73 72 71 important each of foraccommodation certain in and role them played and provided negotiation the guarantees.South TyroleanStability2.3. of autonomythe region European Union. is ismainly theeach otherbasedcase or livinggroups in Tyrol liveSouth to inharmony, promote their culture, own beno threatto to Italianonwhere linguistic three for allow those to was autonomy new the of aim main the that say, to Needless state guaranteesandmultiple to a Region.create What was important was the change of attitude of the Italian state to its minorities. into Province the of elevation a or Region the bridgefrom up break obtain no did they though wanted, of betweenactors always they what of much statute autonomous new the in obtained Tyrolese South Basically, them on a lookedplatform of the for groups. to mediatethe between how instruments introduce and autonomy a provincial strengthen and regulate proper directly articles between levels Importantly,powers and of of different government ethnic most groups. the previous paragraphs, the statute includes variety of regulations dealing with distribution of isprotection only manyone issues of by As besettled statute. into mentioned in detail the minority and issue language that says clearly – Tyrol’ South of Protection the of Favor in Region and itsecond, also provides for protection the of minorities.the name Its –‘Measures institutions self-government ofprovince of the regulates andmeasures anddecentralized the In summary, the statute itself has now a double character of an instrument which first, Ibidem,1. p. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing as Conflict Resolution…, p. 13. The Plurality of Actors The Plurality 73 These aims were successfully accomplished. Theseaims weresuccessfully 71 - 34 - - , p.11. 72 CEU eTD Collection Minorities…, p.258. 76 75 74 EU). the and UN (the community international the of involvement negotiationfinal is beof a resultfurther done, because the outcome analysis needsto Atthis point, between of Justice. Court International Italy, the dispute wouldbe referred to any future that countries Both subsequently agreed Statute. Austria in was measuresAutonomous was vast) stated byimplementingvariety resolved of 1972 the and (which Treaty Paris the of implementation the over Italy South with dispute its that Nations United Tyrolputting the international intowork happenedguarantee in1992whenAustria declared tothe (concretelyof important act Another international guarantee. hard for a in 1946stands Peace Treaty Italian the to wasannexed which Treaty Paris the Furthermore, focused on province. directly SVP), as detailed guarantees such provides Autonomous Statute In addition, the special respect. with a Italianspecial Constitution above, revised Asnoted guarantees. these all Tyrol perceive we can of In theCase South offers direct guarantee to the Provincelegislation. other or constitution the of bepart can they and level, ofdomestic Bolzano to be treated or soft) or (hard international on can they work multilayered, be can guarantees In principle, with a agreed. institutions asitwas the willmaintain parties ensureconflict that in to essential order of institutional structures horizontal sharingand vertical power is powerdividing. and This particular role and impact on case. the impact on role and particular EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European Ibidem,25. p. Stefan Wolff, “Complex Power Sharing…, p. 24. 75 - 35 - - 76 Each of these actors had 74 CEU eTD Collection Minorities…, p.278. 79 78 77 mentioned betweenincreased cooperation neighboring regions. cross-border all above support Its Tyrol. South in development the on effect positive very a had has institutions.becould done within TheEUas in European the an international general actor region the evenfurther, asintegration European inof cooperation couldUnion go 1995the institutions.establishgiven anopportunity With Austria cross-border to of tothe accession environment of constructive cooperation and particularly German-speaking minority was Rome. and ledVienna between entirely werealmost negotiations the with leaders, Italian contact indirect had Tyroleans South AustriaIn other words, maintained continuously kindprotectorate province.over of the While resolutions. those andpassed domestic one, ‘Package’. The 1946 Agreement enabled the UN to consider the issue as international one, not no and resolution UN be no would there agreement, this Without fundamental. were Agreement Paris the namely involvement, Austrian of results all Consequently, government. andTyrol, South position the TyroleanswouldSouth of will dependonly on a good Italian of Italy led onlybetween were negotiations casethatthe In the interest. of butan international of matter not domestic politics was level, question the South Tyrol of were ledonabilateral Its effort served to bring the affair in the entirely differentsucceeded right asapowerful negotiator after WW2the in and1960s. and period the of 1950s realm. Importantly,Austria all, Above since autonomy. current the the of talks establishment inthe factor fundamental most the The role of Austria, as a kin-state which had interest in the situation of its minority, is perhaps Impact ofParticular Actors EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European Ibidem,128. p. MelissaMagliana, The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 77 - 36 - - 78 Cooperation of the two countries created two the of Cooperation …, pp. 127-8. 79 CEU eTD Collection 83 Minorities…, p.262. 82 81 80 population. self-determination. external generating alasting peaceful forsolution Souththe Tyrol question abandoning anyclaims to asacompromise in Package the contained provisions perceived autonomy the while other Treaty, of Paris by the content the self-determination to wasentitled German-speaking group was beginningat the of internallydisputes Somedivided. its of believed members that affiliation territory the manyto on which they resided for German-speaking group decades. strong felt though some of them state, the supported Italians was obvious. between groups A bitmore was complicated role itself of Provincethe the as division and mutual suspicion promote economical development of the area and has its own representation in Brussels. cooperation with Trento and the Austrian iscooperation platform The European established. calledtheEuroregion and encompasses countries. two between the thedivision reducing boundary a mere into administrative Italy was transformed Essentially, in 1997 environment the andmainlyregional development. transport, and inagriculture,initiative the Schengen Treaty programs far-reaching introducewas community international theprovinceas to tothe through adopted and the borderfrom EU the served tofoster beginnings. its the stability as This environment andwell growth betweenin participation Italian from Austria resulting Tyrol South for benefits were there but directly, Tyrol and The contribution of the EU (EC) is here undeniable. The EU did not play the role in South Jens Woelk, Francesco Palermo and Joseph Marko, eds., EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European Jens Woelk, Francesco Palermo and Joseph Marko, eds., MelissaMagliana, 81 When Austria joined the Union in 1995, an cooperationofficial could be The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 83 This option was finally chosen as appropriate by the majority finallymajority chosenasappropriate by This of option the was Bundesland - 37 - - of Tyrol. Thisjoint cooperation aims to Tolerance through Law Tolerance through Law …, pp. 132. …, p. 25. …, p. …, p. 24. …, p. 82 80 CEU eTD Collection 86 Minorities…, p.277. 85 84 whether thein society Tyrol South should move away maintainingfrom linguistic groups whethersuch first, is environment healthy in withand accordance legal and norms, second less national represent 1,5%of andless than territory. the than Italian 1 %of population was pointlessit arena, political in the voice their of influence is the so and others to for comparing small very is them to play on be a thepart of the Italian nation. This is the point all sameSouth Tyroleans agreed on. Since the region ground as Undoubtedly,Tyroleans South minority andGerman in particular, never considereditself to the other regions. South Tyroleans dominant society, without necessarily much interaction between them. between interaction much necessarily without society, dominant the alongside co-existing of societies parallel for creation allow They accommodation. multination of such arrangements of consequence is thisa classic that assumes Will Kymlicka of parallel societies that live next toeach other while having relatively little in common. tofriendlythreat shows Theenvironment. development thatethnic caused division emergence tolerance established bylaw, some whichof canbe point view form as regarded a serious also assures their identity disputeslinguistic will butwill within asystem which of groups different recognize equality. Therefore, all those accommodate to mission a difficultaccept hadto creators statute the end, In the the statute established and Parallel Societies Ethnic Tensions the system which is based on words, other German-speakers became largely isolated. Will Kymlicka, “Multiculturalism and Minority Rights…, p. 12. EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European Jens Woelk, Francesco Palermo and Joseph Marko, eds., - 38 - - Tolerance through 86 The questions are questions The Law…, p. 46. p. Law…, 85 84 In CEU eTD Collection 89 88 Minorities…, p.278. 87 contributionethnic languageto between tensions groups on basis of system proportional several decades and feltdiscriminated on basis the of being Italian.mean Thisis we what by maintained for lostAs their advantage aresult Italians be byGerman-speakers. occupied meaningalmost %of neededto 70 positions service (based that groups), language public on population. Sothe goal of proportional system toreflectwas actual inhabitantscomposition of State employeesIn effectspractice, of Mussolini’sold visible politics inwere even 1975whenonly13,9%of were of German or Ladin originitalianization employed similarthose to in and 1920s the 1930swould again. not occur although theyensure that andto groups Ladin-speaking assure German and protection of to in order composed 66,6among the others basis forin public the employment region.the Thissystem was established % of the and feelingItalian of discrimination. Thedisadvantage system is ethnical proportions of andparticularly thelanguagegroups between causedtensions system which proportional itthe was particularly implemented, system was the when beginning Atthe Tyrol.in South is apparent development certain a note should we tensions, ethnic on focus if we all, of First much more.with each other separation andmove promoting toward amultiethnic society, where the wouldgroups interact distinct goals clashing with goalsdistincteach other. clashingwith who society,disputesvisiblepursue the undesirable especially plurality throughout actors of important instability and autonomy caused us that should convince argument this particular Ibidem, MelissaMagliana, EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European p. 85. The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 87 - 39 - - …, p. 85. p. 88 89 and CEU eTD Collection 92 91 90 on spread its of separation social the politics cultural helpedand in party Tyrol to the South beginning its dominance on ofsociety and influence of SVPand sectors politicalthe andcivil very the since groups two the between ties any of development prevented state Italian The ethnic two groups. the of between representatives werecontested andinterests rights which in forum main the became arena political the and political largely became problem The to preserve the historic cultural unity of Tyrol. in order sustained been have must Tyrol North with relation close also and identity Tyrolese South indifferent in mustnever resultethnically in jeopardy, cooperation speakers arenot cooperation with Italian ethnic group is only possible if the cultural characteristics of German- each language group. SVPhas manifested its support for such separation, claiming that Statute. Since 1970scultural has education fallenpolicy, schooling and competence of under inthe byprovisions supported directly are say, results most of these the Needless that etc. to divided was strictly education the sector, in service wereemployed speakers German cities, in mainly resided Italians communities. language two the between developments general Originally, ethnic basedethnic rifts between the groups. Clearly, SVP did little to foster integration between groups.tensionsethnic within groups and to theensure elections. in of types all vote party they remain system thetraditionally favored SVP,which theWorldafter Wargained II. 90%of German andLadin majority wereof their onlyhomeland and followedsystem ethniclines.The groups Ladin-speaking purely German-speaking consequence– the factor ofEthnicbe used divisions very to visible especiallyinthe party system. decadesprevious In the the of the Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. MelissaMagliana, Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 90 Its objective has been development of the German and Ladin and German the of development been has objective Its - 40 - - 92 …, pp. 85-86. 128. 125. 91 CEU eTD Collection 94 93 it schooling also the is governs housing. anddistribution public controversy of that Now, and proportionality, of system on based is which employment public of distribution on effect important an has declaration This census. of time the at origin linguistic declare to obligation provisions indirectly in statute the such support division. One ofsuch provisions isthe tillnow,Old lesser even problem especiallybecauselinguistic though extend, persists to itturn resulted inincreasing isolation cultural of German-speakingthe itself. population preservation of German cultural hegemony in effectwas causing in alienation andItalians in This in. born were they place the to attachment close felt have might they although generations who were denied the right tofeel as South Tyrolese as their German counterparts, side as well. One of them caused many approach Italian Interestinglyon problems strict this German-speaking group. was identity of Italians Tyrolese South the of isolation incultural apartial hadresulted separation on ethnic Insisting who had been living in South Tyrol forselective. much alsovery was memory collective and history of Interpretation criteria. economic cohesion basisidentity linguisticand of ethnic (meaningalsoon and the andsocio- religious) intra-group andempowered three ethnic groups the of integration social comprehensive German forced assimilation side or on Italian prevented side. This environment on secession either of suspicion mutual of climate a persistent created factors All these now. relationshipmajor between two the This ethnicgroups. maintained ispolitics SVPleaders till 95 Ibidem, p. Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking in Community Italy…,126-127. pp. Ibidem, p. 93 94 127. 128. - 41 - - 95 CEU eTD Collection from from booming and stability Tyroleanof South economy and from usage of its natural benefits largely state Italian flourished. economy its and protection minority effective enjoys introducingfunctional a territorial establishingautonomy and cross-border cooperation. It South Tyrol is in general often regarded as a rare example of solving violent ethnic conflict by 2.4. support for SVP is still vast, all these changes may have a significant impact in future. 97 96 approach. party catch-all choose to wingstrived well,party because one as speakers, establishmentof exclusive Listand thereisLadin animportant challenge within the German- right-wing partiesrepresenting of radical Green Party,ethnocentric emergence founditself underthe facepressure andhadto severalchallenges: popularity inter-ethnic of SVP arena. political in a changes some already are there that show developments Recent first step – willingness to live together – has been already done. will be only on extentthe dependent which will to groups the be defendingtheiridentity. The autonomy of provisions all of implementation and groups between interaction successful The eachgroup. identity per of particular maintenance interaction assuring foster while public to inisTyrolean there ageneral effortSouth thecensus, concerning provisions Regardless the without distinction as to sex, race, language, religion and political belief. against Articlemixedlanguage this is Manyarguedthat chooseother or language. isnothere to possibility 3 of the Constitution which guarantees equality of rights for all citizens Stefan Wolff, "The German-Speaking Community in Italy…, p. Antony Alcock, “The South Tyrol Autonomy… Outcomes of Autonomy Outcomes - 42 - - , p.16. 125. 96 97 Although the Although CEU eTD Collection 99 Minorities…, p.277. 98 the State, South Tyrol does not have own police force or full financial autonomy), South is on still depended autonomy (itthe about current might be afewobjections Although there wealthy region. of the stability and in development interest common the found SVP, radical rather including parties, these all cooperation on the platform of the EU which fostered development Austria admission the itof increate Union tothe possiblemade official to 1995 cross-border of the region. In the end, unique evidence of successful involvement of the EU in minority protection in this sense. Yet, legislationthe impose and protection onminority handle to memberhow way the find to struggles EU the now Even states. Its approachmediate theable conflict. to not institutions whichwere newlyEuropean emerged approach is rather careful, As farin back astheEuropeaninstitutions areconcerned, it1950s was probablyearly so to South Tyrolese case is very each other. to be suspicious negotiation. some took It ended time that till up parties differenton sides in warstoppedto the allied, for suitable wasnot not countries WorldWarsituation when the two were after the II, conflict, suddenly cameisWhat puzzling isthereason why which parties, were previously involved in a dramatic to an agreement. The explanation mightmaintaining Italian creatingunity without conflict. bitter be quite simple. First,it and for between allowed groups itthe tension reduced potential living standards, the Also the autonomy led to successful preservation of South Tyrolese (German) identity, high for wholewhich the country.valuable are hydroelectric capacities especially its resources, Ibidem,278. p. EduardoJ. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, Autonomy “Territorial andNational European - 43 - - 99 98 CEU eTD Collection Minorities…, p.266. 101 100 was Package the Finally, Trentino. from separation complete demanded them many of and autonomy than less no for looked Tyroleans South hand, other the On homeland. their in Italian sovereignty over its territory and it would complicate the free movement of the citizens intention Tyrol of South granting a regional because this autonomy,forbewould a threat no Italyhadoriginally actors. different of representatives of agendas the account into if we take compromise, a remarkable is basically Package The face to conflict. way how the local through particular accommodation Therefore, is autonomy hereundoubtedly proper the Republic. Italian self-determination, which basically clashes with the state view of the territorial integrity of the land into its kin-state or at least the recognition of the right of the South Tyrolese people to the reincorporating of been aspiration hasalways there since circumstances, current under the option thebest arepossibly arrangements view. existing point The of casefrom a different the indeed certainhostilities ledto between look at we and suspicions groups, the should try to In addition, although we might be rather critical to creation of parallel societies, because they development. and evolution change, for room some is always there so autonomy, dynamic is a It finished. not is autonomy that fact the plays both the State and the province benefit from the situation. Needless to say, that the major Currently involved. parties the satisfies which of situation the andtheattainment for decades role main aim of this autonomy. Its success lies in the fact that it resolved the conflict which lasted Tyrol has other extensive powers which count. Plus itis necessary understandto what was the Eduardo J. Ruiz Vieytez, Markko Kallonen, “Territorial Autonomy and European National MelissaMagliana, 101 The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol - 44 - - 100 …, p.140. CEU eTD Collection 104 103 102 needs different within province. the lostits appeal. Groups respect one another to a greater extent and have understanding for their ithas considerably separation prevails, deliberate and animosities of previous andattitude the fully this they tool.Although groups are not settlementbyside integrated, live asapeace side participation and of Tyrolean all groups South their peaceful co-existence. official presents proportional practice system assure duringcensusesor isthefairest way proportional how to risks. Creationus certain maycost such accommodation Tyrol from that South learn weshould To conclude, of parallel societiesfurther development. for essential was clearly compromise this torture, of accusations in South and bomb attacks for arrests, characteristic point one was at Tyrol in South situation Tyrolself-governance. its from benefit can origin is their of regardless an example within Italian currently,the state, autonomyis the alsomeaning territorial, all inhabitants of such risk. populations both Ladin of the German-speaking and cultural the and development linguistic Perhaps ensure oftheagreedautonomywas andprotect In the to original purpose end,the although did not allow for autonomy for South Tyrol of their own. because it majority it asinsufficient by since anarrow approved wasperceived SVP, of only Ibidem, Ibidem,50. p. MelissaMagliana, p. 88. The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol 104 - 45 - - 102 …, 103 p. 133. p. Hence, given that the that given Hence, CEU eTD Collection economic background, ideological interest and distinct objectives. This opinion diversity has This diversity ideologicalopinion objectives. interest anddistinct economic background, National isaffiliation expressed inmultiple ways byvariety of diversegroups in socio- life. social and politics local denominates which nationalism of level high with nation In brief, the Basque case study can provide us with an example of accommodation statelessof which had several other limitations apart from the territorial one. of study this is,nevertheless, statute of the Community,autonomy BasqueAutonomous the of focus The statute. designed similarly a from benefit however, can, in Navarra living Basques Autonomous beneficial it Community. factforthe Basque of the was that residents only is limitations its of One severereservations. with it been hasbut accepted autonomy, financial and rights, includinglanguagereflected statute their democratic statute previous era.The a new beginningof yearsthe some agoat 30 autonomy current theirBasques obtained and inFrance. provinces three Navarra neighboring in lives Basques of number smaller addition, In population. original with mixed who of Spain, parts from other workers migrant of mass influx face has hadto region in Basqueterritory, the the economical developments the themselves beingBasques.Dueto Sex, 31-XII-2009.] 20, 2011). [Population of Basquethe Community Autonomous According Territories to and s_territoriales_y_sexo_31-XII-2009/tbl0003278_c.html#axzz1NGi6PE2m May (accessed on http://www.eustat.es/elementos/ele0003200/ti_Poblacion_de_la_CA_de_Euskadi_por_ambito Territoriales ySexo,31-XII-2009 105 inregion Northern inhabitedSpain by 2 169038 The Basque Country (officiallyBasque Autonomy Three:Chapter The the Basque Autonomous Community) is rather a smaller Instituto Vasco de Estadistica (EUSTAT), Vasco deEstadistica Instituto , available at - 46 - - Población delaC.A. deEuskadi porÁmbitos 105 people. Notall them of consider CEU eTD Collection Ariz.: Oryx 1998),p.81. Press, 106 distinctiveness Basquethe of its nation, values, culture and racial which purity have tobe nationalism,Basque to inreferredancient hiswork andhistorically origin proved language inEurope. toany is andlanguage other unrelated their includingis,however, Visigoths unknown or Castilians.groups Moors, Their Romans, origin various years of rule least andresisted for 1000 at in area the resided They western Pyrenees. the of sides both on area the of inhabitants long-established the are Basques Historically, cultural heritage. Their territory can be also understood in a wider or narrower context. livingcitizens language on a particular andmaintainingparticular territory, speaking certain refer and bemovements as tothem.can defined Basques groups nationalists unsatisfied aspects of originalthe Basque territory nation havebeand mentioned, to since many Although Autonomous in Basque autonomy Basque Community,all studies thesis the this the Basques and Territory Basque 3.1. of autonomy.currentaspects shouldeffects stabilizing explain us All those autonomies. of system in andregional current the state Spanish of the context Kingdom. complexity overviewwill the This inBasqueof reflect position thehistorical its history, first the paragraphs willbe evolutionto devoted of their in position the Spanish study.As Basquenationalistthe is in sentiment deeply rooted Basquesociety in the and also region.the Therefore,this internal opinionsof plurality willbe leitmotivthe of case this in and stability influencesit autonomy overall groups to particular of attitude the impact on David Levinson, Historical Developments in the Basque Territory Basque inthe Developments Historical Ethnic GroupsWorldwide:Ready A Reference Handbook - 47 - - 106 Sabino Arana, fatherArana, of Sabino (Phoenix, CEU eTD Collection Group, 1997),p. Group, 176. shouldbe anindependent into united instate their view. 110 2003), p.23. [Guide in for Orientation Basquethe Labyrinth] 109 Clareand Mar-Molinero Angel Smith 1996),eds. (Oxford: Berg, p.208. Nationalism andthe Nation in the Iberian Peninsula: Competing and Conflicting Identities 108 140. of Europe 107 Navarra. Lower and Soule Labourd, of Provinces French three the and community), (aseparated autonomous Community), BasqueAutonomous the and Navarra (Euskadi) Álava, still consists of provinces fourthe Spanish Vizcaya up Guipúzcoa, (making most liveSpain, Basque the innationalistsFor Basques though of Spain. the Basque Country Basque divided in by Country Francebetween was and border treaty 1512 a Franco-Spanish area of original the the certain difficulty. Geographically, geographical to Here wearegetting inprovinces France. zone in which itwas traditionally spoken. This includes provinces of Navarra and three language has neverits lost significance. Basqueis for them one the who speaks Euskera in the it authoritarian when was brutally rule, suppressed. immigrantsinflux Basque tothe of territories andlater during keptdeclining Franco’s its began Hereone spoken indeclineamass usage isthat after of troubles Western to Europe. component of Basque distinctiveness itisas language onlynon-Indo-European the still Basque nationalists frequently mention importance of language,the which is key the andcultural sharingcharacteristics. biological group of people certain nation here anation of inhisa preserved. Understanding non-territorial; was was perception Minority Rights Group, ed., Maria Onaindia, in Country," Basque inthe Multinationalism and "Bilingualism MacClancy, Jeremy Siobhan Harty, "The Basque Community in Spain," in , Karl Cordell and Stefan Wolff eds. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. Guía paraOrientarse enelLaberinto Vasco, 109 World Directory Minoritiesof - 48 - - 108 Nevertheless, for Basquenationalist Nevertheless, The Ethnopolitical EncyclopaediaThe Ethnopolitical (London: Minority Rights Minority (London: (Madrid: Temas de Hoy, 107 110 All those parts All those , CEU eTD Collection for their support of king’s opponent in the Carlist wars. In return, this further in restriction return, of theCarlist wars.In for opponentking’s support their side showed quite opposite tendency when Spanish Basques lost their lost Basques Spanish tendency when opposite side showedquite to the centralization bothof French and Spanish kingdoms. Yet the response from the Spanish appeareddue territories of reunification the and even self-determination fordemands Basque became moreBasque nationalism and moreapparentby endthe of 19 raised among Basque citizens asthey wished. were not taxed directly by the state. The three provinces were taxed an agreed sum which they 112 California p. Press, 1970), 58. 111 lawstaxes. from or general exemption of inhabitants incorporated only a certain area andlaws and granted whichmeantliberties called byspecialself-government charters whichwasguaranteed royal century. Needless sayto that even under Castilian rule, Basques still maintained abiglevel of Spain by incorporated of to of Province the Castileunder endof ahegemonicthe 12 power manifestations ofnationalismappearedwhen logically The first Basqueterritory was the influencing stabilizing of effects autonomy. isdirectly nationalism theintensity because of important is This especially nationalism. influence moments inhistory hadposition andstrength emergence ontheirof and the position beingIntheend a suppressedprivileges. they group. of Particularregained their old Throughout history the being moved from Basques position the aprivilegedgroup tothe of Basque Position in Spain Salvador de Madariaga, Salvador Vives, Vicens Jaime Approaches to theHistory of Spain Spain: AModernHistory 111 Concretely, - 49 - - 112 (New York:Praeger,1958), p.233. fueros (Berkeley: University of guaranteed Basque citizens they guaranteedBasquecitizens fueros asapunishment th century when century fueros. Fueros fueros. th CEU eTD Collection edited by Murray Forsyth (Leicester, England: Leicester University Press, 1989), p. 31. 116 747. [History of Spain] 113 autonomous statute before the civil war –the Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia. whichwereguaranteed regions historic three the demands of oriented nationalist satisfy and autonomy for provide to was idea original The plan. original the in changes of result independence.sovereignty, self-determination and full wasthe This demanded dissatisfaction regained theirlost autonomy, Basque nationalist rejected Spanish the Constitution, called for Basques Although started. transition ofdemocratic process the death Franco’s After the hadtowait theregimestill remained Basques till centralized. collapsed. hand-in-hand with moreliberal policies. This impliedless pressure on butregions, the country Certain liberalization came in 1960s when realizedFranco economicaldevelopmentgoes identity beforelocalBasques negotiated self-government culture, war. the civil or which suppressed ruleexpression hisauthoritarian in1975,established any 1939) till of which death long, because the Dictator Francisco Franco, who ruled the country since the civil war (1936 – negotiations as well, did notapprove the draft. in included whichwas because Navarra, provinces, threewestern the appliedto only of Role BasqueHomenegotiateStatute 1932 Draft autonomy as well.The were able to firstthe to gain Basqueautonomy ruleof leaders the under Second Republicthe (1931-1936), in later Under whowere BasquesmuchCatalans, stimulus regainedtheirprivileges of 1930s. emerged at that point. supported Basquethe gain wish moreto advanced autonomy and several movements political 115 114 around theWorld Audrey Brassloff, "Spain: The State of the Autonomies," in Minahan, James Antonio Ubieto Arteta, de Madariaga, Salvador (Westport, Conn.: (Westport, Press, p. Greenwood 2002), 286. Encyclopedia ofthe Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups 113 'Č Spain: AModernHistory jiny Špan Č lska (Prague:Nakladatelství Lidové Noviny, p. 1995), - 50 - - 114 Unfortunately, this autonomy did notlast for ..., p. 404. Federalism andNationalism 115 116 , CEU eTD Collection 118 117 third thespeediest route. autonomy through route ( ( route slow the guaranteed Constitution autonomy for all historic regions. The only wasdifference thatthe Article 143of the In theend led‘the fatherswere establish decided of constitution’ who byAdolfo to Suarez is no distinctiveness for Basques recognized they it,as andwished there arenosecond-class system.There autonomous inthecurrent accommodation symmetric basically which caused inincorporated laws, and other rests were the of visible Nevertheless, LOAPA remained itsclearly unconstitutionality. thecourt about Court, decided prospective When Basquesbefore broughtthis statuses. andCatalans law the Constitutional in agreed already powers the of some back claw to seeked which (LOAPA) Process Autonomous the of Harmonization Lawthe for Organic the creation of move was radical most Basques The statuses andCatalans. limitof negotiated to Government the attempted that was consequence Thelogical state. central the of disappearance fear virtual to the of started level of autonomy as was this of Basques and Catalans. At that point the central governmentsame the for looked basically them of All raised. Communities Autonomous other of claims finishedit (Basqueand Catalan)seemed is there noceiling on their regional and powers be to statuses first the since point, with that at sensitive very indeed Negotiations were their of distinctiveness. atrecognition who aimed as well as Catalans, with statute Basques, of listtime Thisindeeddissatisfied a similarcompetences. autonomous gained highdegree of butautonomy,in end the all couldregions in obtain certain of period Ibidem,34. p. Audrey Brassloff, "Spain:of TheState Autonomies…,the p.31. via rápida ) of of process autonomy mentionedgaining. The three regions gained via lenta 117 - 51 - - Thus, not only Basques, Catalans and Galicians ) and the fast Article the 151guaranteed 118 CEU eTD Collection May [Victims 25, 2011). ETA] of http://www.mir.es/DGRIS/Terrorismo_de_ETA/ultimas_victimas/p12b-esp.htm (accessed on 121 Indeed, the first task of the restored monarchy was to dismantle centralized system up dismantlesystem and set monarchy centralized was to firsttask of restored the Indeed, the outcome of of period the whichfollowed Franco’s democratic transition (1975-1978). death by ruledself-government, was settlementan theirprospective established as statuses. This own degreeof with biggerterritorial certain Communities),entities (Autonomous smaller or Autonomies) whichdivides Kingdom into Spanish the 17 120 119 inability rights, PNV toregain of those proceededwith bombing campaigns. asaresponse to identity dictatorship,suppression duringthe ofregional and partly and rights organization terrorist oriented resisted Franco’s dictatorship from itsexile continued fightfor greater autonomy. Marxist party)nationalist which the leadingBasque Party (PNV, BasqueNationalist The unsatisfied. Thus, regional the autonomy Basquesobtainedwhich in 1979 leftsome of Basques levels of responsibilities either in close or more distant future. and areas same obtain the to possibility got all becausethey may seem asit communities Nowadays, Basques are accommodated within Basquesareaccommodated Nowadays, 3.2. biggest number of victims (92)in ETA’s history. the year 1980 (which is the first year after the adoption of autonomy) is the year with the Gobiernode Interior, deEspaña –Ministerio Minority Rights Group, ed., Audrey Brassloff, "Spain:of TheState Autonomies…,the p.35. The Spanish Autonomous State Autonomous The Spanish Euskadi TaAskatasuna World Directory Minoritiesof - 52 - - Víctimas de ETA, a 121 Estado deAutonomias (ETA) which emerged as a response to whichemergedasaresponse (ETA) …, p. 176.…, p. 119 Comunidades Autonomas vailable at vailable (The State of 120 Interestingly, CEU eTD Collection stressed. is explicitly state unitary inthe of regions of role the importance and recognized is highly federation); self-government right second,(officially the isto not state Kingdom that unitary among them all. them among self-government of nationalitiesthe and regions of itiswhich composed and thesolidarity common homelandindivisible it and of all Spaniards; guarantees rightthe recognizes to and purely is “The says: Constitution basedon indissolublethe unity of SpanishNation,the the it configures. that It state definition of offerit not type any the of offer does us thisdefinition; The State of Autonomies is kind of a quasi-federal system, but the Constitution itself does not The Spanish Constitution regionsthe equally. all system, treats which state society the with part of Basque significantof disappointmenta (accessed on (accessedApril on 20, 2011). is in Spain end, the So suicidal.be politically wouldrevoke autonomies these to But protection. enjoy not full do mayas federation as itautonomies constitutional seem, regional because The Constitution Spain formallywhich system 1978 not established thecurrent constitute did chance for restoring their rights and for recognition of their distinctiveness. 124 Peterborough, Ont. (Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press, 2006), p. 19. 123 Monarchy 122 regions. country the for be would acceptable a system which Thomas O. Hueglin, Alan Fenna, Alan Hueglin, O. Thomas David Gilmour, de facto Spanish Constitution, a (London:Books, Quartet 1986), p.213. federation. 124 ” What kind of information those sentences give us? First, that the Spanish thatthe us?First, give sentences those information kindWhat of ” The Transformation The Transformation ofSpain: From Franco totheConstitutional 123 This note is important to mention to better understand final understand better to mention to important is note This vailable athttp://www.senado.es/constitu_i/indices/consti_ing.pdf Comparative Federalism: Comparative Inquiry Systematic A - 53 - - 122 Basques perceived this asa this perceived Basques . CEU eTD Collection Kramer and Hans-Peter Schneider 1999) Kramer eds.(Baden-Baden: andHans-Peter Nomos, the regionthe public for system, examplethe educational the administration, – the Usageof Basques). secondthe official language cangodeeplyin of structures institutional the language isfor Oneinstance forCatalanslocal such effects of and (important of usage the levels. ondifferent legal effects different causes accommodation asymmetric this As aresult, multinational reality in Spain. is a there means ineffect which Catalans), (Basques, others to than community own we can read it in the way that some peoples of Spain have“nationalities Articlethe back about and 2whichtalks nation,Spanish to consistingregions” greater sense of belonging to their go regions. If we ofdifferent aspects political and social cultural, specific recognize basically 127 Md.: Johns Hopkins University 2004),p.135.Press, and TerritorialFederalism Cleavages, 126 125 protection,and buttheir content scopevaries. In governments. sum, every regional enjoysgovernment thesamelevel of constitutional which refers to the existence of variety of levels of autonomy enjoyed by different regional Spanishthe system regional of autonomies providesfor asymmetrical distribution of power, that means fact Differential fact. differential a represents Constitution Spanish the that claim The biggest issue concerning the Constitution is its wording. From one point of view, one can made by Basques. There was no room for generalization from their point of view. resolveself-governmentlooked atit autonomy claims that principle the as essential to to of provided for regions. Basqueleaders nationalist understand the 1978 Constitution in way the approval, whichis absolutely Basqueagainst understanding of constitutional the arrangements fiveto be allstatuses ArticleConcretely, altered 148.2allows the yearsafter their primal Eliseo Aja, “Spain,” in “Spain,” Aja, Eliseo Pablo Beramendi,“Spain, Maiz, Ramon in Federalism Unfullfilled (1978-1996),” Audrey Brassloff, "Spain:of TheState Autonomies…,the p.35. Federalism andCivil Societies 127 Ugo M. Amoretti and Nancy Bermeo eds. (Baltimore, - 54 - - 126 The Constitution and statutes of autonomy of statutes and Constitution The : An International Symposium , p. 322. 125 , Jutta CEU eTD Collection 130 129 128 coordinateKingdom lets all Consequently, communities only Spanish to the autonomous scientific promotion safety of public research, culture.Spanish andof promotion taxation, property, intellectual on legislation and legislation civil justice, of administration defense foreign andthearmedforces,trade, the andtariff relations, customs regulations, international asylum, of right and aliens of status emigration, immigration, nationality, Furthermore, language,social hygiene.of and promotion assistance planningandhealth tourism, the Article local of theteaching and research and culture of promotion music observatories, and libraries 149 lists town and museums, country planning andhousing,promotion economicof development, the exclusive self-government, institutions of of the organization 148.Theyare: Article regions underthe powersall to of competences it range offers same the since symmetric, inis very The system the end of the Spanish state for look and themaximalof Basque distinctiveness. recognition as follows:use like for to been term would fullynationalists certainly the theiragreed. Basque purposes definition issue isnot nation,Spanish but nationalitiesof definition hasneverof which ever them. amongst equality for search the in regions the and government central autonomy and solidarity. unity, concepts: different laysthree down Constitution The importance. minor of basically The ambiguity are differences the is by fromnationalists, view,of preferred Yet pointBasque which another is the key to the problems that arosein Senate. between the institutions, debates of during suchas the local language particular inusage general State the can be mirrored fact even of differential this content Moreover, media. the or communications Ibidem,30-31. pp. Audrey Brassloff, "Spain:of TheState Autonomies…,the p.31. “Spain” Aja, Eliseo 128 … , p.323. - 55 - - 130 129 The biggest CEU eTD Collection work, foundationswork, andassociations, culture, scientific and technical cultural research, agriculture farming, andlivestock fishing hydraulic ininlandwaters, projects, social welfare Law, Civil Special and Regional Traditional, its develop elections, internal of organization rules on andcreate administration, local assuch government institutions of self-government, can its organize It them Constitution. the whichguarantees competences Community and Autonomous theBasque rules which autonomy territorial obtained Concretely, Basques influence with ofAranasignificant by defended other provinces.two the found a incommon route betweenforal defendedrights mainlybyÁlava socialism strong and itideological negotiated people andand inÁlava, claims Guipúzcoa Vizcaya with different if the possible was only of statute on autonomy the finalagreement the that fact stresses the This statute. whole the appears throughout as theysignificance isapparent historic territories focus of The population. the regardless territories historic of issamepereach three Parliament Basque Country] 136. [Institutional Organization of the Basque Country; In The Discourse of Change in the Cambio enelPais Vasco 132 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's p.University 2005), 329. Press, 131 Governmentand Presidentor the inviolable, is which Parliament its through exercised are powers Community’s Autonomous Basque area. The rules territorial form that particular a constitution of a has which autonomy of statute its has region each Constitution, in the provisions on Based The Statute of Autonomous the Basque Country important state functions. some of environmental it butallowtheir cultural or elements, didnot for sharing of most the Emilio Guevara Saleta, "La Organizacion Institucional de Euskadi," in Siobhán Harty, “Spain” in , Cuidadania y ed.Libertad (Vitoria: Cuidadania y 2009)Libertad, p. 131 Handbook of FederalHandbook ofCountries, 2005 Lehendekari - 56 - - . Interestingly the number of deputies to the to of deputies number the . Interestingly , Ann L. Griffiths ed. 132 El Discursode CEU eTD Collection 135 134 May 21, 2011). (accessed on 448/en/contenidos/informacion/estatuto_guernica/en_455/adjuntos/estatu_i.pdf http://www.basques.euskadi.net/t32- 133 nationalist wings).of language, (includingBasque radicaland moderate Theycan theiruse amount big a dissatisfies which communities, other the like rights of level same the basically obtained end inthe Community Autonomous Basque in the living Basques Communities. Autonomous other with in comparison perceive wecan only arethe differences far,those So Country. Basque in the development economical successful for essential is absolutely arrangement This raising powers than are those of the 15 other communities, which have the common regime. historic rightsSecond, theBasque Country by aswellobtainedand of Navarra virtue theirthe previous ( during Francoism. mistreatmentof mainly occasionsBasque citizens of by whichoccurred police corps, central siege. alarm or state the casesof special in forces only arecommanded police corps by only Basque andcan Government by bedirected the state the whichForces protectare supposedtopersons andproperty on autonomousthe territory. These arrangements. First, the Basque Autonomous Community has its own Autonomous Police special two enjoy Basques theConstitution, provisionsguarantees which those to In addition in its statute proper stated of competencies autonomy. other and development community sports, and tourism systems, transport territory, inland of industry,internalof institutions, planning activity, and economic development planning trade, Audrey Audrey Brassloff, "Spain:of TheState Autonomies…,the p.35. Ibidem. The Statuteof of Autonomy theBasqueCountry, a fueros ) a special favorable financial regime which gives them wider tax- wider them gives which regime financial favorable a special ) - 57 - - vailable at vailable 133 134 This particular provision reflects on 135 CEU eTD Collection 136 against ETA. ETA, 10 % agrees with Basque publicfully supports only%of current 1 Euskobarometro same.Accordingthe to its aims but not remains public in Basque the terrorism towards position the note that to withisit important Here, its way of pursuing them and 64 % ismajority of Basques consideredfully ETA as harmful to Basque interests. violence during1980sin a disappointingresponse to autonomous statute. Atthatpoint biggest becauseimportant the reachedthepeakof is itsETA This violentactivities. opposed ETA and pointthat supported Basques 77%of Basques at them said yes.Also8 %of only wereBasques asked life if believed autonomy improved inthey the country, Basque 65%of hand, independence. more or when On other the autonomy arrangements and 42 %preferred autonomy current approval only population statute the of 43 % of Basque the supported shortly byIn after 1982, thusindefinite. society was statute of Basque the The acceptance the Constitution. this would be againstprinciple indissoluble of unity nationof Spanish stated in the which manifests their distinctiveness, but the distinctiveness is not officially recognized, since 137 Conflicting Rights arrangements. probably radicallynot effectsof improve autonomous make fight against not terrorism morethe anti-system will region the andplayer; stable will ETAislack words, an autonomy. to of stabilizing basically other related effectcurrent of In be andcannot itstatute also, current the with serve asa of dissatisfaction proof cannot attacks Opinion] mid=114 (accessedonMay 2011). [Euskobarometro. TheStudy 25, on Basquethe Public http://alweb.ehu.es/euskobarometro/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=78&Ite Vasca. Mayo 2009,a Hurst Hannum, Hurst Universidad del País Vasco, 137 Therefore, as the support for ETA is minimal, their presence and bomb and presence their minimal, is ETA for support as the Therefore, (Philadelphia: University Pennsylvaniaof Press,1996),p. 275. Autonomy, Sovereignty,and Self-Determination: TheAccommodationof vailable at vailable Euskobarometro. Periódico Estudio delaOpinion Pública - 58 - - 136 CEU eTD Collection Michael Keating eds. (Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge,2006),p.241. Integration," in 138 well as the stratification in different territories. All those ideological affiliations and cleavages as role, certain plays also voters right-wing and left-wing between division political Classical and is another division supporters. In autonomy betweenseparatists that, with connection supportinginto group the ideas favoring nationalist group and the monarchist more approach. The manybe sides. Wecan plurality from of perceived society can opinions Basque divide Internal BasquePlurality effects. stabilizing limited only now for has further problems Basqueautonomy perhaps and analysisanswerusthequestion why can the indirect.only This internal of in plurality Basquesociety the opinions is keyBasque the to is actors external of impact actors; internal more much involves It case. Tyrolean South in the we perceived from plurality the is very different Country in Basque the of actors The Plurality 3.3. very problematic. nation.And finally,internal ideological makethe disputes agreement with state Spanish the hierarchical relation in which Basquethe nationality is justacomponent of Spanishthe indissoluble unity Spanishthe of nation. This provokesBasque nationalists sinceitimplies the within only but regions, and nationalities the to autonomy guarantees which Constitution the of wording in the lies It oriented. security than ideological rather still is problem The GurutzJauregui, "BasqueNationalism: Sovereignty, Independence andEuropean The Plurality of Actors The Plurality European Integration andtheNationalities Question 138 - 59 - - , John McGarry and CEU eTD Collection 139 such aims. beenhas one of Basque language the Basque public regarding aims andstrategies topursuethem. how example, For revival the of instability, is through particular examples. First of all, there are different expressionsThe best way how todemonstrate internal plurality among Basques, is which causingmain amongst Basques. among consensus and highly influential. Thismeans there is no probability of compromise and alack of visible still is tendency separatist reform, certain for wish perhaps or solutions, autonomist of diversity in amongopinions the survey Basques. Although shows slightly more supportfor autonomy. dissatisfiedcurrent with % were and only 22 content % of autonomy,them 30 weretotally with current content were partially and independence.% of federative settlement only Importantly, 42 24 %supported Basques seea rather autonomy,29 %would supported 40 %of respondents Yet approach. nationalist study that 43 % feltof respondents beingnationalist,while 51%werenotsupporting wecan inTo bemore survey concrete ledby the present According to 2008. Euskobarometro territory, distinctiveness, orreform of the Statute and the Constitution. languagepresented inthe andBasque Basque politics Basque identity, – self-determination, fragmentation cause ahugeonbasic and the concepts of opinions society the of plurality (Oxford: Berg,1996),p. 230. in Peninsula: Competing andConflicting Identities Institutionalisation," and Conflict Social 140 Euskera as a fundamental element of Basque identity. The problem is that the national identity at looks ETA differs. strategy their poles, opposite the on stand ideologically actors these because But force. political Basque leading time the of most for was which well, as PNV Universidad del País Vasco, Benjamin Tejerina Montana, "Language and Basque Nationalism: Collective Identity, Collective Nationalism: and Basque "Language Montana, Benjamin Tejerina Euskobarometro... Nationalism andtheNation in the Iberian 139 - 60 - - This survey gives aboutas higha picture level , Clare Mar-Molinero and Angel Smith eds. 140 The same is by andby aim pursued ETA CEU eTD Collection 142 141 right tovoice their Basque opinion about the self-determination? historichappensif has territories opinion? Andfinally one of have different do Spaniards What havebe they recognized? areaand separately should particular justfor thus, votes value Autonomous dotheirideologically different Community Basque areas inalso or the divided meant to be for all provinces self-determination Is conditions? are the What are: of questions The interpretation. different Euskadi, or for Navarra and French for look groups –different Basques internal among are Second,there state. disparities provinces as well? Are document primarily becauseprovided by Constitution.the Needless say, to this that rightfirst,is,not recognized inthe one of its aims is to prevent isself-determination Another right big interpretation to whichisnot over of the dispute any attempts to dissolution of the helped increase of thepercentage considerably to Basque speakers. language which network establishedof academiescalledHABE, the local government independently aims.on their political Basques got backtheir Once in1979, the autonomy defendedliteracy increasing of among Basquecitizensin theiroriginal mother tongue On the other hand, PNV governments (current governments follows them) traditionally example by achieving establishment of a politically Euskadi.independent whichpolitical structure guarantees persistencethe language of identity, and national for expressit and develop. for Consequently, ETA it is only attainpossible its to objectives in a actually to prevents Basques ETA to which according of is context a wider part of Basques Jeremy MacClancy, "Bilingualism and Multinationalism…, p.212. Benjamin Montana,Tejerina "Language and Nationalism…, Basque p.224. - 61 - - 142 141 CEU eTD Collection [The Problem is in the Left; In The Discourse of Change in the Basque Country] en elPaisVasco 144 Autonomy; The In Discourse of Change in Basquethe Country] Cuidadania y ed. Libertad (Vitoria: Cuidadania yLibertad, 2009), p. 23.[The Value of 143 towards autonomy. influence,with state a general andtherefore,less theiris program radical andsupportive nationalista is also HB orientation. partyChristian-democrat but centre-right-wing with party withnationalist is PNV clear left-wingexample, For affinity. right-wing or left-wing their to Marxistaccording and preference autonomist orientation. PP and and their nationalist to according local parties Basque PSOEof spectrum the divide Thus, wecan are both parties orientation. a Marxist with populism Batasuna liberal ideas, (HB) and Herri andETA Party (PP) social-democratic Popular democratic ideology, Spanish values,the Party Socialist (PSOE) which Basques any need negotiate to inchanges their autonomy. Christian- PNVrepresents with of State the in front Basquesociety fragmented to represent government for the hard This meansis it hardfor each in gain majority them local to of important iselections and it public. Basque isthe Sodivided other. from each away arefar streams, which ideological many Basque of which differentabout.politicalarenaconsists cleavages wetalked represent parties, political diverse discuss we if pluralism Basque the into insight a better get can We Political Partiesand Elections Results accommodation. aprovisional means autonomy nationalists, for especially system itself is very dynamic and leaves opportunity for changes to be made. Therefore, Those are only some of the questions which need to be answered. Needless to say, that the Eduardo Uriarte Romero, "El Problema Esta En La Izquierda," in Antonio Rivera, "El Valor de Autonomismo," in 144 , Cuidadania y Liberatad ed.(Vitoria: Cuidadania y 2009),p.Libertad, 36. - 62 - - El Discurso deCambioen elPais Vasco El Discurso de Cambio 143 , CEU eTD Collection (London: Routledge,p. 1990), 110. 147 146 Social of Panorama BasqueAutonomousthe Community] Universidad EUSTAT DeDeusto, and GobiernoVasco, 2000),pp. 587-588. [Politics; In Euskadi % of voters traditionallyin 60 InGuipúzcoaaround isvery historicbehavioreach of territories. three different which vote for nationalist voting parties,influences and the complexity whatelevates from each other very distant ideologically in Bizcaia it is 53What % and in Álava itdoes is this political % of invotes regional andelections itis especiallypopular amongyoung voters. inin 15 banned constantly itin 2002 called KAS.Before expressed its received program was overview independent were also including andabout the Basque French provinces Navarra Country say? Certainly, it shows that party affiliations are 145 them. against nation Basque asawarof the state Spanish to the in meaning independency determination and it sense, classical perceives relationship the the of ETA and ETA also shares animosity toward autonomous system. Its objective is self- terrorist strategy supports Batasunapublicly itsstrategy. secessionistHB isvery about open secession. of and possibility statute autonomy on positions its radical (EA), whichfrom separated PNV in 1986 during its internal ismorecrisis, characteristic for Askatasuna Euskar Ibarretxe. attempted once as changes, constitutional and state Spanish talks about secession. Itnever however, its of members.Theofficial program, in andspeeches rhetoric a particular is rather about greater holdsautonomy,quo status and only someits of have wings slight tendencies, separatist whichis visible modificationit. PNV areagainst parties all nationalist not is concerned, question As farasthe autonomy of relationship with Jean Grugel, "The Basques," in Ibidem,588. p. Francisco J. Llera Ramo, "Politica," in , EUSTAT - Instituto Vasco De Estadistica ed. (Vitoria: Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Contemporary MinorityNationalism Panorama SocialdelaComunidad Autonoma De - 63 - - 146 145 HB’s separatists visions HB’sseparatists , Michael Watson Watson ed. , Michael 147 CEU eTD Collection 150 149 148 supportedof nationalistBasque voters Till supportfor parties. momentthis them was only forof parties general support PP, UA,state (PSOE, by IU) endof the 1990s. In1986 67,6 % for parties allnationalistandincrease aslightdecrease of statisticsshow Indeed, the support party. leading Basque of the with performance dissatisfaction rather reflects It radical solutions (secession) or dissatisfaction with and lack of stabilizing effect of autonomy. for ornon-support support of time in reflects certain decreaseof periods votes the argue, that and adeepcrisis firstin the caused (not in history)For time its 1986. wecannot reason, this Autonomous Community. All the symbols of the partyconstituted the BasqueCountry. coalitions 1986when till Government periodthe of It started. – flag, anthem, emblem notthus, included for first the – time inhistory. PNVheld avery special inwereposition the Basque converted into symbols involvesandBasque regionalparty was, oldest PSOE PP.PNV,the The currentgovernment of the were establishedgovernments by coalitions. leading since1986all of was role for 1980-1986period characteristic PNV; periods: consequently,it influenceshighly which behavior electoral can be dividedinto different two and parties between relationship of establishment self-government, to difficulties brings this All actions. terrorist program its in legitimates which HB, like parties anti-system of existence and nationalist element supports clearly arena political in alocal The polarization is PSOE supported throughout wholethe areaindependently a historicon territory. only 40 %. PNV is traditionally supported the most in Bizcaia, PP in Álava, EA in Guipúzcoa. Maria Onaindia, Ibidem,578. p. Francisco J. Llera Ramo, "Politica..., pp. 592-605. Guía Para Orientarse 150 But party the itself isfragmented very which itsaffected strength ..., p. 149 - 64 - - 63. 148 CEU eTD Collection concretely it proposed a confederal relation instead of a federal insteadof BasqueCountry. a the for one a federal confederal relation itconcretely proposed government, autonomous of system the in change a profound for asked directly Ibarretxe) 151 called So Constitution. At beginningof the 21 the stands TheState see like Basques representatives. constitution, behindits changes. to would avery Yet, between the clashisand crucial Government Spanish official Basque Relation between andtheBasques State isPerhaps thereasonwhy this so manyyoungsupport radical tend people to parties. crisis. the resolve to parties ability of their regional about very skeptic are themselves citizens Unfortunately, together. work Basque to parties nationalist ability of on Basque dependent The trend stays the1998 itwas already 44,8 %. same evenin parties, Spanish Basque electedbigcatch-all % of In 32 1986 only parties support. gained in the On 1998 elections nationalist %of hand, gainedvotes. parties other the only53,9 all general 21 In Basques wasdamaged. represent ability to their and in nationalist parties parties. Trust toradical performed madethesupport by less public a variety ETA give bomb of attacks Also fragmentized. more afterspectrum inbecame thecrisis but political PNV the increasing, 152 Resultados Provinciales. parties. for1 seats 13forfor PPand asfollows: other distributed PNV,24for PSOE, 4 to 30seats the seatswere (2009) regional parliament lastelections In to the Basque Parliament. in the seats of majority a achieve to party any for is difficult it means which fragmented Gobierno Vasco –Departamento de Interior, Siobhan Harty, "The Basque Community in Spain…, p. 149. 151 Some scholars conclude that the resolution of the Basque conflict is simply conflict Basque the of resolution the that conclude Some scholars Plan Ibarretxe [Elections totheBasque 1-3-2009. ParliamentProvincial Results.] st century there was a very important attempt to change the change to attempt important very a was there century (the Ibarretxe Plan – called after the - 65 - - st century. The Basque party century. The Basqueis environmentparty Elecciones alParlamiento Vasco1-3-2009. lehendekari 152 Juan CEU eTD Collection recognition recognition of Basquethe nation in international the and European community. simplify would and that nation-states in weaken union the would states the of integration the that considered they since PNV, especially pro-European, very always been have nationalists Basque integration. European the about led been have discussions finally, And Relation between andthe Basques European Union focuses onthesecurity dimension of conflictthe in Euskadi. wanthear them not about and to does theSpanish Basquegovernment Country.turn In 155 154 153 of Basquenation. determination the self- and sovereignty around questions risen has it But relation. international or system monetary the forces, andarmed defense nationality, Spanish to arerelated which competences in between federalism and confederalism. Itallowed the state to maintain a series of important somewhere freewasbasically of association concept level the ahigh autonomy; established of itindependence,lead not it to did Although for central government. the still unacceptable In the end this plan was not a proposal for secession in the classic understanding, aright futuredecide andtherefore, own toself-determination. but it was havepeople Hence,Basquesasadistinct right BasqueCountry. to historical area of the with peoplethe its of Europe distinct in situated patrimony all seven provinces constituting identity in itsa people Basque stated with own among the that Country constitutes plan the Ibarretxe state. asymmetric and a multinational to be comparable would which association, free based ona Spanishstate the to a new model relationship of referred to The text Ibidem,253. p. Ibidem,244-245. pp. GurutzJauregui,244. "BasqueNationalism…, p. 154 Those topics are indeed on the top of agenda in the - 66 - - 153 155 CEU eTD Collection 157 156 own public administration with decision-making capacity special financial and arrangements. with variety of competenceshave identity political organs waspreviouslyof suppressed. Basquesgained which Basque which allow recovery in the instrument them effective be an to out turned toAutonomy Spain. develop and Country Basque own policies. The regionCountry. Surely it diffused many of the problemshas that had impact on relationships its between the on Basque the positive effects stabilizing had indeedcertain Autonomiesof The State 3.4. claims. nationalists’ the of radicalization the favors currently question regional the by EUto the offered positionin so endthe it abstained. Consequently, we can concludeabsence that of solutions maintainnot inany clear did European during referendum the Constitution 2005. PNV – politicalEA, ETAand actors against HB–havevote announced approval their the of the constitutional text intheEuropean reflected not was regions of and reality so the states member the politics of in accordance with to internal aresubject matters regional that Basque maintained EUhastraditionally the Nevertheless, wishes. That is why the most radical of Basqueclaimsby recognition the the directed towards Europe. Basque surprisingly, defendedpro-European position bynationalistbodies in parties hasbeen those and the Congressdeveloped a leading role Whenin joinedSpain thein EU 1986, aBasque indelegation Brussels was established andit the Committeeof Local of Regions, the Assemblyand of EuropeanRegional Regions Authorities of the Council of Europe. Not Ibidem,256. p. GurutzJauregui,254. "BasqueNationalism…, p. Outcomes of Autonomy Outcomes 157 - 67 - - 156 CEU eTD Collection 161 160 159 158 at level look the of nationalists self-government success. Peripheral indicator integrity of as territorial of state’s the maintenance elites perceive State far each other. so from away measuredbe view, viewsfrom becausea multiple only Basquecase pointarein those of the Yet from point another view,of stabilizingand effectdestabilizing of Basque autonomy can Autonomy. Republic,Francoism during andfinally within Constitution the and the Statute of history: during Carlist wars,during dictatorship the of Primode Rivera,during Second the Basques in to occurred that limitations alwaysseeonly Basques will certain part of Here, impossible. secede practically andattempts to of distinctiveness autonomy,butitalso talks indissoluble aboutthe unity makesSpain,of which any recognition idea of the supports It self-determination. to right of the permit exercise not the does still Constitution the and rules same the following exist continues autonomies of system The the autonomy is notfully ableget to rid of tensions between Spain and the Basque Country. Externally, tensed. someextend arestill to statute present with the less satisfied more or are who those and autonomy current of modification seek who those independence, for look who the BasqueInternally, society fractured and remains betweenthose and divided relationships problems. internal own face to obliged between within Euskadiand conflicts have Spain, been Basquesociety rooted and is now this were previously external,as dimensions.proper Many thatasexclusively perceived conflicts in their conflicts all resolve to Basques for possible its makes autonomy importantly, And Maria Onaindia, Ibidem,242. p. Ibidem,242. p. GurutzJauregui,242. "BasqueNationalism…, p. 161 Guía Para Orientarse 158 ..., p. - 68 - - 248. 160 159 CEU eTD Collection 164 163 162 is basedfurther platform forautonomy though solution developments, on a very tangible isConsequently, already which there some be kindof agreement, can usedas a suitable a very important role of a platform, where the lack of consensus rules the politics. environmentand continuity basicof consensuses among Basques.In sensethis the hasstatute guarantees democratic Basques. It among internal pact as an and restof the Spain and asapactbetween Basques is represented frequently ideas. its Thestatute core agreed on actors political allthe achieve when to wasonly possible statute the say,that to Needless situation which allows for continuity for each of actors in the game. political the reach to help they because important are they but everybody, unsatisfied leave which intermezzos such needs plurality, its for typical region, the And demands. antagonistic those who wanted to gain much more. Basically, the autonomy manages to accommodate very wanted lessand who those satisfied which provisionally intermezzo seenas a kindrather of It is from farother. each areso ideas away in whose game the actors several for compromise is no perceived by there isnot since Basques asacompromise, In end,the autonomy the stabilizing now, may not work tomorrow. that the current system avoided the temptation to revert to one of the extremes. But whatis conflict successbein thus,the fact can the perceived wheregroups each other, both points which is for them and acceptable whichoverlaps with Obviously,their demands. are there Ibidem,29. p. Antonio Rivera, "El Valor deAutonomismo..., p. 28. Yash Ghai, ed., Autonomy and Ethnicity 162 …, p. 137. p. …, - 69 - - 163 164 CEU eTD Collection 165 changeable. That is precisely why the responsibility of political actors is so high. still is it and norm a rigid not was document final the that important was It terms. legal many Antonio Rivera, "El Valor deAutonomismo..., p. 27. - 70 - - 165 CEU eTD Collection certain stabilization. certain led to undoubtedly autonomy cases two territorial in our In region the concern. of stabilization convince all countries to apply the model of territorial autonomy, because it leads to overall should secession.ease silencenationalism basically tensions, ethnic This andargument avoid to autonomy of is ability authors of variety by mentioned arguments visible very of one First, going to be central to this conclusion. cases is of two the comparison The examples. from our take we can lessons and implications particular consult framework, theoretical the them connectwith now cases, wecan opinions was essential basis many sothey from universalits cases, applicability.refrained overviewscholars’ of This for the following casedangerous effectstudies. of ‘Balkanization.’ Autonomy in theirview couldAfter cause a lot of damage in a careful manyYet, indicated authors their worries aboutdestabilizing of effects autonomy and the analysis of both compromise. a basically is conclude they agreement the so satisfied, fully not minority) and (state sides both leaves it Usually minority. particular the for statehood new a creating without tensions ethnic ease to able is claimed, they Autonomy, conflict. ethnic for characteristic regions on pointed at the flexibility of autonomy when itis applied and its ability haveto a positive effect Authors of autonomy. territorial anddisadvantages advantages effects, of scholars regarding assumptions few important listed a adebatewhich presented thesis the I of beginning Atthe Conclusion - 71 - - CEU eTD Collection toward the solution somewhere between independence and current arrangements. Autonomy and thesolution independence somewhere current toward between presentinstability in Inaddition,number abig causing theregion. ofBasquesissupportive still are they minority, in are views radical those though Even ideology. their and parties nationalist radical supporting simplycontinue of Basque society will Certain disappear. part significant number of Basques. Nationalist proclamations and secessionist tendencies notdid Autonomy is in this case Thisother. noenvironment ofmutual misunderstandings isnot suitable for any negotiations. compromise; from each fair away are aims buttheir simply different, are there isnot that It parties. political it is just programs of public soare come remains divided, one consensus. Basque inability to The to intermezzo their on is dependent which frustration, their overcoming from away far still however, which does regime that Basquesnot gained. Autonomy in the end fostered stability in the region.satisfy Basques are, financial particular especially region, in the development economical supported clearly a some andautonomy hasdisappointment beento appeared.Thefirst degreediffused statute theautonomous about even whenfirstdisappointment era of dictatorship or the during 1980s autonomy.situation in current The Basquethe isCountry notastensed as itwas the during of effects stabilizing of implementation slow very hand,shows other the on Basque case, agenda. noton the are tendencies irredentist andthe other each with interact to way the areon societies parallel settled, arealmost groups linguistic between between all actors which wasbasically a compromise statute The implemented. besuccessfully concerns will those was tailored exactly for system Southof proportionality linguisticand careful provisions itassurethat made possible to Tyrolean purposes. The ofall concerns parties. properly reflected finally which of Autonomy, Statute Second Ethnic tensions Starting with South Tyrol, the stabilizing effects appeared only after implementation of the - 72 - - CEU eTD Collection minorities are not allied. Allied relations were also prerequisite for settling the conflict in conflict for the settling prerequisite were also allied. relations Allied arenot minorities is that infact, counter-argument probably countries the whichare concerning the conflict main The theory. this confirm not do however, countries, CEE struggle. rights minority to comes it when better is minority kin-state a of position that sight, first the on seems leftfor alone. their It outside rights ofthe inlack actor Basques fighting theBasqueCountry whereas negotiations, following all favored minority kin-state of position the Tyrol, South In cases. our two issue the through wecananalyze minorities, state minoritiesmostminorities. arekin- of Knowing the in sake of that of Europe present this part accepted with a big enthusiasm.in all cases? In most of CEE countries Statesthe application of territorial autonomyare model is notnot willingThis leads to us giveto a general up someapplicability of its ofpowers those assumptions. in the Does a similar if it was possible. their kin-state, scenariowith prefer reunification appear end the in probably would Tyrolese South German-speaking Even dissatisfied. minorities leave always will it whereas lands, its on stability foster to in order powers its of some whichsatisfy mainly State the is its concerned about is territory andgive usually willing to up more always will which a tool, is it seems It integrity. territorial its and state the favoring asymmetry in the is SpanishKingdom.In relation to undeniably sense,autonomy this and Italian the inbig limited only asymmetry to regionalization caused relation State though countries, both of unity the preserved successfully autonomy that doubt without is it Second, its limits. reaches of autonomy application Here toviews of government. central the opposite is totally which relation, confederal of establishment and distinctiveness of recognition because theyrequire arguments, silence usingstrong theseopinions to is currently unable - 73 - - CEU eTD Collection made it possible to implementmade it whichchanges inless to possible years than 20 inthesecondstatute, was disappointment, butfurther pressureAustria of andinvolvementof international community brought statute first The War II. World the after a democratic platform develop on to started This brings us rolethe to of sequencing. Comparing development the in cases, our Italy be keep to trying find to aconsensus among themselves. might forbe BasqueCountry the acircle. only solution to Hence,itseems The whole group. asa them clearly aimsandagreeson defines its national substate group meaning the that isreached; consensus long internal as assome canbesuccessful only actor international of minorities recognized byinternational Plus,documents. anyinvolvement of other to self-government. Involvementwould be only if possible Spain notrespect did basic rights butits involvementis also limited toviolation humanof ordenialrights for reasonable claim intervene, willing not to is notonly community case theinternational In such domestic issue. is becauseinvolvement French agendathe on not all. at problemremainsbeinglargely The between not countries, is in solve internal Country two the Theproblem disputes. Basque not however, would, Country Basque the in intervention deeper Its allied. not previously were that states member EU two between cooperation fostered definitely Tyrol in South EU the of the Basque region. Any intervention is dependent on variety of factors. For example, presence inintervention of presence and actors other lead stability Basque Country tothe the would in would take on the role of protector, this would ease their situation. Also we cannotexpect that which hadifa kin-state Basques claim that case, wecannot Basque the gettingback to Yet, negotiations. final have begun could parties the countries, both for benefits and perceived agreement South Tyrol. Austria Onlyafter and mutual of Italy get rid suspicions and foundacommon - 74 - - CEU eTD Collection state’s will and on variety of other factors. It is not universally applicable to all cases. Where all cases. to applicable universally not is It factors. other of variety on and will state’s hand,other is confirms abig limitation largely simplyof autonomy.It a tool, on dependent which notfinished.are Thereis roomfor changes, but onlyif permit all actors it. This, on the Here autonomy shows its flexibility. In both cases we came across dynamic autonomies autonomy for negotiate theirsuccessfully tailored purposes. consensus and presentthemselves a as coherentwithgroup clear aim, in future they might change if levelof the from increases.pressure regions Inotherwords,if find certain Basques from Spanishside change The any theirviewandnegotiate the to might attitude progress. effort little is very there it. Atpresent ittreats assuch and problem asasecurity case mainly impact on the Basque indirect viewthe which continuously State of Spanish perceives the is many We This attitude on can ETA dependent hasfactors. an undoubtedly that claim only if attitude the of Spanishthe Kingdom allows it. but changes, for be room might there and finished not however, is, system The state. federal a of organization the to similar position, equal accept their have to nationalities and regions all dynamic, are autonomies all Although nations. substate its for compromises any allow conclusions. Currently Spanish the system autonomous isit designed inthe notdoes way that early for any is ittoo that can argue we Basically, new regime. as the as old almost incountry started more1975, only from than decades three ago now; is statute also the now in the developments Democratic democracy. recent quite is still hand, other the on Spain, each to livein nextother to peace. learn societies parallel the till time took it beginning; in the right stability bring not did statute implemented for period another of 30 years, when constitutional the reform was applied. The - 75 - - CEU eTD Collection possible for them to negotiate certain compromise. South Tyrolean autonomy, therefore, autonomy, Tyrolean South compromise. certain negotiate to them for possible it was them, in region bring can Italy currently wealthiest that seebenefits were ableto position was fully dependent on attitudeBut even though South Tyrol has been from beginningthe its internationally ofprotected, Italian state. Only at the moment, when all sides in the case when the provisions of international treaties were not being fulfilled. intervene could constantly asakin-state Austria because played role, adecisive This element politics. international of matter a was Italy to Austria from territory of transfer original the thatcontributedsequencing stabilization of tothe and timing events of situation.all, of First finalto the common This agreementagreement. was only common rightpossible dueto it. South Tyrol case is peculiar because it shows development from previous lack of consensus agreedon actors onlypossible ifall those region final outcomestability the was whichgives The community. international of involvement with (Austria), kin-state (Italy), State the itself, minority ledbetween kin-state the isbased negotiations onmultiple Tyrolean success South uncertain and far awayfrom model.stable isvery future for theBasqueCountry’s is stabilized, now Tyrol negotiations. WhileSouth stability of the region and overall success of autonomy, which is designed in response to those influences now development that of outcome Final cases. in both development particular mainfor appearedtobethe actors between diverse Negotiations androle thesis. determinant thisAt frameworkwe are getting point toour of wasusedforthat this actors plurality of first careful negotiations shouldin prevail, topreparea properorder platform. At stabilize conflict. in the to beorder adopted big, simply cannot autonomy aretoo disputes - 76 - - CEU eTD Collection groups. In groups. words, autonomyother is very foruseful accommodationtool nations,of substate of different aims multiple of because autonomy, advanced within even be achieved not the cost of creation of imperfect parallel societies. In the Basque Country a full stability could for achieved stability was Tyrol In the South matters. some regarding itbut limits reached its control localimportant have over issues. damagingdefinitely not Yetautonomy did effects, them guarantees and identities minority of preservation achieved cases those in Autonomy confirm that assumption, because they are one of the wealthiest regions in their host countries. effects on economical, andfosteringtensions stability incan indeed the concerned region. It havevery positive beginningthe of by might thesis.Territorial this autonomy fortool a proper easingethnic politicalTo summarizeand my socialresearch I would generallydevelopments support most of argumentsstudies. that werein statedthe at on focus weaknesses inboth fieldsuch researchinareas. Further therefore, should, this country.and strengths see to helped experiences different very two of Bothcomparison The thesis. this our casesin was done asit casetoothers and the compare Tyrol lessonscase from South take however, Wecan, accommodation. aproper becase needs usedasamodel, each because cannot developsenvironment degreewhich the to supports negotiations.Tyrol Forthis South reason, democratic the till and diffused get tensions till time, more need simply cases Some involved. a universalis not tool which always facilitates reachingbetween of compromise parties the On the other hand, based on lessons from the Basque Country we can conclude that autonomy negotiation, of importance leadtocompromises between all proper which generally parties. indicate who introduction, theoretical the in mentioned authors many of ideas confirms - 77 - - CEU eTD Collection proper negotiationsproper ofmultiple and actors by sequencing of events. but its all positive effects arevisibly limited. Theis final mainly outcome by determined - 78 - - CEU eTD Collection Source: Stanley Payne,Stanley G. Source: Map 1.The Basque Country Appendix 1 Appendices Basque Nationalism - 79 - - (Reno: University Nevada Press,of 1975). CEU eTD Collection Governance? Magliana, Melissa. Source: Map 2. Position of South Tyrol Appendix 2 Bolzano: European Academy of Bozen/Bolzano, 2000. Academy of European Bozen/Bolzano, Bolzano: The AutonomousProvince ofSouthTyrol.AModel Self- - 80 - - CEU eTD Collection May 30, 2011). Language Groups – Census 2001 Source: Autonomous Province of South Tyrol – Provincial Statistics Institute (ASTAT), Map 3.Language in Groups Tyrol South According2001 Censusto Appendix 3 , available at http://www.provinz.bz.it/astat (accessed on (accessed athttp://www.provinz.bz.it/astat , available - 81 - - CEU eTD Collection Hannum, Hurst. Guibernau, Montserrat. Guibernau, Guevara Saleta, Emilio. "La Organizacion Institucional de Euskadi." In Grugel, Jean. "The Basques." 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