Volume 2 Issue 3 Jan-June 2004 ISSN 1727 5210
editorial correspondence
Let’s air our dirty laundry Chemical research should be a Scientists and developers can’t save the world national priority when they have to play along to get along Rajendra Uprety Seth Sicroff Page 10 Page 9
essay policy Himalayan Journal of Sciences Volume 2, Issue 3 Scientists: Four golden lessons Theories for sustainable futures Jan-June 2004 Advice to students at the start of their Sustainable development requires integration of Pages: 1-70 scientific careers ecological, economic and social theories Steven Weinberg C S Holling Cover image credit: Page 11 Page 12 Krishna K Shrestha
resource review special announcement
How to control illegal wildlife trade in the Mountain Legacy announces plans Himalayas Mountain Legacy announces plans for conference As Nepal’s greatest natural resources approach on Mountain Hazards and Mountain Tourism, extinction, the stakes could hardly be higher calls for nominations for second Hillary Medal, Ram P Chaudhary and proposes research and development institute Page 15 in Rolwaling Page 20
publication preview
Published by Himalayan perceptions: Environmental change and the well-being of mountain peoples Himalayan Association for Fifteen years ago, the Himalayan Dilemma buried the most popular environmental paradigm of the 80s. the Advancement of Science What will it take for policy-makers to get the message? Lalitpur, Nepal Jack D Ives GPO Box No. 2838 Page 17
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 7 Seth Sicroff research papers
Quantitative analysis of tree species in two community forests of Dolpa district, mid-west Nepal Ripu M Kunwar and Shiv P Sharma Page 23
Vegetation composition and diversity of Piluwa micro-watershed in Tinjure-Milke region, east Nepal Madan Koirala Page 29
Hello, trees, how are you? Indigenous knowledge of terrace management in Paundi Khola Who’s to blame if the Tree species in Dolpa watershed, Lamjung district, Nepal Himalayas are in trouble? district, p 23 Karun Pandit and Mohan K Balla p 17 Page 33
Quantitative analysis of macrophytes of Beeshazar Tal, Chitwan, Nepal Chudamani Burlakoti and Siddhi B Karmacharya Page 37
Methods to reduce soil erosion and nutrient losses in Kavre district, central Nepal Janak Pathak Page 42
Two new records of Eria Lindl. (Orchidaceae) for Nepal Devendra M Bajracharya and Krishna K Shrestha Page 46
Two new records of Viola L. (Violaceae) for Nepal Nature sets the basic Ram S Dani and Krishna K Shrestha Only a unified theory that patterns, but human Page 48 integrates the three activities can make a big domians of sustainable difference Discharge and sediment loads of two streams in the mid-hills development - ecology, p 51 economy and sociology - can of central Nepal safeguard our future, p 12 Roshan M Bajracharya, Subodh Sharma and Roberto Clemente Page 51
articles
Ethnosilvicultural knowledge: A promising foundation for integrating non-timber forest products into forest management Krishna H Gautam and Teiji Watanabe Page 55
miscellaneous
Author index for Volume 1, 2003 Page 59 Beeshazar Tal, a fertile lake How knowledge is covered with emergent transferred to new vegetation. Next step could Guide to Authors generation be marsh meadow, p 37 Page 60 p 55
8 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 IN THIS ISSUE
Without a unified field theory, sustainable development flounders ...... Theories of ecology, economy and sociology are partial and perhaps too simple, in isolation, to solve the complex problems of sustainable development. Past failure was due to such policies of government and non-government agencies which flop from one myopic solution to another. Unless we develop an evolutionary and dynamic integrated theory, which would recognize the synergies and constraints of nature, economy and people, we cannot assure a sustainable future. Are we doomed? Holling (p 12) points to a light at the end of the tunnel! [POLICY] Forest management must integrate Rain, slope, and land use determine the lessons of ethnosilviculture sediment load in upland streams ...... Timber-only forest management is The mid-hills of Nepal have been facing a incompatible with the conservation of forest dangerous dilemma arising from the ecosystems. The incorporation of non- escalating demands of a growing timber forest products (NTFPs) in population, on the one hand, and mainstream forestry is critical to the worldwide pressure for ecological sustainability of not only the ecological preservation on the other. Environmental systems but also the livelihoods and cultural degradation has been due largely to human values of local and regional stakeholders. activities: agricultural intensification, Mild disturbance fosters forest Some scientific efforts have been initiated cultivation of marginal lands, extraction of regeneration focusing on integration of NTFPs into forest products, and infrastructure ...... mainstream forestry, but the extent and development. The resulting changes in Eastern Nepal is rich in biodiversity and is diversity of Nepal’s forests are such that water storage and runoff patterns have much explored since the pioneering work sustainable forest management will no contributed to soil erosion. Because of the of Hooker. More recently the forests are longer be an option if we wait for dispositive climate and topography of the region, under pressure and degraded due to over- empirical results. On the other hand, stream discharge is low most of the year, exploitation of resources for subsistence ethnosilvicultural knowledge accumulated with high flows and sediment livelihood. Despite this increasing pressure over the centuries is vanishing without a concentrations limited to a few major some of the forests have been protected trace. Gautam and Watanabe (p 55) have events during the pre-monsoon and early since long by local peoples. It has changed documented such expertise among Cana- rainy season. A work by Bajracharya et al. the regeneration status and diversity of dian Aboriginal communities and Nepali (p 51), however, confirms that land use and the forest. Koirala (p 29) compares two community forest users groups. Their work farming practices significantly impact dis- forests of Milke region (east Nepal) at dif- underscores the need to establish appro- charge patterns and sediment loads in ferent levels of degradation. He finds that priate databases to document this streams with steep gradients in the mid- regeneration is more sustainable in the ethnosilvicultural knowledge, and the hills. Preliminary analysis suggests that it mildly degraded Quercus-Rhododendron importance of strengthening the traditional may be possible to predict discharge, and forest than in mature and relatively non- institutions that have been applying and hence sediment loads, from 24-hour degraded forest, where sapling counts in- expanding that legacy. [ARTICLE] rainfall measurements. [RESEARCH] dicate that Symplocos and Quercus are replacing Rhododendron. Pre-eminent mountain geographer challenges Himalayan delusions [RESEARCH] ...... Jack Ives has been aptly described as a “dinosaur” – one of the last of the great geographer- explorers. Recently awarded the King Albert I Gold Medal (whose recipients include Sir Four Nobel Truths John Hunt, organizer of the first successful ascent of Mt. Everest, as well as Bradford ...... Washburn, creator of the National Geographic map of Mt. Everest), Ives pioneered a series Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg offers of seven expeditions into the interior of Canada’s Baffin Island, assigning names to peaks, career advice to graduate students (p 11). glaciers, and rivers on this frigid landmass one and half times the size of Germany. His First, don’t try to master your field before theory of “instantaneous glacierization” overturned the prevailing view that ice ages rolled completing your PhD: you can learn on down out of the north like a window shade: instead, Ives argued, they could begin as the job. Second, when choosing a research scattered snow patches that survived the summer on high plateaus of the interior of the topic, look for areas that seems to be in a Canadian north when mean temperatures fell just a few degrees, expanding rapidly to bury state of confusion: these are opportuni- large areas. In 1989, Ives co-authored The Himalayan Dilemma, summarizing the ties for creative research and significant controversial ideas that came out of the 1986 Mohonk Conference (which Ives organized); contributions. Third, expect and accept he was one of the architects of Chapter 13 (The State of the World’s Mountains) of Agenda wasted time: there is no shining path to 21, a seminal document adopted by the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and the truth. Fourth, study the history of sci- Development in Rio de Janeiro (also known as the Earth Summit). Ives founded and edited ence, and your field in particular, in order the journals Arctic and Alpine Research and Mountain Research and Development. He to develop an appreciation for your own established the International Mountain Society. And he is on the Editorial Board of the work. Good advice for students in any Himalayan Journal of Sciences. We are honored to publish a preview of his forthcoming graduate degree program! [ESSAY] book (p 17). We can only hope that this time the development planners will get the message.
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 5 EDITORIAL Let’s air our dirty laundry Scientists and developers can’t save the world when they have to play along to get along
Seth Sicroff ......
It’s no secret: Nepal is a development basket case. Despite the fact that the country is overrun with foreign researchers and developers and flooded with loan and grant money, the major problems remain intractable. No one has any doubt where the roots of those problems lie: bad governance and self-interested assistance. Corruption is deeply entrenched in Nepal, as in most LDCs. Foreign aid is frequently a poisoned gift, designed to further the donor nation’s priorities, often at the expense of the recipient. Ke garne? What can the scientific community do to improve the effectiveness of development programs in Nepal (and presumably elsewhere)? The first step is to admit that we are part of the problem. Let’s start with an observation made by Gautam and Watanabe in this issue of HJS. Writing about the need to apply traditional silvicultural knowledge, the authors point out that “the NTFPs are so vast and diverse that merely waiting for scientific results may entail delays that preclude sustainable management.” Clearly there are many other fields where we cannot afford the luxury of complete scientific investigation – and I strongly suggest that we not wait for a full investigation of this phenomenon before consideration of the next step. That is, what should a scientist do when he suspects that his research is an unnecessary obstacle to effective management? Now let’s look at a rather different sort of bottleneck. In 1989, Ives and Messerli published Himalayan Dilemma, a work that could well serve as a textbook on the inadequacies and misapplications of scientific research in The truth won’t out the Himalayan region. One fairly typical example: it seems that, while researchers have been studying the hydrology of micro-scale watersheds in Corruption and incompetence would not Nepal, they have been unable to correlate their findings with data gathered suffice to cripple development if scien- far downstream. The Indian government classifies all such data as secret – presumably to avoid giving away evidence that might be incompatible with tists and developers were not afraid to India’s unilateralist development of water resources. So, what should blow the whistle and expose them. But researchers in Nepal do when they cannot come to solid conclusions about critical phenomena such as the erosional impact of agricultural it seems that the only way to protect your intensification, road-building, and forest removal? job in this little gossipy country is to These are among the simplest dilemmas facing Himalayan researchers. protect the egos and reputations of those Here, based solely on my own experience, is a short laundry list of some of the nastier double binds that confront scientists working in the Himalayan who are screwing up. Question: How can region. we put an end to self-censorship? 1. Despite the fact that they are supposedly making important contributions to economically and ecologically challenged nations, INGO personnel as well as foreign academics doing research in the Himalayan region actually depend on the good graces of their host countries. Prudence is essential if one wishes to work for extended periods in a protected area. Researchers in Tibet are, of course, well-advised to concur with Chinese versions of that region’s history, and to refrain from criticizing China’s Taiwan policy, repression of minorities, and remarkably vicious authoritarian regime. But the self- censorship does not involve only historical and ethical abstractions: it also involves agencies and policies that are central to the researcher’s work. Criticism of the management of Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), for instance, is extremely risky given the current King Gyanendra’s longtime patronage of the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation. The result is a sustained whitewash of both development and conservation efforts. 2. Self-censorship also applies when it comes to the performance of international agencies. In a world where who you know is everybody’s stock-in-trade, it just isn’t smart to point fingers at well-heeled organizations. 3. When it comes to remote locales, very few researchers or developers stay in the field long enough to make a great difference. Graduate students are more likely to endure the hardships (and learn the local language) than professors and developers, but they need to finish their degrees, go home, and look for work. The result is that a large proportion of basic research and development in the field is done by neophytes. 4. Certain topics are so politically potent that it is dangerous to take a contrarian stance. Examples: gender studies, garbage on Mt. Everest, Sherpa and Tibetan culture, ecotourism, rapid participatory assessment. 5. No one publishes his own failures. In many cases, these are the experiences that would be most instructive to others working in the same field. Of course, there are people who tell the truth, and some who even get away with it. “It’s all bullshit on Everest these days,” Sir Edmund Hillary told an interviewer in the run-up to the Golden Jubilee celebration of his and Tenzing’s first ascent of that peak. (He was referring to the commercialization of adventure.) In fact, there are competent and committed researchers and developers, even in Khumbu. But it’s the bullshit that threatens to overwhelm every decent effort. It’s the self-censorship, the evasion, the whitewash, that sustains the failure of development. So, what to do? That is the question that we pose to our readers.
Seth Sicroff is the language editor of Himalayan Journal of Sciences. E-mail: [email protected]
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 9 CORRESPONDENCE Chemical research should be a national priority Rajendra Uprety ......
hough Nepal has been active in During its two and half decades, RECAST RONAST” . She adds, “We have knowledge and natural product screening, the has attempted a mere handful of research programmes useful to society but the govern- total national research effort is projects, and the titles have been more ment policy hasn’t given a high priority to sci- negligible. Little of the research compelling than their results. Several of the ence and technology, nor have the private that is carried out is appropriate research reports end with “not applicable at sectors”. Tfor the natural and social constraints. Natural the moment,” “budget not available in time” Only if we can move beyond the past resources are being overlooked, and data that and “due to financial constraints, conflicts between research institutes and is collected is not thoroughly analyzed and experimentation couldn’t be done properly between high officials can we advance in reported. and study tour could not be taken” 5 science. Nepal has over a dozen well- Chemistry research in Nepal was initiated RONAST reports about forty research equipped and organized laboratories and during the seventies, when it was made a re- projects on natural resources and adequate man-power. The laboratories of the quirement for the Masters degree at the Cen- environmental analysis in the natural product Central Department of Chemistry, Natural tral Department of Chemistry (CDC), and environmental analysis over the course Products, Royal Drugs Limited, Quality Tribhuvan University (TU). More than 130 of its twenty years. Many of them are Control and Department of Food Technology, theses have been completed so far, in addi- concerned with the analysis of environmental Nepal Standard and Quality Controls, tion to six Ph. D. dissertations and two dozens parameters in Kathmandu Valley. Out of these, RONAST, RECAST, Kathmandu University other research works conducted by the de- a few such as ‘Pollution monitoring in the water and Pokhara University, have advanced partment faculty. While the number and im- supply system of Kathmandu City’ by T. M. equipments. Tribhuvan University and other pact of these studies has been slight, we Pradhananga6, are considered significant. universities have already produced many should not conclude that the research has no Pradhananga, chief scientific officer at M. Sc. graduates. The Nepal Chemical Soci- value at all. Manandhar 2003, Bajracharya RONAST, maintains, “Both government and ety claims membership of more than 1500 1998, and Kharel 2000 1-3, for example, are scientists are responsible for the failure of the chemists. valuable studies. Poudel (2002) reports on research and development programme. We I would like to suggest two steps that might triterpines and betunelic acid, molecules with the scientists could not convince them of the help promote scientific research. First, an anti-cancer and anti-HIV properties, that significance of science and technology and interdisciplinary and high-level task force have been found in the giant dodder (Cuscuta they could not understand us.” should be created, with members drawn from reflexa), an annual parasitic herb indigenous When a researcher lands a foreign project, government and the private sector. Second, to Nepal4; if extracted and refined, such phar- RONAST greets it with bureaucratic meddling Nepal Chemical Society, in collaboration with maceuticals could produce significant rev- and roadblocks. A research project conducted CDC, should take the lead in research and enues. And there are thousands of other pos- under the auspices of RONAST by publication activities as an open forum. sibilities. Wageningen Agricultural Univesity Raja R. Pradhananga, professor and head (Netherlands) with the collaboration of Nepal Rajendra Uprety is a member of of CDC, understands the unsatisfactory Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and Executive Council, Nepal Chemical Society. situation of chemical research in Nepal. “By the Department of Bimolecular Sciences, was E-mail: [email protected] adding a course on research methods, we can forced to tolerate intolerable bureaucratic make the three-year B. Sc. a more research- impediments. The report concludes, “On References oriented degree program”, says Pradhananga. many occasions, researchers are bogged 1. MD Manandhar. 2003. Chemical investigation of medicinal plants. Kathmandu: Central Department “There should be a law that the income tax down by bureaucratic administrative of Chemistry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. paid by national or international organization hurdles, due to which many field projects were Research report. involved in science and technology is cancelled. [I]n order to produce good results, 2. GB Bajracharya. 1998. Isolation and identification allocated to research and development.” a proper environment should be created, free of anticarcinogenic flavonoids and their quantification in the vegetable commonly Finally Pradhananga concludes, “the nation from administrative hurdles; and the consumed in Nepal [thesis]. Kathmandu: Central should, as far as practicable, make Tribhuvan allocated budget should be released on a Department of Chemistry, Tribhuvan University, University the focus of research activities.” timely basis”. 7 Nepal. 194 p In addition to CDC, there are many K. D. Yami, the main investigator in this 3. MK Kharel. 2000. Isolation of novel depsidone from project and Chief Scientific Officer at RONAST, Parmellia nilgherrensis and antibacterial established national research centers with susceptibility screening and heavy metal analysis adequate scientific manpower and well- states: “The main reason for the failure of in some lichen spp.of Kathmandu valley [thesis]. equipped research laboratories. The Royal research programme is the chronic and Kathmandu: Central Department of Chemistry, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology unresolved conflicts embedded among the Tribhuvan University, Nepal. 85 p (RONAST), the Research Center for Applied research personalities when they occupy 4. YB Poudel. 2002. Phytochemical and biological studies on Causcuta reflexa of Nepalese origin Science and Technology (RECAST), and high-level bureaucratic positions in different [thesis]. Kathmandu: Central Department of Tribhuvan University are the institutions institutions. Most of the time, it is seen that Chemistry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. 120 p most responsible for enhancing the science neither the research personalities nor the 5. RECAST 1995/96-1996/97. Annual report 1995/96- and technology through research. Although government people identify the common and 1996/97. Kathmandu: Research Center for Applied Sciences and Technology, Tribhuvan University, these organizations have ambitious scientific main problems. And their commitments Nepal. 53 p goals, their paltry contributions have hurt always end only in seminar or meetings. 6. TM Pradhananga. 1999. Pollution monitoring in Nepal. RONAST, RECAST, the Ministry of RONAST, being an autonomous body, can the water supply system of Kathmandu City. In: A Science and Technology (MOST), and the conduct many more research activities research profile 1999. Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Ministry of Population and Environment comfortably if a favorable environment is Academy of Science and Technology. 65 p 7. KD Yami. 1999. Biofertilizer. In: A research profile (MOPE) have never been able to justify their created. But up to now, research institutions 1999. Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Academy of Science existence. have not had a healthy relationship with and Technology. 65 p
10 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 RESOURCE REVIEW B O O K How to control illegal wildlife trade in the Himalayas As Nepal’s greatest natural resources approach extinction, the stakes could hardly be higher
Ram P Chaudhary ......
Cites Implementation in Nepal and India – The book is divided into seven chapters addressing a range of topics related to Law, Policy and Practice CITES implementation in Nepal and India. Chapter One provides a general by Ravi Sharma Aryal introduction to the concept of endangered species, and to the state and importance of Bhrikuti Academic Publications biodiversity. Chapter Two briefly summarizes the history of cultural and Kathmandu, Nepal, 2004 legislative efforts to protect forests and 200 pp wildlife in Nepal and India. Chapter Three ISBN 99933-673-4-6 explains the concept and principles of NRs 995, US$ 25 (paperback) CITES, discusses issues raised and progress made during the COP (Conference of Parties), and reports on typical cases of infringement of CITES in Nepal and India. While neither Nepal nor India has he international trade in wild came into force on July 1, 1975. That same drawn up specific legislation to implement animals, plants, and wildlife year, Nepal became a party to the treaty, CITES provisions, both countries have products is big business, with and to date 165 countries have agreed to adopted numerous policies, laws, and worldwide transactions of over adhere to CITES. Its enforcement is the conservation measures bearing on the US$ 5 billion a year. Most of it is responsibility of the signatory states, and implementation of this treaty. These are Tentirely legal, regulated by national laws and governments are required to submit presented in Chapters Four and Five, the international treaties. But about one-fourth reports and trade records to the CITES centerpiece of Aryal’s book. Article 26.4 of to one-third of the trade entails unlawful Secretariat. the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal commerce in rare and threatened species Regulation of international trade in (1990) provides directives for the protection that are usually poached or collected wildlife and wildlife products is an of the environment at large; the National illegally and smuggled across frontiers. The intersectoral endeavor, with social, Parks and Wildlife Protection Act (1973), trade in endangered fauna and flora is economic, ecological, cultural, and political the Forest Act (1995), Nepal Biodiversity diverse, ranging from live animals and dimensions. Aryal’s book covers the Strategy (2002) 3, and other related Acts and plants to a vast array of wildlife products spectrum of issues, focusing on the gaps policies are fulfilling the objectives of CITES derived from them, including food and weaknesses in the laws, policies, and in Nepal. Implementation of CITES in Nepal products, rare and exotic leather goods, implementation measures in Nepal and is further strengthened by the 1991 Nepal tourist curios and medicines. Such illegal India, countries that cover a major part of Treaty Act (NTA) which specifies that when trade is one of the main engines driving the Himalayas. Aryal also discusses cross- a matter in a treaty is inconsistent with the species to extinction. sectoral issues, which must be addressed existing domestic laws, the domestic laws Although population increase and in order to control smuggling across shall be void to the extent of the poverty are generally cited as the indirect international borders. inconsistency, and the provision of the causes of poaching and illegal collection, the major threats are conflicting laws and perverse incentives on the part of rich and CREDIT: Ravi Sharma Aryal influential consumers. An important challenge, at present, is to systematically study the population of threatened fauna and flora so as to understand their status and conservation requirements1. The decline in biological resources in Nepal has been due largely to the lack of policies to guide legal, institutional and operational developments in this sector. Biodiversity policy in Nepal has usually been shaped by political and economic motives rather than ecological and social considerations2. An international treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 15 RESOURCE REVIEW
The international illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products is one the major engines driving species to extinction. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which defines standards for use of wildlife and their products, represents a major global commitment to reverse this trend. It remains to be seen whether the terms of this treaty will be enforced. Focusing on Nepal and its neighbors, Aryal discusses the obstacles to its successful implementation: imprecise legislation, inconsistent policies, lack of coordination among relevant institutions (particularly, those responsible for regulating international trade), and the deadly threat posed by poachers determined to protect their endangered livelihoods. Aryal’s recommendations are detailed, far-reaching, and compelling. treaty shall prevail as the law of Nepal. indigenous knowledge from one Recommendations at the institutional level Strangely, Aryal is silent about the Local generation to another. include: Self-Governance Act (1998). According to Aryal has rightly mentioned the • development of strong linkages among this law, the District Development importance of transboundary cooperation. the relevant institutions Committee (DDC) is the implementing The CITES treaty could play a crucial role • development of technical body of the local government. Section in the interdiction of smuggling across the infrastructure, publication and 189(g) (1) of the Local Self-Governance Act Nepal-India and Nepal-China borders. The dissemination of information, and requires the DDC to formulate and protection of wildlife is currently hampered promotion of skills pertinent to CITES implement plans for the conservation of by differences in the degree of protection enforcement among police, custom forests, vegetation, biological diversity and among the three countries. For example, officers, and immigration officials soil. Section 189(g) (2) further requires the in China a person can be sentenced to death • insulation of CITES administration DDC to protect and promote the for killing an individual of an endangered from political interference. environment. Similarly, Section 28(h) (2) species such as the giant panda4. In Nepal Recommendations at the individual level requires that the Village Development and India, however, the penalty is include: Committees (VDCs), the next smallest unit imprisonment for few years or nominal • development of professional ethics and of local governance, formulate and fine or both. Tri-national consultative accountability implement programs for the conservation meetings on biodiversity conservation will • expanded professional networking of forests, vegetation, biological diversity, be vital in plugging the gaps and untangling • enhancement of job security, benefits, and soil. the legal inconsistencies. and incentives, including life insurance In Chapter Five, Aryal compiles the In Chapter Six, Aryal undertakes a • expanded opportunities for career scattered laws impinging on control of review and detailed analysis of existing advancement. illegal exploitation of wildlife in India. The plans, policies, and regulations, as well as Constitution of India as amended in 1976 interview survey conducted in some I might offer a few reservations about the (Articles 48.A and 51-A9g) directs the border areas and in the capital of India book itself. Although the printing is of good government to protect the environment. about the administrative practice and quality, the high price may discourage some The Indian Forest Act of 1927, the Forest constraints in order to expose the obstacles readers for whom the book would be a (Conservation) Act of 1980, the Biological impeding effective implementation of useful reference. The small font used in Diversity Act of 2002 and other relevant CITES. The problems are diverse, ranging the footnotes is also rather frustrating. The laws are important tools for the protection from lack of clarity in legislation to lack of book is illustrated with photographs, a of endangered species. coordination among the relevant number of which are redundant. A useful Medicinal plants, many of which are institutions, from dubious nomenclature supplement would be a compilation of rare and threatened, are used in two ways: and out-of-date species lists to lack of photographs of all endangered fauna and first, in medications prescribed by competent staff in the field to threat for flora listed under CITES. traditional systems, and second, in guards posed by the poachers. Nonetheless, the book will be a valuable medications that have become accepted Chapter 7, “Conclusion and resource for policy makers, politicians, in Ayurvedic, Tibetan, and allopathic (or Suggestion,” presents Aryal’s astute wildlife traders, protected area managers, Western) medicine. In general, the recommendations for improvements in conservationists, national and international collection of medicinal plants for traditional strategy and administrative structure that agencies, NGOs and INGOs, professors, local use is not a problem since this use has would facilitate implementation of CITES students and general readers. developed gradually and in harmony with in Nepal and India. I would cluster all the nearby natural ecosystem1. Accordingly, Aryal’s recommendations at three Ram P Chaudhary is a professor of botany the 1991 amendment of the 1972 Wildlife levels. in Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. (Protection) Act of India allows scheduled E-mail: [email protected] tribes in India to use locally available Recommendations at the systemic level medicinal plants in a sustainable fashion. include: References Such protection of customary rights is not • translation of international treaties to 1. RP Chaudhary. 1998. Biodiversity in Nepal – Status found in any Nepalese law, and Aryal takes national legislation and conservation. Saharanpur (India): S Devi and issue with the provisions of the Indian • amendments in laws and policies with Bangkok: Tecpress Books. 324 p 2. N Belbase. 1999. National Implementation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act. I believe, however, the view to closing existing loopholes convention on biological diversity: Policy and that through this law the government of • strict enforcement of existing legislative requirements. Kathmandu: Nepal. 120 p India gives due recognition not only to the legislation 3. MFSC. 2002. Nepal biodiversity strategy. Ministry rights of indigenous peoples to preserve • implementation and monitoring of of Forests and Soil Conservation, HMGN. 170 p 4. YM Li, Z Gao, X Li, S Wang and N Jari. 2000. Illegal their culture, but also to the importance of trans-boundary wildlife trade wildlife trade in the Himalayan region of China. safeguarding the transmission of regulatory mechanisms. Biod Conser 9: 901-918
16 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 PUBLICATION PREVIEW Himalayan perceptions: Environmental change and the well-being of mountain peoples Fifteen years ago, the Himalayan Dilemma buried the most popular environmental paradigm of the 80s. What will it take for policy-makers to get the message? Jack D Ives ......
erceptions of environmental empirical research was required in order change affecting the Himalayan perceptions: to substantiate the many issues that had Himalayan region have Environmental change and the been raised. The Himalayan Dilemma, undergone extensive revision well-being of mountain while effectively contesting many unproven over the last thirty years. During assumptions that collectively formed the peoples Pthe first half of this period it had been Theory, could be seen as essentially an widely assumed that environmental attempt to prove a series of negatives. collapse was imminent due to exponential by JD Ives Nevertheless, the academic response to the increase in pressure on the natural book was generally positive and it is still resources driven by rapid population Routledge, London and New York quoted in almost every scholarly growth and deepening poverty. One of the To be published in August 2004 publication on the Himalayan region. many statements of imminent catastrophe Forsyth (1996)3 credited the Mohonk was issued by the World Bank in 19791, Conference with achieving the first major predicting that by the year 2000 all environmental paradigm shift and, along accessible forest in Nepal would be sediment transfer onto the plains. This was with Thompson (1995)4, referred to the eliminated. Although the linkage of human further assumed to induce a progressive unfolding discourse as The Mohonk poverty and natural disaster continues to increase in flooding of Gangetic India and Process. attract serious debate, the catastrophist Bangladesh, putting at risk the lives of Despite the positive reception on the paradigm has been discredited by an several hundred million people. part of academics, the perceptions avalanche of research, not to mention the The 1986 deliberations were frequently generated by the Mohonk Process had little passage of time during which the heralded heated, but a consensus was reached to impact on environmental policies. disaster has failed to materialize. This has the effect that the Theory lacked scientific Regional authorities, for example, to this opened the way for a more realistic substantiation. This was reflected in the 1989 day maintain embargoes on logging in the appraisal of the actual dynamics of change book; we stressed, however, that a great mountains based on the justification that in the region. deal of more focused and more rigorous extensive deforestation was causing seri- The publication of The Himalayan Dilemma (Ives and Messerli 1989)2 fifteen years ago derived from an international conference on the ‘Himalaya–Ganges Problem’ held at Mohonk Mountain Himalayan Perspectives returns to the enormously popular development House, New York State, in May 1986. The paradigm that Ives dubbed the ‘Theory of Himalayan Degradation’. conference had been called to investigate the validity of the prevailing Himalayan According to this seductive construct, poverty and overpopulation in the environmental paradigm of the 1970s and Himalayas was leading to degradation of highland forests, erosion, and 1980s that came to be known as the Theory downstream flooding. In the ‘Himalayan Dilemma’, Ives and Messerli of Himalayan Environmental Degradation. In brief, the Theory exposed this “Theory” as a dangerous collection of assumptions and proposed that increased devastating misrepresentations. While most scholars in the field promptly conceded flooding on the Ganges and Brahmaputra lowlands was a direct response to Ives and Messerli’s points, the Theory has somehow survived as the extensive deforestation in the Himalaya. guiding myth of development planners and many government agencies. The deforestation was presumed to result In his new book, Ives returns to drive a stake through the heart of this from a rapid growth in the mountain subsistence farming populations revenant. His book not only reviews the research that, over the past 15 dependent on the forests for fodder and years, has confirmed the arguments of the ‘Himalayan Dilemma’; it also fuel and for conversion to terraced agriculture. As steep mountain slopes were takes a close look at all those destructive factors that were overlooked by denuded of forest cover, it was assumed the conveniently simplistic ‘Theory of Himalayan Environmental that the heavy monsoon rains caused accelerated soil erosion, numerous Degradation’: government mismanagement, oppression of mountain landslides, and increased runoff and minorities, armed conflict, and inappropriate tourism development.
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 17 PUBLICATION PREVIEW ous flooding and major dislocations down- doubt, the environmental problems as- into Northern Pakistan and Tajikistan. Chap- stream. sumed to be threatening the region in the ter Four, Geomorphology of agricultural Since 1989, and partly as an outcome 1970s and 1980s were causing widespread landscapes, addresses the complex rela- of the Mohonk Conference, a vast amount concern and affected the way in which in- tionships between land-cover type, espe- of related environmental research has been ternational aid was manipulated. Over the cially agricultural terrace types and their undertaken; its publication, however, has last fifteen years it has become increasingly management, precipitation, soil erosion, been scattered widely throughout the clear that the more dominant causes of and downstream effects. Chapter Five, literature. The new book, therefore, instability are socio-economic, administra- entitled Flooding in Bangladesh: causes attempts to bring together and analyze the tive, political, and the spread of violence and perceptions of causes, questions the more recent studies in the context of the and terrorism. The continued debilitating relationships between land-use/land-cover earlier work that led up to the 1989 poverty is regarded, at least in part, as a changes in the Himalaya and flood plain publication. It presents a final rejection of consequence of mismanagement in its responses. Drawing on extensive recent the earlier environmental paradigm; this broadest sense. Therefore, in addition to work by Thomas Hofer and Bruno becomes the more important considering assessing how the environmental discourse Messerli6, amongst other studies, it the inappropriate environmental and has played out since 1989, issues involving concludes emphatically that the primary developmental policy decisions to which poverty, oppression of the mountain peo- cause of flooding in Bangladesh, and by the region is still subjected. Furthermore, ples, unequal access to resources, insur- extension in northeast India, is heavy the inept and sustained focus of much of gency, and military conflict are presented. monsoonal rainfall across Bangladesh and the government legislation has served to The importance of tourism is also ad- adjacent areas of lowland India. paint the poor mountain minority people dressed because it is a major force that has The first five chapters, therefore, as the prime cause of environmental both positive and negative aspects and is expose the Theory of Himalayan degradation and so deflect attention from now menaced in many places by the grow- Environmental Degradation as an insup- the real problems. ing political tensions and violence in the portable mental construct that should be region. totally eliminated as a basis for environ- imalayan Perceptions has two I have tried to write in the spirit of the mental and developmental policy making. Hprimary aims: one is to follow through United Nations General Assembly of 1997 The following five chapters turn attention on the academic discourse, to examine the (Rio-Plus-Five), convened in order to to some of the actual problems that re- results of the post-1989 research, and thus evaluate the progress achieved in the five quire far more rigorous attention by gov- to update The Himalayan Dilemma; the years following the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth ernments of the region and by foreign aid second is to assess the problems that Summit (UNCED), and of the UN designa- and development agencies in general. threaten the stability of the region as the tion of 2002 as the International Year of The major physical hazards that pose a new century unfolds. As a corollary to this, Mountains (IYM). Since the primary goal challenge to sustainable development in some of the reasons why scholarly research of IYM is ‘sustainable mountain develop- the Himalayas are the concern of Chapter has had little, or no, inherent impact on ment’, it is considered that prospects for Six; these include earthquakes, landslides, environmental policy making are achieving this goal, at least within the and torrential rainstorms. Opportunity is discussed. In particular, the perpetration Himalayan region, will be limited by the taken to introduce the controversy of disaster scenarios by the news media is degree to which the problems can be cor- concerning construction of the Tehri Dam explored because it is believed that this is rectly defined. If progress has been made in relation to seismic hazard assessments, one of the reasons why the public at large towards producing a more accurate defi- and the exaggerated claims of the dangers still accepts the notion of impending nition then the writing of the book will have posed by the likelihood of catastrophic environmental catastrophe. been well worthwhile. outburst of glacial lakes. Chapter Seven The region discussed here extends well attempts to assess the development and beyond the limits of the Himalaya sensu here are eleven chapters. Chapter One, importance of tourism, its positive and stricto (the 2,500 kilometre arc from Nanga Tentitled The Myth of Himalayan negative aspects, and the dangers inherent Parbat, above the middle Indus Gorge in Environmental Degradation, provides an in excessive local dependency on a single the northwest, to Namche Barwa, above overview of how the Himalayan region has development endeavour. Chapter Eight the Yarlungtsangpo–Brahmaputra Gorge in been perceived over the last thirty years reviews the devastation being caused by the east). Coverage is extended to include and of how research has progressively accelerating violence – warfare, guerrilla the Karakorum, Hindu Kush, and Pamir influenced, or failed to influence, efforts to activity, and unconscionable repression of mountains in the northwest, and the obtain regional ‘sustainable development’. mountain minority peoples. Topics range Hengduan Mountains of Yunnan, the It includes a restatement of the Theory of from actual warfare, as on the Siachen mountains of Northern Thailand, and the Himalayan Environmental Degradation Glacier, Nepal’s Maoist Insurgency, Chittagong Hill Tracts, in the southeast. The that was widely publicized by Erik Bhutan’s human rights abuses perpetrated United Nations University (UNU) mountain Eckholm’s book Losing Ground (1976)5. on its Lhotsampa Hindu minority, Nagalim, research project, from its initiation in 1978, This is followed by a review of the later and the oppression resulting from the has investigated test areas throughout this Himalayan environmental research, in imposition of mega-projects, such as the broader region, and the new book effect, a synthesis of the first of the book’s Tehri and Kaptai dams. Chapter Nine represents a contribution that concludes main themes. Chapter Two is an outline of presents an overview of rural change and the quarter century of UNU effort. the region under discussion – the the challenges facing attempts to decen- Himalayan Perceptions attempts to Himalaya, defined very broadly. Chapter tralize control over access to natural re- analyze the manner in which the percep- Three examines the discourse on the status sources. The role of exaggeration – delib- tions of the Himalayan region have evolved of Himalayan forests; it contrasts the more erate or unwitting distortion of events that over the last three decades. It explores how humid eastern and central Himalaya with are exasperated by news media reports – is the simplistic environmental alarm arose the increasingly drier conditions as one examined in Chapter Ten. Individual case and why it held sway for so long. Without moves progressively toward the northwest studies are presented, several of which are
18 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 PUBLICATION PREVIEW CREDIT: Siddahtha B Bajracharya
Are the Himalayas really in crisis? And if so, who’s to blame? shown as examples of distortions, even of issues I have tried to keep the task within conservation. London and New York: Routledge. deliberate falsehoods, based in part on my reasonable limits while ensuring a broad 324 p 3. T Forsyth. 1996. Science, myth, and knowledge: experience in the field. The concluding chap- view of this vast and complex mountain Testing Himalayan environmental degradation ter is styled: Redefining the dilemma; is region and the challenges facing its diverse in Northern Thailand. Geoforum, 27(3): 375-92 there a way out? mountain peoples who deserve far better 4. M Thompson. 1995. Policy-making in the face of The book frames the main conclusion treatment than they have so far received. uncertainty: the Himalayas as unknowns. In Chapman GP and M Thompson (eds), Water and that the Theory of Himalayan Without their direct involvement sustain- the quest for sustainable development in the Ganges Environmental Degradation is not only a able mountain development will remain a valley. London: Mansell. p 25-38 fallacy, but also an unfortunate impediment bureaucratic pipe dream. 5. E Eckholm. 1976. Losing Ground. New York: WW to identification of the real obstacles to Norton for the Worldwatch Institute 6. T Hofer and B Messerli. 2002. Floods in Bangla- sustainable development. These include desh: History, dynamics, and rethinking the role of administrative incompetence, corruption, JD Ives is a senior advisor at Environ- the Himalayas (unpublished manuscript) greed, oppression of mountain minority ment and Sustainable Development peoples, political in-fighting, and even Programme, The United Nations military and political competition for University, Tokyo, Japan and an honor- control of resources and strategic locations. ary research professor at Department of The well-being of the 70–90 million Geography and Environmental Studies, mountain people has been largely neglected Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. and so they are left with little alternative E-mail: [email protected] ANNOUNCEMENT but to exert increasing pressure on The Himalayan Journal of Sciences will whatever natural resources that are This account is a synthesis of the book with accessible, whether legally or illegally. the same title that is due to be published by hold a symposium to discuss issues I have tried to make each chapter as Routledge (London and New York) in raised by Jack Ives’ forthcoming book, self-contained as possible. This has led to a August 2004. Himalayan Perspectives in Sept 2004. considerable amount of repetition. However, I believe this approach will be References The event will be open to the public. most beneficial for the reader who has not 1. World Bank. 1979. Nepal: Development Further details will be published on our had direct experience of the Himalaya. performance and prospects. Washington, DC: The World Bank. A World Bank country study Web site and in Mountain Forum. None of the topics has received an exhaus- 2. JD Ives and B Messerli. 1989. The Himalayan tive treatment. Rather, by selecting a series Dilemma: Reconciling development and
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 19 SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT Mountain Legacy Announces Plans
Mountain Legacy announces plans for conference on Mountain Hazards and Mountain Tourism, calls for nominations for second Hillary Medal, and proposes research and development institute in Rolwaling
One year ago, fifty-five delegates Hillary Mountain Legacy Medal Edmund Hillary Mountain Legacy representing 15 different nations “for remarkable service in the Medal. (See Web site: from as far away as New Zealand, conservation of culture and nature www.mountainlegacy.org) Canada, South Africa, and in remote mountainous regions.” Sweden, converged on Sagarmatha (The first medal was awarded to 2. The second Mountain Legacy National Park for an international Michael Schmitz and Helen Conference will focus on symposium entitled “The Namche Cawley, who for the past decade Rolwaling (Dolakha District, Nepal) Conference: People, Park, and have been working on keystone and will be held in October 2005. Mountain Ecotourism” (May 24- cultural and ecological projects in The theme will be “Mountain 26, 2003; Namche Bazar, 3350 m). Solu-Khumbu, including the Hazards and Mountain The event was organized by United Tengboche Monastery Development Tourism.” Nations University (UNU), Bridges: Plan, the Thubten Choling Projects in Rational Tourism Monastery Development Project 3. Mountain Legacy is now ready Development (Bridges-PRTD), and near Junbesi, and the Sacred Lands to begin planning for the Rolwaling HMG’s Department of National Initiative.) Mountain Legacy Institute. Parks and Wildlife Conservation Prospective collaborators The (DNPWC), and scheduled as part of In addition, Mountain Legacy concept and rationale for the RMLI the closing festivities marking the would undertake other projects in are outlined below. (Revised from Mount Everest Golden Jubilee support of tourism and Vol 1 No 2) Celebration. volunteerism in remote mountainous destinations. One of the 14 resolutions and Rolwaling Mountain Legacy Institute recommendations of the Namche As of April 2004, Mountain Legacy Conference was that a new is officially registered as an NGO Rolwaling Valley in north central association be established, to be (HMG Regd No. 1018/060-61). The Nepal presents an unusual called Mountain Legacy. Two board has following members: combination of problems and immediate responsibilities were !Arjun Adhikari – President opportunities linking cultural and envisioned. !Arjun Kafle – Vice-President natural conservation, tourism !Kumar P Mainali – General development, and scientific ! First, Mountain Legacy would Secretary research. organize sequels to the Namche !Laxman Karki – Joint Secretary Conference — that is, international !Geetanjali Nanda – Treasurer Rolwaling’s value as a biological events bringing together academics, !Bharat B Shrestha and Ganesh P sanctuary derives partly from its planners, commercial operators, Bhattarai – Members location and physical isolation. agencies, grass roots organizations, Running east-west for and other stakeholders to confer Anyone interested in joining approximately 30 km, it is with the host community in a Mountain Legacy, or in separated from Tibet by a stretch of remote mountain tourism collaborating on any of the projects the Himalayas that includes Gauri- destination. These events would be outlined below, should contact Shankar (7134 m), which for some held every four years in Namche Arjun Adhikari time was thought to be the highest Bazaar, and every four years (at a Tel: 977-1-5528090, peak in the world. The Rolwaling two year off-set) in some other E-mail: [email protected], River flows into the Bhote Kosi remote mountain tourism [email protected] (one of several rivers of the same destination. name); this Bhote Kosi soon becomes the Tamba Kosi. Simigaon, ! Secondly, Mountain Legacy Mountain Legacy Announcements at the confluence of the Rolwaling would be responsible for the and the Bhote, is about 90 km east presentation every two years, in 1. From July 1 to December 31, of Kathmandu, as the crow flies. It the context of the Namche 2004, Mountain Legacy will accept can be reached by a 4 or 5 day trek Conference, of the Sir Edmund nominations for the second Sir from Barabise, which lies on the
20 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT
A new NGO born out of the Namche Conference (“People, Park, and Mountain Ecotourism”; May 2003), Mountain Legacy has announced a conference focusing on Rolwaling Valley to be held in October 2005. The theme will be “Mountain hazards and mountain tourism.” As of July 1 2004, Mountain Legacy will be accepting nominations for the second “Sir Edmund Hillary Mountain Legacy Medal,” to be awarded for remarkable service in the conservation of culture and nature in remote mountainous regions.” Mountain Legacy is also planning to establish a research and development institute in Rolwaling Valley.
road to Tibet in the next valley to as sanctuaries, protecting dharma attention. Janice Sacherer the west, or by a 2 or 3 day trek until the danger passed. The estimated that there are from Dolakha, the district neighboring Khumbu was one such approximately 300 different plant administrative seat, located on a zone, and Rolwaling, in the species (Sacherer 1977, 1979 ). short branch off the Swiss road shadow of the mountain abode of The atypical east-west orientation that connects Lamosangu with Jiri. the goddess Tseringma (i.e.Gauri- of the valley creates conditions The latter trail, the lower trails in Shankar), was another. Unlike unlike those in any other valley of Rolwaling itself, and particularly Khumbu, Rolwaling remained the Himalayas. Partially shielded the steep ascent to Simigaon, are isolated and unimpacted until the by its southern wall from the subject to frequent damage during nineteenth century, and then was monsoon, Rolwaling has the monsoon season, a problem visited by a very few wanderers characteristics of the dry inner that has recently been alleviated and outcasts. Due to the limited Himalaya; a good part of the flora somewhat by improvements amount of arable land and the derives from the Tibetan steppe initiated by the Austrian INGO Eco unsuitability of this east-west and, in Nepal, is more typical of Himal and by the Tsho Rolpa valley as a trade route between eastern valleys. As in other Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Tibet and India, Rolwaling’s Himalayan valleys, Rolwaling’s (GLOF) hazard mitigation project inhabitants remained poor and few, ecosystems vary dramatically from being carried out with Japanese but devoutly mindful of their the broad glaciated valleys to the and Dutch assistance. To the east of spiritual heritage. The Buddhist chiseled fluvial channel Rolwaling is Khumbu district, bans on hunting and slaughter, downstream; to a much greater which in 1976 was gazetted as elsewhere observed less extent than in other valleys, the Sagarmatha National Park. The wall scrupulously, have protected the sharp contrast between north- and of peaks between Rolwaling and fauna; even plants are considered south-exposed slopes affects the Khumbu is breached by the living creatures which ought not to distribution of species. The east- formidable Tashi Lapsta pass: with be harmed if possible. west orientation of the valley also good weather, one can make the makes it a convenient corridor for crossing between the last A third general factor that has mobile fauna. Rolwaling is visited settlement in Rolwaling and the contributed to the relatively by quite a few of the charismatic most westerly settlement on the unimpacted state of Rolwaling mammals, including wolves, fox, Khumbu in about four days. Valley has been the government’s several species of goat, bear, jackal, Altogether, access to Rolwaling is limitation of tourist access. Until langur, and several members of the not quite impossible, but definitely recently, you needed both a cat family (including snow more inconvenient than the most trekking peak permit and a regular leopard). Every resident that we popular trekking routes, several of trekking permit. The trekking peak interviewed on the subject is which can now be approached by permit involved costs and other convinced that yeti frequent the air. factors that essentially excluded the valley. In short, Rolwaling’s possibility of independent biological assets are clearly worth Cultural factors have trekking. All visitors arrived in studying; their conservation contributed to the conservation of self-contained tented caravans should also be accorded high species in Rolwaling. According to which contributed virtually priority as the valley’s protective Tibetan Buddhism, about 1250 nothing to the economy of isolation breaks down. years ago Padmasambhava [aka Rolwaling villages. Therefore there Furthermore, one cannot consider Guru Urgyen Rinpoche] plowed has been very little development of development scenarios in the the valley out of the mountains in infrastructure, and not much high Rolwaling Valley without order to serve as one of eight impact on the environment. assessing the implications for “beyul,” refuges that were to the rich subtropical ecosystems remain hidden until, in a time of In terms of biodiversity, of the Tamba Valley into which it religious crisis, they would serve Rolwaling is worthy of close feeds.
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 21 SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT
If isolation has had a benign primarily to the recession of recruiting volunteers. This would effect on the natural ecosystem, the Trakarding Glacier. Attempts to provide an opportunity for tourists human residents of Rolwaling have mitigate the danger of a glacial lake to stay for prolonged periods, observed the tourism boom with outburst flood (GLOF) have making contributions to research envy. In next door valleys, every included siphoning, installation of and practical projects, and also family could throw open its doors a warning system, and reduction of injecting expenditures for living to backpackers and cash in on the the lake level by 3 meters through expenses into the local economy. amenity values of their homeland; an artificial drainage channel. Due International students could be in Rolwaling, the stakeholders to depletion of project funding, the recruited either as study-abroad stare wistfully as organized drainage efforts have stopped far program participants or as interns. trekking caravans deploy their tents short of the recommended These students could either assist by the river, cook up their burrito objective. Particularly as there is a established researchers or design and quiche feasts, and buy nothing real threat of a catastrophic GLOF, and implement their own programs from the local residents. In Tsho Rolpa is an appropriate place consistent with the aims of the Khumbu, their relatives enjoy the to begin long-term study of glacial MLI. benefits of prosperity: schools, melting, runoff hydrology, and upscale monasteries, telephone, moraine stability. The primary objective of RMLI electricity, numerous clinics, a would be to facilitate research and hospital, post office – even Rolwaling is also a good establish a database, while Internet, saunas, pool halls and location for ecological research. developing a special type of chocolate croissants: none are Zonation is extremely compressed. ecotourism in Rolwaling. RMLI available in Rolwaling. Many The east-west orientation results in would encourage long-term stays at young men have found unusually sharp differences on the very low per-diem rates, as employment with trekking and northward and southward facing opposed to so-called “quality climbing services. Such work slopes; it also means that the valley tourism,” which aims to extract the entails extended absence from is probably an important wildlife maximum profit over the course of Rolwaling, and even emigration to corridor. Numerous ethnobotanical short stays. It is expected that such Kathmandu or Khumbu. The resources have been identified; an institute, well-publicized, result is a brain and manpower now would be a good time to study would be a magnet not only for drain that leaves the villages of them in the wild, and also to begin prospective participants but also Rolwaling populated by women, efforts to cultivate them as cash for other tourists. Just as tourists children, and those no longer crops. go out of their way to visit cheese- capable of strenuous labor. making factories, they would visit Agricultural fields have been Serious anthropological studies Rolwaling to see the world-famous abandoned, livestock ineffectively by Sacherer and Baumgartner in research center and to contribute to tended, trails poorly maintained. the 1970s provide useful baseline whatever on-going projects might Alcohol, the only recreational data against which the current need their help. option, is a serious health problem. changes, especially the impact of tourism, can be measured and Again, Mountain Legacy invites This disparity between the monitored. Specific studies that are collaboration on all of its projects. neighboring districts has created in urgently needed: the Rolwaling Rolwaling (as in the access routes) dialect of Sherpa, and Rolwaling Contact an intense demand for free access traditions of song and dance. Arjun Adhikari to backpackers and economic Tel: 977-1-5528090 opportunity. Several years ago, RMLI Format E-mail: [email protected] due to the threat of Maoist attacks, [email protected] the police checkpost in Simigaon In the initial phase, RMLI is was removed. At this point, envisioned as an institute of References Rolwaling is officially open to opportunity rather than Sacherer J. 1977. The Sherpas of general trekking, and, as the infrastructure. That is, researchers Rolwaling Valley, North Nepal: prospects for peace improve, the would use existing facilities (lodges A Study in Cultural Ecology. valley will become an important and homes) rather than Ecole Pratique des Haute Etudes trekking destination. constructing new infrastructures. (Paris): Doctoral dissertation This would permit rapid initiation [Unpub] Research Opportunities of programs, significant ongoing Sacherer J. 1979. The High economic contribution to the Altitude Ethnobotany of the At the western end of Rolwaling village economy and minimization Rolwaling Sherpas. Valley, Tsho Rolpa, one of the of impact on the object(s) of study. Contributions to Nepalese largest and highest elevation lakes Studies, Vol VI, No 2. in the Himalayas, has been growing The proposal calls for Mountain Kathmandu: CNAS, Tribhuvan over the past decades due Legacy to assist researchers in University
22 HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 RESEARCH PAPERS
Quantitative analysis of tree species in two community forests of Dolpa district, mid-west Nepal
Ripu M Kunwar†* and Shiv P Sharma‡
† Society for Economic and Environmental Development, Kathmandu, NEPAL ‡ District Forest Office, Dolpa, NEPAL * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected] ......
Two community forests, Amaldapani and Juphal from Dolpa district, were selected for a study of quantitative analysis of tree flora. A total of 419 individual trees representing 16 species, 16 genera and 11 families were recorded. Total stand density and basal area were, respectively, 2100 trees ha-1 and 90 m2⋅ha-1 in Amaldapani and 2090 tree ha-1 and 152 m2⋅ha-1 in Juphal. Of the families, the Pinaceae was the most diverse, with 28 individuals representing five species and five genera, followed by the Rosaceae with three individuals representing two species and two genera. Pinus wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Quercus semecarpifolia and Cedrus deodara had the highest importance value index and could therefore be considered the dominant species. Since the study area was diverse in tree population of conifers and deciduous forest tree species, it is essential to carry out further studies in order to establish conservation measures that will enhance local biodiversity.
Key words: Vegetation, tree species, Pinus wallichiana, community forest, Dolpa
Him J Sci 2(3): 23-28, 2004 Received: 25 Dec 2003 Copyright©2004 by Himalayan Association Available online at: www.himjsci.com Accepted after revision: 20 Apr 2004 for the Advancement of Science (HimAAS)
Human impact has, to varying degrees, led to a reduction in Dombois and Ellenberg (1974). Botanical name and author citation biodiversity in much of the forested area of Nepal (Karki 1991, was made following DPR (2001). In addition to quantitative data, Chaudhary and Kunwar 2002). Conservation of such forests we used interviews and group discussions to collect information requires an understanding of the composition of the particular relating to community forest management. In order to assess the forest, the effects of past disturbances, and the present impact of general condition and vegetation structure of the forest, we neighboring land use on that forest (Geldenhuys and Murray 1993). developed a density-diameter histogram. Girth of trees exceeding In order to understand the phytosociological structure of the 10 cm diameter at breast height (dbh, at 1.37 m above the ground) Himalayan forests, we need studies that deal with distribution of was measured. The height of standing trees was measured by individual plant species and of various girth classes, associations means of a clinometer. The species area curve of each community among species, patterns of dispersion and various indices of forests was calculated by randomly adding up the number of tree diversity (Longman and Jenik 1987). The present study therefore species in each quadrat. The dominance diversity curve (D-D was designed to explain variation in vegetation composition and curve) was used in order to ascertain the resource apportionment diversity components of tree species of Amaldapani and Juphal among the various species at various sites. community forests of Dolpa district. Jaccard’s (1912) coefficient (J) was used to quantify the extent to which family and species composition overlapped between Materials and methods sample sites. It is defined as: J = A /(A + B + C) where A is the Study area number of family and species found in both sites, B is the families Both Amaldapani Community Forest (ACF) and Juphal and species in site 1 but not in site 2, and C is the families and Community Forest (JCF) in Juphal Village Development species in site 2 but not in 1. Committee (VDC), Dolpa district were selected as study sites. ‘S,’ or species richness, was determined following Whittaker Dolpa, in the rain shadow of northwestern Nepal, is the largest (1976) by tabulating the number of woody species in each plot. and most arid district in the country. Lying between 27°21’ – 27°40’ Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index ‘H’ (Shannon and Weiner 1963), N and 84°35’ – 84°41’ E, it encompasses elevations between 1525 concentration of dominance ‘D’ (Simpson 1949) and Hill diversity and 6883 m asl. ACF has a total area of 100 ha and 87 users, and numbers N0, N1 and N2 (Hill 1973) were computed. was established in 1998 (2055 BS); JCF, with 1750 ha and has 165 Simpson’s index ‘D’ was calculated using the formula users, was established in 1995 (2052 BS). Both community forests ‘D’ = 1 - ∑ pi2, where pi is the relative density. lie between 1900-2700 m asl, are situated close to agricultural Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index ‘H’ was calculated using lands, and are dominated by Picea and Pinus species. the formula ‘H’ = - ∑ pi Log pi, where pi represents the proportional Methods abundance of the ith species in the community. Field studies were carried out in July 2001 and May 2003. Twenty Hill diversity indices were calculated using the following plots, i.e. ten plots in each community forest, each plot measuring formulae: 10m x 10m, were randomly demarcated for study. Density, Number 0: N0 = S, where S is the total number of species; frequency, basal area and their relative values and importance Number 1: N1 = eH, where ‘H’ is the Shannon’s index; value index (IVI) of tree species were calculated following Mueller- Number 2: N2 = 1/D, where ‘D’ is Simpson’s index
HIMALAYAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCES VOL 2 ISSUE 3 JAN-JUNE 2004 23 RESEARCH PAPERS
Results Species area curve 16 14 The slope of the species area curve for each study site declined as ACF sample area increased but did not approach an asymptote 12 JCF (Figure 1). 10 8 Vegetation composition 6 A total of 419 tree individuals, representing 16 species, 16 genera 4 and 11 families, were identified within the 0.2 ha area survey 2 (Table 1). Acer caesium (Aceraceae), Juniperus recurva (Cupressaceae), Picea smithiana (Pinaceae) and Prunus sp 0 (Rosaceae) were found only in JCF and Aesculus indica Cumulative number of species 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 (Hippocastanaceae) was reported only in ACF (Table 1). 1000 Area (m2) Total stand density and basal area were, respectively, 2100 trees ha−1 and 90 m2⋅ha−1 in ACF and 2090 trees ha−1 and 152 FIGURE 1. Species area curve m2⋅ha−1 in JCF (Table 2 and 3). Girth sizes of trees at breast height (gbh) TABLE 1. Composition and distribution of tree species in Amaldapani and Juphal community ranged from 31 to 224 cm in ACF and forests (CF) 31 to 440 cm in JCF. The greatest gbh of Abies spectabilis (440 cm) was found Species name Vernacular Family Amaldapani Juphal in JCF followed by Quercus nnnamenameameame CFCFCF CFCFCF semecarpifolia (400 cm). The tree species attaining the greatest heights Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis Tilailo Aceraceae + (>20 m) were A. spectabilis, Acer Betula utilis D. Don Bhoj patra Betulaceae + + caesium, Cedrus deodara, Juniperus recurva and Tsuga dumosa, all in JCF. Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Dhupi Cupressaceae + The highest IVI value was that of Rhododendron arboreum Smith Gurans Ericaceae + + P. wallichiana (109.58) followed by C. deodara (54.22) in ACF and Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Khasru Fagaceae + + A. spectabilis (75.59) followed by Aesculus indica (Colebr. ex Cambess.) Pangro Hippocasta- + Q. semecarpifolia (57.31) in JCF. Based Hook. naceae on IVI values, P. wallichiana and A. spectabilis were found to be the Juglans regia Linn. Okhar Juglandaceae + + most dominant species in the study Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Spach Jhule sallo Pinaceae + + area (Table 2 and 3). 4.53% of the total Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Deyar Pinaceae + + tree individuals were stumps: 4.05% (17) in ACF and 0.5% (2) in JCF. Of the Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Thingre sallo Pinaceae + total stumps, 52.63% (10) were Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson Khote sallo Pinaceae + + P. wallichiana, 36.84% (7) C. deodara and 5.26% (1) A. spectabilis and Tsuga dumosa (D.Don) Eichler Gobre sallo Pinaceae + + Q. semecarpifolia each. Prunus species Aare Rosaceae + + Size class distribution Pyrus species Pande mel Rosaceae + The distribution of dbh classes Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle Bhote pipal Salicaceae + + conformed to an reverse ‘J’ shape curve, with 63.24% of individuals Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Kandeloto Taxaceae + + having dbh between 11-30 cm: 104 TotalTotalTotal 121212 151515 individuals of 11-20 cm dbh and 35 of 21-30 cm dbh in ACF; 82 individuals of + = presence, = absence 11-20 cm dbh and 44 of 21-30 cm dbh
in JCF (Figure 2). The number of 1200
individuals with a diameter greater