Proceedings of the First National Conference on Zoology

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Biodiversity in a Changing World

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology 28-30 November 2020

Published By Central Department of Zoology Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal

Supported By

“Biodiversity in a Changing World”

Proceedings of the First National Conference on Zoology

28–30 November 2020

ISBN:

Published in 2021 © CDZ, TU

Editors

Laxman Khanal, PhD Bishnu Prasad Bhattarai, PhD Indra Prasad Subedi Jagan Nath Adhikari

Published By

Central Department of Zoology Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal Webpage: www.cdztu.edu.np

Preface

The Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University is delighted to publish a proceeding of the First National Conference on Zoology: Biodiversity in a Changing World. The conference was organized on the occasional of the 55 Anniversary of the Department from November 28–30, 2020 on a virtual platform by the Central Department of Zoology and its Alumni and was supported by the IUCN Nepal, National Trust for Nature Conservation, WWF Nepal and Zoological Society of London Nepal office.

Faunal biodiversity is facing several threats of natural and human origin. These threats have brought widespread changes in species, ecosystem process, landscapes, and adversely affecting human health, agriculture and food security and energy security. These exists large knowledge base on fauna of Nepal. Initially, foreign scientist and researchers began explored faunal biodiversity of Nepal and thus significantly contributed knowledge base. But over the decades, many Nepali scientists and students have heavily researched on the faunal resources of Nepal. Collaboration and interaction between foreign researchers and Nepali researchers and students are important step for further research and conservation of Nepali fauna.

Under above scenario Central Department of Zoology, TU has organized a National Conference on 28–30 November 2020 to provide a common platform for the students, academicians, scientists and researchers from different organizations to share their knowledge and experiences so as to generate sufficient interest for further research in the area of faunal resources. It is believed that the conference helped in motivating young researchers working in different aspects of biological sciences.

The conference represents a significant mega event in the history of Zoological Community of Nepal. A large number of delegates from different premier academic, research and management institutions in the country and abroad have participated and shared their research findings at the conference. In all five keynote lectures, 20 invited speeches and 126 contributed papers were presented at the conference. Besides, there were three panel discussions on various issues of fauna of Nepal.

Important part, post conference event was collection, review and edit of papers, and ultimately publication of the proceedings. The editorial team has received many submissions for publication and each submission was reviewed rigorously to ensure quality and maintain standards. Among the submitted papers, 28 got ratings that could be published as full papers in the proceedings. Other good paper authors/presenters from the NCZ 2020 are asked to extend their papers for possible inclusion in the forthcoming issues of Nepalese Journal of Zoology- a peer reviewed journal published by the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University.

The proceeding contains many interesting research articles from various sub-disciplines of biological sciences. The proceedings will widen knowledge base and understanding about faunal biodiversity of Nepal. We would like to thank all the contributing authors for sharing their valuable research papers through this proceeding. Thanks to the editors who agreed to help us by managing manuscripts. They performed incredible job in reading, reviewing, editing and making final decisions on whether those documents should eventually become part of the proceedings. Our deepest gratitude to the Tribhuvan University authority, IUCN, NTNC, WWF Nepal and ZSL Nepal for their support in the conference as well as publication of this proceedings.

Prof. Dr. Tej Bahadur Thapa Head of Department Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University

Conference Organizing Committee

Organizing Committee Prof Dr Tej B. Thapa, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Siddhartha B. Bajracharya, National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), Lalitpur, Nepal Prof Dr Kumar Sapkota, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Mahendra Maharjan, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Archana Prasad, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Prem B. Budha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Laxman Khanal, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Advisory Board Prof Dr Dharma K. Baskota, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Ram P. Khatiwada, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Rameshwar Adhikari, Research Center for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Prof Toran B. Karki, Former VC, Purbanchal University, Biratnagar, Nepal Prof Dr Dwij R. Upreti, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Jiwan Shrestha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Purna N. Mishra, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Suresh B. Karki, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Tej K. Shrestha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Vasanta K. Thapa, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Umakanta Ray Yadav, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Ananda S. Tamrakar, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Ranjana Gupta, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Karan B. Shah, Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Khadga Basnet, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Surya R. Gubhaju, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Shyam N. Labh, Amrit Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Dr Deep B. Swar, Nepal Fisheries Society, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Ramesh K. Shrestha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Damodar Thapa Chhetry, Post Graduate Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Geeta Sharma, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Arvind K. Keshari, Patan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Mukesh K. Chalise, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Ganesh B. Thapa, Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Scientific Sub-Committee Prof Dr Kumar Sapkota, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Hem S. Baral, Head, Nepal Office Zoological Society of London, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Mahendra Maharjan, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof Dr Chhatra M. Sharma, Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Prof Dr Sunila Rai, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal Dr Subodh K. Upadhyaya, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal Dr Chiranjibi P. Pokheral, National Trust for Nature Conservation-Central Zoo, Lalitpur, Nepal Dr Daya R. Bhusal, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Hari P. Sharma, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Ishan Gautam, Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Pradip Gyawali, Institute of Environmental Science and Research, New Zealand Dr Kishor Pandey, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Nepal Dr Chet P. Bhatta, Radford University Carilion, United States Dr Pushpa R. Acharya, Central Campus of Science and Technology, Mid-Western University, Surkhet, Nepal Dr Narayan P. Koju, Center for Postgraduate studies, Nepal Engineering College, Pokhara University, Nepal

Conference Management Sub-committee Dr Prem B. Budha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Mr Kul P. Limbu, Post Graduate Campus, Tribhuvan University, Biratnagar, Nepal Mr Indra P. Subedi, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Dr Bishnu P. Bhattarai, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Ms Santoshi Shrestha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Rakshya Thapa, Amrit Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Mr Janak R. Subedi, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Mr Pitambar Dhakal, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Mr Jagan N. Adhikari, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal ZOOSAN CDZ, Tribhuvan University

Conference Secretariat Dr Laxman Khanal, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Dr Bishnu P. Bhattarai, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Mr Indra Prasad Subedi, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Mr Hari Basnet, Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation, Nepal Ms Shruti Shakya, Alumni Association of Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal

Contents Biodiversity, prosperity, and sustainable development in Nepal: How protected areas can contribute ...... 1 Jeffrey A. McNeely ...... 1 Smaller than a breadbox: Some thoughts on research priorities for the conservation of Nepal’s lesser terrestrial vertebrates ...... 13 Joel T. Heinen1* and Sagar Dahal2 ...... 13 Nepal’s turtles in peril of extinction ...... 29 Hermann Schleich* ...... 29 Wild-release, vital conservation tool or biodiversity threat? ...... 43 Steve Lockett* ...... 43 Using media to understand dynamics of human-leopard relation in Nepal ...... 53 Chandramani Aryal 1,2,3* and Narayan Niraula1,4 ...... 53 Seasonal variation of hornets in the apiaries of Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu ...... 63 Ganga Kafle1* and Ishan Gautam2 ...... 63 Helminth parasites reported in gastro-intestinal region of air-breathing fishes at Biratnagar, Eastern Nepal ...... 71 Gayatri Shah1,2*, Shiv Narayan Yadav2, Jay Narayan Shrestha2 and Shyam Narayan Labh1 ...... 71 Role of red blood cell indices in the screening of beta thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies ...... 78 Gita Shrestha1* and Nanda Bahadur Singh2 ...... 78 Local people’s perception towards vultures and the vulture restaurant in Nawalpur District, Gandaki Province, Nepal . 85 Kala Dumre1*, Bishnu Prasad Bhattarai1, Omkar Bhatt1 ...... 85 Ichthyofaunal diversity of Bhagairia lake, Bardiya district, Nepal ...... 95 Abhishekh Bista1*, Ram Bhajan Mandal1, Choudhary Nagendra Roy Yadav1, Asha Rayamajhi2 and Gun Bahadur Gurung3 ...... 95 Climate change, seasonal variations, and immune responses in aquaculture ...... 105 Anil Kumar Jha1*, Monowar Alam Khalid1 and Shyam Narayan Labh2 ...... 105 Forest restoration through ecosystem-based adaptation approaches: A nature-based solutions for ecosystem resilience: a case from Nepal ...... 117 Anu Adhikari* ...... 117 Updated subspecies account of Parnassius epaphus Oberthür 1879 of the Nepal Himalaya ...... 127 Bhaiya Khanal* ...... 127 Biodiversity of Mangsebung Rural Municipality, eastern Nepal ...... 134 Bharat Raj Subba* ...... 134 Feeding ecology of red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Sindin, Panchthar, eastern Nepal ...... 155 Kamala Rai* and Tej Bahadur Thapa ...... 155 Phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and distribution in Ghodaghodi Lake, Nepal ...... 177 Melina DC1, Archana Prasad1*, Smriti Gurung2, Rita Bhatta3, Dikshya Regmi4, Shrija Tuladhar2, Chhatra Mani Sharma4 ...... 177 i

On the taxonomic status and habitats of Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, 1960 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae), in Palpa, Nepal ...... 187 Pit Bahadur Nepali1, 2* and Nanda Bahadur Singh2 ...... 187 Diversity of bumblebees in the southern part of Kathmandu valley, Nepal ...... 197 Prabha Ale Magar and Daya Ram Bhusal* ...... 197 Shifting habitats of the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park of Nepal ...... 216 Prayag Raj Kuikel* and Khadga Basnet ...... 216 Study on habitat status of red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Sinja, Jumla, Nepal...... 228 Purushottam Jaishi* and Narayan Prasad Koju ...... 228 Assessing the impacts of Tikauli section of east-west highway on wildlife of Barandabhar Corridor, Forest, Nepal ...... 238 Pushpa Rana Magar*, Jhamak Bahadur Karki, Lilu Kumari Magar and Nripesh Kunwar ...... 238 Identification and domestication of native ornamental fishes of Begnas Lake, Pokhara, Nepal ...... 259 Sapana Chand1*, Archana Prasad1 and Md Akbal Husen2 ...... 259 Diversity of ground-dwelling ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Lahachowk, Kaski, Nepal ...... 267 Shambhu Adhikari1,2, Dibya Rai1,2, Sandesh Gurung3 and Indra Prasad Subedi3* ...... 267 Synergetic effects of nettle (Urtica parviflora) powder with multienzyme on growth performance of rainbow trout (Onchorhynuss mykiss) ...... 279 Soniya Maharjan1, Archana Prasad1*, Prem Timalsina2 and Churamani Bhusal3 ...... 279 Diversity of butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies along Madi River, Nepal ...... 289 Subarna Raj Ghimire1* and Purna Man Shrestha1,2 ...... 289 Diversity of ladybird beetles in Tribhuvan University premises, Kirtipur, Nepal ...... 299 Sushila Bajracharya* and Prem Bahadur Budha ...... 299 Anthropogenic impacts on fish diversity in Sudurpaschim Province, Nepal: A review ...... 309 Suyatra Ghimire1*, Bishal Poudyal1, Ganesh Bahadur Thapa2, Laxman Prasad Poudyal3 and Ishan Gautam2 309 Fish diversity in Mahakali River of Nepal ...... 329 Yagya Raj Joshi1, 2* and Promod Joshi2 ...... 329

Biodiversity, prosperity, and sustainable development in Nepal: How protected areas can contribute

Jeffrey A. McNeely* 1445/29 Petchkasem Road, Saitai Cha-Am, Petchburi 76120, Thailand *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Nature provides significant benefits to people, especially those living in and around Nepal’s protected areas. Ecosystem services from protected areas include producing wild living raw materials; supporting biodiversity and water cycles; regulating climate; and providing cultural services like better health, tourism, and legacy for future generations. In economic terms, the flows of ecosystem services provided by protected areas well justify the costs of managing these sites. But protected areas are suffering from environmental problems such as growing demands for natural resources, invasive non-native species that harm natural ecosystems, and climate change that is affecting all ecosystems. All of these are made worse by the spread of COVID-19 that dominated the year 2020. To address these linked challenges, Nepal’s protected areas can play a strong supporting role in rural development; enhance the contribution of protected areas to climate change mitigation and adaptation; encourage productive research to support protected areas management and build knowledge about the structure and functions of Nepal’s biodiversity; and include protected areas as relevant parties in relevant trade and other international negotiations. These broader contributions will earn stronger support from government agencies, the public, the private sector, and visitors who welcome nature’s central role in Nepal’s sustainable human society.

Introduction

Nepal’s protected areas make major contributions to human well-being The concept of biological diversity – the variability of genes, species, and ecosystems -- has generated significant conservation action, judging from the numerous actions that have arisen from the fourteen meetings of the Conference of Parties (COP) that have been held since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force (UNEP 1992). For example, COP 10 met in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, in 2010 and adopted a Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, which included 20 “Aichi targets” designed to inspire action from governments, scientists, and conservation organizations. Its Target 11 called for at least 17 percent of terrestrial and inland water areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, to be conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative, and well-connected systems of protected areas that are well integrated into the wider landscape by 2020 (SCBD 2010).

1 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

Nepal has already met part of this target, with 23.63% (34,898 km2) of the land in protected areas, but the sites now need to be supported to meet the full design and management parts of the target. A key to success will include applying the concept of ecosystem services. Popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005), this concept has been widely adopted as an effective way to present evidence that supports investments in conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (IPBES 2019). The ecosystems that support these services are often healthiest in protected areas where they can maintain their structure and functions over time in the face of external stresses such as those imposed by changes in climate or land use (Costanza & Mageau 1999). Ecosystems are likely to be especially adaptable to changing conditions when they are linked to other ecosystems to increase their effective size, for example through linking protected areas and their buffer zones into larger landscapes (as called for by Aichi Target 11). Natural ecosystems are well placed to be key contributors to future forms of Nepal’s sustainable development because they have already adapted to significant geographic, climatic, and cultural changes to deliver their ecosystem services to people. Protected areas are where the richest biological diversity is found, where “nature’s toolbox” is at its fullest, so their potential for providing ecosystem services is especially high. To assess their contributions, ecosystem services were divided by the MEA into four broad and mutually reinforcing categories: provisioning; regulating; supporting; and cultural.

Provisioning services from protected areas Provisioning services are the material or energy outputs delivered by agricultural land, production forests (including plantations), and natural ecosystems. While harvesting resources from protected areas is prohibited in some of Nepal’s protected areas, the potential provisioning services from protected areas are substantial (Ninan 2009) and several are discussed here. Protected areas provide raw materials to rural people. Many species of plants have seeds, fruits, spices, and leaves that are edible for humans, occur within protected areas and their surrounding lands, and contribute to human nutrition in Nepal (SCBD 2015). Protected areas also support bamboo, thatch grass, construction timber, rocks, and other materials. While harvesting such resources is forbidden in the most strictly protected categories of protected areas, sustainable levels of collecting plant products in some protected areas, for example Annapurna Conservation Area and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, is earning support from the rural people who depend on these resources. Further, the increase in forest cover when management was returned to communities has increased forest cover in the middle hills from 26% in 1992 to 45% in 2016 (Fox & Sakseena 2018), confirming that rural people can be responsible resource managers. Protected areas provide edible fish. Protected areas are an essential part of the life cycle of many species of harvested fish that are born upstream in the waters of protected areas such as Sagarmatha and Makalu-Barun and then migrate downstream as juveniles to protected areas such as Kosi Tappu and Chitwan to grow into adults that can be legally captured outside protected areas to feed people as well as crocodiles and gavials (Benitez et al. 2015).

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Protected areas provide medicinal plants. About 75% of the new drugs to fight bacterial infections, viruses, and parasites developed since 1981 have come from natural products (SCBD & WHO 2015). Ayurvedic medicine has depended on medicinal plants (and animals) for centuries and Nepal has long been known as an important source for medicinal plants throughout southern Asia. A recent compilation records 571 medicinal plants, roughly 11% of Nepal’s 5067 species of plants (IUCN Nepal 2000). These make a substantial contribution to human health by informal health providers in rural areas, by formal health providers in urban areas, and among researchers who find medicinal plants to be useful in seeking new treatments for many diseases (Saetung et al. 2005). Collecting limited samples from wild species of potential medicinal value in protected areas could be managed under appropriate legislation and help support Nepal’s thriving medicinal plant processing enterprises (Caporale et al. 2020). Protected areas provide micro-organisms that deliver benefits to human health. Several of Nepal’s protected areas have geothermal springs, especially Tatopani Mustang and Jomsom (Ranjit 1994). Many of these springs support heat-loving micro-organisms (“thermophiles”) with potentially useful enzymes awaiting discovery, development, and marketing because of their ability to survive through the sometimes-challenging applications to pharmaceutical and biotechnological processes (Mehta et al. 2016).

Supporting services from protected areas

Some ecosystem services support the production of all the other services, so they are in a sense beyond cash value because all life depends on them. Only the supporting services of particular relevance to Nepal are discussed here. Protected areas support biodiversity. Biodiversity supports the fulfilment of all of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (Sachs et al. 2019; Blicharska et al. 2019). Biodiversity’s economic dimensions and links to ecosystem services have been well reported (Ninan 2009; Kumar 2009), and rich biodiversity at multiple trophic levels is required to deliver the full benefits of ecosystems (Soliveres et al. 2016). Protected areas have shown their effectiveness in supporting biodiversity and high productivity (Duffy et al. 2017), and the mature ecosystems that include the full range of trophic levels in Nepal are essentially confined to protected areas. Protected areas support water cycles. Much of the fresh water that provides irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectricity to Nepal’s fields, villages, and cities comes from protected areas, especially those high in the snowy Himalayas such as Sagarmatha, Langtang, Shey-Phoksundo, and Makalu-Barun. The close relationship between dams, reservoirs, and protected areas demonstrates that watershed protection is one of the most valuable ecosystem services these sites provide, especially by extending the life of reservoirs through slowing sedimentation rates (USEPA 2012). Nepal’s ten Wetlands of International Importance, recognized under the Ramsar Convention (examples include Kosi Tappu, Bishazari Tal, Gokyo Lakes, and Pokhara Valley Lakes) are also major parts of the country’s

3 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World hydrological system that delivers benefits such as sustainable provision of clean water, generation of energy, and irrigation water, among others.

Regulating services from protected areas

This section focuses on benefits protected areas provide through moderating natural phenomena. Protected areas mitigate climate change and help adapt to it. The Nepal Academy of Science and Technology hosts a substantial resource of expertise on climate change, covering impacts of climate change on forests, water, biodiversity, agriculture, disasters, and public health (Bhuju et al. 2016). Less attention is given to the crucial importance of the contribution protected areas can make to climate change mitigation and adaptation at this critical time (Hoffman et al. 2019). Old-growth forests in protected areas continue to accumulate carbon at an increasing rate that is far faster than that from newer forests (regenerated under natural conditions or planted in plantations) being advocated as a climate change mitigation measure (Stephenson et al. 2014). Protected areas also store carbon in their soils and wetland sediments. Protected areas enhance resilience to extreme natural events. By keeping land in mature vegetation in mountains and along watercourses, protected areas help reduce the impacts of rainstorms, provide emergency resources if required, and serve as windbreaks that protect villages against powerful monsoon winds (Stolton et al. 2008). Ecosystem-based approaches have also proven effective in reducing the risks of floods, justifying investments in watershed-protecting ecosystems (Takeuchi et al. 2016). Climate change is likely to lead to more frequent glacial lake outburst floods, with disastrous flows that are evidenced by the wide, rocky kholas below Nepal’s major peaks.

Cultural services from protected areas

Cultural ecosystem services include the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystem services (though some of them can yield financial benefits). They are powerfully linked to biodiversity (Jianchu 2000) and many of them are strongly delivered by protected areas. With 108 languages spoken, Nepal is especially rich in cultural diversity that often is linked to local ecosystems and traditional beliefs. Protected areas provide spiritual benefits, mental peace and better health. The relationships of Nepal’s rural people with nature often have sacred overtones, especially in the Himalayas, and some protected areas have incorporated traditional sacred natural sites within their boundaries to help conserve the richness of cultural traditions (Verschuuren et al. 2010). Nepal’s dramatic mountains have long been treated with reverence, by both residents and visitors (Cameron 1984), and many people find a strong sense of peace and inspiration among the Himalayan peaks, a cultural value that is beyond a price but can be inferred by the efforts people make to visit Nepal’s mountains (Jerome 1978). Lower down, forested protected areas enhance a sense of well-being in many people, and children who are able to interact with nature are healthier and better balanced socially (Engemann et al. 2019). By providing access to nature, protected areas improve and maintain 4

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 human health and well-being at both individual and community levels (Twohig-Bennett et al. 2018). Being in the forest lowers blood pressure, reduces the production of stress hormones, and improves the functioning of the human immune system (Li 2018), leading some researchers to conclude that forest environments can be considered “therapeutic landscapes” (Livini 2017). Protected areas provide a major attraction for tourism. “Ecotourism” involving protected areas has become an important sector that has been embraced by the private tourism industry, as evidenced by Sagarmatha and Chitwan National Parks, both of which have been recognized as World Heritage Sites (Aryal et al. 2019). People who live around protected areas are benefitting from tourism income through providing food and drink, souvenirs, lodging, transport, and guide services (Karanth & Nepal 2012). Popular national parks are attracting major investments in tourism to the surrounding lands, offering employment opportunities to local communities as well as providing markets for crops and handicrafts; this has been shown to reduce poverty and extreme poverty while not exacerbating inequality (Brabar et al. 2018). Protected areas provide sites for generating scientific knowledge about natural resources and their management. Nepal’s protected areas with controlled human impacts provide significant opportunities for researchers, leading to thousands of high-quality publications on many species, ecosystems, and natural processes (e.g., Schaller 1977; Grimmett et al. 2016). The findings from field research presented at this meeting provide valuable information that can be used by visitors to enhance the enjoyment of their visits to the protected areas and by protected area managers to monitor the effects of wildlife management, visitors, habitat management, impact of poachers, and so forth.

Conserving biodiversity is facing major challenges The valuable system of protected areas faces problems that reflect larger environmental challenges to Nepal. These are discussed separately here, but they overlap and flow together to paint a picture of environments and people under stress and in dire need of effective responses. The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (McIntyre et al. 2009) concluded that land use change is the most serious immediate threat to the provision of ecosystem services. The conversion of ecosystems from natural to human-dominated is often accompanied by fragmentation through transportation and other linear infrastructure, especially railroads, highways, canals, and fences that cut natural ecosystems into smaller parcels at a time when landscape connectivity is widely recognized as an important conservation objective (Fahrig 2017). Fragmentation reduces species richness in the remaining patches as well as altering nutrient cycles (Haddad et al. 2015). Aichi Target 5 calls for such fragmentation to be reduced, arguing for more attention to be given to this problem, especially when planning new highways in the Terai. While many of Nepal’s ecosystems are losing native species, they are being invaded by least 173 invasive non-native species that are now moving into Nepal as an externality of global trade (Shrestha 2016). Almost all protected areas in the Terai are being ecologically compromised by invading plants

5 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World like water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), siam weed (Chromolaena odorata), and lantana (Lantana camara). The close link between global trade in agricultural products and the spread of damaging invasive alien species has led to the issue receiving more international attention, including under Aichi Target 9 and CBD Article 8(h). Climate change is becoming the top global environmental concern, even an existential threat (Hoegh- Guldberg et al. 2019), with government responses building on the scientific assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Sound science led to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which established the major international venue for agreeing priority actions. Its 2015 Conference of Parties in Paris agreed that global emissions need to fall by 8% per year over the next decade to limit warming to 1.5o C. IPCC (2019) found that action to meet the 1.5o C target would require major transitions in land, energy, industry, buildings, transport, and cities; but the benefits of meeting this target would outweigh the costs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2019). And every year of delay will require subsequent emission cuts to be deeper and faster, and therefore even more painful and unpopular. The changing patterns of temperature and rainfall in Nepal are likely to drive changes in agricultural productivity and the distribution of many species of plants and animals. Accelerating climate change may create novel ecosystems, increase the threat of fires in forests and grasslands, and have many other impacts on ecosystems and human well-being (IPCC 2018). This calls for investments in relevant research and policy development that will enhance adaptability to changing ecological conditions that result from the changing climate. The arrival in Nepal of COVID-19 in January 2020 had a shocking impact. The declaration in March of COVID-19 as a pandemic led to a virtual shut-down of the tourism industry that was providing over a million jobs and 8% of GDP. It also led to many other social and economic impacts, including problems with remittances from the 3.5 million Nepalese living and working abroad and accounting for almost 25% of Nepal’s GDP (Sah 2020). COVID-19 had infected over 250,000 people and caused over 1700 deaths by December, forcing the government to focus on addressing the pandemic. Understandably, this is hampering the efforts by government, development agencies, and conservation organizations to address the on-going problems of habitat fragmentation, overexploitation of natural resources, spread of invasive alien species, and changing climate. When the pandemic has been controlled, more effective approaches to sustainable resource management will be required and the post-COVID-19 development should recognize the central role of biodiversity and ecosystem services in supporting sustainable forms of development. This should include a new approach to protected areas with a package of responses that reinforce each other on the way to a sustainable future.

How protected areas can help support a sustainable future The serious environmental challenges that Nepal will be facing in the coming years will require strong responses from government agencies, farmers, environmental organizations, scientists, the private sector, and civil society. As an illustration of the numerous available options for protected areas,

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Sutherland et al. (2018) assessed 1,277 conservation interventions that have been implemented and Baldwin and Beazley (2019) indicate some of the productive ways to link biodiversity and protected areas. Areas of controversy, even conflict, should be seen as stimuli for developing better approaches and further research, and diverse systems will require diverse responses (Rechcinski et al. 2019). Here are six key measures that can help Nepal’s protected areas adapt to the changing conditions: i. Strengthen the supporting role of protected areas in rural development. Successful conservation will build a productive relationship between protected areas and the people living in and around them. Nepal’s rural people often have an intimate understanding of nature and the natural resources within the protected sites, sometimes based on ancestral occupation in them. In response to Aichi Targets 2, 14, and 18, greater attention needs to be given to recruiting rural people as supporters of protected areas by providing economic opportunities to them. In many cases, the people living in and around protected areas were already benefitting from the ecosystem services provided by the protected areas before the COVID-19 pandemic, and this positive relationship between people and protected areas can be enhanced as Nepal recovers from the pandemic. The people depending on protected areas could be partners in post-COVID-19 recovery that could include giving priority to poverty alleviation investments, hiring local people to fill some of the resource management posts in the protected area, supporting establishment of tourism-related enterprises that could provide sufficient income, and providing training for taking full advantage of these opportunities. The recovery could draw on local knowledge, traditional experience, and other forms of knowing that can lead to adaptive management of protected areas (Gadgil et al. 1993). ii. Expand the conservation estate to include more of Nepal’s land. Including all land that is being managed to achieve conservation of biological diversity and ecosystem services in Nepal can approach the transformative vision of E.O. Wilson (2016) to devote half the planet Earth to lands that are free from intensive economic activity. Bhutan has already met this visionary target, and Nepal can learn from this experience. Expanding Nepal’s conservation estate and managing it effectively could involve interdisciplinary approaches to take advantage of opportunities for establishing connectivity of ecosystems in the larger landscape in which protected areas are found (Nystrom et al. 2019), and give more attention to protected areas management categories that permit a resident population that does not disrupt the delivery of ecosystem services (such as Annapurna, Makalu-Barun, and Kanchenjunga, and their surrounding landscapes). iii. Enhance the management effectiveness of protected areas. Expanding the size of protected areas and their buffer zones, and connecting them to form larger landscapes is not sufficient to achieve the Aichi targets because these areas also need to be managed effectively. Management effectiveness can be evaluated by assessing how well protected areas are achieving the site’s objectives, using objective indicators of inputs such as staff, budgets, and visitation, and outcomes starting with biodiversity conserved and ecosystem services provided. Hockings et al. (2006) provide a useful handbook for assessing management effectiveness following principles of sound design and planning, good governance, and effective management to achieve successful conservation outcomes. Reporting

7 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World the management effectiveness of protected areas should become part of Nepal’s assessments of protected area contributions to conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services, perhaps following the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) (Stolton et al. 2019). iv. Enhance the role of protected areas in contributing to national climate change objectives. Protected areas are important supporters of the transformative change that is needed if Nepal is to adapt to the changing climate; terrestrial and wetland protected areas are rich storehouses of carbon, and expanding support to their management agencies for this ecosystem service would enable them to store more carbon, and for longer. Supporting carbon payments could be substantial, as indicated by the carbon markets being developed under the UNFCCC to help pay for adapting to climate change and mitigating its impacts (Schiermeier 2019); the World Bank estimates that global financial transfers for carbon sequestration could reach US$ 400 billion annually by 2030 (Kossoy et al. 2015). More immediately, it would be useful to establish renewable sources of local energy, such as solar panels, mini-hydropower installations, or compact wind turbines at all protected areas headquarters and other installations. This would demonstrate the viability modern renewable sources of energy and could inspire emulation by villages, tourist lodging, and other rural uses; it could also generate energy independence and expertise in managing modern renewable energy infrastructure. Nepal’s submission to its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to climate change to the UNFCCC in 2021, to cover the coming decade, should include protected areas as providers of nature- based solutions (NbS) to climate change (Seddon et al., 2019). NbS for climate change mitigation and adaptation include conservation, restoration, and improved land management that increases carbon storage and limits greenhouse gas emissions from forests, wetlands, grasslands, and agricultural lands. Griscom et al. (2017) found that 20 kinds of NbS can provide over a third of the climate change mitigation needed by 2030 to stabilize warming below 2oC while also improving soil productivity, cleaning air and water, and maintaining biodiversity. v. Encourage adaptive research in protected areas. Research in protected areas should be developed in consultation with protected area managers and other interest groups, as called for by Aichi Target 19. Research should include provision for collecting of voucher specimens, samples of genetic materials for laboratory studies, “environmental DNA” that can track rare and Endangered species (Lewis 2019), photographic documentation, and means to apply research findings to improved management of the protected areas, following the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits (SCBD 2011). The papers presented at this conference provide plentiful illustrations of the research that is needed. vi. Include protected areas as interested parties in relevant trade and other international negotiations. To gain broader support, management of protected areas needs to extend beyond conventional approaches. Already, protected areas are part of the global economy, judging from the international visitors to national parks, the sharing of modern technologies for research and management of protected areas, the growing interest in transboundary protected areas 8

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 for peace and cooperation (Sandwith et al. 2001), the illegal international trade in species of plants and animals from protected areas, and the spread of invasive alien species through international trade that leads to ecological harm of protected areas. Nepal could enhance cooperative approaches to managing shared ecosystems and species of conservation concern that move across borders with China and India, with participation of protected area management issues. Relevant government agencies could discuss the environmental responsibilities that countries importing food, timber, medicinal plants, and biofuels may have to Nepal, and to the protected areas that are affected by this trade. And the issue of invasive alien species needs to include all relevant government agencies and supported by the involved private sector interests (Wittenburg & Cock 2001).

Conclusions The ecosystem services provided by Nepal’s protected areas deliver multiple benefits to farmers, fishers, urban dwellers, students, visitors to the national parks, researchers, international tourists, tourism agencies, and many others. Demands are increasing for the protected areas to deliver better experiences for visitors, ensure that protected areas contribute to national efforts to address climate change, protect the wild species that are under increasing threats, manage water resources effectively, and use modern technology to harness the benefits from the great wealth of biodiversity contained in the protected areas and their surrounding lands and waters. More effective protected area management should be based on delivering ecosystem services and a broader mandate that would include supporting rural development, active participation in national climate change adaptation and mitigation, ambitious research that would promote delivery of benefits from nature, and a significant role in international trade that contributes to Nepal’s national economy. This expanded role will help ensure that the natural areas will be available far into the future and continue providing a rich flow of benefits to the citizens of Nepal and to the larger world.

References

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Caporale, F., et al. 2020. Plant-based sustainable development: The expansion and anatomy of the medicinal plant secondary processing sector in Nepal. Sustainability 12(14):5575. DOI: 10.3390/su12145575. CBD. 2016. Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its thirteenth meeting. Decision XIII/28. Indicators for the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Available at: cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-13/cop-13-dec-28-en.pdf. Costanza, R. and M. Mageau. 1999. What is a healthy ecosystem? Aquatic Ecology 33:105–115. Duffy, J. E., Godwin, C. M. and Cardinale B. J. 2017. Biodiversity effects in the wild are common and as strong as key drivers of productivity. Nature 549:261–264. Engemann, K., et al. 2019. Residential green space in childhood is associated with lower risk of psychiatric disorders from adolescence into adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences 116(11):5188–5193. Fahrig, L. 2017. Ecological responses to habitat fragmentation per se. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 48:1–23. Fox, J. and Saksena, S. 2018. Twenty-five years of community forestry: Mapping forest dynamics in the middle hills of Nepal. East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. Gadgil, M., Berkes, F. and Folke, C. 1993. Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation. Ambio 22(2-3):151– 156. Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C., Inskipp, T. and Baral, H. S. 2016. Birds of Nepal. Helm Field Guides, London. Griscom, B.W., et al. 2017. Natural climate solutions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 114:11645–11650. Haddad, Nick, et al. 2017. Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Science Advances 1(2). Doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1500052 Hockings, M., et al. 2006. Evaluating effectiveness: A framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas 2nd edition. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Hoegh-Goldberg, O. et al. 2019. The human imperative of stabilizing global climate change at 1.5oC. Science 365: DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw6974 Hoffmann, S., Severin, D. and Beierkuhnlein C. 2019. Predicted climate shifts within terrestrial protected areas worldwide. Nature Communications 10. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12603-w IPBES. 2019. Global Assessment on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Paris. https://www.ipbes.net/global-assessment-report-biodiversity- ecosystem-services IPCC. 2018. Climate Change 2018: Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva. IPPC. 2019. IPPC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 Degrees C. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva. IUCN Nepal. 2000. National register of medicinal plants. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu. Jerome, J. 1978. On mountains: Thinking about terrain. McGraw-Hill, New York. Jianchu, X. (ed.) 2000. Links between culture and biodiversity. Yunnan Science and Technology Press, Kunming, China. Karanth, K. K. and Nepal, S. K. 2012. Local residents’ perception of benefits and issues from protected areas in Nepal. Environmental Management 49:372–386. Kossoy, Alexandre, et al. 2015. State and Trends of Carbon Pricing. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Kumar, P. (ed.). 2009. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundation. Earthscan, London. Lewis, D. 2019. Rare bird’s detection highlights promise of ‘Environmental DNA’. Nature 575:423–424. Li, Q. 2018. Shinrin-Yoku: The art and science of forest bathing. Penguin, London. Livini, E. 2017. The Japanese practice of ‘forest bathing’ is scientifically proven to be good for you. World Economic Forum March. McIntyre, B. D. et al. (eds.). 2009. Agriculture at a Crossroads: Global Report of the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

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MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: Biodiversity synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington DC. Mehta, R., et al. 2016. Insight into thermophiles and their wide-spectrum applications. Biotech 6(1):81. DOI:10.1007/s13205-016-0368-z. Ninan, K. N. (ed.). 2009. Conserving and valuing ecosystem services and biodiversity: Economic, institutional, and social challenges. Earthscan, London. Nystrom, M., et al. 2019. Anatomy and resilience of the global production ecosystem. Nature 575:98–108. Oldekp, J. A., et al. 2018. An upside to globalization: international outmigration drives reforestation in Nepal. Global Environmental Change 52:66–74. Ranjit, M. 1994. Geothermal studies of some thermal springs in Nepal. Geothermal Training Programme Report 11, United Nations University, Reykjavik, Iceland. Rechcinski, M. 2019. Protected area conflicts: a state-of-the-art review and a proposed integrated conceptual framework for reclaiming the role of geography. Biodiversity and Conservation 28:2463–2498. Sachs, J., et al. 2019. Sustainable Development Report 2019. Bertelsmann Stiftung and Sustainable Development Solutions Network, New York. Saetung, Athima, et al. 2005. Cytotoxic activity of Thai medicinal plants for cancer treatment. Songkhlanakarin Journal of Science and Technology 27(2):469–478. Sah, R., Sigdel, S., et al. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 on tourism in Nepal. Journal of Travel Medicine 27(6). doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa105 Sandwith, T., et al. 2001. Transboundary Protected Areas for Peace and Co-operation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity). 2010. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020. SCBD, Montreal. SCBD. 2011. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity. SCBD, Montreal. SCBD. 2015. Notification: Strengthening the in-situ conservation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture through incorporation of Crop Wild Relatives under areas important for biodiversity in Protected Area Networks and other effective area-based conservation measures (Aichi Biodiversity Targets 7, 11, 12 and 13). SCBD, Montreal. SCBD and WHO. 2015. Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and World Health Organization, Montreal, Canada. Schaller, G. B. 1977. Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalayas. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Schiermeier, A. 2019. Carbon markets shape the agenda at the United Nations climate summit. Nature 576: 17–18. Seddon, N., et al. 2019. Nature-based Solutions in Nationally Determined Contributions: Synthesis and recommendations for enhancing climate ambition and action by 2020. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. Shresta, B. B. 2016. Invasive alien species in Nepal. Frontiers of Botany 2016: 269–284. Sloan, S., et al. 2019. Development Corridors and Remnant-Forest Conservation in Sumatra, Indonesia. Tropical Conservation Science 12:1–9. Soliveres, S., et al. 2016. Biodiversity at multiple trophic levels is needed for ecosystem multifunctionality. Nature 536:456–459. Stephenson, N. L., et al. 2014. Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature 507:90– 903. Stolton, Sue, Nigel Dudley and Jonathan Randall. 2008. Natural Security: Protected Areas and Hazard Mitigation. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Stolton, Sue, et al. 2019. Lessons learned from 18 years of implementing the management effectiveness tracking tool (METT): A perspective from the METT developers and implementers. Parks 25(2):79–89. Sutherland, W. J., et al. (eds.). 2018. What Works in Conservation 2018. Open Book Publishers, Cambridge, UK.

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Smaller than a breadbox: Some thoughts on research priorities for the conservation of Nepal’s lesser terrestrial vertebrates

Joel T. Heinen1* and Sagar Dahal2

1Department of Earth and Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33193, USA. 2Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation, Balkhu, Kathmandu, Nepal. *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Located along the boundary of two zoogeographic provinces, and with the highest peaks and deepest valleys on Earth, Nepal is a center of adaptive radiation for many taxa. Early zoological research focused on high-profile large mammals due to funding and policy priorities, and knowledge gaps remain for most other vertebrate taxa. Technologies ranging from genetic mapping to GPS, GIS, digital cameras and micro-transmitters have advanced since the emergence of conservation biology in the 1980s, and greatly expanded research capacities. Based on field experience and literature review, we present our perceptions on research needs for the lesser terrestrial vertebrate fauna of Nepal, pointing out knowledge gaps and suggesting where to go from here. The growing numbers of Nepali researchers focusing on small mammals is encouraging, but the status of many taxa remains unknown. Also encouraging is the wealth of information on the season distribution of many birds, but much of the country remains under-surveyed for breeding and migratory populations. And major knowledge gaps persist for reptiles and amphibians and for the role of local markets in exploitation. We conclude with suggestions on priorities for research on, and conservation of, Nepal’s lesser terrestrial vertebrates. Keywords: Amphibians, Birds, Conservation, Mammals, Nepal

Introduction The concept of adaptive radiation, inherent to Darwinian natural selection, was formalized in the early 20th Century (Osborn 1902). There are known centers of adaptive radiation worldwide depending on geology, geographical isolation and the adaptations of ancestral groups (Glor 2010). Mountainous regions in or near the tropics are predicted to have among the highest biodiversity on Earth because of the tropical and subtropical origins of many lineages and the great climatic variation from lowland to alpine zones. Valleys cutting through central massifs provide further isolation and speciation. For these reasons, and because they form the border between two zoogeographic provinces as the Subcontinent encroaches upon the Eurasian Plate (Sinha 1989), the Himalaya has very high species diversity and some areas are even more diverse than others depending on local conditions (e.g. Basnet et al. 2016).

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Further compounding the elevational gradient is the east-west rainfall gradient from northeastern India, with up to five meters of rain annually, to Afghanistan with less than 5% of that. For these reasons, the eastern Himalaya, including Nepal, is a major biodiversity hotspot (Fjeldsa 2013; Paudel & Sipos 2014) and Nepal alone boasts many distinct ecoregions (e.g. Pearch, 2011; Dinerstein et al. 2017). New range records are made regularly in the country (e.g. Heinen 1990; Lamichhane et al. 2016), as are descriptions of new species (e.g. Khatiwada et al. 2017, Pradhan et al. 2019). The concern over global warming is pronounced for mountainous regions (e.g. Hughes 2000; Beever et al. 2011; Telwala et al. 2013), which present opportunities to study how species respond (Inouye et al. 2000) and whether assisted colonization is effective in conserving sensitive taxa (e.g. Hunter 2007). Since 1973, Nepal has made great strides in developing its system of parks and other protected areas (PAs) managed by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (DNPWC), which now cover over 20% of its land area (Heinen et al. 2019). Tourism is a main source of foreign exchange (Nepal 2002) and several of its PAs have been tourist destinations for decades (e.g. Heinen and Thapa 1988), bringing in millions (USD) annually to the national and local economies (Baral et al. 2017). The DNPWC supports wildlife research and seminal studies on many large mammals were done in Nepal. These included major works on tigers (Smith 1993) and their prey (Aryal et al. 2014), rhinoceros (Dinerstein 2003), sloth bear (Joshi et al. 1995), wild buffalo (Heinen & Paudel 2015) and snow leopard (Oli 1994). There has also been attention focused on birds in part because of interest spawned by the Nepalese affiliate of Bird Conservation International (Baral et al. 2012). The Government of Nepal (GoN) has been very effective in moving conservation policy forward with the passage of the National Biodiversity Strategy (Anonymous 2002), the Wildlife Trade Control Act (Anonymous 2007) and the National Wetland Policy (Anonymous 2012). Although implementation problems remain (e.g. Dongol & Heinen 2012; Paudel et al. 2020), advances have been made in reducing poaching (Acharya et al. 2020) and many target species are recovering (e.g. Ale et al. 2007). Despite of the many successes, many species are under degrees of threat as recognized by IUCN (e.g. Yonzon and Hunter 1991; Jnawali et al. 2011; Paudel & Heinen 2015a) and faunal collapse is documented in many PAs (e.g. Heinen 1995). The focus on large mammals informed the planning of the PA system but came at the cost of comparatively little research on other taxa. Given that large mammals are among the most extinction-prone fauna (Terborgh 1974) and can act as umbrellas for entire ecosystems (Roberge & Angelstam 2004), this made sense initially. Now that the PA system is large and - because of community forestry successes - tree cover has increased in many places (Pokharel & Suvedi 2007), the time has come for comprehensive research on the biodiversity of Nepal. While large mammals inspire awe and funding, and we encourage more research on them as their populations expand, we contend that major scientific and conservation breakthroughs now lie with lesser taxa. Here we focus on terrestrial vertebrates other than large mammals. We begin with smaller mammals, followed by birds, reptiles and amphibians, and we end with our thoughts on research priorities. We avoid the use of scientific names in favor of accepted English alternatives for clarity and space considerations. We also encourage study of all taxa - and from the genetic to ecosystem levels of

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 biology - in the spirit of the 1992 Biodiversity Convention, of which Nepal is Party. We also hope that the First National Conference on Zoology, 2020, formalized in this issue of the Nepalese Journal of Zoology, inspires more work by young Nepali researchers. Mammals Mammals are arguably the most important group discussed here for several reasons. The largest species inspire awe and play major ecological roles. Both large mammalian herbivores (e.g. Heinen and Castillo 2019) and carnivores (e.g. Smith et al. 2003) can act as keystone species via their trophic inactions and many mammals are seed dispersers (e.g. Corlett 2008). The chances of seeing them are also major tourist draws. Many are exploited and some are vectors for viruses such as Hanta (Kang et al. 2011) and rabies, which takes an estimated 50,000 lives annually in South Asia (e.g. Pant et al. 2011). Even bubonic plague, considered a Middle Ages relic by many, occasionally erupts in Nepal when rodents are common (Hull et al. 1986). Since the Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation (SMCRF) opened in Kathmandu in 2009, research into the ecology of many taxa has greatly increased. Among the first district-level field surveys on bats is available (e.g. Adhikari 2011) as is a guide for that taxon (Accharya et al. 2012). General guides are also available (e.g. Baral & Sah 2008), as are comprehensive references on species status (e.g. Amin et al. 2018) and surveys exploring the diversity of small mammals. This began with Hodgson’s (1845) work in and around Kathmandu Valley and continues to the present (e.g. Abe 1982, Katuwal et al. 2013, Thapa 2014). The Foundation has also placed efforts on red panda and pangolin due to their exploitation (e.g. Katuwal et al. 2014; Panthi et al. 2017). Apart from that, various foundation members prepared the Kathmandu Valley Bat Action Plan (SMCRF 2019), separated the species of red panda found in China versus Nepal (Hu et al. 2020), and completed a national survey and monitoring guidelines for pangolins in the country (DNPWC 2019; Suwal et al. 2020). Many small mammal surveys have been done in central Nepal, and more exploratory work is needed throughout the county (Ingles et al. 1980, Agrawal and Chakraborty, 2009). While labor-intensive, we encourage the use of non-lethal trapping grids maintained consistently over time to learn more about species presence, densities and population cycles. Sites within PAs are obvious places to work given their protected status, but we also encourage small mammal surveys in locations such as sacred and community forests under long-term protection. The collection of hair and fecal samples useful for genetic studies (e.g. Chetri et al. 2019) should be a priority given that there are likely cryptic species complexes of some rodent and shrew taxa (e.g. Motokawa et al. 2008). Compared to the smallest mammals, more is known about general distributions of larger rodents such as tree squirrels and marmots (e.g. Thapa et al. 2016; Thapamagar et al. 2020) and lagomorphs such as the endangered hispid hare (e.g. Khadka et al. 2017a), but information is still lacking from many parts of Nepal. Poudal et al. (2015) showed that marmots change their foraging behavior due to seasonal livestock grazing, and trekkers within PAs could have similar effects on them as well as pikas (Koju et al. 2012). Extensive genetic studies on pikas in particular would be interesting given the

15 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World number of known species throughout the mountains of South and Central Asia and the potential for cryptic species complexes within this group (e.g. Thapa et al. 2018; Bhattacharyya & Ishtiaq 2019). These taxa are generally more visible than the smallest mammals or smaller carnivores (below) and they can be drawn to mineral licks from which hair samples could be collected using Velcro (e.g. Moe 1993, Harris & Nicol 2010). Perhaps the most interesting recent findings on mammals in Nepal has been on small carnivores. The diversity of felids, herpestids, viverrids and mustelids is high across Asia (e.g. Mudappa 2013) and many new records have been made in Nepal (below), some of these species used to be frequently found as fur coats for sale in Kathmandu’s tourist areas (e.g. Heinen and Leisure 1993). The rusty-spotted cat, previously known from peninsular India, was documented in Sukla Phanta and Bardia National Parks (Lamichhane et al. 2016), and the Pallas’s cat, previously known from the Tibetan Plateau and Central Asia, was documented in the Annapurna region (Regmi et al. 2020). Other recent findings include the first ruddy mongoose (Subba et al. 2014) and steppe polecat (Chetri et al. 2014) records for Nepal, as well as range extensions for crab-eating mongoose (Rayamajhi et al. 2019) and yellow-bellied weasel (Baral et al. 2019). They are likely all more widespread in the country, but most places have not been systematically searched. Dedicated studies on linsang, civets and binturong is also a high priority (e.g. Jennings & Vernon 2016) as little is known about them throughout their ranges. Most small carnivores are nocturnal and camera trapping has greatly increased our knowledge about them (Appel et al. 2013), but more work remains. Many can be attracted to camera traps using scent posts (Connor et al. 1983) and Velcro hair traps can be used in combination to collect samples for genetics. This may prove especially valuable for weasels. There is evidence that the wide-ranging Siberian weasel is a species complex based on recent anatomical studies (Abramov et al. 2018) but genetic samples from across its range would be needed to confirm this. Otters are another priority. Three species may occur in Nepal, but their status is poorly known and there is large-scale exploitation for their furs in Nepal (Savage & Shrestha 2018) and throughout Asia (Gomez & Bouhuys 2018). Unlike many other carnivores, otters apparently don’t readily come to scent stations (Robson & Humphrey 1985), but they tend to be diurnal, making visual observations easier. The use of radio collars was successful in studies of large mammals cited above, but the technology has rarely been used on smaller carnivores in Nepal, with a few exceptions (e.g. Joshi et al. 1995). While it is more costly and riskier for both animal subjects and human researchers, we encourage more feasibility studies into its use, especially given the recent advances in small transmitter technology. This could prove especially valuable within PAs where human interference is minimized. In other places (e.g. buffer zones and national, religious or community forests) scent stations with Velcro hair traps may be optimal with or without camera traps depending on the likelihood of interference. In any case, much more information on the abundance, distribution and genetics of small mammals is needed throughout Nepal. Birds

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Due to interest among Nepalis and international visitors, more is perhaps known about birds than other vertebrate taxa (e.g. Inskipp et al. 2017). Bird Conservation Nepal has been active since the early 1980s and foreign birders visit regularly and provide a good deal of data. However, except for some areas in and around Kathmandu and Pokhara Valleys and the more-visited PAs, coverage is inconsistent or lacking. Of studies focusing on particular groups, published accounts are available for pheasants and cranes because of their cultural importance (e.g. Kaul & Shakya 2001; Singh et al. 2011; Katuwal 2016); Gyps vultures because of their precipitous decline and partial recovery (Galligan et al. 2020) and rarities such as floricans because they are endangered (Baral et al. 2003). Strides have been made in general knowledge of Nepal’s avifauna, but much more needs to be done to estimate population trends. Several entire groups - including birds dependent on old growth forests, wetlands and grasslands - are thought to be in decline nation-wide (e.g. Inskipp & Baral 2010, Adhikari et al. 2018) but long-term data are largely lacking. Most existing information consists of lists indicating presence, migratory or over-wintering ranges (e.g. Heinen 1990; Khadka et al. 2017b), but little else. While general lists provide necessary information, they are not useful for estimating population trends important in conservation. Bock and Root (1981) discuss shortcomings of Christmas Bird Counts in the United States, but the fact that they’ve been done consistently for over a century makes them useful for long-term studies such as how winter ranges change with global warming, and they provide some density information to study population trends. Breeding bird surveys (e.g. Link and Sauer 1998) are better for estimating population trends but they’re more costly and, in both cases, reliance on volunteers assumes people are equally good at species recognition. While field identification is easier for large birds and those in breeding condition, Nepal’s avifauna (nearly 900 species) is more diverse than any area of similar size in North America or Europe, requiring people to have more training to be proficient. We encourage efforts along these lines, and especially in areas where well-practiced Nepali birders reside such as Kathmandu and Pokhara Valleys and in PAs with tourist lodges. Such efforts could be extended if, for example, Bird Conservation Nepal expanded partnerships with the DNPWC to encourage trained volunteers to visit PAs for set periods annually to survey birds along fixed routes, with one or both institutions archiving data for researchers. Reptiles and Amphibians Other than Maskey’s (1989) pioneering work on gharial, there has been little specific research on Nepal’s herpetofauna. Even the status of high-profile taxa of conservation concern, such as yellow monitors and Indian pythons, is little known (e.g. Khatiwada & Ghimire 2009; Ghimire et al. 2014). Good identification references exist (Schleich & Kastle, 2002), but most publications contain species lists even more scattered spatially and temporally than those available for the birds of Nepal (e.g. Zug and Mirchell 1995; Nepali and Singh 2020). Of highest priority, given their global diversity and many threats, are surveys that explore amphibian species presence and distribution. They would be especially useful in eastern Nepal with its high rainfall (e.g. Khatiwada et al. 2017), and in wetland areas throughout the country (e.g. Bhattarai et al. 2017). To date, one species each of salamander and caecilian is known from the country and there are likely

17 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World more. While 42 species of frogs and toads have been recorded, a species new to science was recently described (Khatiwada et al. 2019) and there are likely more of them, as well as more known species yet to be documented within Nepal. Skin swabs for studying the Chytrid fungus affecting frog populations worldwide (Weldon et al. 2004) would also be useful in assessing threats. Another high priority are studies on the status and distribution of turtles and tortoises in decline globally (Rhodin et al. 2018) and widely exploited for food, medicine and the pet trade (e.g. Aryal et al. 2010; Altherr & Lameter, 2020). Other than work by Kharel and Chhetry (2012) and inclusion on general species lists, we found very little information for this entire group from Nepal. Snakes are generally better-known than other herpetofauna, perhaps because Nepal harbors several species each of venomous vipers, cobras and kraits. Yet distribution and abundance data are lacking in many places and sporadic at best where available (e.g. Chettri & Chhetry 2013). This is true even for some medically-important viper and krait species found at higher elevations. Recent World Health Organization estimates suggest that 50,000+ people per year are killed by snakebites in India, and the penchant for some species (e.g. Indian cobras and common kraits), to occur in villages is a major reason. While numbers are much lower, people die regularly from snakebites in Nepal, which are very likely under-reported (Sharma et al. 2004). Pandey et al. (2018) recently discovered that Russell’s viper, one of the “big four” deadliest snakes in India, also occurs in Nepal. But the perception that all snakes should be killed on sight needs attention (e.g. Pandey et al. 2016). Fortunately, a photographic field guide is now available (Sharma et al. 2013) but education programs are mostly lacking (e.g. Rashnath & Divakar 2019), as are people who can respond to calls to remove snakes from villages. It’s encouraging to note that several such groups are now active in parts of India and Nepal (see Youtube: Snake Rescue: King Cobra Rescue and Release: Pokhara: Nepal: Rohit Giri). Heyer et al. (2014) and McDiarmid et al. (2012) are excellent references for describing techniques useful in studying wild reptiles and amphibians. While we are encouraged to see growing interest, knowledge of Nepal’s herpetofauna is inadequate. And, as with some mammals (above), genetic studies are crucial to understanding their diversity given that some species prove to be cryptic species complexes. This was recently discovered for the fan-throated lizards found in Nepal that are now classified into three separate species (Deepak & Karanth 2018).

Discussion We’ve made a number of recommendations highlighting research priorities for many taxa (above), but there are more general issues to consider. To expand knowledge on the ecology, conservation status and threats to various vertebrates, we feel that broader use of habitat and genetic studies, market surveys, and local outreach and education are needed nation-wide. There has been little attention paid to the effects of local markets on the depletion of wildlife in Nepal. Songbirds and turtles, both alive and dead, can regularly be seen in terai markets for sale as either food or pets (e.g. Heinen & Chapagain 2002, Aryal et al. 2020), and demand for the latter is growing worldwide (Altherr & Lameter 2020). Many others, including fur bearers, can be found in local 18

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 markets on occasion (e.g. Savage & Shrestha 2018). A great deal of effort has been placed on reducing transboundary trade of large mammal products by DNPWC and several non-governmental organizations (NGOs, e.g. Dongol & Heinen 2012; Paudel et al. 2020), but the number of species affected by local exploitation is vastly greater and less-known. Systematic surveys of markets would be relatively easy to accomplish and many whole specimens and some parts (e.g. furs and pangolin scales) can be easily identified. In other cases, small samples could be collected for genetic analyses. Given that local markets typically take place on fixed schedules, one or a few researchers could potentially cover important sites throughout entire districts rotationally. Such efforts would result in large data sets for many at-risk taxa and could inform law enforcement where and how to focus attention. More general and specific habitat studies throughout Nepal are also needed. Great strides have been made in modeling habitats to predict where species are found (Yonzon et al. 1991, Smith et al. 1998, Kafley 2008) or to locate areas for reintroduction (e.g. Aryal et al. 2013; O’Neil & Bump 2014; Paudel et al. 2015). Assessing general habitat suitability (e.g. Heinen and Mead 1984; Kanagaraj 2011; Reddy et al. 2017) can be done quickly with remote sensing techniques. The PA system is now large and well- protected, but units are not distributed proportionally throughout the ecosystems of the country (Paudel & Heinen 2015b). High and low elevations are well-represented, but intermediate elevations and habitat types are not (Hunter & Yonzon 1993). To assess habitat value of non-protected areas, remote sensing analyses in combination with field verification are needed (e.g. Basnet et al. 2016), as are studies that explore local human uses that deplete forest biomass (e.g. Shrivastava & Heinen 2007, Timilsina & Heinen 2008; Dahal et al. 2014). Exploited forests can have some habitat potential (Thapa & Chapman 2010) but they are generally lower in diversity compared to PAs. Finally, there is a decided social component to conservation that could be exploited and expanded. While we find that field biologists are amenable to talking with local residents, they are generally not trained in survey techniques used in the social sciences. Local ecological knowledge (LEK), widely considered in anthropology, can be valuable in assessing presence and long-term population trends for wild species that local people exploit or compete with (e.g. Shrestha-Acharya & Heinen 2006, Rehage et al. 2019). Given that many people use alternative local names, photographic guides are very helpful in querying residents about species of interest (e.g. Edwards et al. 2016). Beginning in Costa Rica (Janzen & Hallwachs 2011), and now used in other parts of the developing world (Schmiedel et al. 2016), local residents trained as parataxonomist are very helpful in collecting reference specimens of many taxa. While pressing plants and pinning insects are rather easy to learn, amply-trained amateurs can also collect and document, for example, small vertebrate specimens for wet preservation as well as egg shells, nests, fecal, fur and feather samples for identification. District-level offices for specimen storage would be necessary, as would a national repository. These needs could be met by, for example, district forest offices located throughout Nepal and the Natural History Museum in Kathmandu and National Herbarium in Godawari. Funding would also be needed to train and pay collectors. We also contend that much more outreach is needed national-wide to teach people about wildlife and to make recommendations to mitigate conflicts. There are dozens of published accounts on wildlife

19 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World conflicts throughout Nepal, especially with regard to livestock and crop depredation and human deaths by large mammals. There’s also need to explore conflicts with many other species. For example, small carnivores, monitors and raptors prey on domestic fowl and eggs; piscivorous birds and snakes prey on farmed fish; and poisonous snakes present a direct threat in many places, but especially in the Terai. Wildlife extension professionals would be needed to address these conflicts on a national scale. Some ideas for reducing crop damage and livestock loss by large mammals have emerged from the literature (e.g. Sapkota et al. 2014). Other simple recommendations, such as plugging holes in external walls and storing grains in enclosed bins, would reduce the propensity for rodents, and hence snakes, to enter households. In any case, educated extension personnel could prove most helpful throughout Nepal.

Conclusions The main conclusions from our review are that many great strides have been made over the past half century in studying and protecting Nepal’s wildlife, but further efforts are needed. It’s likely that a six or low seven-figure (USD) project funded by a major bi-or multilateral donor, headquartered in Kathmandu with operations nation-wide, would be needed to fund the entire agenda outlined here all at once. But the good news is that some of the above activities have already begun in Nepal as this review shows and, even without a large, external funding source, progress in most areas continues. NGOs such as Bird Conservation Nepal, Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation, Resources Himalaya Foundation and Wildlife Nepal have been active and successful for years in garnering funding to further their research and conservation agendas. INGOs such as WWF-Nepal, IUCN-Nepal and ICIMOD have been active for decades, and have also been successful at garnering major funding. Thus, the infrastructure is in place. What would also be needed to achieve the ambitious agenda put forth above would be dedicated staff positions for local extension, outreach and education. If a parataxonomist program were to eventuate, staff would also be needed to train participants and to record, store and transfer specimens to a national repository for further study. Most encouraging is that the foundation for expanding this research agenda is underway.

Acknowledgements We thank Dr. Tej Bahadur Thapa and other organizers and contributors to the First National Conference on Zoology: Biodiversity in a Changing World that took place in November, 2020, for inviting our contribution, and anonymous reviewers for their careful consideration.

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Nepal’s turtles in peril of extinction

Hermann Schleich*

Arco-Nepal, Munich/Germany and Tabernas/Spain *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Nepal´s turtle fauna is restricted to the climatic conditions of Tarai lowlands and for almost 25 years we have observed the dramatic decline of turtle faunae and their habitats. Several field studies for research projects, masters and PhD thesis have been carried out and repeated visits and inquiries to local people showed loss or extreme reduction of both – species and population densities as well as habitat destructions including national parks. Suggestions are made how to realize efficient turtle conservation strategies with greatest importance to have full government support. Results of visits to lowland national parks are discussed. Keywords: Conservation, Government implementation, Habitat destruction, National parks, Turtles

Introduction Early in 1992 I started with a modest evaluation of published literature and species known to occur in Nepal entitled “Contribution to the Systematics and a Bibliography on the Herpetology of Nepal”. At these times we saw more killed turtles as tourist souvenirs at local markets than live ones in any national park. Several publications followed in the coming years but live turtles in nature remained almost enigmatic for sighting. Already in 1996, we reported briefly (Schleich & Shah 1996) about the bad situation of the whole turtle fauna in Nepal. In 1997 I initiated the foundation of Arco-Nepal, a conservation society for amphibians and reptiles in Nepal (Schleich et al. 1997). Several papers followed about the “Necessity for Turtle Conservation in Nepal” (Ernst et al. 1997; Schleich & Maskey 1998). The following years were dedicated to lectures, scientific publications and exhibitions on the herpetofauna with descriptions of several new species of and for Nepal, within the country and abroad. The situation appeared already as much alarming and I designed a Turtle Conservation Center for Chitwan National Park (www.arco- nepal.de) that was finally realized under the venue of late DG Dr. Maskey. At these early years (1998) I visited all lowland national parks and became aware that especially the Shuklaphanta NP needs particular consideration for turtle conservation. Lakes were exsiccating, overgrown by plants and still big softshells, one over 100 kg was caught, killed and sold (www.arco- nepal.de/ARCOJB9900.pdf). We discussed possibilities how to open water sources and give better

29 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World access for wild animals also for survival chances for the highly endangered softshells living there. Arco- Nepal offered help by financial aid to the Department of National Parks & Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) and former King Mahendra Trust (KMT) for cleaning and re-opening of the overgrown water bodies, several former big lakes in this valuable National Park.

In 2002 we (Schleich & Kastle 2002) published our comprehensive book on the “Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal” with 1200 pages, hundreds of photographs and drawings. Other publications and books followed and some were set released on our website (www.arco-nepal.de) together with our running newsletters. In April 2012 Arco-Nepal financed and designed the construction of a Turtle Rescue & Conservation Centre in Jhapa in collaboration with SUMMEF, and it was handed over in 2018 to the municipality under further supervision of SUMMEF. In 2016 we published in our 16th Arco-Nepal Newsletter “Guidelines and Recommendations to foster Development of Turtle Rescue and Conservation Centres in Sense of Conservation and Sustainability” Since the beginning, many articles were published, exhibitions realized, a lot of publicity was done within two decades, but to date we got no reaction upon the peril for the dramatic decline of turtles in Nepal. More than twenty years passed and in 2018 again another acting Director General requested me to visit the various national parks in S-Nepal to evaluate possibilities and needs for turtle conservation concepts there (unpubl. report to DG, April 2018).

Results

Needs and feasibilities for turtle conservation at Nepal’s lowland national parks – a governmental challenge More than 20 years ago Schleich and Maskey (1998) reported about the “Necessity for a Turtle Conservation in Nepal” followed by “Urgent Call for a Turtle Conservation in Nepal” in 2000, but none reacted upon the peril for the dramatic decline of turtles in Nepal. With the Asian Turtle crisis, its documentation started at about the same time with worldwide information campaigns and many countries followed to ban the international turtle trade. Also, during our last journey in 2018, from East to Far West Nepal we heard about the drastic decline of turtle populations but had to see that poaching, fishing, trafficking and consumption of turtles is everywhere present. People are aware that catching turtles is illegal and that they are protected, but there exists no practical law enforcement to hinder these practices. Some persons told us about possessing turtles but denied to show them to us, others we could convince to communicate for the sake of conservation and by showing them our Turtle ID-Cards (Schleich 2012) they confirmed to have seen various species in the past but not anymore nowadays. Many people –including rangers and wardens from the various national parks- confirmed the occurrence of certain species we were searching for. Nepal has 14 confirmed out of 18 potential turtle species as listed below.

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Table 1. Turtle species in Nepal Family Genus and species, alphabetically listed IUCN CITES NRDB Geoemydidae *Batagur dhongoka (Gray 1834) CR II S* Geoemydidae *Batagur kachuga (Gray 1831) CR II V* Geoemydidae Cyclemys gemeli (Fritz et al. 2008) NE II - Geoemydidae *Geoclemys hamiltonii (Gray 1831) EN I -* Geoemydidae Hardella thurjii (Gray 1831) VU II S Geoemydidae Melanochelys tricarinata (Blyth 1856) EN I V Geoemydidae Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger, 1814) LC II S Geoemydidae *Morenia petersi (Anderson 1879) VU II S* Geoemydidae Pangshura smithii pallidipes (Moll 1987) NT II S Geoemydidae Pangshura smithii smithii (Gray 1863) NT II S Geoemydidae Pangshura tecta (Gray 1831) LC I S Geoemydidae Pangshura tentoria circumdata (Gray 1834) LC II - Geoemydidae Pangshura tentoria flaviventer (Gunther 1864) LC II - Testudinidae Indotestudo elongata (Blyth 1854) CR II S Trionychidae Chitra indica (Gray 1831) EN II S Trionychidae Lissemys punctata (Lacepede 1788) LC II S Trionychidae Nilssonia gangetica (Cuvier 1824) VU I V Trionychidae Nilssonia hurum (Gray 1831) VU I S Notes: NRDB =National Red Data Book, Nepal. *=still unproven for Nepal but listed in literature. V=Vulnerable, S= Susceptible, CR= Critically Endangered, EN= Endangered, VU= Vulnerable, NT= Nearly Threatened, LC= Least Concern, NE= Not Evaluated.

On all turtles is extreme pressure in the whole country! Before we (Bhat, O, Rai, T.P., Schleich, H.) started our journey and investigations at the various National Parks I visited TSA (Turtle Survival Alliance India) in Lucknow to have some discussions about turtle distribution in close by neighboring areas as e.g. Uttar Pradesh and others. Discussions were positive about possible common conservation strategies and finally to get to know habitats of turtle species we had not found so far in Nepal but assume to exist here. These are Geoclemys hamiltoni, Morenia petersi, Batagur kachuga and Batagur dhongoka. Hardella thurji had been reported only recently from Far West Nepal, actually from a boundary river to India, a habitat according to locals

31 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World that also shall have Geoclemys and Morenia by photos and descriptions shown. Aryal et al. (2010) give detailed information on exploitation and trade of endangered turtle species in Nepal.

Our visit to the national parks in lowland Nepal Koshi Tappu National Park

Since many years ARCO-Nepal suggested to finance turtle breeding ponds (www.arco- nepal.de/Jahresberichte,newsletters) at the various national parks, we even received cost estimates but a final constructions –with the exception of CNP- never had been realized. At our recent visit in April 2018 to KTNP we saw a huge artificial lake to receive mugger crocodiles that enter villages during monsoon and are captured to avoid harm to people and animals. Last year 44 muggers were caught and translocated. Also, a feline rescue building is being constructed - although no tigers or leopards are living in that area. Turtles confiscated rarely from local fishermen are released at the same site when received. An easy task for re-capture and a senseless policy without any conservational effort. At Koshi River barrage fishing is prohibited by law at an area of 2 km around the dam – but hundreds of fishermen are doing their job day by day not being hindered or informed by officials. As the park consists of a tremendous wetland area, we suggested to build just behind the artificial crocodile lake two smaller independent lakes, one for hardshell and another one for softshell turtles. Thus, conservation methods by seminatural breeding conditions could be realized and offspring reintroduced in areas upstream that are less frequented by fishermen.

Figure 1. The new crocodile lake at Koshi Tapu NP. Behind is available wetland that also could be dammed easily to construct two turtle conservation sites. Meeting with Chief Warden at KNP. Turtles found at Koshi River are Chitra indica (rare), Nilssonia hurum, Nilssonia gangetica (rare), Pangshura smithii smithii, Pangshura (tentoria) flaviventer and Pangshura tentoria circumdata (rare). According to IUCN, two subspecies Pangshura tentoria circumdata (Gray 1834) and Pangshura tentoria flaviventer (Gunther 1864) are listed under same species and found at Koshi River. But according to taxonomy rules, two subspecies of same species cannot live sympatrical and genetic studies have to follow for

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 solutions. We also cannot confirm that Hardella is found as mentioned by Aryal et al. (2010) there, too. A survey we carried out at the fishermen villages brought the information that mainly during monsoon many turtles can be found on the market – but only very rare patrols by army and park staff are carried out. Turtles are for local consumers or brought over the near Indian boundary. Some small roofed shell turtles we could report being in possession of locals and they were offering them for up to 2.500 NRs. All were Pangshura (Tentoria) flaviventer in juvenile stage. The meeting with Mr. Shyam Kumar Sah took place at approx. 11h am and Chief Warden agreed to start with conservation measures if order and ok is given from DG, Central Office.

Figure 2. Possible area behind the Mugger lake that could be used for turtle lakes and conservation.

Parsa National Park Meeting with Chief Warden was at 7.00 am. The park itself is generally composed of dry forest and thus just suitable for tortoises. Indeed, Chief Warden showed us a video he shot one year ago of Indotestudo. Thus, this species is present wild living in the park. It is only seen extremely rarely and no active populations are viable. Local breeding in some simple enclosures could contribute to improve conservation strategies for this endangered unique terrestrial turtle of Nepal. Chief Warden H.B. Acharya informed us about a wetland on the border side of the park where one might find aquatic

Figure 3. Visit of Parsa National Park by the author in 2018 and meeting with Chief Warden.

33 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World turtles, too. Although being a dry area, with all park´s efforts, there were some artificial ponds in jungles being regularly filled using water tankers. The Chief Warden was much positive towards the future establishment of a rescue center for tortoises. He showed some potential habitats of turtles in PNP on a map. He suggested us to visit a wetland but, on our way, regrettably we stuck in the sand with our hired car and lost too much time to visit that lake. According to Chief Warden, conservation measures can be taken if ok is given by Central Office, KTM. Chitwan National Park We met Chief Warden Bed Kumar Dhakal and Deputy Warden Bed Khadka after noon at the Head Quarter. According to Deputy Warden no netting and collaboration with fishermen is possible at Narayani River, but for us it seems a must for thorough research and species identification. Chitwan NP has its own turtle conservation project. Actually, here are found the best installations for aquatic as well as for terrestrial turtles. Two years ago, we could report about a first soft release program of Indotestudo carried out by Bed Khadka.

Figure 4. Left: Enclosure for aquatic species. Right: New habitat under construction in 2018 for Melanochelys tricarinata. Bardia National Park We left CNP early in the morning after having tea. The driver was driving slowly due to a bumpy jumpy condition of the road and to be safe from the stupid people on road. This was the longest section of our journey. It took us more than 11 hours to reach BNP from CNP. Also, there was a heavy rainfall when we were in Banke district. I was not aware that Banke National Park was established recently and due to time constraints, we regrettably could not visit this park. The roads were completely filled with water. The visibility was also very poor. We stayed at a cottage (Samsara safari camp) just outside headquarter of BNP. We called the Warden (Manoj Sah) of BNP and met Chief Warden at 7h am. After the meeting we visited the enclosures in which turtles were kept and found 4 species of turtles there. The species kept were Pangshura tecta, Melanochelys tricarinata, Melanochelys trijuga and Lissemys punctata. All seen turtles were in very good health and food condition. As all were kept together, we suggested to use another free enclosure for the species wise separation and to search for breeding

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 partners. Chief Warden agreed and also said he would very much like to start with conservation efforts at the wetlands as dolphins and fishes are already drastically in decline and thus turtles might be, too. But he can’t do anything without order from Central Office! Then we went to see Babai River. Due to the previous day’s rain, the water in the river was muddy and we could not see any turtles. Discussing with Chief Warden he assured his interest in turtle conservation and also the possibilities to collaborate with local fishermen and even in a Transboundary Action Plan with colleagues from TSA India. Bardia NP has immense great wetlands and rivers with aquatic vegetation where there might be a chance to find big river turtles like Batagur spp. But for us it means hiring boat and people and having netting permit, otherwise no real chance exists to document any turtle species for identification. Direct collaboration with Park staff is mandatory. Thus, Karnali River remains unstudied and thorough investigations must be carried out. Shuklaphanta National Park We continued our journey towards Shuklaphanta National Park (SNP). On the way we informed the Warden Gopal Ghimire about our meeting. We met him and discussed about turtles in and around SNP. A year ago, the park had rescued one turtle from a fisherman from Brhamadeu, a small market on the bank of Mahakali river, close to the Indian boundary. Visiting Mahakali we saw the big dam blocking the whole river and making boundary with India just few hundred meter off from that small village. The river possibly is no potential habitat for turtles as it is completely blocked by the dam and at the Nepali side there is still strong current and no aquatic vegetation. That day we visited Swami Tal, Baba Tal, Bathania Tal, Rani Tal, Salgaudi Tal, Bamuni Khola and Suklaphantah grassland. We were also supposed to visit Shikari Tal, which is only accessible by elephant, but could not as all the elephants of SNP were busy in Rhino counting. The first three wetlands were artificially made and had

Figure 5. Bamuni Khola a very promising habitat for turtles, but without trapping no chance to get any further information.

35 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World less amount of water. Rani Tal is big but completely covered with vegetation. Only a small portion of the wetland was accessible. Bamuni Khola is a slow-moving river with vegetation and looks very promising being an excellent habitat for turtle species like Geoclemys, Morenia and others. Then we came back to the headquarters of SNP, and met Warden Mr. Ghimire. For rare, possibly still unrecorded turtle species SNP has ideal habitats of rivers and lakes but suffers immense pressure from poachers (fishermen) and there are more poachers active than army or park staff available. Without netting permit we had no chance to get hold on some species for their identification but I am most optimistic that thorough research would yield great new results. The following day we decided to go to another section of SNP which includes Kalikitch Tal and Chaudhar River. It was an hour drive to Beldadi post from Mahendranagar. We met the Ranger of that post Mr. Puran Dev Mishra. He was pre-informed about us. He took us to Chaudhar River. It is a cremation center for the local people. The way to the river was very difficult. We had to make our way through tall grasses.

Figure 6. The Chaudhar River was at 10 minutes walking distance from the path. Chaudhar River is a slow- moving river with aquatic vegetation and sand banks – the ideal habitat for turtles.

We saw a turtle swimming under water but could not make a photograph or catch it. Then we continued our journey towards Kaalikitch Tal. But the rain was so heavy, we could not reach there. So we went to Badanikhera post. We met the ranger and some other staff. They had caught two turtles and a deer almost two years ago. We asked them for the photo, but they had deleted it. They had buried the dead animals nearby. They started digging to prove shell rests but they could not find any; we acknowledged their help. We took an interview with Mr. Satyanarayan Silwal. He was the most experienced one, working in SNP for past 33 years. He said we were the first people to ask about turtles. When I showed him Turtle-ID plates, he had seen at least 6 species of turtles in SNP. The park staff promised us to make some photographs if they find any turtles and keep the record of them.

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Visiting areas outside the national parks Bagmati River We found three fishermen who told us the occurrence of turtles in Bagmati 35-40 Km South of the East-West highway. We also found one Lissemys punctata and one Indotestudo elongata. Also, we found a

Figure 7. On the bank of Bagmati River. carapace of a turtle lying on roadside. A year ago, ARCO-Nepal received an anonymous mail informing that hundreds of turtles are caught at Baghmati river on a big scale, but regrettably any further detailed information was lacking. Mahakali River

Figure 8. Mahakali River, turtle migrations toward the Nepali side are being blocked by the Indian dam.

37 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

We started from Bhramadeu, Mahakali River, and the place where Nepal police caught a fisherman with a hardshell turtle (5-6 kg). It was handed over to head office of SNP. Then we went to Bedkot Tal, 11 Km North of East West highway. We saw two snakes and many frogs. The Bedkot Tal is isolated and without any vegetation. About 19 years ago I saw Melanochelys trijuga and a local priest explained that it had been introduced the lake being regarded as a holy place. Enquiring in April 2018 resulted that only a single and no more specimens are living there. We went to Linga, another river. Then to Jhalari-Pipladi area, South of East-West highway. We followed two rivers Banara and Syali. We also visited Banda Tal and Piyari Tal. Hardella thurji was previously reported from Piyari Tal by Aryal et al. (2010). Banda Tal was fully commercialized for fishing. We found a carapace of Lissemys punctata. Piyari Tal was located on Eastern and Southern most corner of the district.

Figure 9. Banda Tal. Every year up to 10 turtles are caught and brought to market. Obviously, they are Lissemys (one shell seen) and Pangshura spp.

It is a boundary river between Nepal and India. Interviewing one local, he said that he had seen turtles up to 145 Kg (Chitra) and several other species, shown to him by our ID-Cards. Piyari Tal might definitely be a good habitat for Geoclemys, Morenia and several other species, too. Very big softshells were also reported. Locals go occasionally fishing and are afraid of the big Chitra reaching up to 90 kg (verbal info by local persons); also muggers inhabit this stagnant river which has lot of aquatic vegetation and big fish. Hardella had been reported from here, but other unrecorded turtles might be found in future. On the way back we passed across Dondha River. Turtles existing for over 220 Million years on earth, have same CITES protection and conservation needs as tigers, elephants, rhinos etc, - but no seriously practiced conservation strategies exist so far for whole Nepal. On our visit through various National Parks we had to realize that practically no knowledge on species and their biology exists. Only two parks keep live turtles with limited success in conservation strategies, although from Chitwan National Park we reported a first release of Indotestudo two years ago (see Arco-Nepal Newsletter 07, 2014). Reports are common that dolphins, fish and turtles are becoming rarer all the time and wetland inhabited areas are the most affected places where 38

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 turtle populations are in great vulnerability. The burning of ground vegetation and leaf litter in the National Parks is extremely harmful and destroying the ground living fauna of amphibians and reptiles including the tortoises Indotestudo and Melanochelys tricarinata. For many years we are expecting records of species from East and West of Nepal that occur South, in N-India, eg. Uttar Pradesh. But these species are living on aquatic vegetation, thus mainly being herbivorous. In Nepal investigations along the East-West Highway were undertaken in the northern

Figure 10. Piyari Tal, actually a boundary river, here quite stagnant with abundant aquatic vegetation. part of it where rivers are carrying boulders, gravel and silt but almost nowhere having slow running or stagnant waters with vegetation. Rivers originating from the Churia hills are generally only temporary rivers during and shortly after monsoon (seen during flights from lowland to Kathmandu). To the South of East-West Highway, lowlands reduce speed and strength of currency of those rivers and allow development of aquatic vegetation. We found such places in the southern parts of West and Far West Nepal and are hopeful to discover some of the longtime expected species there, too. The accessibility of those areas is very difficult, roads are lacking, under construction and very rough. ARCO hopes for future quantitative and qualitative mapping for suitable turtle habitats of the Tarai, but for detailed results of species identification a netting permit from DNPWC seems unavoidable. Also, the direct collaboration with National Park staff is mandatory as a single person cannot walk through areas inhabited by tigers, rhinos and elephants carrying lot of equipment. In Nepal turtles are becoming rarer year by year and their existence most vulnerable. Immediate conservation efforts should be implemented in the programs by DNPWS and Department of Forests – it must become an immediate priority program at government level. For Nepal we regard as most endangered species (see also Aryal et al. 2010): Cyclemys gemeli, Pangshura tentoria circumdata, Pangshura smithii pallidipes, Melanochelys tricarinata and Indotestudo. Chitra indica is ranking as CITES II species but extremely hunted, also Nilssonia gangetica and N. hurum. For Hardella are data still deficient as it was just recently reported from one single locality at the Indian boundary.

39 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

The most common species obviously are still Lissemys punctata, followed by Nilssonia hurum and Pangshura tecta. Morenia had been recorded for the first time just recently by. T.P. Rai et al. and will be published soon.

Discussion Protagonistic and pioneer work has to be done to investigate turtle species distribution, populations and conservation needs at the foothills of the Churia range but mainly in close areas at the Nepal-India boundaries. These are often extremely difficult accessible areas but distribution patterns of turtle faunae in close by India show, that much more information might be gained and new species records be proven for Nepal. This can be realized by student evaluations for master or Ph studies, rangers from various government departments, e.g.: forest, road constructions, rural development, etc. With detailed mappings for wetlands and vegetation types search for further turtle habitats can be much facilitated. River systems and wetlands from neighboring close by India can be followed up in Nepal, the different names understood, thus learning more about potential distribution patterns and feasible habitats. Local communities and fishermen are prime sources for any information, although we cannot expect that they are much capable or aware to differentiate well between several species, an experience we gained during many years´ inquiries to local people. The government authorities together with universities and other educational institutes must become protagonist supporters to get to know and inform about the conservation needs and to implement strict law enforcement and educational strategies to locals. Schools and any educational institutions shall integrate environmental and nature conservation courses and develop “small ranger programs”, all described as holistic conservation strategy approaches in Schleich (2016). If the Department of National Parks is not giving instruction and permit to their various National Parks, the poaching, collecting, slaughtering, export of turtles will continue before we know what we do have to protect, conserve and inherit. And this will and cannot just be conservation strategies for endangered turtles but principally for whole ecosystems and most valuable habitats. If we look at the publication by Bhat et al. (2020) on Shuklaphanta National Park we see clearly what I had predicted already more than 20 years before. Shrinking wetland habitats, loss of natural heritages, loss of species and lack of control even within restricted national park areas.

Conclusions Private or (I)NGO activities can contribute for the conservation of habitats and species but the most important result leading demand will be education, law enforcement and the decision by the Department of National Parks to start immediately with conservation strategies for Nepal’ s endangered turtle species. • Conservation issues should be most urgently implemented in the NP programs. • Basic scientific studies about the presence of species must be performed. 40

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

• Catching (and immediate release) by nets and trapping with immediate release after identification seems the most effective way to get to know about the presence and identification of various species. • Advice for breeding and conservation strategies can be given in direct collaboration by ARCO- Nepal, TSA India and many international specialists also in a transboundary action plan with TSA India. • Regulations for rescue and transport of endangered species (these are all of Nepal) must be concretized. • Seminars on conservation e.g. at CNP army post can be offered to army and staff. • Rescue and Conservation Centers should be realized at all National Parks of the Tarai. • Needs for a Transboundary Action Plan shall be discussed. • Requesting information and collaboration from Central Investigation Office. Acknowledgements I am much grateful for all concerned persons who helped and assisted in our travel, visits to National Parks and for any other help and collaboration: Acharya, H. B.; Bhat, O.; Dhakal, Geldeard, S.; B. K., Khadka, B.; Khadka, M. B.; Rai, K. R.; Rai, T. P.; Sah, M.; Sah, S. K. and all the helpful rangers I can´t remember their names.

References

Arco-Nepal Newsletter No. 1–21; Arco-Nepal; Munich. Aryal, P. C., Dhamala, M. K., Bhurtel, B. P., Suwal, M. K. ND Bishal R. B. 2010. Species accounts and distribution of turtles with notes on exploitation and trade in Tarai, Nepal. Proc. First Nat. Youth Conference on Environment (NYCE-I). Unedited. Himalayan Alliance for Climate Change (HIMCCA), Kathmandu, Nepal: 29–38. Bhat, O., Bhattarai, B. P. and Dumre, K. 2020. Diversity, distribution and conservation challenges of turtles in Shuklaphanta National Park, Nepal. ARCO-Nepal Newsletter 21:1–31; Munich. Ernst, K., Maskey, T. M. and Schleich, H. H. 1997. Schildkrötenschutz in Nepal in: Das Andere Nepal. S. 55–60; Fuhlrott-Museum, Wuppertal Ernst, K., Shah, K. B. and Schleich, H. H. 1997: Schildkrötenschutz in Nepal. Reptilia, 7, Jg. 2(5):43–48. Ernst, K., Shah, K. B. and Schleich, H. H. 1997. Protección de las tortugas en Nepal. Reptilia, 3(13):64–69 Kästle, W., Rai, K. and Schleich, H. 2013. Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal. pp 625, ARCO-Nepal, Munich. Kiesl, L. and Schleich, H. H. 2016. Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal - Turtles. A children's book. Pp 58; Arco-Nepal, Munich. Schleich, H. 1992. Contribution to the systematics and a bibliography on the herpetology of Nepal. Journal of Nepal Research Center 9:141–168; Kathmandu Schleich, H.H. and Ernst, K. 1997. ARCO NEPAL e.V. –ein Förderverein für den Schutz der Amphibien- und Reptilien Nepals.- in: Das andere Nepal.- S. 39; Fuhlrott-Museum, Wuppertal. Schleich, H. and Maskey, T. M. 1998. Necessity for a Turtle Conservation in Nepal. Veröffentlichungen Fuhlrott- Museum, 4:281–290; Wuppertal. Schleich,H.H. and Kästle, W. (Eds.; 2002): Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal. (A.R.G.Gantner) FL-Ruggell. pp. 1201

41 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

Schleich, H. 2012. Turtle Conservation for Nepal´s Endangered Species – Field ID Cards by ARCO-Nepal, 42 pp. Arco- Nepal, Munich. Schleich, H. 2017. Guidelines and recommendations to foster development of turtle rescue and conservation centres in sense of conservation and sustainability. Arco-Nepal Newsletter, 1–16; Arco-Nepal; Munich. Web: www.arco-nepal.de/news/Annual Reports and newsletters

Wild-release, vital conservation tool or biodiversity threat?

Steve Lockett*

Mahseer Trust, Wareham, UK *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Among the competing pressures on Nepal’s wild rivers, and the all-important flora and fauna that inhabit them, are the needs of local communities. For some, these are mutually-exclusive, while others see the framework of freshwater habitats as an essential support mechanism for all forms of life. We have already seen a catastrophic collapse of freshwater biodiversity, particularly within the last 40-years. Most conservation efforts have been limited in scope and often species-based. Habitat and ‘systems thinking’ is of little concern compared with headline-grabbing single-species programmes. The iconic and widely-worshipped fish of south Asian rivers, mahseers (Tor spp., known as sahar in many regions of Nepal) have been subject to multiple long-term artificial breeding and wild release programmes. Results are difficult to assess due to ignorance of stocking guidelines and lack of institutional oversight. Given that most species are either more threatened now than prior to stocking, or still in the Data Deficient category, we question the efficacy of these programmes and call for more holistic and inclusive solutions, driven by better understanding of ecology, species identity and overall fish assemblages. Important yet overlooked impacts of mass releases of these predatory fish are the effects upon the aforementioned fish assemblages, as well as the threats to food webs, and transboundary impacts of migration. As people in rural areas struggle against climate crisis-induced changes to food and traditional medicines, we demonstrate through publication review that pseudo-scientific stocking becomes a multiple threat that must be policed effectively. Keywords: Aquaculture, Climate crisis, Holistic, Mahseer

Introduction Recent reports about the parlous state of freshwater biodiversity (WWF 2020), particularly among fishes, the largest group of vertebrates on the planet, and within tropical and subtropical regions, raise questions about what steps are being taken to address the declines. These declines are reported to be up to 84% for all freshwater wildlife populations since the 1970’s, with one-in-three freshwater species at risk of extinction. Among the many, complex causes for this loss of biodiversity are those impacts caused by human actions. When those actions are claimed to be in the name of conservation, we should be duty bound to investigate. Aquaculture, an 8,000-year-old technology (Conniff 2016), is booming, and given the stresses on natural food systems, the production of half the world’s fish and mollusc needs under controlled methods is clearly of great importance. Many of the technologies required, including artificial breeding,

43 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World also have potential positive implications for conservation “Provided sufficient knowledge on the biology and husbandry of the species exists” (Leus 2013). That historic wild release of captive-bred stock has not adhered to accepted conservation norms across many fields has been shown in other parts of the world (Pullin et al. 2004). A further concern is to what extent reintroductions are attempted and then retrospectively assessed (Seddon et al. 2007), if they are at all observed and assessed. It is understood that aquaculture, if not controlled and managed according to principles that respect natural ecosystem functioning can be extremely damaging (White & San Diego-McGlone 2008). Mahseers, especially members of the genus Tor, are large, highly migratory fish with a distribution range from Afghanistan in the west, through the entire Indian subcontinent, to parts of China in the north, Vietnam at the eastern edge of Southeast Asia and south to Java, among many of the larger Indonesian islands. Reports are of fish travelling up to 200 km to access spawning grounds (Nautiyal 2000). The natal homing instincts of Tor putitora were suggested by Nautiyal (Nautiyal et al. 2008) and confirmed by radio telemetry study in Mangde Chu and Dangme Chu of Bhutan by Fisheries Conservation Foundation and WWF-Bhutan with agreement from Bhutan’s Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (Philipp & Claussen 2015). Introductions of ex-situ-bred stock could be expected to disrupt spawning performance of threatened populations and unless introduced in appropriate numbers from carefully produced brood-stock, may overwhelm food webs, or introduce physically or genetically unfit individuals or disease pathogens novel to wild stocks (Ormerod 2003). Due to fears about declines of many of the 16 currently valid species (Pinder et al. 2019), captive breeding efforts began in the early 1970s (Ogale 2002). Within the region of south Asia, India is the major actor with regard to conservation releases of fish into the wild but cooperation between actors sharing a river basin should also extend to fish stocking (Valbo et al. 2008). These actions affect the following river basins: Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Ayerarwady through the Chindwin sub-basin. Of particular concern are the transboundary impacts of fish releases between India and Pakistan on the Indus and tributaries; between India and both Bhutan and Bangladesh on the Brahmaputra; between India and Myanmar on Ayerarwady/Chindwin; and the primary focus of this paper, India and Nepal within the Ganges basin. This study will draw together the current state of legal guidelines and acts affecting conservation stocking in India and Nepal, will reference the history of releases of mahseer and discuss the dangers to biodiversity within the river ranges and across national and international boundaries. Recognition of the three stage: planning, implementation, monitoring (Schwartz et al. 2017) approach to conservation will form the bedrock of evaluating what actions have taken place. We finish by suggesting comparison with successful mahseer and river habitat rehabilitation and protection actions and what research efforts are urgently required for ex-situ breeding and wild release to be useful tools within the conservation tool-kit. The addition of three species to the Annexes of Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals: the endangered T. putitora and T. malabaricus, and the critically endangered T. remadevii, would also help to establish the framework within which conservation actions should be attempted.

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Materials and methods To obtain information relevant to a study of conservation stocking of mahseer species, we began by collating the various laws and regulations regarding artificial breeding and wild release of bred stock in both India and Nepal. To understand the scale of ex-situ breeding efforts, we reviewed available literature, including the published papers and a number of popular publication notices, of both breeding and wild release for conservation purposes. Finding detail of preliminary study of stock rehabilitation or reinforcement need, and the expected ongoing monitoring of wild release impacts upon biodiversity was addressed by reference to a study of all published papers on Tor mahseers undertaken by Pinder et al. (2019), and a review of published papers on the subject of feeding habits of mahseer. Searches were conducted using Google search engine and Google Scholar, with targeted key word searches and Boolean search operators.

Results Most important among the documents available for inspection are those relating to the laws and guidelines regulating breeding and wild release of wild, and especially of threatened wildlife in India and Nepal Under Section 3, Sub section 2 of Nepal’s An Act to Regulate and Control International Trade in Endangered Wild Fauna and Flora (Govt. of Nepal 2017), a license is required to breed wild animals in captivity. Under Section 6 of the same act, scientific authorities must apply to the management authority, in this case being the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), for a license. Beyond these vague guidelines, the situation in India is more clear cut. In India, the controlling authority is the Central Zoo Authority (CZA), under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC). In the National Wildlife Action Plan 2017-31 (Wildlife Institute of India (WII) 2017), they determine that species within the IUCN threat status critically endangered may be considered for ex-situ breeding, while following the guidelines as laid out by CZA. The CZA (Govt. Of India, CZA 2020) has as one of its statutory duties to: “coordinate(s)…planned conservation breeding programmes and ex-situ research including biotechnological intervention for conservation of species for complementing in-situ conservation efforts in the country.” This includes, under Section 38 (C) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, clause d) To identify endangered species of wild animals for purposes of captive breeding and assigning responsibility in this regard to a zoo; clause f) to ensure maintenance of studbooks of endangered species of wild animals bred in captivity. There are no fish in the studbooks (Govt. of India, CZA 2020) and neither of the two main source hatcheries, Tata Power’s Lonavla hatchery, Maharashtra, or Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries’ (DCFR) Bhimtal hatchery, Uttarakhand, are approved by CZA for conservation breeding (Govt. of India, CZA 2020). The actions required for conservation of any threatened species under India’s guidelines can be summarised as follows (WII 2017) (Govt. of India, CZA 2020):

45 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

• Identify endangered or critically endangered species; • Understand and mitigate habitat threats • Research species ecological needs • Conduct populations status surveys • Prepare a recovery plan • Develop ex-situ and/or in-situ breeding capacity • Explore possibilities of repopulating areas outside of those with Protected Area status While discussing specifics of stocking with mahseer, the National Wildlife Action Plan goes on to say (WII 2017): “Adequate care should be taken to prevent any genetic contamination or deterioration during these breeding and restocking programmes.” Among the ways in which genetic contamination or deterioration may happen is by moving fish across river basin watershed boundaries or even within river basins between tributaries (Yadav et al. 2020). That these movements have happened with T. putitora is clear, as the IUCN Red Listing for the species (Jha et al. 2018) shows the current and expected historic range of the golden mahseer and notes that populations have also been found or introduced south of the Himalayan region in Mahanadi River of Chhattisgarh and Odisha, and the Krishna basin of central India. A further introduction programme in the central Indian state of Maharashtra is outlined in the

Discussion Obtaining broodstock is an area where guidelines are required, both to control quality and to guard against in-breeding or genetic drift, with genetic introgression a noted problem when hatchery stocks are introduced into wild populations (Almodóvar et al. 2001). The two-way process should have checks in place to cover both collection prior to breeding and reintroduction to specific locations. During a 2012 workshop entitled Rivers for Life, Life for Rivers, organised by WWF-India (Babu et al. 2014), aimed at creating a framework for mahseer conservation throughout the whole Ganges basin, one of the recommendations was that fish from one region should not be introduced into another. There are two established centres of broodstock holding and breeding, Tata Power’s Lonavla and DCFR’s Bhimtal, both of which retain stocks of T. putitora. Those broodstock held at Lonavla were sourced from Himachal Pradesh in 1992 and those at Bhimtal are of unknown Himalayan origin, also one or more of the mahseers identified as Tor tor are produced at both locations, and DCFR Bhimtal also breeds N. hexagonolepis, the chocolate mahseer. Further to the question of spread of hatchery stock, Nautiyal reports that Tor putitora “has been introduced as far as Papua New Guinea” (Nautiyal et al. 2008) and records from Tata Power show fish being sent to all states of India and as far as Laos (Kulkarni 1988, Ogale 2002). When considering conservation plans for other taxa,ecological studies are a priority first step in creating an action plan (Govt. of India, CZA 2020). Only once such an action plan has been completed will the need and habitat suitability for population translocation or reinforcement through wild release

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 of captive-bred stock be clear. Taking tigers as an example, understanding prey base would be one of the prerequisite data sources to build the picture of the ecological use of habitat and habitat suitability to support a given size of population. It has been shown that peer reviewed publications on mahseers of the Tor genus are heavily skewed towards aquaculture (Pinder et al. 2019). Of 591 results searched in Google Scholar by Pinder et al. 450 have ‘Biology and Aquaculture’ as the main theme. By comparison, the papers studying ‘Ecology’ or ‘Population’ number only ~50. Against this background, we decided to bring a tighter focus on a single ecological area for which clear and current data would be a critical part of building a conservation action plan based on habitat suitability to support fresh stock introductions. Inputting ‘Tor mahseer “feeding habits”’ into Google Scholar brings 460 results. These papers may mention “feeding habits” but not necessarily be a study of the feeding of Tor mahseers. Of those 460 papers, 381 were manually discounted as off-topic or repeat listings, 51 papers referred to Tor mahseer bred in captivity and only 28 mentioned feeding habits of wild mahseer. Some of those were citations of other papers with “feeding habits” quoted and there was only one paper that specifically studied the feeding habits of Tor species in the wild over a useful length of time (Mahaseth 2016). Moving to a Boolean search of ‘“tor mahseer” and “feeding habits”’ cuts results down to 35 papers. Of these, 5 are manually dismissed as not relevant, 7 are citations, 10 are too broad in scope to be part of an assessment of mahseer feeding habits, 1 concerns linking growth rate to feeding habits and the majority, 22, discuss feeding habits of mahseer bred in captivity. There are no results that have any relevance for research into the specific feeding habits of Tor mahseer in the wild. The conclusion is that there have been no relevant studies of feeding as part of the ecology of mahseers, either as a precursor to or as monitoring of any conservation restocking efforts. A recent and ongoing study on Kosi River of Uttarakhand (Johnson et al. 2020), coordinated by The Corbett Foundation, Wildlife Institute of India and Uttarakhand State Forest Department is demonstrating the correct steps by studying suitability of habitat, current status of fish populations, including mahseer species, other fishes and invasive fish introductions and collecting hydrological data over two different seasons. Of the expected five mahseer species: T. putitora, T. tor, T. mosal, Neolissochilus hexagonolepis, and Naziritor chelynoides, only the first and last were noted in the study. This is a similar situation to that currently pertaining in Gandaki River of Nepal where the previously noted assemblage of all those mahseer species, (Edds 1989, David Gillette, Pers. Comm., February 6 2020) and where T. tor was the most populous of the five sampled mahseer species, is now (latest study in 2010) only represented by T. putitora and N. hexagonolepis. Once “the most common mahseer” (Kulkarni 1988), Tor tor is now Data Deficient due to confusion over identity, lack of comparison with specimens from the type locality and seemingly fast declining populations. It has been shown that conservation rehabilitation through wild release of species had limited success of around 11% under earlier programmes during the 20th century (Beck et al. 1994), then 26% of programmes in one study of 180 cases from 1980 to 2000 (Fischer & Lindenmayer 2000). Adopting the IUCN guidelines (IUCN/SSC 2013) for reintroductions has brought about improved results, with

47 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World those for fish published by IUCN, showing 70% successful or highly successful (Soorae 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016 & 2018) clearly showing the way forward. Tor putitora, the golden mahseer of Himalayan rivers has been subject to breeding and wild release efforts for almost 50 years (Ogale 2002). Despite this widespread attempt to conserve this species, it is now listed endangered on the IUCN Red List. This fact alone should be sufficient to raise questions about the efficacy of the ongoing programmes. Clearly demonstrating the confusion about species identity and the conflicts between regulatory bodies in India is the Hirabambai breeding centre project for golden mahseer (spp. not accurately identified, but usually used to refer to T. putitora), within Melghat region of Maharashtra state under the Indo- German Biodiversity Programme (Bhartiya 2019). Detailing the steps taken for this project, prior “scientific study of a suitable site” was the only published criteria, however this region is clearly outside the accepted biogeographical distribution range of the golden mahseer, T. putitora (Jha et al. 2018). Once the project began, fingerlings were sourced from the Lonavla hatchery, with no details about original source beyond the aforementioned stock brought from Himachal Pradesh and used as broodstock since 1992, these were brought to maturity in a concrete tank, fed on inert foodstuffs, and then further stock were bred ex-situ and then released into rivers around the area. The report further suggests that: “Restocking of Mahseer fingerlings has to be carried out at least for a decade”. We have seen that control of physical and genetic attributes during breeding and ranching, as well as known provenance of source stock are all important elements of a well-considered conservation breeding programme. Unless the wild populations are so badly depleted that removal of brood stock would cause irrevocable collapse, or are already extinct, brood stock and release of hatched eggs, fry or fingerlings should be restricted to within geographical limits. The river basin would be the widest geographical catchment considered suitable, apart from in the case of localised extinction. Within popular media there are multiple references (example Forbes 2015) to brood stock sourced in the Himalayan region and taken to the Lonavla hatchery, as a central repository for producing eggs, and then exported across the entire Himalayan range. DCFR also freely advertise golden mahseer eggs and fry being sent across the whole range from the central hatchery at Bhimtal (Sarma 2018). Blue Revolution (Govt. Of India 2016) is an ongoing process to provide agricultural opportunities through fish breeding in India, controlled by The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW). Among the guidelines, fish breeding for conservation is one of the stated aims under Appendix I, 4. i) innovative activities, and Appendix III 5.5 riverine fisheries conservation. There are references to conservation protocols, as in 2.2 iii) sustainability, biosecurity and environmental concerns must be addressed and under Detailed Project Report 7.1 ii) feasibility studies required and vi) biosecurity and environmental concerns to be considered. However, it is also stated, under establishment of fin fish hatcheries Appendix III 1.6 vi) that original fish seed must be supplied by a central supply. The National Fisheries Development Board, a body within MAFW, in an awareness flyer (Govt. Of India 2018) goes further to suggest mahseer a suitable fish for breeding in cold waters and that T. 48

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 putitora and T. mosal mahanadicus (synonymous with T. putitora (Khare et al. 2014)) should take priority as recognised state fish under a scheme to breed “regionally important and threatened fish species.” There is a clear disconnect between the conservation management of CZA and the strategy to incentivise conservation breeding through the MAFW. Given the widely understood conservation models as outlined by IUCN and others, and that CZA guidelines clearly state that such guidelines should be followed when releasing stock into the wild (Govt. Of India CZA5 2008), there is a need to ensure that conservation breeding in India and neighbouring countries does not become an unregulated free-for-all with consequences within countries and particularly across transboundary river basins.

Conclusions While conservation breeding and restocking of the endangered mahseer T. putitora is welcomed, if following the legal frameworks of respective countries and while operating within the accepted guidelines as have been detailed above, there is still the need to question the priority of a single threatened species over the survival of one or more mahseers within the data deficient status. That there are multiple issues of perpetuation of errors of identity, distribution and ecology of mahseers has been demonstrated and proven (Raghavan et al. 2017, Pinder et al. 2019). Before any further conservation programmes are attempted, in either India or Nepal, there is an urgent need to address both specific details of the identities of Tor tor, Tor mosal and the ‘lesser mahseers’ of Neolissochilus and Naziritor genus, and also to better understand the complexities of Himalayan freshwater ecosystems and the role mahseers play within them. Given the undoubted benefits of small-scale, local community habitat protection schemes that have been used across the distribution range of mahseers (Koning et al. 2020), including within Meghalaya in India (Govt. Of Meghalaya 2018), the unregulated use of a narrow, single species stocking intervention across such a wide scale invites, by comparison, dangers to native or endemic biodiversity with few noted conservation benefits. The use of habitat stabilisation and rehabilitation as a first step of conservation of mahseers across the Himalayan region should be considered to be the priority.

Acknowledgements Thanks are due to David Edds (Emporia State University, Kansas, USA) and David Gillette (University of North Carolina, Asheville) for generously sharing detailed information on changes within mahseer populations from their studies of overall fish fauna of Kali Gandaki River basin. Sushan Mani Shakya (SM Laboratories Pvt) helped with collating and translating of Acts and Guidelines from Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal.

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Using media to understand dynamics of human-leopard relation in Nepal

Chandramani Aryal 1,2,3* and Narayan Niraula1,4

1Environment Protection and Study Center (ENPROSC) 2Department of Environmental Science, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 3Department of Environmental Science, Amrit Science Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 4Saptagandaki Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University *Email: [email protected]

Abstract Common leopard (Panthera pardus), a vulnerable felid interacts with human frequently due to its high adaptability to human modified ecosystems. Understanding the relation between human and the leopard is crucial for the conservation of the species since, in the most cases, the interaction has turned out to be an antagonistic one. However, the species has received a little attention only both from the research and conservation fronts. In this study, we have attempted to use the media coverage on leopard to understand its relation with the human. We used media reports to understand the relation of leopards with human. News and reports (n = 207) from different sources (n = 51) were analyzed for this study. Media reports have portrayed leopards as synonym of conflicts in the most occasions. Baitadi, Arghakhanchi, Tanahun, Lamjung districts were found to be the hotspots of human- leopard conflicts alongside Kaski, Kathmandu and Kavreplanchowk. Leopards are found to be attacking mostly children in these areas and the leopards are being killed in retaliation. Habitat degradation, decline in prey base, and abandoned fields have been described as the plausible causes for the human-leopard conflicts. Furthermore, poaching of leopards was found to be rampant in the country indicated by the number of seizures of the pelts from different parts of the country. Law enforcement to reduce poaching and evidence-based intervention to reduce conflicts are essential to conserve the vulnerable felids. Keywords: Baitadi, Common leopard, Conflict, Conservation, Tanahun

Introduction Geographically, the leopard (Panthera pardus) is the most widely distributed species among the big cats due to its incredible adaptability and secretive nature (Jacobson et al. 2016). The very reason raises a misconception regarding the species to be less threatened but in fact it has already been listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List because of high degree of threats it has been facing (Stein et al. 2016). Across its distribution range, the species suffers from threats like habitat loss and fragmentation, conflicts, illegal trade, loss of prey, and unsustainable legal trophy hunting in some parts (Nowell & Jackson 1996; Qi et al. 2015; Raza et al. 2010; Swanepoel et al. 2015). Sharp decline in distribution range due to habitat loss and degradation, and growing human dominated landscapes has caused

53 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World increase in probability of human-leopard encounter by manifold (Jacobson et al. 2016). As a result, human-leopard conflict related incidents are burgeoning across the range countries as depredation of livestock and pets along with attack on people by leopards are growing (Athreya et al. 2016; Singh 2005; Thorn et al. 2013). This kind of conflicts evoke a grave public backlash and a hindrance for conservation efforts. Furthermore, illegal trade on parts of leopards is worsening the scenario (Paudel et al. 2020). Thus, a proper understanding of the relation between leopards and human is essential for maintaining a win-win scenario amongst conservation and human welfare (Kansky & Knight 2014; Redpath et al. 2015). Nepal, a south Asian country, is one of the range countries where almost all the districts have presence records of the leopards and is also facing serious conflict issues (Shah et al. 2004). Such conflicts have caused economic loss, injuries and even fatalities to human and in turn there have also been records of death of four leopards per year in average (Adhikari et al. 2020; Thapa 2015). Studies in regards have been carried out from time to time covering issues like patterns of fatalities and injuries caused by leopards, plausible reasons of conflicts, deaths caused to leopards in retaliation, and illegal trades on the species (Acharya et al. 2016; Adhikari et al. 2020; Thapa 2015). Media like newspapers in their online portals have been covering the news related to leopards and conflicts created but efforts to compile and analyze these haven’t been attempted. Being based on data from newspaper only is likely to under report the cases (Earl et al. 2004). But when it is about a species with limited priority from conservation and research sector, a study using data from newspaper can be an easy and efficient way to understand the relation between the species and people (Krtalic & Hasenay 2012). In addition, the results obtained are expected to be useful for concerned authorities in making the relation of the leopard and people better.

Materials and methods

Study area Nepal was chosen as the study area (Figure 1), which has an area of 147,516 sq. km. The country is bordered by China in the north and by India in the rest of the three directions. The country lies between the coordinates of 28.3949°N and 84.1240°E. While going from south to north of the country, there is an increase in elevation and landforms change from low plains to highlands. Along with the elevation gradient, the climate also changes from tropical in the southernmost part to temperate and gradually morphs into cool and then culminates with polar climate in the northernmost boarder (Karki et al. 2016). The aspect of biodiversity is strong for the country since it lies at the junction of Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan biogeographic realms. Despite of the occupying only 0.1% of the global area, the country holds 3.2% of the world’s known flora and 1.1% of the fauna (Government of Nepal 2014). There have been recording of 12 species of wild cats in Nepal along with four big cat species namely, Bengal Tiger, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard and Common Leopard (Lamichhane et al. 2016). Among the three species of leopards found the studied common leopard has the most widespread distribution over

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 the country (Jnawali et al. 2011). A fair coverage of protected area system occupying 23.39% has been established in the country to conserve the rich biodiversity it harbors (DNPWC n.d.).

Figure 1. Map of the study area

Methods Data collection The data used in the analysis were through web sources. For the purpose we used google search engine. In google search engine keywords such as ‘leopard’, ‘leopard conflict’, ‘leopard Nepal’ were used. In addition to that, the keyword ‘leopard’ in combination with the names of all 77 districts of Nepal was used. After each search, the links containing the news were opened in new tab of the browser and the news sections were thoroughly studied. Data was entered in the excel sheet. The date of the incidence, headlines and news information were assessed to ensure, one incidents were entered only from one source. Furthermore, segregation of the data with respect to date and district were done to cross verify the single reporting of each event. The data were grouped as episodic and thematic following the similar approach used by (Bhatia et al. 2013). Whenever available, the age, district and date of incidence of the events were maintained in the separate excel sheet to identify the age group of victims. The data were analyzed using the excel and JASP (JASP Team 2020). 55 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World Results

Representation of human leopard relation in Nepali media The word cloud prepared using title of the newspaper article, after removing the term leopard from them is mostly represented by ‘attack’, ‘held’, ‘hide’, ‘dead’, ‘attack’, and ‘killed’(Figure 2). Baitadi’ ‘Tanahun’ and ‘Arghakhanchi’ represent the significant proportion in the word cloud. The leopards are attacking humans and humans have attacked back leopards. Furthermore, significant number of leopards are being poached for illegal trade.

Figure 2. Word clouds of the title of the newspaper excluding the word leopard

Leopard attack on humans Altogether, 51 news sources each representing identical episodes of leopard attack were found (Fig. 3). The numbers of cases of leopard attack were found to be in increasing trend. Of these news sources, 30 represented the cases of injury while 21 report the episode of human fatality. The highest number of human deaths were reported from Baitadi district where 23 different individuals have lost life to the leopard, followed by Arghakhanchi. In Arghakhanchi, in period between 2013 and 2018, 18 children lost their life to leopard and six more people were injured. While, in Tanahun district, in the year 2019 and 2020, 10 children lost life to leopard. Parbat, Bhaktapur, Doti, Kaski, and Achham are the other districts where leopards have killed people. In addition to these, Dadeldhura, Jhapa, Kathmandu, Kavre, Lamjung Morang and Saptari are the districts where leopards have attacked and injured peoples.

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

20 y = 1.6071x - 3234.4 15 R² = 0.6462 16

10 10 8 5 6 5

No of No Incidence 2 2 2 0 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 Year

Figure 3. Leopard attacks on human We were able to collect the age of 62 victims from different districts. The age of the victim losing the life to the leopard are mostly represented by the age group below 10 years.

Age group of the victims who are injured or killed by leopard Table 1. Descriptive statistics for different age groups of victims (Descriptive Statistics (n=62) age Injured Killed Taken Mean 40.417 8.565 1.000 Std. Deviation 20.597 11.190 NaN Minimum 1.750 1.833 1.000 Maximum 79.000 61.000 1.000

Figure 4. Age group distribution of victims; A- who lost their life to leopard attacks; B- who were injured due to leopard attacks Leopard Killed There were 38 incidences of the death and injury of the leopards from the different districts. Of these 38 incidences, two were of injury to the leopard, three killed in road accident (1- Chitwan in 2014, 2

57 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World in 2018 – 1 each at Dang and Banke) while 31 cases report the death of the leopard on human attack, mostly retaliatory killings. Remaining two reports the death of the 12/12 leopards at Palpa and Kaski districts to various causes. Of the leopard killed, one was killed at Bandipur, Tanahun (2020) after the individual was captured in a trap. The death of the leopards have been reported from Accham, Arghakhanchi, Baitadi, Banke, Bara, Chitwan, Dadeldhura, Dang, Dhanusha, Doti, Gorkha, Kailali, Kaski, Kathmandu, Kavre, Mahottari, Palpa, Parbat and Tanahun districts. The highest number of cases was reported from the Tanahun district (6). Human induced mortality of the leopard was found to increasing in the recent years with 12 cases reported from 2020 and 10 leopards losing life to human in 2019. Furthermore, 81 people were held in 42 different incidents with leopard hide. This means, in the period of 7 years at least 78 leopards have lost their life to humans. Table 2. Records of leopard parts confiscated in different years Leopard hide captured year Year Counts 2014 1 2015 1 2016 10 2017 6 2018 9 2019 8 2020 7 Grand Total 42 In response to the human leopard conflicts, capture and relocation of leopards have been used as strategy to control human-leopard conflicts in different parts of country. From Tanahun districts, eight leopards (five from Bhanu Municipality, two from Bandipur Rural Municipality and one from Vyas Municipality) were captured and translocated to Chitwan National Park, Mani Mukunda Sen Park, Butwal (1) Dang (1) and Pokhara Zoological Park (1). While one each leopard was captured and translocated from Jhapa (in 2017), Arghakhanchi (in 2018) and Baitadi (in 2020) district.

Discussion Highly adaptive nature of leopard over diverse and heterogeneous habitats including proximity of human settlement, often gets them into conflicts with human (Jacobson et al. 2016). Such conflicts, in many of the cases have proved to be antagonist for the felid species. Thus, understanding the relationship between human and leopard is of paramount importance for conservation of these vulnerable species. Despite the high frequency of conflicts between human and leopard, the relation between two is poorly documented. In this paper, an effort is made to understand the dynamism of human-leopard relationship by using newspaper reports. Our results show the growing trend of the leopard attacks to people in Nepal. This growth can be attributed to increase in utilization of multi-use landscapes by leopards which are much more heterogeneous and fall outside the protected areas (Acharya et al. 2017; Naha et al. 2020). The reason 58

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 being that there is approximately 29% area managed as community forests besides 23.39% of the protected areas which occur in proximity to the human settlements and have increased distribution of wildlife (Acharya et al. 2016; KC 2017). Among the attacked and injured, the highest fraction is of adults with the average age found to be 40 years. The higher number of injuries on adults despite the leopard attacks seems to be unbiased towards the age groups is backed up by the facts that adults have to be alone in the most cases while performing daily household activities like cutting grass, working in the field, going market, etc. Furthermore, as per the news, adults have appeared trying to defend or chase away the leopard before coming under attacks. On the contrary while observing the fatalities, children are mostly killed and similar fashion is shown in a study in Indian Himalayan Regions as well (Naha et al. 2018). Killing of children is much more obvious since leopard have high preferences over the prey that they can readily carry (about 25 Kg) after hunting despite they are catholic and can hunt larger ones under different circumstances (Hayward et al. 2006). In addition, children have frail bodies and are easily overpowered by the leopards resulting into higher incidents of fatalities. This suggests that the zones prone to human-leopard conflicts have highly vulnerable children. Outcomes on death of leopards suggest that there have been frequent killings of the species for various reasons. Illegal trade is seen as the most eminent cause of deaths followed by retaliatory killings in the second. Data on confiscated wildlife parts in Kathmandu in between 2003 to 2013 also shows that the parts of leopard were the highest in number (Dangol 2015). Whilst there have been substantial efforts to reduce the poaching and as a result rates for rhino, tigers and others have been reduced but still the case of leopard parts shows ‘how easy it is for poachers to reach the leopard’ (GoN 2018). High figure of retaliatory killing is the cumulative response led by frustration and anger of people who suffered through frequent attacks of the leopard on their livestock and people (Liu et al. 2011; McNutt et al. 2017; Moreto 2019). Whatever the reason is but frequent killing of the leopards cause changes in their population characteristics and meta-population attributes thereby affecting viability of the population in the country (Akçakaya and Brook 2009; Shaffer 1981). In nutshell, sustainability of the leopards in Nepal will be compromised if such unregulated killing and deaths persist. Having seen the high frequency of human-leopard interactions turning into negative, action to address these issues seems urgent. To reduce the extent of such conflicts from victim’s end, increasing awareness among the local residents through education and trainings can be a way out (Acharya et al. 2016). While conducting such activities, prioritization to the child groups is a must. Employing primary level teachers for the purpose can be an effective strategy (Sillero-Subiri and Laurenson 2001). Under several circumstances, relocation of the conflict causing individual or species is being practiced to resolve the issues and a few similar attempts have been made to reduce human-leopard conflict in Nepal as well. But relocation is not found to be the viable option to mitigate the conflicts since in most of the cases, the incidents like continuation of nuisance activities by the individual in relocated habitats, detrimental impacts faced by the individual due to change in habitat-environment, and stress offered to the individual while capturing have raised further concerns (Fernando et al. 2012; Massei et al. 2010). Additionally, killing of the conflict causing individual as retaliation or to put halt to the probable new incidents is also not a right thing to do. Thus, in nutshell, the human-leopard conflict should be

59 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World taken as a complex issue influenced by myriad of political and social attitudes, the biology of the species and management action (Athreya & Belsare 2007). The causes of the conflicts have been found varying over the sites and a single approach of solution will not be applicable to all the cases (Dickman 2010; Mekonen 2020). A proper conflict case/site specific study oriented to analyze the factors pushing the leopard from its natural territory to cause the event or the factors pulling the species towards the conflict zones can be helpful in devising successful approaches to mitigate the conflict.

Conclusion Interaction between human and leopard seems inevitable due to multiple reasons and this relationship has often developed into a hostile one in the context of Nepal. Deaths and injuries in both the fronts are showing an increasing trend. High numbers of such cases have been recorded from Baitadi, Tanahun and Arghakhanchi districts. Since application of proper response measures to solve the issues for long term aren’t seen in most of the cases, need for searching the best ecological solutions appears to be urgent.

Acknowledgement Authors would like to acknowledge the support received from Environment Protection and Study Center team to conduct this study.

References

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Seasonal variation of hornets in the apiaries of Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu

Ganga Kafle1* and Ishan Gautam2

1 Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal 2Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Swayambhu, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Hornets are one of the chief flying predators of honeybees in the apiary condition for honey, larvae and the flight muscles of worker bees (which they feed to growing queen) and they cause huge loss in apiculture. Predation of honeybees in the apiaries of Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu had been a serious problem causing a significant loss of bees in the apiaries. Five species of hornets (V. velutina, V. basalis, V. tropica, V. orientalis and V. magnifica) were collected during the whole study. The highest average incidence of hornets was made in the month of October (autumn) (23.625±1.920) due to colony expansion and lowest incidence was found in the month of January (winter) (0.25±0.892) due to over-wintering. V. velutina made the highest incidence in number (951) followed by V. basalis (122) while V. magnifica made the lowest incidence (1) followed by V. orientalis (3). The Simpsons, Shannon and Evenness indices for the species were 0.214, 0.39611 and 0.246, respectively. There was no significant relation of the species incidence of hornets with the month (at 0.05% level of significance). Average incidence of hornets varied among the months and was positively correlated to temperature (0.5212) and humidity (0.6924). The study showed that baits prepared by using local beverage (locally made alcohol) and fruits as bait was useful in traping the hornets. This may be helpful in pesticides-free control of these predators of honeybee. Keywords: Bait, Incidence, Over-wintering, Predation, Trap

Introduction Variety of hornets and wasps are reported to cause severe damage to the honeybee colonies worldwide invading bee hives and predating upon the bees, typically the workers. Commonly occurring hornets and wasps worldwide are Vespa velutina, V.basalis, V. analis, V. crabro, V. orientalis, Vespula asiatica, V. affnis, bee hunter wasp (Palarus orientalis Kohl.), bee hunter wasp (Phyllanthus ramakrishna T.) etc. Most species are native to Asia except the European species, V. crabro and the Oriental hornet, V. orientalis, which is only found in sub-Mediterranean region (Spradberry 1973, Matsuura and Yamane, 1990). V. velutina is common to eastern Asia (Abrol 1994, Martin 1995, Nguyen & Carpenter 2002, Nakamura

63 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World

& Sonthichai 2004, Nguyen et.al 2006) and is currently spreading throughout Korea (Kim et.al 2006, Choi et.al 2012). Hornets build paper nests from the material obtained from gnawing at the tree branches (Martin 1995; Rome et al., 2009; Franklin et al. 2017. If colony can’t expand due to site, then relocation of the colony occurs building the secondary nest up to 200 m from the primary nest (Matsuura & Yamane 1990). Major impacts to honeybee colonies by hornets are economic and ecological. Economic impact includes loss of honeybee colonies either by hive destruction or hive absconding. This eventually leads to reduced honey production. And the ecological impact is the loss of pollinators itself which is a serious threat to plant bio-diversity. Further predation pressures of the hornet impact the learning ability of the honeybees (Wang et al. 2016). Human deaths as a result of envenomation due to massive stings of hornets have also been reported in different parts of the world including Nepal. In spite of their predatory nature, some hornets like V. crabro, are plant pollinators also and recognized as a very good source of food. Some hornets are able to wipe out honeybee colonies through season specific activities and responsible for declination of its population, necessitating trap settings as a preventive measure with baits. Keeping this in mind, this study sheds a light on different species of hornets which predated the honeybee colonies of Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu and their seasonal variation encompassing trap settings using locally available materials as baits.

Materials and methods

Study area The study was carried out in the apiaries of Tribhuvan University, Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu from December 2016 to November 2017. The coordinates are 27.71460 N and 85.2878'E.

Photograph 1. A-Study area; B- Apiaries of Apis cerena and Apis mellifera

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Preparation and installation of traps Locally available plastic bottle traps were used for the collection of hornets’ population around A. cerena and A. mellifera colonies at study sites. Plastic bottles measuring 25 cm in length, 10 cm to 15 cm in width and having two inlets (each of 2.2 cm diameter) in just opposite postures were used as the frame of the trap in which bait was filled. The traps were designed in such a way that the hornets could enter but could not get out through them and thus get trapped. In the middle of the bottle lid, two small holes were made to insert a thread with which the trap was hung on the branches of trees.

Photograph 2. A-Preparation of the bait; B- Trap setting

Two traps with bait prepared by mixing locally made beverege or alcohol, water, honey, egg, orange, banana and sugar was hung on the branches of trees near the nine honeybee colonies of the study site. Traps were randomly placed at a height of 1.5 m. Altogether 84 times trap setting was done. Bait was replaced once in a week. In each replacement of the bait, the hornets attracted and caught in the traps were collected and counted (average/trap/week). The bait of same composition was used throughout the sampling period.

Specimen collection and storage Collected specimen were transferred to the laboratory of Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu and preserved for identification. Alcohol and formalin preservation was done for future use.

Photograoh 4. Pinning and preservation of the species 65

Biodiversity in a Changing World Data analysis Diversity indices were analysed by calculating Simpson's Diversity Index, Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index and Evenness index in Excel spreadsheet 2010. Chi-square test and ANOVA were done and a p-value of 0.05 was considered for statistical significance.

Results

Total number of hornets’ incidence of different species Five species of hornets were found invading the colonies of A. cerena and A. mellifera viz. V. velutina L.¸ V. basalis Smith, V. tropica Smith, V. orientalis Smith and V. magnifica Smith. Of these, V. velutina was found in the largest number (951, 88%) during the whole period of this study followed by V. basalis (122, 11%). Besides, five species of V. tropica (1%), three species of V. orientalis and one species of V. magnifica was recorded fallen into the traps.

V. velutina V. basalis V. tropica V. magnifica V. orientalis

11% 0% 1% 0%

88%

Figure 1. Species wise incidence of hornets in percentage

Monthly average incidence of hornets Highest average incidence was in the month of October followed by November. The average incidence for the month of October, November and September being 23.625, 23 and 20.375, respectively. Minimum average incidence was in the month of January (0.25) followed by December (0.5) and February (0.75). There was a swift decrease in the incidence from the month of December to January probably due to over- wintering during this period.

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Figure 3: Different species of hornets caught in the trap (a-Vespa velutina; b-Vespa basalis; c-Vespa tropica; d-Vespa orientalis; e-Vespa magnifica)

Table1. Monthly average incidence of hornets

Month Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov

0.5 0.25 0.75 1.25 4.5 4.875 13 14.75 19.125 20.375 23.625 23 Average ±1.5 ±0.25 ±0.25 ±0.829 ±1.06 ±0.739 ±2.3 ±0.54 ±1.03 ±1.916 ±1.920 ±0.892

50 40 30 20 10 0

Monthly average incidence of hornets

Figure 4. Monthly average incidence of hornets Species wise incidence of hornets The highest incidence was made by V. velutina followed by V. basalis in all months. V. tropica, V. orientalis and V. magnifica made lower incidences of V. magnifica made the least incidence.

Biodiversity in a Changing World

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

V. velutina V. basalis V. tropica V. magnifica V. orientalis

Figure 5. Species wise incidence of hornets

Diversity indices of the hornets The Simpsons diversity index (D), Shannon weaver index (H') and Evenness index (E) of the hornets incidence in the apiary as fallen in the trap were 0.214, 0.39611 and 0.246 respectively.

Discussion V. velutina is the most abundant hornet predating the apiaries of Natural History Museum, Swayambhu, Kathmandu followed by V. basalis during the study period of December 2016 to November 2017. The least incidence was made by V. magnifica followed by V. orientalis. This is similar with the study of Shah and Shah (1991) who observed V. velutina as the serious pest of honeybees in Kashmir but contradicts with the study of Abrol and Kakroo (1998) who noticed that V. orientalis was the most abundant and serious enemy of honeybees (as cited in Bhatta 2005). Also, the findings of the present study coincide with the study of Bista et al. (2020) who found four species of hornets (V. velutina L. V. basalis S., V. tropica S. and V. mandarina S.) predating the honey bee colonies at two locations of rural and forest areas of mid-hill in Lalitpur district. Further the present study differs in having V. orientalis and V. magnifica while they had V. mandarina as other predators of the honeybee. Bista (2011), had reported seven species (V. analis, V. basalis, V. mandarina, V. tropica, V. affinis, V.orientalis and V. velutina) from a survey conducted around the eastern and central parts of Nepal and Kafle (2012) reported six species (V. affinis, V. basalis, V. mandarina, V. orientalis, V. tropicaand V. velutina) as chief predators of honeybees in different parts of Nepal (Bista 2020). Highest incidence of hornets in this study occurred in the month of October during which colony expands and least incidence occurred in the month of January where hornets undergo over-wintering. But the study of Bista et al. (2020) showed the highest incidence in mid-November (62.01%) and early- November (53.49%) at rural and forest locations in 2016/2017. In 2017/2018 the highest incidence

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 was on early November (70.27%) at rural area and mid-November (58.62%) for the apiaries near forest area i.e. the incidence is highest in the month of November. Their study reported the least incidence in the spring and summer. The observation of the present study however, coincides with the observation of that carried out in the DiarbNegm, Sharkia governorate and Meat Ghamr Region, El-Dakhlia Governorate, Egypt, during 2012, 2013, where the monthly average numbers for catching of V. orientalis adults was recorded highest at October followed by September and November. But this study contradicts with the results from the study of Abrol and Kakroo (1998) who found the peak predatory activity during July to September (as mentioned in Bhatta 2005). Another study carried out at Bhatkyapati-12 and Tyangla- 3, Kirtipur Municipality under apiary and filed condition during July, 2004 to September, 2004, showed the highest incidence and percentage of predation in September (Bhatta & Tamrakar 2008). Low diversity index of the hornets in present study suggests low species prevalence of hornets in the study area and the low evenness index suggests high interspecific difference in the incidences of hornets. Average monthly incidence of the predators showed positive correlation with the temperature and humidity i.e. with the increasing temperature and humidity, incidence of hornets also increased and vice-versa because their physiology and lifecycle are affected directly by the periodic change in temperature and humidity. Hornets show high affinity to local alcohol, hence the bait prepared from materials containing local beverage turned out to be useful in attracting a number of hornets in this study. But Bhatta and Tamrakar (2008) found the baits of rotten fish and pear as the best attractants for the management of predatory hornets because they attracted highest number of hornets and lowest number of honeybees followed by chicken bait.

Acknowledgements We are indebted to Prof. Dr. Tej Bahadur Thapa, Head of Central Department of Zoology (TU), Kirtipur and Prof. Dr. Ranjana Gupta, former Head of Central Department of Zoology (TU), Kirtipur for kind inspiration and suggestions. We are thankful to Natural History Museum for providing space to keep traps and store collections. We thank Ms. Jamuna Kafle and Ms. Monica Shrestha for help during field works.

References

Abdelaal, A. A. A and El-defrawy, B. M. 2014. Efficacy of new designed traps for controlling the oriental hornet (vespa orientalis) in Egyptian apiaries and its measurements. International Journal of Advanced Research 2(10):1–8 Alber M. A. 1953. Ilcalabrone, tigredell’aria. Apicoltored’ Italia 20:188–189. Bhatta, C. P. 2005. Flying predators of honeybees and its management in different apiaries of Kathmandu Valley. Bista, S., Thapa, R., K.C., G., Pradhan, S., Ghimire, Y. and Aryal, S. 2020. Incidence and predation rate of hornet (Vespa spp.) on European honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) apiary at mid-hill areas of Lalitpur district. Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 3(1), 117-132. https://doi.org/10.3126/janr.v3i1.27105 69

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Burgett M. and Akratanakul, P. 1982. Predation on the Western honey bee, Apismellifera L., by the hornet, Vespa tropica (L.). Psyche 89:347–350. Crane, E. (1999) The world history of beekeeping and honey hunting. Gerald Duckworth & Co, Ltd, London Gulati, R. and Kaushik, H. D. 2004. Enemies of Honeybees and their Management-A Review: 192-192 Ishay J. 1964. Observations sur la biologie de la guêpeorientale Vespa orientalis F. InsectesSociaux 11: 193–206. Ken T. and Wang J. M. 2004. Reduction of foraging activity by A. cerana colonies attacked by Vespa velutina. Journal of Bee 2:7–9. Ken T., Hepburn H. R., Radloff S. E., Yusheng Y., Yiqiu L., Danyin Z. and Neumann P. 2005. Heat-balling wasps by honeybees.Naturwissenschaften 92:492–495. Koeniger N., Koeniger G. and Mardan M. 1994. Mimicking a honeybee queen? Vespa affinis indosinensis Perez 1910 hunts drones of Apis cerana F. 1973. Ethology 98:149–153. Koeniger N., Koeniger G., Gries M., Tingek S. and Kelitu A. 1996. Observations on colony defense of Apis noluensis Tingek, Koeniger and Koeniger, 1996, and predatory behavior of the hornet, Vespa multimaculata Perez, 1910. Apidologie 27:341–352. Matsuura M. and Sakagami S. F. 1973. A bionomic sketch of the giant hornet, Vespa mandarina, a serious pest for Japanese apiculture. Journal of the Faculty of Science Hokkaido University 19:125–162. Matsuura M. and Yamane S. K. 1990. Biology of the Vespine wasps. Berlin: Springer. Monceau, K., Bonnard, O. and Thirey, D. 2013. Vespa velutina: a new invasive predator of honeybees in Europe, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Munawar, M. S. and Camphor, E. S. W. Studies on population trends of Vespa spp. predacious on Honeybee colonies in Pakistan. Retrieved from: https://www.apimondia.com/en/component/easyfolderlistingpro Neumann, P. and Carreck, N. L. 2010. Honey bee colony losses. Journal of Apiculture Research 49:1–6 Ono M., Igarashi T., Ohno E. and Sasaki M. 1995. Unusual thermal defense by a honeybee against mass attack by hornets. Nature 377:334–336. Ono M., Okada I. and Sasaki M. 1987. Heat production by balling in the Japanese honeybee Apis cerana japonica as a defensive behavior against the hornet Vespa simillimaxanthoptera (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Experientia 43:1031–1032. Papachristoforou A., Rortais A., Zafeiridou G., Theophilidis G., Garnery L., Thrasyvoulou A. and Arnold G. 2007. Smothered to death: hornets asphyxiated by honeybees. Current Biology 17:795–796. Papachristoforou, A., Sueur J., Rortais A., Angelopoulos S., Thrasyvoulou A. and Arnold G. 2008. High frequency sounds produced by Cyprian honeybees Apismelliferacypria when confronting their predator, the Oriental hornet Vespa orientalis. Apidologie 39:468–474. Singh, S. 1962. Beekeeping in India. New Delhi: Council of Agricultural Research. Sugahara M. and Sakamoto F. 2009. Heat and carbon dioxide generated by honeybees jointly act to kill hornets. Naturwissenschaften 96:1133–1136. Tan K., Radloff S. E., Li J. J., Hepburn H. R., Yang M. X., Zhang L. J. and Neumann P. 2007. Beehawking by the wasp, Vespa velutina, on the honeybees Apis cerana and A. mellifera. Naturwissenschaften 94:469–472. van Engelsdorp, D., Meixner, M. D. 2010. A historical review of managed honey bee populations in Europe and the United States and the factors that may affect them. J Invertebr Pathol 103:S80–S95 Vespa velutina (Asian hornet)- CABI.org. http://www.cabi.org>isc/datasheet. accessed on 7 February, 2020. Wafa A. K. 1956. Ecological investigations on the activity of the oriental hornet, Vespa orientalis. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture – University of Cairo 103: 1–35. Williams, G. R., Tarpy, D. R., Vanengelsdorp, D., Chauzat, M. P., Cox-Foster, D. L., Delaplane, K.S., et al. 2010. Colony Collapse Disorder in context. Bioessays 32:845–846.

Helminth parasites reported in gastro-intestinal region of air-breathing fishes at Biratnagar, Eastern Nepal

Gayatri Shah1,2*, Shiv Narayan Yadav2, Jay Narayan Shrestha2 and Shyam Narayan Labh1

1Department of Zoology, Amrit Campus, Bagmati Province, Kathmandu, Nepal 2Department of Zoology, Post Graduate Campus, Province-1, Biratnagar, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Air-breathing fishes survive in swamps and muddy waters due to their ability to utilize atmospheric oxygen for respiration through various air-breathing organs. It is reported that air-breathing fishes harbour a greater diversity and abundance of larval helminths. This study was designed to isolate and identify the helminth parasites infecting gastro-intestinal region of air-breathing fishes found in rivers and ponds of Biratnagar, Nepal. Four different species, Channa orientalis (n=120), Channa striatus (n=130), Clarias gariepinus (n=100), and Heteropneustes fossilis (n=180), of total 530 air-breathing fishes were collected from water resources of Biratnagar area by fish net with the help of fishermen. The gut content of the fishes were removed and examined under microscope after saline mount preparation and the parasites were identified by morphological features using reference materials. Out of 530 air-breathing fishes, 495 (93.4%) fishes were found to be infected with some helminth parasites. The higher prevalence (100%) of helminth parasites was seen in C. orientalis and H. fossilis, followed by C. striatus (85.4%) and C. gariepinus (84.0%). A total of 14 species of parasites namely Capillaria pterophylli, Camallanus intestinalis, Procamallanus laevionchus, Procamallanus heteropneustes, Eustrongyloides spp., Bothriocephalus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Lytocestus indicus, Gonocerca phycidis, Genarchopsis goppo, Allocreadium spp., Phyllodystomum folium, Pallisentis ophiocephali, and Pomphorhynchus spp. were recorded. These findings confirmed that helminth parasites are widespread in air-breathing fishes, and the prevalence of helminth parasites is higher in the gastrointestinal tract of the fishes. Keywords: Air-breathing fishes, Helminth parasites, Channa, Clarias, Heteropneustes

Introduction All of the over 28,000 living fish species use gills to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with water. However, some fishes are also bimodal breathers, i.e. they have the capacity to respire aerially as well as aquatically and are called air-breathing fishes (Graham 2011). This usually happens when the water in which a fish lives becomes hypoxic i.e. lower than partial pressure of atmospheric oxygen. This is a diverse group of fish that has developed the ability to utilize atmospheric oxygen for respiration through a variety of air-breathing organs (ABO). The common air-breathing organs are labyrinth organ, suprabranchial chamber, air bladder, swim bladder, etc. (Graham 2011, Ichien et al. 2016). Air- breathing fishes survive in the swamps and weedy waters and are well known for highly nutritive, 71 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World invigorating and therapeutic qualities (Shukla & Pandey 2013). These fishes have great resistance to disease or parasites but under certain circumstances like bad drug treatment, unsuitable food, lack of oxygen, too high or too low temperature, or other adverse influences, they become susceptible to parasitic infection and other diseases (Sharma 2012). With the increasing attention in aquaculture throughout the world, parasitic infestation are treated as one of the major threats for fish health management. The presence of parasites up to large extent are dangerous for fish population (Das 2015) Helminths are a major cause of reduced productivity in fishes, characterized by devastating effects on fish health in terms of mortality and morbidity, particularly in developing countries. The effect of the helminth infections on production of particular fish species depends mostly on the age of the fish, genotype, parasite species involved and the intensity of helminths (Khurshid & Ahmad 2012). Helminth is a big group of fish parasites belonging to trematodes, cestodes, nematodes and acanthocephalans (previously included in helminth) attack the fish both as external parasites and internal parasites (Chandra 2008). The main objective of the study was to detect helminth parasites in the gut content of air breathing fishes and their identification. This study also helps to outflow the nutritional, economical and medical value of air-breathing fishes.

Materials and methods Study Area This study was carried out in the Department of Zoology, Post Graduate Campus, Tribhuvan University, Biratnagar, Nepal over a period of six months (May 2017 to October 2017). Biratnagar is the city in eastern lowland Nepal having geographical location 26°28'60"N 87°16'60"E . It lies 399 km east of Nepal’s capital, Kathmandu and 6 km north of the border of the Indian state, Bihar. Fish collection A total of 530 air breathing fish compromising four species namely C. orientalis (n=120) C. striatus (n=130), Clarias gariepinus (n=100) and Heteropneustes fosillis (N=180) were randomly collected from local fish market of Biratnagar and surrounding rivers and ponds. They were washed properly in clean water and then transported to the Zoology Laboratory of Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar for further study. Detection of helminth parasites The fishes were killed and abdominal cavity of each fish was opened to remove gastrointestinal part and cut into parts of one centimetre each. The cut parts were placed in Petri dishes containing saline water. Each piece of the intestine was further carefully slit opened for the emergence of any adult parasites. The gut content was further observed under microscope by simple wet mount and iodine mount preparation. For this, about one gram of gut content and a drop of normal saline or iodine solution was placed on a clean, dry glass slide and mixed to make smear and a cover slip was kept, and the preparation was then observed under light microscope (first under 10X and then 40X magnification) for the search of various helminth parasites. The remaining gut content was preserved 72

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 in formalin in vials. The morphology of observed helminth parasites were noted and identified by using standard keys. Data analysis Data were recorded and analyzed using statistical package for the social science (SPSS) version 16.0 and interpreted according to frequency distribution and percentage. The prevalence of helminth parasites was calculated as the number of infected host with one or more individuals of a particular parasites species divided by number of fish hosts examined (expressed as percentage).

Results Among the four species of air-breathing fishes examined, all species were found to be infected with some helminth parasites. Channa orientalis was found to be infected with nematode and trematode parasites. Similarly, Channa striatus was found to have been infected with nematodes, cestodes and acanthocephalans; Clarias gariepinus by nematodes, cestodes and trematodes, while Heteroponeustes fossilis was infected by all four groups of helminth parasites (Table 1). Table 1. Infection of air-breathing fishes with gastro-intestinal helminth parasites Detected helminth parasites Fish species Nematodes Cestodes Trematodes Acanthacephalans Channa orientalis + - + - Channa striatus + + - + Clarias gariepinus + + + - Heteroponeustes fossilis + + + + + (present); - (absent)

Among 530 air-breathing fishes examined for gastrointestinal helminth parasites, most hosts (n=495) were found to contain some helminth parasites in their gut content and overall prevalence of infection was 93.4%. The higher prevalence (100%) of parasites was seen in Channa orientalis and Heteroponeustes fossilis, followed by Channa striatus (85.4%) and Clarias gariepinus (84.0%) (Figure 1). Among 120 C. orientalis examined, all of them were (100%) found to have been infected with some helminth parasites. Three parasites were identified from gut content of this species. Among 130 C. striatus examined, 111 (85.4%) of them were found to have been infected with three species of helminth parasites. Among 100 Clarias gariepinus examined, 84 of them were found to have been infected with three types of helminth parasites giving prevalence of 84.0%. The stinging catfish i.e. Heteroponeustes fossilis (n=180) was also examined and all of them were found to contain five types of helminth parasites in their gastro-intestinal tract with prevalence of 100% (Table 2).

Biodiversity in a Changing World

Table 2. Distribution and prevalence of helminth parasitic infection in air-breathing fishes Fish species Observed parasites Number of fish infected Prevalence (%) C. orientalis (n=120) Capillaria pterophylli 68 56.7 Gonocerca phycidis 120 100 Genarchopsis goppo 15 12.5 C. striatus (n=130) Camallanus intestinalis 32 24.6 Bothriocephalus species 38 29.2 Pallisentis ophiocephali 41 31.5 C. gariepinus (n=100) Procamallanus laevionchus 46 46.0 Proteocephalus species 21 21.0 Allocreadium species 17 17.0 H. fossilis (n=180) Procamallanus heteropneustes 68 37.8 Eustrongyloides species 54 30.0 Lytocestus indicus 39 21.7 Phyllodystomum folium 43 23.9 Pomphorhynchus species 180 100 Total (N=530) 495 93.4

200 Number of fish examined 180 180 180 Number of fish infected 160 Prevalence of infection 140 130 120 120 120 111 100% 100 100% 100 85.4% 84 84.0% 80 60 Number/prevalence 40 20 0 Channa orientalis Channa striatus Clarias gariepinus Heteroponeustes fossilis

Air-breathing fishes

Figure 1. Frequency of gastrointestinal helminth parasitic infection in air-breathing fishes

Discussion In the present study, two species of Channa, namely C. orientalis, and C. striatus were examined for their gastrointestinal helminth parasites. The result revealed that each species were found to be infected with three species of helminth parasites. Among 120 C. orientalis examined, the parasites identified from gut content of this fish were C. pterophylli, G. phycidis and G. goppo whose prevalence rate were 56.7%, 100% and 12.5%, respectively. Mangolsana et al. (2016) found that 79.2% C. orientalis were infected

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 with trematode parasites (Allocreadium fasciatusi and Metaclinostomum srivastavai). Similarly, Puinyabati et al (2010) also detected two trematodes i.e. A. fasciatusi and A. handia from C. orientalis. The parasites detected from gut content of C. striatus were one nematode species i.e. C. intestinalis whose prevalence rate was 24.6%, one cestode namely Bothriocephalus spp. with prevalence rate 29.2% and an acanthocephalan i.e. Pallisentis ophiocephali having the highest prevalence rate i.e. 31.45%. Among 100 Clarias gariepinus, 84% were found to be infected with three helminth parasites i.e. one nematode, a cestode and one digenean treamtode. Dan-kishiya and Zakari (2017) identified the nematodes, cestodes and trematodes in wild C. gariepinus in Gwagwalada, Abuja. Aliyu and Solomon (2012) and Salawu et al. (2013) also detected some nematodes, cestodes and trematodes from C. gariepinus. In the current study, nematode species i.e. Procamallanus laevionchus was detected from 46.0% C. gariepinus having higher prevalence than cestode namely Proteocephalus spp. (21.0%) and digenean treamtode i.e. Allocreadium spp. was detected from 17.0% fish hosts. The higher prevalence of nematodes than cestodes and trematodes revealed that nematodes were the commonest infection in African catfish (i.e. C. gariepinus) and this is in conformity with with the findings of Kawe et al. (2016) and Aliyu and Solomon (2012). Kawe et al. (2016) also detected Allocreadium spp. from 3.6% and Procamallanus laevionchus from 32.5% of C. gariepinus. Heteropneustes fossilis (n=180) had prevalence rate of 100% with five parasites were identified. Two nematode species namely Procamallanus heteropneustes and Eustrongyloides spp. were identified from 37.8% and 30.0% fishes respectively. One cestode, Lytocestus indicus (21.7%), one trematode i.e. Phyllodystomum folium (23.9%) and an Acanthocephalan i.e. Pomphorhynchus species were detected from all of the H. fossilis (100%). Other studies from different countries also reported variable prevalence of various parasites from gastrointestinal tract of H. fossilis. Yadav (2017) also detected Pomphorhynchus spp. from 100% of H. fossilis, which is similar to the result of current study. In the study of Nimbalkar et al. (2010), the prevalence of Eustrongyloides larvae was 50% in this fish. Ningthoukhongjam et al. (2015) identified cestode parasites from intestine of 50% of H. fossilis. In the study of Gupta (1996), Procamallanus heteropneustes was detected from 31.25% and Lytocestus indicus from 5.6% of H. fossilis. The overall prevalence of helminth parasites in this study was high (93.4%). The prevalence was 75.0% in study of Salawu et al. (2013), 59.4% in the study of Aliyu and Solomon (2012), and 67.5% in the study of Kawe et al. (2016). Fish species in good environmental conditions rarely come down with diseases. Reports have shown that helminths are generally found in all freshwater fishes, with their prevalence and intensity depending on factors of parasite species and their biology, host and its feeding habits, physical factors and hygiene of the water body, and presence of intermediate hosts where necessary (Kawe et al. 2016).

Conclusions The present findings confirm that helminth parasites are widespread in air-breathing fishes from Biratnagar area and overall prevalence of helminth parasites is high i.e. 93.4% with heavy parasitic burden in gastro-intestinal tract which may be the result of poor water quality and crowding that give 75

Biodiversity in a Changing World suitable habitats for those parasites and intermediate hosts. Hence, information pertaining to basic fish culture, pond management, water quality and related issues should be available for those interested in the activities of fish culture. The possibility of multiple and concurrent infection of different species poses a health risk of zoonotic transmission to consumers.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Dr. Bharat Raj Subba, Department of Zoology, Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar. We are also very much thankful towards all the teaching and non- teaching staff of Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar.

Authors’ contributions Shah, G., Yadav, S.N. and Shrestha, J.N. designed the research; Shah, G. collected the data; Yadav, S.N. and Yadav, J.N supervised the study; Shah, G. and Labh, S.N. analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed critically to the drafts and gave final approval for publication.

References

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Puinyabati, H., Shomorendra, M. and Kar, D. 2010. Studies on trematode parasites of air breathing fishes of Awangsoi Lake. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 2(2):242–244. Salawu, M. T., Morenikeji, O. A., Sowunmi, A. A. and Odaibo, A. B. 2013. Comparative survey of helminth parasites of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) and Clarias pachynema (Boulenger, 1903) from the Ogun River and Asejire Dam in South-West Nigeria. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture 5:7–11. Sharma, R. 2012. Investigations on helminth parasites of freshwater fish fauna of Muzaffarnagar. Ph.D. Thesis, Charan Singh University, Meerut. Shukla, J. P., and Pandey, K. 2013. Air breathing and carnivorous fish culture. In Fish and Fishries, Rastogi Publications, p 328. Yadav, S. N. 2017. Study on helminth parasites of some fresh water fishes. International Journal of Zoology studies 2(2):50–52.

Role of red blood cell indices in the screening of beta thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies

Gita Shrestha1* and Nanda Bahadur Singh2

1Mechi Multiple Campus (Tribhuvan University), Bhadrapur, Jhapa, Nepal. 2Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Nepal has been included in the world Thalassemia Belt but data on the prevalence of thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies are lacking. Beta thalassemia is a severe transfusion dependent genetic disease with a high morbidity. The diagnostic tests are expensive and unaffordable to majority of the patients. Cell counters for estimation of red cell indices are widely available. This study was undertaken to determine the role of RBC parameters in suggesting thalassemia for further investigations involving high cost techniques like hemoglobin electrophoresis or high-performance liquid chromatography. The aim of this study was to observe RBC indices as tools for the screening of thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies. A cross-sectional study of Muslim ethnic group of east Nepal was done. Initially RBC indices were estimated by fully automated electric cell counter. Hemoglobin electrophoresis was done of those cases showing deranged RBC parameter suggesting thalassemia. Beta thalassemia heterozygous/trait, Hemoglobin E homozygous/disease and Hemoglobin E heterozygous/carrier were diagnosed. Simple RBC indices can be used for the screening of thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies. Hemoglobin electrophoresis must be suggested for confirmation. Keywords: Beta-thalassemia heterozygous, Hemoglobin E heterozygous, Hemoglobin E homozygous, Hemoglobin electrophoresis, RBC indices

Introduction Thalassaemia and haemoglobinopathies are hereditary anemias due to defective hemoglobin production. These are monogenetic disorders with an autosomal recessive inheritance. Thalassemias are quantitative disorders of the polypeptide globin chain synthesis resulting in decreased production of hemoglobin. Haemoglobinopathies are qualitative disorders causing structural abnormality in the synthesis of hemoglobin e.g. sickle cell syndrome and HbE (Harsh 2010). Hemoglobin disorders are emerging global health issues. Individuals with beta thalassemia heterozygous/trait are usually asymptomatic and unaware of their carrier status. Beta thalassemia trait is the commonest monogenetic disorder. An estimated 50% of the world’s beta thalassemia carriers are in Southeast Asia (Colah et al. 2010)

78 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

The clinical spectrum of these disorders ranges from asymptomatic to serious lifelong transfusion dependent conditions. The decreased production of hemoglobin or structurally abnormal hemoglobin synthesis causes anemia. Anemia is usually severe with serious health problems like bone deformities, enlarged spleen, and fatigue that requires regular life–long blood transfusion, iron chelation therapy and constant medical supervision (Ghodekar et al. 2014). Consequently, life-long treatment demands substantial financial burden (Cunninghum 2004). In Nepal the prevalence of anemia among women of reproductive age (women ages 15-49) was 35.10% as of 2016, this refers to non-pregnant women with hemoglobin level 12 g/dl and pregnant women with hemoglobin level 11 g/dl. Prevalence of anemia among children (children under 5) in Nepal was 42.70 % as of 2016, with hemoglobin level 110 g/lt at sea level (WHO 2016). The main cause for microcytic hypochromic anemia may be iron deficiency anemia or hemoglobin disorders like beta thalassemia major, beta thalassemia trait, Hemoglobin E disease or Hemoglobin E trait. Electronic cell counters have been used to estimate red cell indices as a first indicator of beta- thalassemia (Aziz et al. 2012). The red cell indices like Mean Corpuscular volume (MCV), Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), Red cell distribution width/standard deviation (RDW-SD) and Hb concentrations can be used to screen and diagnose beta thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies. The purpose of using RBC indices to discriminate anemia is to detect cases with a high probabilty of requiring appropriate follow-up and to reduce unnecessary investigative costs. However, the final diagnosis must be either hemoglobin electrophoresis or High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) test. Complete Blood Count report at a glance is a simple observational method which is easy to interpret to diagnose thalassemia and hemoglobinopthies. The cases with MCV < 80fl and MCH < 27pg are considered positive, further confirmatory testing is necessary. Confirmation can be made by HPLC or hemoglobin electrophoresis (Mahdi et al. 2015). Hemoglobin electrophoresis test is a blood test to measure and identify the different types of normal and abnormal hemoglobin in the blood (Ghosh 2015). The normal types of common hemoglobin found in adults are: HbA (adult haemoglobin): 95-98%, HbF (fetal hemoglobin): 0.8-2% is usually present in the fetus and new born babies, it is replaced by HbA soon after birth, and very small amounts of HbF is produced after birth. HbA2: upto 3.5%, is normal type of hemoglobin present in adults (Clarke and Trefor 2000). Although there are more than 350 types of hemoglobin variants, the most common are HbS, HbE found in Southeast Asian descent, HbC and HbD (Thein 2013). The objective of the present study was to elucidate the role of red blood cell indices before ordering haemoglobin electrophoresis so as to cost effectively implement the use of such readings as screening method for thalassemia and haemoglobinopathies.

Materials and methods Prior ethical consent was taken from the National Health and Research Council, Kathmandu. Venous blood was collected in 5mL EDTA tube. Within two hours of sample collection the haematological 79

Biodiversity in a Changing World parameters, including Hb, MCV and MCH were estimated by a fully automated electronic cell counter. The WHO criteria: Hb<13g/dL for males and 12g/dL for females to define anemia was followed. The samples with haemoglobin below cut-off level were subjected to quantification of haemoglobin using capillary electrophoresis (Sebia Minicap Flex piercing). This machine could separate the HbE fraction from HbA2. The samples were further examined for common β-thalassemia mutations by Arms Multiplex System Polymerase Chain Reaction (ARMS-PCR).

Results The complete blood count test of 300 cases indicated anemia in 179 cases with haemoglobin level < 13dl in males and <12dL in females. Out of 179 anemic cases the RBC parameters were normal in 120 cases but 59 cases presented low MCV <80 fL, low MCH <27 pg and low Mentzer’s Index <13 (Table 1). Haemoglobin electrophoresis test confirmed β-thalassemia and haemoglobinopathy in all 59 cases. The Electrogram or report of haemoglobin electrophoresis showed presence of HbE in 28 cases. Out of these 28 cases a high peak HbE level (>90%) and absence of HbA in 4 cases (Fig 1) and HbE (23 -25%) with lowered HbA (70 -72%) in 24 cases (Fig 2) was observed. The other 31 cases with low MCV (<80 fL), low MCH (<27 pg) and low Mentzer’s Index (<13) without HbE peak had various HbA2 levels between 4 -6% (Fig 3) indicated β-thalassemia. The PCR-analysis of the samples with presence/high HbE levels revealed a mutation at codon 26 (Glu > C). All the samples with high HbA2 (>4%) had mutations at Cd-15 (G>A), IVS1-5 (G>C).

Table 1. Red Cell Indices of cases sent for haemoglobin electrophoresis Hb (g/dl) MCV (fL) MCH (pg) MCHC (g/dl) RDW-SD % MI

Mean 9.78 68.00 22.56 33.37 12.76 Std. deviation 0.73 4.78 1.90 1.59 1.17 <13 Range 3.1 20.0 6.5 6.5 5.6 Minimum 7.8 53.0 31.2 10.4 10.4 Notes: (Hb:haemoglobin, MCV: Mean cell volume, MCH: Mean cell hemoglobin, MCHC: Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration) RDW/SD: Red cell distribution standard deviation) Table 2. Co-relation between Red Blood Cell Indices of Beta thalassemia patients and normal persons according to haemoglobin electrophoresis Item Beta-thalassemia/Mean (sd) Normal/ Mean(sd) p-value Hb (g/dL) 9.8(0.73) 11.2 (1.8) 0.01 MCV (fL) 68.0(4.78) 79.2(5.3) 0.0001 MCH (pg) 22.56(1.90) 26.89(5.3) 0.0001 MCHC 33.37(1.59) 34.52(3.4) 0.042 RDW-Sd 12.76+/-1.17 17.25+/-1.15 0.0001

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Notes: (Hb: haemoglobin, MCV: Mean cell volume, MCH: Mean cell hemoglobin, MCHC: Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration)

Figure 1. A- Electrogram peak at HbE and HbA absent; B- electrogram peak at HbE absent and HbA (<96.8)

Discussion Anemia was the major cause behind ordering hemoglobin electrophoresis for diagnosing haemoglobinopathies. In Nepal, hemoglobin electrophoresis test is not available in all government bases and is expensive if done in private laboratories. Therefore, clinicians must be highly skillful in interpreting Complete Blood Count (CBC) results to order Hb electrophoresis. The individuals with thalassemia heterozygous are asymptomatic and unaware of their carrier status. The basic principle in the management of β-thalassemia, as for many autosomal recessive diseases, is the prevention of homozygous forms by detection and education of carriers (Beyan et al. 2007). The red cell parameters that can be used for β-thalassemia screening include hemoglobin, MCV, MCH and RDW. Of the suspected cases more than half had normal Hb electrophoresis results. The analysis of blood cell indices of both normal Hb electrophoresis and β-thalassemia heterozygous Hb electrophoresis groups separately, presented statistical difference between the two groups regarding blood cell parameters. The most consistent finding of this study in the suspected thalassemia heterozygous was the combination of relatively high RBC count with low hemoglobin, low MCV and low MCH which was similar to the study of Faraj et al. (2016). The MCV mean (68.00 ± 4.78 fL) in the β-thalassemia group was lower than the MCV mean (79.4±5.2 fL) in the normal Hb electrophoresis group. The mean MCH (22.9±1.90 pg) in β-thalassemia heterozygous group was lower than that found in non-thalassemia group (27.9), this difference was statistically significant (p value 0.0001), which were compatible to the facts mentioned in Aziz’s study. However, the mean MCHC (33.37±1.6) was within the normal range in the thalassemia group. The mean RDW (12.76±1.17) was normal in the β-

Biodiversity in a Changing World thalassemia heterozygous group, but higher (17.25±1.15) in the non- β-thalassemia heterozygous group with statistical significance (p=0.0001). RDW was an important parameter that differentiated thalassemia from other types of anemia. The level of RDW was normal in cases with thalassemia but elevated in cases suspected with iron deficiency anemia. In this study the counter based parameter such as Mentzer’s Index (<13) also helped to predict thalassemia trait (Table 2).

Figure 2. Electrogram of Beta thalassemia heterozygote with HbA2 6.5% The HbA2 analysis by hemoglobin electrophoresis played an important role in distinguishing thalassemia carriers from iron deficiency anemia (Panyasai et al. 2015).The results of Hb electrophoresis in all cases with low MCV, low MCH, high RBC, normal RDW and low Mentzer’s index(<13) presented high HbA2 and high peak of HbE which confirmed thalassemia carrier and hemoglobinopathy. High HbA2 and absent HbE confirmed β-thalassemia heterozygous (Fig 3). The variant HbE cases with peak at HbE had normal or borderline HbA2 (Fig: 1&2), in concordance with the study by Mais et al. (2009). The MARMS-PCR findings of mutation C-26 (Glu>lysine) in all samples with a high peak of HbE and the detection of mutations C-15(G>A) and IVS1-5 (G>C) in all the cases with high HbA2 β-

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 thalassemia heterozygous confirmed and supported the results of haemoglobin electrophoresis. Similar results were observed in the study of Maskoen et al. (2019).

Conclusion In a limited resource country like Nepal, rational, cost effective ordering of expensive tests like Hb electrophoresis and molecular analysis is highly required. The red cell indices and Mentzer’s Index are extremely useful in screening for thalassemia and to plan further investigations if necessary. This will reduce illogical ordering of Hb electrophoresis and molecular examinations which lead to overloading of diagnostic services and over expenditure. Acknowledgements: We are thankful to the people who willing allowed to collect blood samples and the local health assistants who helped during the collection of the samples. Funding Information: The financial support for this research study was funded by the National Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

References

Aziz, B., Ablghasem, P. C. and Reza, E. 2012. Discrimination of beta-thalassemia minor and iron deficiency anemia by screening test for red blood cell indices. Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences 42(2):275–280. DOI:10.3906/sag-0909-294. Beyan, C., Kaplan, K. and Irfan, A. 2007. Predictive value of discrimination indices in differential diagnosis of iron deficiency anemia and beta thalassemia trait. European Journal of hematology 8:524–526. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1866.6000 Clarke, G. M. and Trefor, N. H. 2000. Laboratory investigations of hemoglobinopathies and thalassemias: Review and update. Clinical Chemistry 46(8):1284–1290. DOI:10. 1093/CLINCHEM/46.8.1284 Colah, R., Gorakshakar, A. and Phansagaonkar, S. et al. 2010. Epidemiology of β-thalassemia in Western India: mapping the frequencies and mutations in sub-regions of Maharastra and Guiarat. British Journal of Heamatology 149(5):739-747. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2010.08131.x Cunningham, M. J., Macklin, E. A., Neufeld, E. J. and Cohen, A. R. 2004. Complications of β-thalassemia major in North America. Blood 104:34-39. DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-09-3167 Faraj, S., Mahdi, L. S. and Ghali, H. 2016. Significance of Red Blood Cell Indices in Beta thalassemia trait. Mustansiriya Medical Journal 14(2): DOI: 10.13140/ rg.2.1.1866.6000 Ghodekar, S. R., Grampurohit, N. D. and Kadam, S. S. 2014. Thalassemia: A review. International Journal of Pharma Research and Development 2(10):101–108. Ghosh, K., Colah, R., Manglani, M., Choudhry, V.P., Verma, I., Madan, N. et al. 2014. Guidelines for screening, diagnosis and management of haemoglobinopathies. Indian Journl of Human Genetics 20(2):101–109. doi: 10.4103/097-6866.142841. Harsh, M. 2010. Text Book of Pathology: Introduction to haematopoietic system and disorders of erythroid series (6th edition). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd. P 322. Mahdi, L. S., Faraj, S. A. and Ghali, H. H. 2015. Significance of red blood cell indices in beta thalassemia trait. Mustansiriya Medical Journal 14(20):27–30.

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Mais, D. D., Gulbranson, R. D. and Keren, D. F. 2009.The range of hemoglobin A (2) in hemoglobin E heterozygotes as determined by capillary electrophoresis. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 132(1):34–38. DOI: 10.1309/AJCPP50JIXXZVLSS Maskoen, A. M., Reniarti, L., Sahiratmadja, E., Sisca, J. and Effendi, S. H. 2019. Shine & Lal index for early detection of β-thalassemia carriers in a limited resource area in Bandung, Indonesia. BMC Medical Genetics 20(1). DOI: 10.1186/s12881-019-1868-x Panyasai, S., Fucharoen, G. and Fucharoen, S. 2015. Known and New hemoglobin A2 variants in Thailand and implication for β-thalassemia screening. Clinica Chimica Acta 438:226–230. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2014.09.003 Stephens, A. D., Angastiniotis, M., Baysal, E., Chan, V., Fucharoen, S., Giordano, P. C. et al. 2012. International Council for the Standardisation of Haematology (ICSH). IC recommendations for the measurement of haemoglobin A2. International Journal of Laboratory Hematology 34(1):1–13. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751- 553X2011.01368.x. Thein, S. L. 2013. The Molecular Basis of Beta thalassemia. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 3(5). DOI: 10:1101/cshperspect.a011700. World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository/World Health Statistics. Microcytic hypochromic anemia is most common in Nepal. http://apps.who.int/gho/dsts/node.main.?lang-gen

Local people’s perception towards vultures and the vulture restaurant in Nawalpur District, Gandaki Province, Nepal

Kala Dumre1*, Bishnu Prasad Bhattarai1, Omkar Bhatt1

1Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Vulture Restaurant (VR) is the safe feeding zone that supports the recovery of the population of vanishing vultures. This research aimed to explore the local people’s perception towards vultures and vulture restaurant located in the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park (CNP) in Kawasoti Municipality. Structured questionnaire survey was conducted among 100 randomly selected households around the VR from January to April 2018. Focal group discussions were carried out with experts working in that field of conservation. The respondents’ attitudes towards vultures were measured in a three-point Likert scale of agree (1), Neutral (2) and disagree (3). Attitudes toward vulture conservation were tested by 11 variables while socio-economic factors were categorized into five groups. Overall, 89% respondents showed positive response and education level was the major determinant of positive conservation attitude. About 84% respondents were aware on the importance of vultures. Conservation of vulture was favored by 87% respondents. As much as 94% respondent wanted to be a part of vulture conservation program. People were also benefited by vulture restaurant through tourism, skill developing training and fish farming. Out of total respondents, 30% had suffered from bad fouling of carcasses and agreed that there was increment in the number of feral dogs. About 18% respondent’s livestock were attacked by these. An integrated conservation approach understanding the human's interaction with the environment and its effects on target species is required for the successful wildlife conservation and management. Keywords: Attitude, Carcass, Carcass disposal, Conservation, Feral dogs

Introduction Vultures are the scavenging birds of prey from avian family Accipitridae and order Falconiformes (BirdLife International 2014) with important role in ecosystem services. They are large, short-tailed, bald-headed, solitary birds. Asian vultures are the threatened bird species that had undergone a rapid population decline between the 1990s and 2000s (Das et al. 2011, Gilbert et al. 2006, Pain et al. 2008, Prakash 1999, Prakash et al. 2003) due to poisoning by diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inﬂammatory drug, used for veterinary purposes (Oaks et al. 2004, Shultz et al. 2004, Green et al. 2006, Swan et al. 2006). All species of Gyps vultures tested so far are highly sensitive to diclofenac (Oaks et al. 2004, Anderson et al. 2005, Swan et al. 2006, KC & Timilsina 2013). Therefore, Government of Nepal has

85 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World banned the production and use of veterinary diclofenac since 2006 (Poudel et al. 2016). To prevent further decline of Gyps vultures in Asia and contribute to their in-situ conservation, Vulture Restaurant (VR), a feeding centre for vultures where they are provided with a safe food free from veterinary drugs and agricultural chemicals (Government of Nepal 2009, Bowden 2011) are being established in Nepal. World’s first community managed VR was established in the Buffer zone of the Chitwan National Park in Kawasoti Municipality of Nawalparasi District in 2007, and currently there are seven VRs in operation in Nepal (Final VCAP 2015-2019). Apart from the diclofenac dynamics and government policies on its regulation, local people’s attitudes and perceptions towards vultures and their conservation efforts including the VR play a vital role in sustainable vulture conservation (Baral & Gautam 2007). It is important to explore and understand the attitudes and perception of local people towards the vulture conservation strategies so that it becomes easier to implement such strategies and further understand their effectiveness. This may reflect the significant predictors of conservation attitudes. The socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, personal costs and benefits associated with various intervention programs influence the attitudes (Mehta and Heinen 2001). Economic incentives scheme including various goods and services significantly contribute in developing positive attitudes towards conservation (Newmark et al. 1993). Education and awareness also brings positive attitudes towards biodiversity and their conservation (Banko 1979, Heinen 1993, Mehta & Kellert 1998, Emtage, 2004). This study aimed to explore the local people’s perception towards vulture conservation efforts including VR and associated vulture conservation challenges. Specifically, it aimed to assess 1) positive outcomes of the VR in the surroundings; 2) negative impacts of the VR in the surroundings. The findings of this study will provide understanding of the gaps in conservation efforts and will generate fruitful recommendations for vulture conservation as well as adjoining human society.

Materials and methods This study was carried out in and around Jatayau Restaurant located in the Namuna Buffer zone Community Forest of Chitwan National Park in Kawasoti Municipality in Nawalpur district (27º33'32"N to 27º34'02"N and 83º00'37"E to 83º01'12"E), four kilometers south from the Kawasoti town center. Established in 2007 AD, this feeding center is extended up to 50 hectares of that area (Fig. 1). The study area was divided into four study blocks: Vulture Restaurant area, Gaire, Laukhani and Saad. An onsite questionnaire survey with a series of questions matching the aims of this study and Focal Group Discussions (FGD) were done. There were questions about: (1) the socio-demographic characteristics (ethnicity, sex, age, education and occupation) of the people inhabiting in that area, (2) their attitudes towards vultures and vulture conservation and (3) factors associated with those attitudes. The questionnaire was administered to 100 randomly selected households in the immediate vicinity of VR (within one km) that covered more than 10% of total households in that area. Eldest member in the family were generally interviewed but, in their absence or unavailability, any other member willing 86

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Figure 5. Location map of study site including land cover, settlement areas and sampling points to participate were interviewed. Their attitudes towards vultures were measured in a three-point Likert scale from 1 (agree) to 3 (disagree) (Table 1) (Babbie 1995). Attitudes toward vulture conservation were tested by 11 variables (Table 1). The scores of the 11 questions were summed to produce an overall scale score on conservation attributes towards the vultures. The scale of conservation was dichotomized into two categories (agree and disagree) for further analysis. For example, a respondent was assigned a value ‘1’ if he/she has a more favorable attitude and ‘0’ if otherwise i.e., neutral or no favorable attitude. To measure overall conservation attitude towards vulture one point was given to that statement if the respondent agreed and no point was given if he/she disagreed. The maximum points a respondent could score was 11. A respondent scoring fewer than the six was considered as unfavorable attitude while those scoring six or greater than six was considered to have favorable attitude towards vulture.

Results

Socio-demographics of the respondents Among the total respondents, 38% were males and 62% were females. The age of the respondents ranged from 15 to 81 years with a median age of 45 years. The highest percentage of respondents (43%) belonged to the middle age class (36–55) that was followed by younger (36%) and older age classes (21%). The average family size was 5.09. Majority of the respondents were the ethnic Tharus,

Biodiversity in a Changing World

Magars, Gurungs and Tamangs (54%) followed by minority groups (Mushahar, Sarki, B.K., 28%), and Brahmin/Chettri 18%. Twenty-one percentage of the respondents were illiterate, 55% have passed primary level while 21% have passed secondary level and only 3% had attended college. Agriculture was the main occupation of that area with 77% of the respondents being farmers, followed by other jobs (12%), labour (8%) and business (3%). In the surveyed households, 81% reared up to 1-14 livestock with an average 2.69 Livestock Unit (LSU) per household. Within past five years, among reared livestock, 40.74% have lost their livestock. Nearly 41% of these households have lost their livestock in last five years, due to diseases (57.57%) and any other natural reasons (42.43%). These livestock carcasses were either buried (42.42%) or provided to the VR (24.24%) or randomly disposed in open areas (24.24%) or sold to local vendors (9.1%). This mode of carcass disposal significantly depended on the reason of livestock death (χ2=8.78, p<0.05). Livestock dead due to disease were generally buried but the naturally died ones were provided to the VR. Some people practiced either throwing the carcass in open areas or sell for eating, based on the type of the livestock.

Conservation attributes Overall, a positive attitude was found among the respondents for vultures and their conservation efforts. The overall attitude of respondents for vulture conservation was towards partially agree as the total weighted mean is 1.53 (average total weighted mean of Likert Scale is 2). The results show that 89% of respondents show positive response towards vulture conservation while remaining shows negative attitude towards vulture conservation. The majority (84%) were agreed that vultures have important role (WM=1.21) and 87% were aware about that vulture should be conserved. A significantly large number of respondents knew that vultures provide ecosystem services by maintaining environment clean through rapid consumption of carcasses (WM=1.09). Majority of respondents (92%) agree with the idea of VR in their locality (WM=1.14). In the past, people saw vultures as a bad sign but in present situation people consider as beneficial creatures and don’t agree with bad sign (97%). The response of respondents towards the increasing trend of feral dogs was partially positive and partially neutral (WM=1.54) while suffering from bad fouling of carcasses was towards neutral (WM=2.39) and they suffered from bad fouling of carcasses especially in summer during wind blow. The total of 45% respondents did not agree about the decline on vultures and same percentage stay neutral (no idea) about the decline of vultures in the study area. One-fourth of respondents (26%) were known about the diclofenac which was already banned and according to them they know about the diclofenac after the establishment of VR and through its conservation program. Overall total response about the diclofenac, its ban and impact was neutral (WM=1.8). Twenty-five percentage of respondents were agreed that “shortage of food, habitat loss may cause the decrease in the number of vultures” while in as a whole response, respondents were neutral about this statement (WM=1.92). Most of the respondents (94%) wanted to be the part of vulture conservation program. Respondents agreed with the statement that “are you willing to be a part of vulture conservation” (WM=1.09) (Table 1).

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Table 1. Overall attitudes of people towards vulture Responses (%) WM SN Statements Agree Neutral Disagree 1 Vulture have important role in 84 11 5 1.21 environment 2 Vultures should be conserved 87 10 3 1.16 3 Vultures provide ecosystem services 93 5 2 1.09 by maintaining clean environment 4 Idea of VR in your locality 92 2 6 1.14 5 Perception about vultures as 97 4 3 1.14 “Vultures are bad sign” has changed. 6 Increased in feral dogs 68 10 22 1.54 7 Are you suffered from bad fouling of 30 7 65 2.39 carcasses 8 Vultures are declining in your area 1o 45 45 2.35 9 Diclofenac has already banned and it 26 68 6 may not be cause for vulture decline 1.8 10 Habitat loss/shortage of food may be 25 58 17 1.92 the cause for vulture decline 11 Are you willing to be a part of vulture 94 3 3 1.09

conservation Average of total weight mean 1.53

Factors affecting people’s attitude towards vulture conservation The results showed that there was a statistically significant number (65.96%) of respondents having favorable attitude toward vulture conservation. Also, the average weighted mean (1.34) shows towards favorable attitude (average weighted mean scale is 1.5). All the ethnic groups have like same favorable attitudes while Tharu were more favorable (66.36%) as compared to others (χ2=0.685, P>0.05) (Table 2). Male respondents (66.75%) showed more favorable attitudes than female (62.61%). Almost similar percentage of 64.90% and 64.48% of younger and middle age group respectively in the favor of vulture conservation and followed by old age classes (P>0.05). Those respondents who have attend college education (84.85%) were more favor towards vulture followed by secondary education respondents, primary level and illiterate respondents (χ2=24.567, P<0.05). Livestock holding as well as not holding (64.87% and 61.24% respectively) both respondents showed similar favor towards vulture conservation (P>0.05). Only 33.84% of respondents showed unfavorable attitudes even benefited from VR while 38.14% were not in favor that were not benefited from VR (P>0.05). Among occupation category, small business (shop, tailor) holder were more favor (75.76%) followed by job holder (73.48%), (χ2=6.244, P>0.05). Hence, there was no significant association of conservation attitudes with socio-economic variables i.e. ethnicity, sex, age, occupation, livestock holding and benefits. The result shows that education level is the major determinant of conservation attitude.

Biodiversity in a Changing World

Table 2. Relation between socioeconomic and conservation attitudes

Factors Category F (%) UF (%) WM χ 2 df P Ethnicity Brahmin/chettri 62.12 37.88 1.38 0.685 3 0.877 Tharu 66.36 33.64 1.34 Magar/Gurung/Tamang 61.74 38.26 1.38 Others 65.26 34.74 1.35

Sex Male 66.75 33.25 1.33 0.376 1 0.540 Female 62.61 37.39 1.37

Age Young (15-35) 64.9 35.1 1.35 0.162 2 0.922 Middle (36-55) 64.48 35.52 1.36

Old (>55) 62.34 37.66 1.38

Education Illiterate (<1 years) 60.17 39.83 1.40 24.567 3 0.000* Primary (1-5 years) 61.82 38.18 1.38

Secondary (6-10 years) 71.43 28.57 1.29 College (>10 years) 84.85 15.15 1.15

Occupation Agriculture 62.22 37.78 1.38 6.244 3 0.108 Job 73.48 26.52 1.27

Manual Laborers 64.77 35.23 1.35 Small business 75.76 24.24 1.24

Livestock holding Yes 64.87 35.13 1.35 0.283 1 0.595 No 61.24 38.76 1.39

Benefits Yes 66.16 33.84 1.34 0.402 1 0.526 No 61.86 38.14 1.38 *= P <0.001, F = Favorable, UF = Unfavorable, WM = Weight mean, χ2 = Chi-square.

Discussion Vultures play a great role in ecosystem services as they clean the environment by consuming carcasses that may spread diseases to human and livestock. Nepal provides home for nine species of vultures. Among them, six species are resident, one species is a winter migrant, one is a passage migrant and one is a vagrant (BCN and DNPWC 2011, DNPWC 2015). Four species of vultures, namely WRV, IV, SBV and RHV are categorized as Critically Endangered and EV as Endangered by IUCN (2017). This study found about the perceptions of local people towards the idea of vulture restaurant and how the socioeconomic factors affect the conservation attributes.

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Socioeconomic surveys carried out at Rampur valley indicated that age, education, willingness to pay and bid amount are significant for conservation attitudes (Baral & Gautam 2004). This research also demonstrated similar results to the Rampur survey but also shows that ethnicity, age, education, gender, livestock holding, occupation and benefits were significant factors that govern conservation attitudes. There were a higher proportion of female respondents than the male respondents. The illiteracy rates as compared to the higher education holder respondent were higher and were more unfavorable towards conservation as compared to higher education holder. That fact denotes that an environmental education program for such people is imperative to draw their attention towards conservation. Education can affect conservation attitudes, usually for the high degree of positive attitudes (Banko 1979, Heinen 1993, Mehta & Kellert 1998, Emtage 2004). Socioeconomic status, as measured by education, represents a primary factor that affects the attitude towards vulture conservation. Data obtained in this study have revealed a highly positive attitude among those people who obtained higher secondary and college level education. Furthermore, this study has found positive attitude among younger and middle age classes respondents. Older people showed quite less favorable attitudes as compared to younger and middle age group. Male respondents were found more favorable than female. Same result was obtained in the study from Kaski District (KC & Timilsina 2013). Young are well aware of the vulture decline as they had good access to education and aware of the benefits of vulture to the ecosystem and human health. These results suggest that these demographic groups would be inclined to express a strong affection towards vulture protection. Peoples from lower caste and livestock producers typically are less interested for vulture conservation (KC & Timilsina 2013). But peoples from other caste (lower caste) have found more interest for vulture conservation. This might be due to VR have more attention towards low caste communities and many program were done in their favor to increase their economic status and lifestyle (Information from office of VR, Pithauli). Besides, people who are involved in Job (NGOs, INGOs, and teacher) and small business have a more favorable attitude towards vulture conservation. Subsistence farming and livestock rearing are the mainstay occupation of people in the study area. A significantly larger number of households reared livestock with an average of 2.69 LSU which is likely close as recorded in Rampur valley (3.32±1.93). The practice of carcasses disposal practice with mode of animal death (χ2 =8.78, P=0.0342) had significant association with the study carried out in Rampur valley (Baral & Gautam 2007). Local people usually buried the carcasses that died of diseases while they prefer to throw them in open fields in the case of natural death (KC & Timilsina 2013). However, this study found that only few people are known about the diclofenac and its effects. Out of total 26% are well known and government of Nepal has already banned it due to its lethal effect on vultures. The practice of calling a tanner to skin a carcass or for consumption of meat depends upon the nature of death, type of animal, and also highly depends on the occupational caste of the respondents who would choose such practice. Very few people eat meat if the accidental death of livestock occurred. Only 24.24% of respondents have provided their livestock of natural death to VR. This depends upon the type of livestock they reared and how death happened.

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In this study, local people have high level of positive conservation attitudes towards vulture conservation because people were benefited through different skill developing training, tourism, fish farming etc. The study (Mehta & Heinen 2001) in Annapurna and Makalu Barun National Park, Nepal find out similar results as people were more favored those who got benefit and programme based on ‘people-oriented.’ People believed that the vultures are highly beneficial creatures to human societies because of the ecological services provided by vultures. However, people almost did not think vultures as bad sign but they used to claim as bad sign before the establishment of VR and they practice religious work even vulture fly over their roof. This change on them is due to the awareness on vulture and knows these scavengers as sweeper of ecosystem after the concept of VR was brought in their locality. This study showed that some respondents were quite negative about the bad fouling of carcasses. Those respondents who have their resident near the feeding site were more affected. Especially in summer during the wind blow, they suffered from bad smell. In this study, more than half of the respondents support that there was increased number of feral dogs. A few (18%) respondents were affected from the activities of feral dogs as they attack livestock. The livestock left for grazing in the ground became victim from the attack of feral dogs. Due to which, some livestock was died and some got injured. Few respondents were neutral about the conditions of feral dogs but they noticed that local dogs also became wild and highly aggressive towards people and their livestock. They wander around the feeding sites and may be sometimes eat carcasses left over in the feeding sites which make them habituated due to which they attack livestock. Cortes-Avizanda et al. (2009) was closely similar to this study. According to this, at the community level, SFS favor the congregation of predators (i.e. facultative scavengers), increasing predation risk on small- and medium- sized vertebrates in the vicinity of the SFS. According to the caretaker of VR, one White-rumped vulture got attacked from feral dog which was the released one from the breeding centre. The attacked victim was sick or quite unable to adapt itself in natural habitat. Therefore, feral dogs should be controlled in order to make predation free for vultures from these dogs as well as people can develop negative perceptions due to the feral dog’s attack to livestock. Therefore, if such activities are not controlled properly, the vulture population as well as people’s attitudes in these areas will be declined in near future.

Conclusion The study concluded that the overall attitudes of people towards vulture conservation are good. Education was the significant predictors of conservation attitudes. This study also concluded that conservation attitude is influenced by various socioeconomic characteristics; therefore, for the successful implementation of endangered species’ management programs, a wildlife manager must follow the integrated conservation approach with a clear understanding of human's interaction with the environment and its effects on target species. However, the people were more positive towards the concept of VR in their locality and their negative concept towards vulture was changed. Present research found some negative impact of VR such as foul smell during the summer, increased number of feral dogs which attack livestock and dogs carrying bone of carcasses in the village.

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Acknowledgements We are thankful to Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, Chitwan National Park, Chitwan and Vulture Restaurant, Pithauli Kawasoti for granting the required permission to carry out this research work. We are also grateful to the respondents. We are thankful to all the respondents, all the people who kindly helped us during our field work. We would also like to thank to Mr. Jagan Nath Adhikari, Mrs. Ganga Bista, Mr. Janak Dumre and Mr. Dharma Prasad Dumre who helped us during our field work. We are very thankful to Mrs. Pragya Bhatt and Mr. Rajendra Dev Bhatt for their timely review of the manuscript.

Author’s contribution Dumre, K. and Bhatt, O. conceived, designed the research and wrote the manuscript. Dumre, K. carried out the field work and analyzed the data. Bhattarai, B. supervised the research work. All authors have contribution to the drafts and gave accreditation for the publication. Funding Information: We would like to extend our sincere thanks to Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Environment, Department of Environment for providing the research grant to carry out this research work.

References

Anderson, M. D., Piper, S. E. and Swan, G. E. 2005. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use in South Africa and possible effects on vultures. South African Journal of Science 101:112–114. Banko, W. 1979. Historical synthesis of recent endemic Hawaiian birds.Coop National Park Resource.Study Unit Rep.1, Univ. Hawii, Monoa, p 14. Baral, N. and Gautam, R. 2007. Socio-economic perspectives on the conservation of Critically Endangered vultures in South Asia: an empirical study from Nepal. Bird Conservation International 17:131–139. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270907000688 BCN and DNPWC 2011. The State of Nepal’s Birds 2010. Bird Conservation Nepal and Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu. BirdLife International 2014. The BirdLife checklist of the birds of the world: Version 7. http://www.birdlife.org. Bowden, C. 2011. Mixed news for Asian Gyps vultures and a new consortium ‘SAVE’ is born. BirdingASIA 16:110. Das, D., Cuthbert, R., Jakati, R. D. and Prakash, V. 2010. Diclofenac is toxic to the Himalayan Griffon Vulture Gyps himalayensis. Bird Conservation International 21:72–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270910000171 Emtage, N. 2004. An Investigation of the Social and Economic Factors Affecting the Development of Small-Scale Forestry by Rural Households in Leyte Province, Philippines. Doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland. Gilbert, M., Watson, R. T., Virani, M. Z., Oaks, J. L., Ahmed, S., Chaudhry, M. J. I., et al. 2006. Rapid population declines and mortality clusters in three Oriental white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies in Pakistan due to diclofenac poisoning. Oryx 40:388–399. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270911000426 Government of Nepal: DNPWC/MoFSC/GoN 2009. Vulture Conservation Action Plan for Nepal 2009–2013. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation. Kathmandu, Nepal. Heinen, J. T. 1993. Park-people relations in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve - a socioeconomic analysis. Environmental Conservation 20:25–34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S037689290003719X 93

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Mehta, J. N., and Kellert, S. R. 1998. Local attitudes toward community-based conservation policy and programmes in Nepal: a case study in the Makalu-Barun Conservation Area. Environmental Conservation 25(4):320–333. https://doi.org/10.1017/S037689299800040X KC, S. and Timilsina, Y. P. 2013. Factors Affecting Peoples' Participation on Vulture Conservation from Kaski district of Nepal. Conservation Science 1:19-26. https://doi.org/10.3126/cs.v1i1.8580 Mehta, J. N. and Heinen, J. T. 2001. Does community-based conservation shape favourable attitudes among locals? An empirical study from Nepal. Environmental Management 28:165–177. Newmark, W. D., Leonard, N. L., Sariko, H. I. and Gamassa, D. G. M. 1993. Conservation attitudes of local people living adjacent to five protected areas in Tanzania. Biological Conservtion 63:177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(93)90507-W Oaks, J. L., Gilbert, M., Virani, M. Z., Watson, R. T., Meteyer, C. U., Rideout, B. A., et al. 2004. Diclofenac residues as the cause of population decline of vultures in Pakistan. Nature 427:630– 633. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02317. Pain, D. J., Bowden, C. G. R., Cunningham, A. A., Cuthbert, R., Das, D., Gilbert, M., et al. 2008. The race to prevent the extinction of South Asian vultures. Bird Conservation International 18:30–48. Paudel, K., Galligan, T. H., Bhusal, K. P., Thapa, I., Cuthbert, R. J., Bowden, C. G. R., et al. 2016. A decade of vulture conservation in Nepal. Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Vulture Conservation in Asia, 30 May 2016, Karachi, Pakistan. Prakash, V. 1999. Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 96:365–378. Prakash, V., Green, R.E., Pain, D.J., Ranade, S.P., Saravanan, S., Prakash, N., et al. 2007. Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 104:129–135. Prakash, V., Pain, D. J., Cunningham, A. A., Donald, P. F., Prakash, N., Verma, A., et al. 2003. Catastrophic collapse of Indian white backed vulture, Gyps bengalensis and long-billed vulture Gyps indicus populations. Biological Conservation 109:381–390. Swan, G., Naidoo, V., Cuthbert, R., Green, R. E., Pain, D. J. et.al. 2006. Removing the threat of diclofenac to Critically Endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology 4(3):e66. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066.

Ichthyofaunal diversity of Bhagairia lake, Bardiya district, Nepal

Abhishekh Bista1*, Ram Bhajan Mandal1, Choudhary Nagendra Roy Yadav1, Asha Rayamajhi2 and Gun Bahadur Gurung3

1Department of Aquaculture, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Tribhuvan University, Kritipur, Kathmandu 2 Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur 3Directorate of Agricultural Research, Lumbini Province, Khajura, Banke *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This study was conducted to assess ichthyofaunal diversity of Bhagairia Lake located in Bardiya district, Nepal from August 2019 to February 2020. For this research monthly sampling was done to assess ichthyofaunal diversity and water quality parameters i.e. water temperature, water transparency, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity, total hardness, ammonia, phosphate and nitrate from six sites around the lake. A total number of 30 species of fish belonging to 8 orders, 13 families and 23 genera were recorded. Among these, Cypriniformes and Cyprinidae were dominant order and family covering 50% and 44 % of fish species, respectively. Puntius sophore was found to be the dominant fish species with catch composition of 12%. Maximum fish catch (214 individuals) was recorded in the month of February whereas, minimum fish catch (140 individuals) was recorded in August. The fish catch was found to be positively correlated with dissolved oxygen (r=0.912), pH (r=0.876), alkalinity (r=0.840) and total hardness (r=0.876). Shannon diversity index was highest in the month of August (3.14) and lowest in November (2.87). Margalef's richness index was highest in the month of August (5.276) and lowest in February (3.727) whereas, Sheldon evenness index was highest in February (0.925) and lowest in September (0.823). This study indicates that Bhagairia Lake is rich in fish faunal diversity and consists of native, cultivable, ornamental and rare species of fish. Keywords: Ichthyofauna, Cypriniformes, Correlation coefficient, Sheldon eveness index, Water quality

Introduction There are 252 species of fish recorded in Nepal, with 236 native species and 16 exotic species (Shrestha 2019). Fishes are the most diverse vertebrate in world and nearly 40% of them live in freshwater (Ghorbani et al. 2013). Nepal is a natural laboratory to understand physiological and morphological variations in organisms in relation to changes in altitude (Gurung et al. 2011). Fishes are specific in distribution exhibiting specificity for cold and warm waters. Such a pattern suggests the specific adaptation and physiological status of species for dissolved oxygen, temperature, torrent, lentic and lotic habitats (Gurung 2011). Only freshwater bony fishes are available in the country. In Nepal, 95 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World fisheries is an age old and traditional practice whereas, aquaculture was introduced in mid 1940s (DoFD 2017). Wetland types in Nepal include rivers, lakes, reservoirs, marshy lands, village ponds and paddy fields. The estimated area covered by wetlands in Nepal is 8,19,277 ha (DoFD 2012). Wetlands are crucial for their rich biodiversity and also for maintaining various sources of underground water, preventing landslides and controlling the loss of nutrients (Shrestha 2011). The role of wetlands in conserving fish diversity is widely acknowledged as these wetlands are used by the various fish species as a refuge for breeding, feeding and spawning purpose at one stage or the other in their life cycle (Krishna et al. 2016). Around 17% of wetlands are located in the Terai, Mid-mountains and Siwalik (MoFE 2018). The land use and cover change influence the distribution and dynamics of terrestrial biodiversity, ecosystem structure and functioning leading to alternation of ecosystems and critical habitats for many of the threatened species worldwide including freshwater ecosystems (Hooper et al. 2012). The lakes are categorized into 3 types on the basis of their origin: i) Glacial ii) Oxbow and iii) Tectonic (Devkota 2011). Cutoffs are highly effective geomorphological events that produce long-lasting changes in river morphology, and also strongly influence the three-dimensional sedimentary architecture of floodplains through the subsequent formation and infilling of oxbow lakes (Peakall et al. 2007, Constantine et al. 2010). Bardiya district lies in Province no. 5 which is rich in water resources. It comprises of four lakes i.e., Badaiya tal, Tara tal, Bhagairia tal and Gonaha tal. Bhagairia lake (280 20' 25'' N 810 13' 16'' E) is located in Dhanaura and Bipadpur-3 of Madhuban municipality, Bardiya. Around 2030 B.S. it had an area of 40 ha. Slowly, because of the encroachment, siltation and with no permanent inflow of water it has shrunk down to 10 ha. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Badaiya Lake is only known which comprises of 19 species of fish. No such work has been done in case of Bhagairia Lake.

Materials and methods Study area The present study was carried out in Bhagairia lake (280 20' 25'' N 810 13' 16''E) of Dhanaura and Bipadpur-3 of Madhuban municipality, Bardiya (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. A- Map showing Bardiya district and area of study (Source: Google); B- Bhagairia Lake

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

It lies in an elevation of 144 masl. Area of this lake is 10 ha but only 4.5 ha contain water. It is a shallow oxbow lake with an average depth of 1.30 m having highest depth of 2.12 meter at the center and lowest depth of 95 cm. The southern side of the lake is deeper compare to northern side. It is a perennial lake and receives water from rainfall and surface flow of Karnali (Geruwa) River. This lake is rich in aquatic flora and fauna. The climate of the area is hot and humid. Study was conducted from August 2019 to February 2020. Water sampling and water quality analyses Water sampling was done from 6 sites around the lake at an equal interval of 170 m. For water sampling, plastic sampling bucket of 10 liter volume was used. Water was collected from 30 cm below the water surface then was transferred into sterilized sampling bottles. Dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, water temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS) and water transparency were recorded on the spot while collecting water with help of DO meter (Lutron PDO-519, Taiwan), pH meter (PH-030, HANNA Instruments, U.S.A), alcohol thermometer (Nike, India), TDS meter (HANNA Dist1-HI 98301, U.S.A.) and secchi disc respectively. While analyses of other water quality parameters i.e., alkalinity, total hardness, ammonia, phosphate and nitrate were done using Exact Eco Check kit, Industrial Testing Systems, Inc. U.S.A in aquaculture laboratory of Directorate of Agricultural Research, Lumbini Province, Khajura, Banke. Fish sampling Fish sampling was done from all 6 sites around the lake throughout the study period. Fish were collected using different types of crafts and gears with the help of local fishermen. The used gears were pakhai (2.75 x 2.52 m) with mesh size 5 mm, helka (0.90 x 0.84 m) with mesh size 5 mm and gill net (10 x 0.65 m) with mesh size 10 mm. Fish captured from different sites were photographed and mentioned. The fish caught were immediately kept in the bottle containing 10% formalin. The preserved fish species were brought to laboratory of Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari for identification. These collected fish samples were identified using standard literatures of fish taxonomy after Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and T.K. Shrestha (2019). Statistical analysis The relation of fish with dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, water temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), water transparency, alkalinity, total hardness, ammonia, phosphate and nitrate were analyzed through SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 15.0 and Microsoft excel 2010. Diversity indices Species diversity index Diversity of species was calculated by using Shannon-Weiner diversity index (1949) s H′ = − ∑(pi). (In pi) i=1 97

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Where, S is the number of species in the sample, and pi is the proportion of ith species in total sample. Species richness index The species richness was calculated by using Margalef's richness index (1959)

(S−1) = R1 ln(n) Where, S is the number of species in sample, and n is the number of individuals Species evenness index The species evenness was calculated by using Sheldon evenness index (1969)

eH′ = E2 S Where, H' is diversity index and S is the total number of species in the sample. The catch compositions of individual fishes were determined using the following formula: Total catch of an individual species X 100 Catch composition (%) = Total catch of all species

Results A total number of 30 species of fish belonging to 8 orders, 13 families and 23 genera were recorded during the study (Table 1). Cypriniformes was dominant order with 50% fish species followed by Synbranchiformes, Anabantiformes, Siluriformes, Perciformes, Gobiiformes, Beloniformes and Osteoglossiformes with 14%, 14%, 10%, 3%, 3%, 3% and 3% respectively (Fig. 2).

3% 3% 3% 50% Cypriniformes 14% Siluriformes

Synbranchiformes

Perciformes 3% Anabantiformes

Gobiiformes 14% Beloniformes

10% Osteoglossiformes

Figure 2. Fish species according to order of total ichthyofaunal diversity in Bhagairia Lake 98

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Table 1. Fish species collected from Bhagairia lake. Order Family Scientific Name Local name IUCN Status Cyprinidae Puntius sophore Pate sidhra C Cyprinidae Puntius terio Pothi LC Cyprinidae Puntius ticto Sidhra LC Cyprinidae Opsarius barna Titer kanefaketa C Cyprinidae Salmostoma bacaila Chilwa C Cyprinidae Amblypharyngodonmicrolepis Dhawai C Cyprinidae Barilius bendelisis Fageta C Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Danio devario Chitharipothi C Cyprinidae Esomus danrica Dedhawa C Cyprinidae Labeo angra Thed LC Cyprinidae Labeo bata Bata C Cyprinidae Tor putitora Sahar E Cyprinidae Cabdiomorar Chakale C Cobitidae Lepidocephalicthys guntea Goira CD Nemacheilidae Paracanthocobitis botia Pate gatela PRO Bagridae Mystus bleekeri Tengra C Bagridae Mystus tengra Tengra C Siluriformes Sisoridae Glyptothorax alaknandi Kapre R Synbranchidae Monopterus cuchia Andha bam LC Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus armatus Chusi bam C Synbranchiformes Mastacembelidae Macrognathus pancalus Kathgainchi C Mastacembelidae Macrognathus aral Bami C Perciformes Ambassidae Pseudambassis baculis Chanari C Osphronemidae Colisalalius Khesri LC Osphronemidae Colisa fasciatus Gaurami C Anabantiformes Channidae Channa punctata Garai C Channidae Channa orientalis Bhoti C Gobiiformes Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris Bulle C Beloniformes Belonidae Xenentodon cancila Kauwamaccha C Osteoglossiformes Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus Golhai LC Notes: C= common, LC= least concern, E= endangered, CD= conserve dependent, R= rare, PRO= Data deficient pristine rare ornamental.

Cyprinidae was the dominant family with 44% of fish species followed by Mastacembelidae, Bagridae, Channidae, Osphronemidae, Cobitidae, Nemacheilidae, Sisoridae, Synbranchidae, Ambassidae, Gobiidae, Belonidae and Notopteridae with 10%, 7%, 7%, 7%, 4%, 3%, 3%, 3%, 3%, 3%, 3% and 3% respectively (Fig. 3). The highest fish catch (214 individuals) was in February (winter) and lowest fish catch (140 individuals) in October. Ichthyofaunal diversity was found high in August with 28 species and low in December with 20 species. Puntius sophore was the dominant fish species with 12% catch composition followed by Esomus danrica with 8%, Colisa fasciatus with 7%, Puntius terio and 99

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Pseudambassis baculis with 6%. Puntius ticto, Paracanthocobitis botia, Mystus bleekeri and Mystua tengra with 5%, Salmostoma bacaila, Barilius bendelisis and Notopterus notopterus with 4%. Opsarius barna, Danio devario, Labeo bata, Lepidocephalicthys guntea, Channa punctate and Channa orientalis with 3% while other fish were caught in very few numbers (Fig. 4).

3% Cyprinidae 3% 3% Cobitidae 7% Nemacheilidae 7% Bagridae 44% 3% Sisoridae Synbranchidae 10% Mastacembelidae Ambassidae 3% 7% Osphronemidae 3% 4% Channidae 3% Gobiidae Belonidae Notopteridae

Figure 3. Fish species according to family of total ichthyofaunal diversity in Bhagairia Lake

Puntius sophore Puntius terio 0% 0% Puntius ticto Opsarius barna 0% 0% 0% Salmostoma bacaila 0% 0% Barilius bendelisis 0% 3% 3% Danio devario 3% 4% 12% Esomus danrica 3% 6% Labeo bata Lepidocephalicthys guntea 5% 7% 3% Paracanthocobitis botia 4% Mystus bleekeri 4% Mystus tengra 6% 4% Macrognathus aral Pseudambassis baculis 5% 8% Colisa lalius 5% Colisa fasciatus 5% 3% 3% Channa punctata 0% 3% Channa orientalis Xenentodon cancila Macrognathus pancalus Motopterus cuchia Mastacembelus armatus Glyptothorax alaknandi Glossogobius guirius Labeo angra

Figure 4. Fish catch composition of Bhagairia Lake

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The fluctuation in water quality parameters of the Bhagairia lake (water temperature 20.31°C - 32.8°C, water transparency 55.49 - 65.33 cm, total dissolved solids 96.58 - 136.83 ppm, dissolved oxygen 5.7 - 6.31 mg/L, pH 6.8 - 8.4, alkalinity 82 - 153 ppm, total hardness 52 - 119 ppm, ammonia 0.05 - 0.14 ppm, nitrate 0.01 - 0.06 ppm and phosphate 0.07 - 0.13 ppm were found to be within the suitable range for fish growth and development (Table 2).

Table 2. Range of water quality parameters recorded during the study Parameters Range Water temperature 20.31°C – 32.8°C Water transparency 55.49 – 65.33 cm Total dissolved solids 96.58 – 136.83 ppm Dissolved oxygen 5.7 – 6.31 mg/ L pH 6.8 – 8.4 Alkalinity 82 – 153 ppm Ammonia 0.05 – 0.14 ppm Nitrate 0.01 – 0.06 ppm Phosphate 0.07 – 0.13 ppm

According to IUCN red list status for Nepal, 20 fish species were listed in common category, 6 fish species (Puntius ticto, Puntius terio, Labeo angra, Monopterus cuchia, Colisalalius and Notopterus notopterus) were listed in least concern and 1 fish species (Lepidocephalicthys guntea)was categorized as conserve dependent, 1 fish species (Paracanthocobitis botia) as data deficient pristine rare ornamental, 1 fish species (Tor putitora) as endangered and 1 fish species (Glyptothorax alaknandi) as rare (Fig. 5). Shannon diversity index was highest in the month of August (3.14) and lowest in November (2.873). Margalef's richness index was highest in the month of August (5.276) and lowest in February (3.727) whereas, Sheldon evenness index was highest in February (0.925) and lowest in September (0.823). The correlation between fish catch and physico-chemical parameters was analyzed. Fish catch was found to be positively

Endangered, 1 Data deficient Pristine Rare Ornamental, 1 Rare, 1

Conserve Dependent, 1 Common, 20

Least Concern, 6

Figure 5. IUCN listed fish species in total icthyofaunal diversity of Bhagairia Lake 101

Biodiversity in a Changing World correlated with dissolved oxygen (r=0.912), pH (r=0.876), alkalinity (r=0.840) and total hardness (r=0.876) whereas, negatively correlated with water temperature (r=-0.868), water transparency (r =-0.898), ammonia (r =-0.705), nitrate (r=-0.469), phosphate (r=-0.935) and total dissolved solids (r =- 0.852). Variation in fish catch during different months was found to be significant (p<0.05).

Discussion Cypriniformes and Cyprinidae were the most dominant order and family with 50% and 44% fish species during the study. Pokharel (1999) has reported Cypriniformes as the dominant order holding maximum number of species and contributing maximum catch in percentage in the lakes of Pokhara valley. K.C. (2017) also reported Cypriniformes as dominant order and Cyprinidae as dominant family from Ghodagodi Lake. The ichthyofaunal diversity was highest in month of August because of the monsoon which brought about plenty of the flood water along with different fish species from Karnali river into Bhagairia Lake and lowest in December. Shannon diversity index was highest in the month of August (3.14) while Margalef's richness index was highest in the month of August (5.276) and Sheldon evenness index was highest in February (0.925). A community becomes more dissimilar as the stress increases. Gray (1989) stated that dominance of relatively few species in community indicates environmental stress. The fish catch was high in the month of February because of increase in plankton population. The physicochemical parameters influence the distribution and abundance of the phytoplankton and zooplankton (Chukwu & Afolabi 2017). There is a correlation between abundance of fish and the plankton abundance (Balachandran and Peter 1987). Phytoplankton and zooplankton development (plankton rich water) leads to the flourishment of the fouling community (Abo-Taleb 2019). Whereas, lowest in October due to overfishing.

Conclusion A total of 30 species of fish belonging to 8 orders and 13 families and 23 genera were recorded from Bhagairia Lake. The highest fish catch was observed in February and lowest in October whereas, highest Ichthyofaunal diversity was observed in August with 28 species and lowest in December with 20 species. Puntius sophore was the dominant fish species with 12% catch composition. According to IUCN red list status for Nepal, 20 fish species were listed in common category, 6 fish species were listed in least concern and 1 fish species was categorized as conserve dependent, 1 fish species as data deficient pristine rare ornamental, 1 fish species as endangered and 1 fish species as rare. The water quality parameters were within the suitable range for fish diversity and fish production. This study indicates that Bhagairia Lake is rich in fish faunal diversity and consists of native species, cultivable, ornamental and rare species of fish. The sustainable strategies need to be explored to understand fish stocks and its utilization in order to protect the native fish species of Bhagairia Lake.

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Acknowledgements We are highly indebted to Mrs. Neeta Pradhan (S-4) and Prem Timalsina (S-1) of Fisheries Research Division, Godawari for providing necessary guidance and invaluable suggestion. We would like to thank Mr. Krishna Rawal, of Directorate of Agricultural Research, Lumbini Province, Khajura, Banke for his continuous help during field activities. Besides, our heartfelt thanks go to Jitram Dagaura, a local fisherman of Dhanaura village for his help in fish sampling and collection.

References

Abo-Taleb, H. 2019. Importance of Plankton to Fish Community. In Biological Research in Aquatic Science. IntechOpen. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.85769. Balachandran, T. and Peter, K. J. 1987. The role of plankton research in fisheries development. In CMFRI Bulletin: National Symposium on Research and Development in Marine Fisheries Sessions I & II 1987 44:163–173. CMFRI; Kochi. Chukwu, M. N. and Afolabi, E. S. 2017. Phytoplankton abundance and distribution of fish earthen ponds in Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 21(7):1245–1249. doi: 10.4314/jasem.v21i7.3 Constantine, J. A., Dunne, T., Piégay, H. and Mathias Kondolf, G. 2010. Controls on the alluviation of oxbow lakes by bed‐material load along the Sacramento River, California Sedimentology 57:389–407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2009.01084.x Devakota, S. 2011. Study on the impact of fisheries on Jalari community of Phewa lake Region Pokhara with a note on its ethnoichthyological. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Central Department of Zoology, Kathmandu, Nepal. DoFD. 2012. Fisheries Data and Annual Progress Report, 2011/12. Directorate of Fisheries Development, Balaju, Kathmandu, Nepal. DoFD. 2017. Fisheries Data and Annual Progress Report, 2016/17. Directorate of Fisheries Development, Balaju, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ghorbani, R., Abbasi F., Molaei M. and Naeimi, A. 2013. Identification and distribution of fish fauna in Kaboodval Stream (Golestan Province, Iran). World Journal of Fish and Marine Sciences 5:467–473. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wjfms.2013.05.05.73142 Gray, J. S. 1989. Effects of environmental stress on species rich assemblages. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 37:19–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb02003.x Gurung, T.B. 2011. Prospects of cold water fisheries in high altitude wetlands. Proceedings of the 8th National workshop on livestock and fisheries research, Nepal Agriculture Research Council, 2011, Lalitpur, Nepal, pp 1–9. Gurung, T. B., Rayamajhi, A., Lamsal, G., Dhakal R. P. and Basnet S. R. 2011. Mid hill river fish and fisheries: resilience to food and nutritional security among hill communities in upper Trishuli, Nepal. Proceedings of the 8th national workshop on Livestock & Fisheries Research, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, 2011, Lalitpur, Nepal, pp 10-20. Hooper, D. U., Adair, E. C., Cardinale, B. J., Byrnes, J. E., Hungate, B. A., Matulich, K. L., O’Connor, M. I. 2012. A global synthesis reveals biodiversity loss as a major driver of ecosystem change. Nature, 486:105–108 https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11118 Joshi, D. and Bijaya, K. C. 2017. Fish diversity of Ghodaghodilake in Kailali, far-west Nepal. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology. 22:120-126. https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v22i1.17762

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Krishna, P. V., Panchakshari, V., Suresh, P., Prabhavathi, K. and Kumar, K. A. 2016. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Siluriformes from Kolleru Lake, Andhra Pradesh, India. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies. 4:420–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.22271/fish MoFE. 2018. Nepal’s Sixth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. 58p. Peakall, J., Ashworth, P. J. and Best, J. L. 2007. Meander-bend evolution, alluvial architecture, and the role of cohesion in sinuous river channels: a flume study. Journal of Sedimentary Research. 77:197–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2007.017 Plafkin, J. L., Barbour, M.T., Porter, K. D. and Hughes R. M. 1989. Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: Benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. Environmental Protection Agency. Pokharel, K. K. 1999. Fish Bio-diversity of Lakes in Pokhara Valley and need of their Conservation. Proceeding of 3rd National Conference on Science and Technology. 8 March 1999. Kathmandu, Nepal. Shrestha, J. 2011. Threat status of indigenous fish species of Nepal. Proceedings of the consultative workshop on fish conservation in Nepal, Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari, 4 July 2011, Lalitpur, Nepal. Shrestha, T. K. (Ed.) 2019. Ichthyology of Nepal. A study of fishes of the Himalayan waters. Himalayan Ecosphere. Kathmandu, Nepal, p 4.

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Climate change, seasonal variations, and immune responses in aquaculture

Anil Kumar Jha1*, Monowar Alam Khalid1 and Shyam Narayan Labh2

1Department of Environment Science, Integral University, Kursi Road Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, U.P. 226026, India. 2Department of Zoology, Amrit Campus, Tribhuvan University, Thamel, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]:

Abstract

In Nepal aquaculture, and open-water capture fishery contributes about 2 % of agricultural gross domestic product; this share of the fisheries sector is tiny but promising to have the fastest 8-9 % annual growth rate. Fish as food is generally acceptable to all regardless of region, religion, race, gender, and age across Nepal. Similarly, Climate change is responsible for drastic changes in seasonal water availability, resulting in drought conditions during the dry season and increased flooding during monsoon. The impacts and the ability of farmers to plan the environment in which an animal lives affects the physiology and psychology of that animal. The greater the distance from the equator, the more profound this influence becomes, as the environment becomes more variable over the years. Temperature, photoperiod, precipitation, and other environmental conditions directly or indirectly controlled by the season, can affect animals. It is becoming apparent that these conditions may impact the immune system, affecting animal health. Teleost fish occupy a critical evolutionary position in the development of the innate and adaptive immune responses. They are the earliest class of vertebrates possessing the elements of both innate and adaptive immunity. This review looks at the known mechanisms for transducing environmental cues and how these can affect immune parameters and function. The main focus is fish, especially concerning aquaculture and the associated disease risks. Work on other animal classes is consists of for comparison. Keywords: Nepal, aquaculture, climate change, seasonal variation, fish physiology

Introduction Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-producing sector globally and is now being more widely recognized as an essential part of our global food system (FAO 2020). Nepal, located in South Asia between India and China, at 28° North latitude and 84° east longitude, is one of the least developed countries globally and ranked as the 4th most vulnerable country due to the impacts of climate change (Maplecroft 2010). It has an extraordinarily varied and complex climate, driven by the uneven terrain and regional weather systems. Within a few hundred kilometers, the country's elevation changes from the lowland of 70 m in the Terai to the top of the world, Mount Everest (8,848 m). Nepal is considered

105 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World as one of the top ten countries most likely to be impacted by global climate change (WFP 2009) but is one of the least contributors to the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), emits only 0.027% of the global share (Zhang & Pan 2016). In Nepal, climate change is responsible for drastic, yet often erratic, seasonal water availability changes, resulting in drought conditions during the dry season and increased flooding during monsoon. Aquaculture is a relatively new activity in Nepal, and it began in the 1940s with the pond culture of Indian major carps. The domestic market consumes most of Nepal's fisheries and aquaculture production (Labh et al. 2017). The 2015 Nepal earthquake and its subsequent series of aftershocks caused widespread damage to aquaculture and fish production systems. Climate change refers to the difference in environmental conditions due to many internal and external factors. FAO reports that climate change threatens our ability to ensure global food security, eradicate poverty, and achieve sustainable development (FAO 2018). Climate change affecting aquaculture is reflected by temperature changes in both water and air, particularly surface temperatures in marine conditions and other alterations in oceanographic conditions, including currents, wind speed, and waves (Pauly & Zeller 2016). Extreme weather conditions becoming more intense and more frequent are essential effects, either as storms causing material damage or flooding of freshwater farms. Fish will be subject to different stresses and physiological impacts, affecting growth and development, further increasing their susceptibility to diseases and infections (Osborn & Briffa 2006). The effects of Climate Change on all fisheries activities, both capture, and aquaculture, are expected to be extreme, including higher water temperatures, increased water acidity, and migration of species from established to new waters (Díaz et al. 2009). For aquaculture, there is the added problem of providing feeds under these new conditions. The supply of fishmeal and fish oils is already considered a barrier to aquaculture growth when an expanding world population needs feeding, and capture fisheries are at their maximum and may decline in the future. Traditionally, the immune system is divided into the innate or nonspecific immune system and the adaptive or specific immune system. The fish immune system has both immunity, innate immunity, and adaptive immunity (Delgado et al. 2003). It is essential to keep the fish immune system in an optimal condition. It is responsible for defending the body from external threats, such as viruses, bacteria, or protozoa, and, therefore, it allows the prevention of infections. Due to the adverse climatic changes, fishes face various environmental, social, and management factors. Several immune-stimulant products are available that boost the immune system of fish, counteracting the adverse effects of stress and ensuring their productivity (Brugère & Ridler 2004). Thus, this review provides information regarding fish's immune response due to climate change in aquaculture. The author believes that this information may help the researchers find healthy fish production problems during aquaculture with particular reference to Nepal. Climate change on aquaculture Climate change is projected to impact broadly across ecosystems, societies, and economies, increasing pressure on all livelihoods and food supplies, including those in the fisheries and aquaculture sector (Haunschild et al. 2016). Food quality will have a more pivotal role as food resources come under

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 more significant pressure, and the availability and access to fish supplies will become an increasingly critical development issue. Water stress and competition for water resources may affect aquaculture operations and inland fisheries production and increase conflicts among water-dependent activities (Mishra et al. 2019). As in any farming practice, aquaculture practices are defined in space, time, and size and have a fair degree of ability. Impacts of climate change on aquaculture could occur directly and or indirectly, and not all facets of climate change may impact aquaculture (Pedersen et al. 2016). Furthermore, aquaculture production concentrates on certain climatic regions and continents with a well-defined concentration of the sectoral practices. Yet it should be recognized that aquaculture growth in different regions may change due to climatic change, particularly in areas and regions where aquaculture in itself can provide adaptation possibilities for other sectors (Xu et al. 2016). At the global level, the volume of aquaculture relevant climate research becoming available is encouraging and daunting. Research into the multiple dimensions of climate change is increasing exponentially (Haunschild et al. 2016). Literature specific to climate change impacts on aquaculture is still comparatively limited but is also increasing exponentially (Dabbadie et al. 2018). There is an overall warming trend in the world's oceans and freshwaters, with increases in extreme temperature events and variation at multiple scales, but with the more significant uncertainty at the farm scale. Global warming is causing species' range shifts, suggesting the potential to introduce novel predators, invasive species, and pathogens to some aquaculture areas (Xu et al. 2016). Climate-driven temperature changes may increase production success variation, where positive effects may occur in some seasons or years but not in others. While there is the potential for improved growth with increased temperature, there may be other physiological costs, such as more inadequate feed conversion and maturation and reproduction (Barange et al. 2014). Some species with compensatory growth ability at lower temperatures may not show prolonged increased growth rates at higher temperatures. There is increased potential for hypoxia with warming waters, and in some regions, this may favor more tolerant species, such as air-breathing fishes. Anticipating temperature outcomes will benefit from the knowledge of optimal and critical temperature thresholds for physiological processes and different life stages of the species cultured. Seasonal variations on aquaculture Sustainable aquaculture development and effective fisheries management are critical to maintaining these trends. For fisheries, there is growing evidence that stocks are consistently above target levels or rebuilding (King et al. 1999). However, the successes achieved in some countries and regions have not been sufficient to reverse the global trend of overfished stocks. Globally, aquaculture production is faced with numerous challenges, notably water quality (Brander 2010). Seasonal variation and the culturing activity in the aquatic environment impact growth performance, survival, and yields on aquaculture production (Casselman et al. 1999). These changes in the aquatic environment's biophysical and chemical characteristics have significant effects on the ecosystem that support fish. They can alter the growth and feeding behavior of cultured fish. The potential impacts on fish farming

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Biodiversity in a Changing World activities cannot be attributed to one single factor of environmental change; often, it is a combination of confounding effects that become causative and not a single recognizable factor (De Silva & Soto 2009). Some of the critical parameters affecting the aquatic environment include water temperature, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, pH, and ammonia (Timmons et al. 2001). Temperature impacts in aquaculture Temperature is an intuitive environmental focus for aquaculture health. Other water quality parameters can become health stressors, including changes in CO2, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and eutrophication. Changes in pH and other parameters such as oxygen and temperature have been linked to carp's infections (Labh 2020) and white spot syndrome virus in prawns (Selvam et al. 2012). Changing salinity may even control specific disease outbreaks. A relative reduction in salinity may prevent infections such as Dermo disease in oysters (Burge et al. 2014) and sea lice on salmon (Groner et al. 2016). In contrast, a relative increase in salinity has been reported to control certain infections such as V. vulnificus in hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) (Chen et al. 2006) and to decrease disease with the parasitic nematode in Anguilla bengalensis (Lefebvre & Crivelli 2012). Temperature variability in aquaculture Temperature variability may affect disease dynamics to a greater degree than simple increases in temperature (Rohr et al. 2011). Burge et al. (2014) reviewed over 30 studies within the marine environment where disease outbreaks have been linked to temperature across various species groups and infectious agents. Exploring the dynamics of tropical aquaculture diseases suggests that warming waters may generally facilitate infection and mortality. Aquaculture diseases at lower latitudes progress more rapidly and have higher cumulative mortality, with tropical countries suffering proportionally more significant losses during disease outbreaks, having less time to mitigate losses (Leung & Bates 2013). Temperature variability, magnitude and frequency, and acclimation temperatures can differentially affect parasite and host life-history traits (Marcogliese 2016). Temperature is the most investigated environmental parameter affecting aquatic disease, and numerous studies have linked water temperature with infection potential (Altizer et al. 2013). Variations in aquaculture production World aquaculture production of farmed aquatic animals has been dominated by Asia, with an 89 percent share in the last two decades. Among major producing countries, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Egypt, and Norway, have consolidated their share in regional or world production to a varying degree over the past two decades (FAO 2014). World aquaculture production of fish accounted for 44.1% of the total output from capture fisheries and aquaculture in 2014, increasing from 42.1% in 2012 and 31.1% in 2004 (FAO 2016). About 20.5 million people were employed in aquaculture and 39.0 million in fisheries, a slight increase from 2016. This refers to aquaculture produced either from inland natural water sources, such as rivers, lakes, and fish farms. Aquaculture production is projected to reach 109 million tonnes in 2030, increasing 32 percent (26 million tonnes) over 2018. The average annual growth rate of aquaculture may slow from

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4.6 percent in 2007–2018 to 2.3 percent in 2019–2030. In 2018, total global capture fisheries production reached the highest level ever recorded at 96.4 million tonnes and increased 5.4 percent from the average of the previous three years (FAO 2020). But a significant declining proportion of world fisheries production is processed into fishmeal and fish oil. Fishmeal and fish oil are still considered among the most nutritious and digestible ingredients for farmed fish, and fish oil represents the richest available source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which perform a wide range of critical functions for human health(Bournazel et al. 2015). However, their inclusion rates in compound feeds for aquaculture have shown a clear downward trend. Immune responses on aquaculture Aquaculture is a rapidly growing global agriculture sector, and the importance of fish health has become of utmost importance as production levels and stocking densities increase (Brooks 2003). Over the past few decades, there have been many immunological investigations on commonly cultured finfish species (Orchard et al. 2015). New technologies and strategies that embody the use of fish immunostimulants, probiotics, and vaccinology rely heavily upon a comprehensive understanding of teleost immune system mechanics. The teleost immune system works in concert to properly recognize, control, and clear aquatic pathogens. The immune system acts in defense against infections caused by non-self-agents in all living beings, immune surveillance, and vital functions maintenance, even in hostile environments (Olabuenaga 2000). During their culture, fishes face various stressors associated with environmental, social, and management factors. Several immunostimulant products are available that boost the immune system of fish, counteracting the adverse effects of stress and ensuring their productivity. One noteworthy difference between the immune system of fish and mammals are the organs that act as primary and secondary lymphoid organs (Zhai et al. 2014). Immunostimulant activities For the last twenty years, microbial diseases have emerged as a significant constraint to the aquaculture industry. Increased disease occurrences have resulted from the transfer of pathogenic organisms among cultivated fish and shrimp species between different countries without proper quarantine measures (McDonald et al. 1996)). Due to this, the shrimp industry in India and other Southeast Asian countries have suffered significant economic losses. As there are no effective remedies against these viral diseases, the use of immunostimulants in culture systems has become a robust measure to control diseases in aquaculture ponds (Lawrence 2020). Immunostimulants are substances that prevent fish and shellfish diseases in aquaculture. The immunostimulatory effects of chitin, glucan, and levamisole for fish and shrimp have been reported. Nutritional factors such as Vitamins C and E have also been reported to be immune-stimulators. These immunostimulants mainly facilitate the function of phagocytic cells and increase their bactericidal activities (Johnson 2011). Many immunostimulants also stimulate the natural killer cells, complement, lysozyme, and antibody responses of fish. The practical method of administration of immunostimulants to fish is by injection. Oral and immersion techniques have also been observed, but these methods' efficacy decreases with long-term administration (Rosa et al. 2012). The growth-promoting activity has been observed in fish or shrimp treated with glucan or lactoferrin.

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In conclusion, immunostimulants can reduce the losses caused in aquaculture; but they may not be effective against all infections. For the effective use of immunostimulants, the timing, dosages, method of administration, and health status of animals need to be considered (Brown & Sutton, 2002). In bony fish, the anterior kidney and thymus act as primary lymphoid organs, responsible for the hematopoiesis of immune cells, while the spleen and lymphoid tissue associated with mucous membranes act as secondary lymphoid organs, where immune system cells interact and where the immune response takes place. The anterior kidney is the main hematopoietic organ of fish and has remarkable similarities to vertebrates' bone marrow (Costello 2009). It produces the immune cells that participate in the cellular immune response: macrophages, granulocytes, lymphocytes, etc. This anterior region of the kidney lacks nephrons and, therefore, it lacks renal function, while the mid and distal regions of that organ have both functions: hematopoietic and renal function. The anterior kidney of teleosts showed to act, at the same time, as a secondary lymphoid organ, involving immune response induction. The term immunity is used to designate immune reaction against foreign agents, including microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and multicellular parasites) and macromolecules (proteins and polysaccharides) without pathological consequences (Harkes et al. 2015). Studies on fish immune systems have increasingly gained attention in aquaculture due to fish contamination and are harmful to the entire production chain (Leung & Bates 2013). Immune mechanism Farming practices, as well as highly variable environmental factors, subject the aquatic animals to stressful conditions. Opportunistic and obligate pathogens present in the aquatic system can proliferate and lead to disease outbreaks and consequent mortality in aquatic animals, including crustaceans, at times (Subasinghe & Arthur 2001). An alert and potent immune system plays a key role in combating disease conditions, especially during pathogen invasion. The immune mechanism partakes in recognizing non‐self‐molecules, followed by the mobilization of various cells and molecules to initiate neutralization ((Brinkmann et al. 2013). Thus, the defense mechanism aids in resisting the invasion of pathogens. Categorized as innate (natural) and acquired (adaptive) responses, the defense system has evolved across species to reach complexity in higher vertebrates through the dominance of adaptive (specific) immunity. At the lower end of the developmental, immunological spectrum, the innate immune response system predominates in invertebrates. Invertebrates such as shrimp depend mostly on innate immune factors as they lack an accurate adaptive immune response (van de Braak 2002). Although innate immunity is considered less complicated than in vertebrates, invertebrates exist in diverse habitats and possess a very potent innate immune response that can defend them from a wide variety of pathogens (Jiravanichpaisal et al. 2006). Health management Health management and disease control are among the most significant challenges faced by aquaculture producers globally (Cottier-Cook et al. 2016), which is considered a constraint to aquaculture expansion in many regions (Rosa et al. 2012). As global aquaculture production expands, the effects

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 of large-scale disease outbreaks have become an increasing economic concern (World Bank 2013). In contrast to the terrestrial realm, research on climate change effects on marine and freshwater diseases is still relatively limited (Karvonen et al. 2010), and the scarcity of long-term datasets impedes good understanding of climate change influences on disease levels in situ (Karvonen et al. 2010, Callaway et al. 2012). As the environment changes, conditions may become more favorable for nonindigenous hosts. Vectors may be translocated through gradual migration (Cook et al. 2000) or sudden events, such as storms (Scheibling & Lauzon-Guay 2010, Buchwald et al. 2015) and tsunamis (Floyd 2016), creating the potential for novel disease emergence (Zell et al. 2008, Okamura 2016). However, the seasonality of many aquaculture diseases (Bowden et al. 2007), or their rapid proliferation under extreme environmental conditions, suggest strong potential for climate change to impact aquaculture health through rapid environmental fluctuations (Selvam et al. 2012) or the onset of extremes (Callaway et al. 2012). The various effects of climate change on aquatic systems (e.g., changes to temperature, precipitation, salinity, and acidification) can all affect host-parasite interactions (Marcogliese 2001, 2008) aquatic animal health. Climate change mediated immuno-suppression of hosts is hard to measure and difficult to tease out from other stressors. Still, temperature extremes are generally detrimental to aquatic species' immune function (Lafferty et al. 2015). The faster progression of diseases in tropical aquaculture regions suggests that global warming waters may generally facilitate infection. However, many low culture areas are developing regions with limited access to health professionals and treatment, contributing (Li et al. 2016). The disease is a significant aquaculture limiter globally. Climate change is expected further to affect plant and animal health through the host and infectious agents with uncertain, but potentially profound, outcomes (Morash & Alter 2016). Environmental conditions may become more favorable for some nonindigenous hosts, and translocated vectors may create the potential for novel disease emergence (Kautsky et al. 2000). Antibacterial activity Bacterial antagonism is a common phenomenon in nature; therefore, microbial interactions play a significant role in the equilibrium between competing for beneficial and potentially pathogenic micro- organisms (Balca´zar et al. 2004). It was demonstrated that feeding of rotifers with food additives containing live lactic acid bacteria or Bacillus spores decreased the number of pathogenic Vibrio species in the rotifers. The administration of C. butyricum bacteria to rainbow trout enhanced the resistance of the fish to Vibriosis (Sakai et al. 1995). It has been reported that Lactobacillus displays a higher antagonistic effect against E. coli and P. aeruginosa (Oyetayo 2004). B. subtilis was also seen to have significantly lowered the count of motile Aeromonads, presumptive Pseudomonads, and total Coliforms in live-bearing ornamental fishes (Ghosh et al. 2014). B. pumilus, Bacillus firmus, and C. freundii showed inhibitory effect against A. hydrophila in O. niloticus (Aly et al. 2008).

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Antiviral activity Though vaccination is an age-old practice to control viral diseases, its success rate is highly variable, and the duration of immunity against the virus is questionable (McLoughlin & Graham 2007). Some probiotics have antiviral effects, although the exact mechanism is not yet known. Strains of Pseudomonas sp., Vibrio sp., Aeromonas sp., and groups of Coryneforms showed antiviral activity against infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) (Kamei et al. 1987). Moreover, feed supplementation with a B. megatherium strain has increased resistance to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Li et al. 2009). Like Bacillus and Vibrio sp, probiotics positively influenced the protective effect against WSSV (Balca´zar 2003). Antifungal activity Aeromonas media (strain A199) isolated from freshwater, in eels' culture (Anguilla australis Richardson), presented antagonistic activity against Saprolegnia sp. It has also been reported that Aeromonas media strain A199 protects the fish against Saprolegniosis (Lategan et al. 2004b).

Conclusion Information specific to climate change, seasonal variations, and immune responses in aquacultureis still in infancy. Yet, there have been exponential increases in climate change publications in areas of importance to aquaculture. Summarizing relevant global research and reports, with vast differences in regional environments, culture systems, andspecies is not trivial than uncertainties of effects. However, most global aquaculture's heavy reliance on the ambient environment and ecosystem services suggests inherent vulnerability to climate change effects. Biological response to climate change stressors between related species or even between populations of the same species is not universal. Climate change may affect the plant, algal, and animal health through the host and infectious agents, with uncertain but potentially profound outcomes. Higher production costs at aquaculture operations could be an expected economic impact of climate change for many aquaculture sectors. Finally, there are gaps in knowledge and data accessibility on climate change effects for large portions concerning the present global context.

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Forest restoration through ecosystem-based adaptation approaches: A nature-based solutions for ecosystem resilience: a case from Nepal

Anu Adhikari*

International Union for Conservation of Nature, Kupondole, Lalitpur, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Climate Change (CC) is a real threat to the lives in the world that largely affects natural resources and geological processes and has long-term effects on food security as well forest ecosystem health. Nepal is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate risks, and Forest ecosystem is not left behind from these risks. Among the different factors needed for healthy ecosystem, water plays a critical role and the CC also impacted the water ecosystem. Various study reports and CC vulnerability assessments show that Nepal’s forest ecosystem is highly vulnerable to CC and forest degradation have led to decrease forest quality and loss of biodiversity with increase the risks of forest ecosystems functioning and amount of ecosystem services. Therefore, for the purpose of restoring forest ecosystem, Ecosystem based Adaption (EbA) measures were implemented in Panchase protected forest area of Nepal such as promotion of green infrastructure within the protected forest areas especially conservation of ponds and water sources, plantation of climate resilient species, maintain conservation plots and broom grass plantation for reducing the soil erosion. EbA is a comprehensive adaptation approach for managing ecosystems to increase resilience and maintain essential ecosystem services reducing vulnerability of people to climate and other socioeconomic changes. Form the study it was found that Nature based Solutions (NbS) principles also complement or similar to EbA principles so it can be considered as NbS for addressing CC impacts and enhance ecosystem resilience in Nepal. Keywords: Ecosystem, Ecosystem based Adaptation, Forest Restoration, Nature based Solutions, Resilience

Introduction Global warming and related climate changes (CC) are widely accepted by the scientific communities. CC is a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer (IPCC 2018). It is a real threat to the lives in the world that largely affects water resources, agriculture, coastal regions, freshwater habitats, vegetation and forests, snow cover and melting and geological processes such as landslide, desertification and floods, and has long-term effects on food security as well as in people’s livelihoods. CC is having and is projected to impact the livelihood assets and to affect the rights of vulnerable people, especially those that are dependent on forest

117 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World biodiversity and ecosystem services for food, water and shelter, and particularly in times of need or to meet contingencies (Pisupati & Warner 2003). Nature has been exploited beyond its limits and boundaries: almost half of the forest area has been lost, the population of wildlife has decreased by 60%, and a third of the world’s arable land has been converted to deserts. This burden on nature is resulting in a massive loss of biodiversity. The degrading health of ecosystems and the services they provide not only undermine nature’s ability to support wellbeing and economic growth but also make us vulnerable to different changes, including climate change and disasters (ICIMOD 2020). CC impacts on natural resources (Girot et al. 2012), species and ecosystems will reduce options for sustainable development, and increase the pressure on these resources. Nepal is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate risks, and mountain ecosystems and communities dependent on these ecosystems for livelihood and other services are especially sensitive to climate variability especially rising temperatures and drying of natural springs and wetlands, water scarcity and less ground water recharges. Although predictions regarding the impact of climate change on specific ecosystems and population groups are imprecise, it is unquestionable that variations in weather patterns will have both positive and negative implications for mountain ecosystem. The positive implication is it also offers opportunities for economic development. Furthermore, Nepal hill ecosystem is highly vulnerable to impacts of CC and the major impact is on water bodies with long-term effect on food security and forest ecosystem health, especially drying of natural springs and wetlands, water scarcity and less ground water recharges. Nepal’s forest ecosystem is also highly vulnerable to CC and forest degradation have led to decrease forest quality and loss of biodiversity with increase the risks of forest ecosystems functioning and amount of ecosystem services. Efforts to manage and restore natural environments can help hilly people adapt to climate change. Panchase is located in mid hill regions of the country. It is situated between the longitudes 830 44' 11" to 830 58' 13" E and the latitudes 280 08' 36" to 280 18' 25" N in Western Development Region of Nepal. It is around 165 kilometers south-west (273°) of the capital Kathmandu. Out of 5500 ha of land, 1700 hac of land managed by 140 Community Forest Users Groups (CFUGs), the Panchase Protected Forest Area (PPFA) covers 5500 hac of land with 12 forest types. The altitude varies from 815 m asl at Harpan River to 2517 masl at the peak of Panchase hill. The land is characterized by many steep gorges and slope varies from 30 percent to more than 100 percent. Panchase Hill is the origin of many rivers and tributaries supplying water to the lowland villages and a primary source for Phewa Lake. Rivers enrich the agricultural lands at the foothills of Panchase. More than 14,807 households including 62,001 individuals in the area are dependent on ecosystem services for their livelihoods (CBS 2011). The area is affected by both climatic and non-climatic threats. Changes in climatic pattern are quite noticeable in the area. Some climate change and variability issues like increase in extreme temperature, increase in occurrence of frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, erratic and intense 118

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 rainfall, decreasing snowfall, experiencing water shortage due to drying up of water sources. Over a 30 year period (1981-2011), maximum and minimum average temperatures have increased by 0.81°c and 0.2°c, whereas winter rainfall has decreased from 30 mm to 17 mm per day, and total rainfall days have decreased from 135 to 120 days (Sharma et al. 2013). Similarly, climatic threats includes disaster risks, invasive plant species invasions, water stresses, depletion of wetlands, water and forest resources, changing vegetation characteristics, destruction of habitat, forest fire etc. whereas non-climatic threats are unsustainable management of natural resources, over-exploitation and unsustainable use of forest resources, over grazing, unsustainable agricultural practices, leaving agriculture land fallow, infrastructure development with poor environmental safeguard e.g. rural road construction including repair and expansion through the forest areas which disturbs natural ground water movement, deposition of silt in downstream areas, high rate of outmigration and changing economic structure Ref.. If these trends continue, there will be profound adverse impacts on forest ecosystem i.e. degrading ecosystem functioning. Which have adversely impacted lives and livelihoods of the communities. Therefore, Government of Nepal (GoN) has been encouraging forest restoration. In this situation, forest restoration by applying the EbA approaches and developing and enforcing appropriate safeguard measures becomes essential as forests can play an important role in stabilizing steep slopes, buffering against extreme weather events and provide vital ecological goods and services and could be a natural solutions to climate change and most effective carbon sinks on our area. Ecosystem based Adaptation practices in the area could be a viable option to reduce the vulnerability and increase the resilience of the forest ecosystem in the area. Forest Restoration is the “process of assisting the recovery of a forest ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed”. Thus, Ecosystem based Adaptation (EbA) Approaches were piloted in three sub watersheds (Harpan, Rati/Jare and Andhi) of Panchase area of Nepal through the global EbA in Mountains Programme, with funding from the German Government (BMU). This program used sustainable management, conservation and restoration of ecosystems in Panchase region, as part of an overall EbA adaptation strategy that takes into account the multiple social, economic and cultural co-benefits, to reduce the vulnerability and enhance the resilience of select fragile mountain ecosystems and their local communities to climate change impacts. Under the forest ecosystem restoration we had supported the local communities for plantation of climate resilient plant species, protection of natural water sources, restoration of community ponds and rainwater harvesting, broom grass plantation along the newly constructed roadside, promoting in- situ conservation of indigenous forest species, wetland conservation, management of invasive species, land rehabilitation with application of bioengineering technology, management of open grazing practices and forest fire control with a view to combat climate change impact. Among the several options implemented in the area the community mostly liked the options of restoring and rehabilitation of natural water sources and community ponds. The main purpose of restoring community ponds is to increase water infiltration by reducing rate and volume of water run-off; to reduce the risks of water induced disasters, especially landslides along with harvesting and storing rain water. This was carried

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Biodiversity in a Changing World out through protecting water sources, repairing and restoring existing ponds, plantation of climate resilient species and agreeing on the institutional arrangements for the management of the water. Methodology and approaches The selections and promotion of EbA approaches for forest restoration followed integrated, participatory, and consultative and need based approaches as a Nature based Solutions. The detail methodology and approaches followed for the actions are as follows; • Mapping of Forest Resources: Before identifying and implementing the EbA options in the ecosystem level the expert team along with community people and local stakeholder mapped the existing forest resources through biodiversity resource inventory and ecosystem assessment of the area. • Identifying EbA options: After mapping of the forest resources the suitable EbA options for forest restoration were identified through active participation of community people and other stakeholders. The identified options were implemented in such a way that it complies with the four main principles- additionality, cost effectiveness, building resilience and sustainable use. • Mapping of Existing Water Resources: Before implementing the identified EbA options the expert team along with community people also mapped the existing water resources and wetlands surrounding the forest areas. • Adoption of participatory and consultative approach: While implementing the EbA options on the ground the action adopted the participatory and consultative approach i.e. the activities were designed and implemented in consultation with government technical experts and local communities by integrating local knowledge with the good practices to combat with climate change impact. • Promotion and integration of local knowledge: The forest restoration activities also promoted and integrated local knowledge with scientific knowledge by establishing linkage with the traditional knowledge, skill, practices with technical knowhow. • Prioritization and restoration: Criteria based prioritization are followed by considering vulnerability of area, size (area), extent of damage, possibilities of enhancing resilience of forest ecosystem, importance to recharge ground water, capacity to reduce water induced disasters, possibilities of using locally available materials, dependency of local communities, wild animals and water scarcity situations. • Updating and Inclusion in Forest Operational Plan: While updating or renewing the Community Forest Users Groups (CFUGs) Operational Plan (OP), the team tried to include Forest restoration activities and suitable EbA options and approaches for forest restoration into their OPs.

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• Planning and Integration of Engineered Solutions: For the restoration activities the engineered solutions were planned and integrated to ensure the reliable supply of water for temporary storage for irrigation and drinking for livestock (domestic) and wild animals. • Plantation of climate resilient species: Climate resilient plant species were selected and planted around the forest area and water sources. The species with high soil holding and water recharge capacity were selected for plantation around the water sources. • Enhancement of livelihoods: The options also supported for the enhancement of other ecosystem services (aesthetic significance or area, increase accessibility of service to wild species), which contribute to enhancement of livelihood of local communities and also enhances safety and quality of life.

Results Ecosystem-based Adaptation is the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change” (CBD 2009). Nature based Solutions (NbS) is the actions to protect, manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges, effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. Societal challenges are climate change, food security, water security, human health, and natural disasters, social and economic development (IUCN 2020). For the restoration of forest ecosystem in the Panchase Protected Forest (PPF) area, several EbA options were implemented in the selected locations of Kaski, Syangja and Parbat districts respectively, representing three different i.e. Harpan Khola, Orlang Khola, and Andheri Khola sub-watersheds. Among these options the most effective ecosystem restoration option experienced by the community and the other stakeholders is water restoration. Under this option, more than 45 natural water sources and 60 community ponds were conserved or restored and rehabilitated to ensure sustain supply of water during dry seasons. Restoration of water resources has brought both livelihoods and ecosystem benefits. From the study, some positive impacts of water restoration in the forest ecosystem for building resilience against the climate change impacts have been seen and the community already experienced these positive impacts such as recharging water and increased the soil moisture. Other results found from the study are: • Increase water infiltration and buffering action: While doing forest restoration through EbA approaches, it increased water infiltration and buffering against water induced disaster especially flood and landslides by reducing rate and volume of water run-off from the watershed along with harvesting, evapotranspire and storing rain water in the watershed. This helped to protection of agriculture land and downstream area from erosion, flooding and landslide due to slow water run-off from the watershed.

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• Contribute to ground water recharge: Forest ecosystem restoration through application of EbA options also helped in replenishing groundwater and aquifers, contributed to the ground water recharge, sprouting of water at the downstream areas, especially during dry season and helped to improved soil condition i.e. maintain the moisture contents. • Improve air quality and increase aesthetic value: Forest restoration through EbA approaches helped to weed out pollutants naturally by reducing air pollutants and air temperature and also sequestrated the carbon which ultimately increased the quality of air. Furthermore, afforestation, plantation and other management activities increased the greenery, growth of trees and other species nearby water sources and downstream area this increased the aesthetic value of the forest in the Panchase area. • Support for biodiversity conservation: Some of the EbA options such as in-situ conservation of endangered forest species, restoration of water resources, and plantation of climate resilient plant species supported for biodiversity conservation. Similarly, restoration of water resources also increased water availability for human beings, domestic and wild animals and different plant species during dry season. As the water was also used for irrigation and other household activities, especially during dry season. This also contributed for biodiversity conservation and safeguarding the biodiversity. • Provide habitat for aquatic ecosystem: Forest restoration helped to increased water availability, purify and filter waste water so kept water ecosystem healthy during dry season also, which help to protect and create habitats for aquatic and water bound ecosystems. This ecosystem provided the key habitat for different aquatic species such as fish. • Create recreational opportunities: From the restoration activities Panchase protected forest further created the recreational opportunities to the resident of Panchase area as well as other tourist people as the area is popular tourist area. The area is the capital of orchid plants so must of the urban people visited the forest area to see the orchid and hiking, walking and watch the scenic view. The EbA options conserved the local species and also establish the conservation plots which increased the greenery and scenery of the area. Furthermore, the options provided the homestay facility to the tourists in the area so the demand of forest recreation has been increasing in volume and have become more diverse. Many tourists and peoples go to the places because of the recreational opportunities such as scenery view, bird watching, nature education, research, refresh the mood by escaping from the stresses of modern life and doing yoga and meditation. • Maintain religious and cultural values: The top of the Panchase area has a temple and is also recognized as a religious place. So, from the forest restoration activities the religious and cultural values of the area has been maintained. The water sources have their own religious and cultural importance in the Nepali communities so by restoring and conserving these resources further supported for maintaining the religious and cultural values of forest 122

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ecosystem. Inside the forest there are some plant species which have cultural values such as ficus species. • Enhance livelihood of community: The forest restoration through adoption of EbA approaches created the livelihood opportunities to the community people which help to enhance the livelihood of community. The options supported homestay promotion at community and also involved them in forest restoration activities. The community got an opportunity to live in clean and safe environment and also able to sale their local products to the tourists and other people. After participation in the forest restoration activities the community livelihood options are diversified which support for generation of extra income from diversified livelihood options and address the climate change impacts. Furthermore, some of the EbA champions also got opportunity to elect in local government as a ward chair and members. • Complement Nature based Solutions (NbS) criteria/standard: Forest ecosystem restoration through EbA approaches also complement or similar to NbS criteria/standard so it can be considered as NbS for addressing CC impacts and enhance ecosystem resilience. The criteria of NbS are societal challenges, design at scale, biodiversity net gain, economic viability, inclusive governance, balance trade-offs, adaptive management and sustainability. Which are also found in forest restoration through EbA where NbS for societal betterment and regenerating natural resources. Some examples are forest restoration provided water and food security, climate change resilience, socio-economic betterment of users, which fits the criteria of effectively address societal challenges, the landscape level watershed management was done and it is suitable for EbA approaches, which fits the criteria of design of NbS is informed by scale, plantation and conservation of climate resilient species was done which help sequestering carbon and reducing pressure on forests, which fits criteria of benefits to biodiversity, the EbA approaches is financially viable for farmers as income source and income increases, which fits criteria of long-term economic viability, the approach focussed on disadvantaged and vulnerable communities and directly included farmers and women, which fits criteria of inclusive transparent and empowering governance process, there is trade-offs on this approaches and it is informed by stakeholders’ choices and balance the benefit sharing from common resources, which fits criteria of balancing trade-offs, the outcome of the approaches understood by concerned stakeholders and outcomes are continuously monitored/evaluated and interventions are informed by evidence, which fits criteria of managed adaptively and the approaches followed active communication mechanism and conducted policy advocacy based on learning with stakeholders, national and local bodies, which fits criteria of sustainable and mainstreaming.

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Discussion Resilient ecosystems are vital to human well-being and are increasingly recognised as critical to supporting communities’ efforts to adapt to climate change. Biodiversity and ecosystems play an elemental role in sustaining life and are thus fundamental to building human resilience to the adverse effects of climate change. Through the mechanisms of the CBD and UNFCCC, parties have been encouraged to implement and integrate ecosystem-based approaches into their adaptation and development strategies. Ecosystem-based approaches have potential to provide communities with potentially more sustainable outcomes than other adaptation approaches, whilst also targeting the immediacy of adaptation needs of the poorest and most vulnerable communities who are already adversely affected by climate change (Chong 2014). Climate change is real, happening, and already appears in the form of ecosystem degradation, affecting ecosystem services by affecting forest type and area, primary productivity, species populations and migration, the occurrence of pests and disease, and forest regeneration (Karki et al. 2010; Seidl et al. 2016 cited by Cereghino et al. 2014). Over recent decades, the climate adaptation community has made important contributions to improving understanding and awareness of climate-change related problems (Wise et.al. 2014). Forest ecosystem services are important to Nepal’s economy because 80% of the population derives resources for livelihood from nature, such as food, fiber, freshwater, and medicine from natural habitats, and forest-based biomass provides nearly 90% of total energy consumption (BCN & DNPWC 2012). Forest ecosystem services in Nepal help sustain livelihoods and strengthen the national economy. However, its flow is affected by human and environmental pressures (Lamsal et al. 2018). The forest restoration is carried out using locally available material, integrating traditional and local knowledge with scientific one and low cost technology such as collecting rain water, in-situ conservation of forest species, conservation of local water sources such as ponds and springs, improving the leakage and ensuring water availability from perennial sources such as springs and plantation of climate resilient species. The project activities found that forest restoration through application of EbA approaches such as plantation of climate resilient species, conservation and diversification of forest species, restoration of ponds and water resources remains in high priority because of its ecological, religious, cultural and livelihoods importance. EbA approaches can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner with other solutions to address adverse effect of climate change. Therefore, forest restoration is consistent with the NbS principle of addressing societal challenges, produce societal benefits, maintain biological and cultural diversity and ability of ecosystem to evolve over time, cost effectiveness, building resilience and promote sustainable use. Therefore, EbA principle is similar to NbS principles and also complement to NbS. So, forest restoration through application of EbA approaches can be considered as NbS for addressing climate change impacts and enhance ecosystem resilience in Nepal.

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Conclusion Forest restoration through application of EbA approaches possess multiple benefits in restoring the ecosystem and enhancing the resilience of vulnerable communities especially women and poor. From the initiatives the vulnerable groups are able to earn economic, social, cultural, and environmental benefits such as from the conservation and other restoration activities in the forest area the community people especially homestay groups able to earn extra income, increased the level of social cohesiveness, able to conserve their own culture and practices and also able to reduce the air pollution and carbon emission. Similarly, the domestic and wild animals are getting opportunity to drink good quality water in monsoon season and also get water during dry period of time. Some of the EbA champions also get opportunities to be elected in local election as a ward chair and members. The homestay groups were able to receive money from province level Ministry of Industry Tourism, Forest and Environment (MoITFE) about NRs 10 Lakh for homestay promotions and NRs 5 Lakh from Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoLMAC) for integrated organic farming and livestock management. This shows that the options also open the avenue for resource generation for the community works. The community people also got opportunity to increase their income through selling local resources such as tea, coffee, organic vegetables, honey, broom grass and broom as the restoration activities supported for tourism enhancement in the area. The results indicated that the forest restoration through EbA approaches supported to enhancement and protection of different ecosystem services (Regulating, Provisioning, Supporting and Cultural), people centric and cost effective for addressing the adverse effects of climate change, which means the EbA approaches complement with Nature-based Solutions criteria/standard. To ensure the positive impact of the options, communities’ participation from the beginning of the project and their preferences and priorities are crucial.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to all the stakeholders, community, partners and institutions involved in the implementation of project activities. The German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU)/ International Climate Initiatives (IKI) for financial support and the Nepal government ministries and Departments for support in implementation coordination especially the Ministry of Forests and Environment (MoFE) for taking lead in implementation and coordination the project outcomes through its departments. Likewise, the Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration (MoFAGA) and Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD) for providing support in implementation at the field level and the two local NGOs i.e. Machhapuchhre Development Organisation (MDO) Nepal and Aapasi Sahayog Kendra (ASK) Nepal for community mobilization, local communities of Panchase for implementation of activities at the field level, students, teachers from different colleges for their support in conducting study and research of the area and other different organisations working in the area who directly or indirectly contributed during the time of project implementation for their cooperation and support.

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References

BCN and DNPWC 2012. Conserving Biodiversity and Delivering Ecosystem Services at Important Bird Areas in Nepal. Kathmandu and Cambridge, UK: Bird Conservation Nepal, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, and BirdLife International. Accessed online at: http://datazone.birdlife.org/userfiles/file/sowb/pubs/NepalEcosystemsServicesLowRes.pdf CBD 2009.Connecting Biodiversity and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Report of the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montréal, Québec, Canada. Accessed online at https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/ahteg-brochure-en.pdf CBS 2011.National population and housing census 2011.Government of Nepal.Central Bureau of Statistics. Kathmandu, Nepal. In Accessed online at: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/wphc/Nepal/Nepal-Census-2011-Vol1.pdf Cereghino, R., Boix, D., Cauchie,H. M., Martens, K. and Oertli, B. 2014. The Ecological Role of Ponds in a Changing World in The role of Ponds. Hydrobiologia 723:1–6. DOI 10.1007/s10750-013-1719-y Chaudhary, S., Adhikari, B. and Wangchuk, K. 2020. Our Solutions are in Nature. Accessed online at https://www.icimod.org/article/our-solutions-are-in-nature/ Chong, J. 2014. Ecosystem-based Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation: Progress and Challenges. International Environmental Agreements. Politics, Law and Economics 14(4):391–405.DOI: 10.1007/s10784-014-9242- 9 Girot, P., Ehrhart, C. and Oglethorpe, J., 2012.Integrating Community and Ecosystem-Based Approaches in Climate Change Adaptation responses.Ecosystem livelihoods adaptation network.Accessed online at http://careclimatechange.org/files/adaptation/ELAN_IntegratedApproach_150412.pdf. IPCC 2018.Annex I: Glossary. In: Matthews, J.B.R. (ed.). Global Warming of 1.5°C.An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C above Pre-industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty. In: Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.), in Press. Accessed online at https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ IUCN 2020. Nature-based solutions. Accessed online at https://www.iucn.org/news/nature-based- solutions/202007/iucn-standard-boost-impact-nature-based-solutions-global-challenges Karki, M., Mool, P. and Shrestha, A. 2010.Climate Change and its Increasing Impacts in Nepal. The Initiation. DOI: 10.3126/init.v3i0.2425 Lamsal, P., Kumar, L., Atreya, K. and Pant, K. P. 2018. Forest Ecosystem Services in Nepal: A Retrospective Synthesis, Research Gaps and Implications in the Context of Climate Change. International Forestry Review 20. Accesed online at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328729961, DOI: 10.1505/146554818825240647 Pisupati, B. and Warner, E. 2003.Biodiversity and the Millennium Development Goals.IUCN/ UNDP. Accessed online at https://www.cbd.int/doc/books/2009/B-03186.pdf Sharma, B. K., Maharjan, S., Timalsina, K., Rai, R. and Joshi, A. 2013. Baseline and Socioeconomic Survey of the Ecosystem based Adaptation Project Area. Genesis Consultancy Pvt Ltd. And Green Governance Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Wise, R. M., Fazey, I., Stafford S. M., Park, S.E., Eakin, H. C., Archer E. R. M. and Campbell, B. 2014. Reconceptualising adaptation to climate change as part of pathways of change and response. Accessed online at http://dx.doi.org/www.elsevier.com/locate/gloenvcha

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Updated subspecies account of Parnassius epaphus Oberthür 1879 of the Nepal Himalaya

Bhaiya Khanal*

Nepal Bioheritage Forum for Resources Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Parnassius epaphus Oberthür, 1879, a member of the snow Apollo group, is generally distributed within the elevation range of 3500–5454 m in South Asian Countries and SW Chinese mountains. However, its lowest record was made at 2300 m in Jumla and Mugu districts of Midwest Nepal. This butterfly has its distribution gaps in many pockets of the Himalayan belt. There are seven species of Parnassius known in Nepal. P. epaphus contains six subspecies which includes species like chidii, robertsi, epaphus, capdevillei, sikkimensis and boschmai. This butterfly species was reported along with other species viz. P. acdestis in Manang and P. hardwickei in Langtang area. The later species can be seen year-round except January and February, but P. epaphus appears only for few months from June to August. An attempt has been made to update subspecies account of P. epaphus of Nepal based on field studies and published records. Four subspecies recorded so far are considered endemic to Nepal. Five subspecies, except P. epaphus boschmai, were recorded from the central and western regions of the country. The highlands of far west Nepal have mostly been unexplored. The systemic exploration in this region can be expected to add interesting information on the subspecies of this butterfly. Key Words: Distribution, Elevation, Himalaya, Species, Subspecies

Introduction Parnassius, a member of snow Apollo group, is adapted to the high-altitude climate representing one or two annual generations depending upon the species. These species except Parnassius hardwickei appear from the mid of May till September end while Parnassius hardwickei (Common Blue Apollo) appears throughout the year except the coldest months (January and February). These butterflies fly fast upon alpine meadows or steppe terrains of higher elevations. Parnassius epaphus though less common than Parnassius hardwickei is distributed up to 6,000 m asl in India (Mani 1986). Of the seven Parnassius species documented in Nepal (Smith 2010), Parnassius epaphus (Common Red Apollo), can be seen at 3500 to 5454 m (Nepali & Khanal 1983). This species also extends its range to some Asian countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan (Shmidt & Shmidt 2010), India (Varshney & Smetacek 2015), Nepal (Smith 1989), Bhutan and China (Collins & Morris 1985; Kawasaki 1995, Sugisawa 1998). According to Mani (1968), this butterfly occurs over the Northwest Himalayan Mountain to

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Bhutan in the east Himalaya and Southwest China Mountain and Northwest Himalaya. Parnassius epaphus has high subspecies diversity with 37 valid subspecies globally (Bridge 1988). Sorimachi (1995) and Sugisawa (1996) mentioned a sympatric relation of P. dongalaicus with P. epaphus. The former species is a high-altitude butterfly of China which was originally described as a separate species and subsequently was considered conspecific with P. epaphus. Parnassius epaphus has white transparent forewings with black encircled reduced crimson spots at sub costal region. The sub hyaline terminal margin is dentate with white spots. The cell area is dusky black with black spots at end cell and two black spots at the cell. The dorsal margin of the hind wing is dusky black with inner pointed triangular markings on sub margin and presence of two black encircled crimson spots one below costa and at end cell. Both wings have black hairs at upper basal parts. Hindwing (HW) is opaque and dusky black at dorsal margin. Presence of inner pointed triangular markings on the submargin and two black encircled crimson spots one below costa and next at end cell. Sub marginal spots are joined into a chain of black lunules. HW is with well pronounced red spots.

Materials and methods Study area

Figure 1. Map showing distribution of subspecies of P. epaphus in Nepal Eastern region: This region has altitudinal ranges reaching up to 8848 m, the summit of the Mount Everest. Major area of this region is included under Sagarmatha National Park where vegetations like Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, Lyonia ovalifolia, Juniperous recurva, and Rhododendron species are found (Paudel et al. 2010).

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Central region: This region includes Langtang National Park where this target species was recorded at 3300–4000 m. Well spread highland vegetations observed here are, Betula utilis, Rhododendron lepidatum, Rhododendron anthopogan, Rhododendron setosum, Juniperus recurva, Larix sp (Khanal 2012). Western region: Trans-Himalayan districts like Mustang and Manang are located north to the Annapurna range above 3000 m. General vegetations of these places are Ficus sp., Cedrus deodara, Berberis angulosa, Caragana species, Ephedra gerardiana, Juniperus indica. Dolpa is also a trans-Himalayan district with the elevation range of 1,525 to 7,625 m accommodates common flora like, Cupresus torulesa, Picea smithiana, Betula utilis, Juniperus and Lonicera spp (Nepali and Khanal, 1983). Midwestern Nepal: This region includes remote districts of Mugu and Jumla where this study was conducted at the elevation range of 2300 to 4039 m. The common vegetation primarily observed here are Pinus excels, rhododendron (Rhododendron arboretum), spruce. Far west Nepal: The higher elevation of the Darchula district where this study was conducted includes vegetation like oak, rhododendron. Himalayan fir, hemlock, Primula sp (DNPWC 2019). Methods Field observations made on various occasions and consultations of published records were considered for subspecies update of P. epaphus of Nepal. Field studies made at the Langtang National Park (central Nepal), Shey-Phoksundo National Park (west Nepal), Rara National Park (mid-west Nepal) and Manang district (west Nepal) revealed significant information on subspecies variations of this butterfly within the altitudinal range of 2300 m to 5454 m. Reference collection at the Natural History Museum were also examined to compare altitudinal data of the recorded subspecies. Smith (1989) was consulted for identification of butterflies and Rajbhandari et al. (2017) and expert’s knowledge for identification of habitat vegetation.

Results and discussion This species represented six subspecies in Nepal. This is a member of snow Apollo of the family Papilionidae and subfamily Parnassiinae which are confined to different altitudinal habitats of the Himalayan region. Many untouched pockets in the Himalaya on explorations may add few more subspecies to the present list. Parnassius epaphus epaphus Oberthür 1879 Size: 24-26 mm. White, upper black spots clear, narrow marginal and submarginal bands, distinct red spot on ocelli in HW. This subspecies was recorded at 4490 m in 1995 from Tata of Darchula District of west Nepal which was published by Innomata in 1998. Parnassius epaphus sikimensis, Elwes 1882.

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Wing span: 23–26 mm, Wings are irrorated with black scales, the post discal black lunules on upper FW are evenly curved and red spots on HW are brilliantly red creamy white, FW oblong, apex produced, ocelli orange not bright red as other races. This was recorded at 3939 m from Khangsar village of the Manang District of west Nepal which was published by Lowndes in 1953. This subspecies has not been recorded from other parts of the country and its detail information is still unknown.

Figure 2. Photographs of four endemic subspecies to show variations in wing patterns. Parnassius epaphus boschmai (Eisner 1964) Wingspan: 22–23 mm. White butterfly with light black markings, small orange spots on HW, FW submarginal black marking is in the form of irregular narrow band faint red subcostal spot encircled black, two black spots at cell and one at post discal area, a faint wavy curve band in post discal area. HW sub marginal black band is like lunules. Eisner published this subspecies in 1964 which was based on his study made in Lobuche at 4490 m of the Everest region of east Nepal. Parnassius epaphus chiddii (Smith, 1983) Wing 25 mm. Grayish white butterfly. The upper FW is transparent white dusted black. Submarginal black spots diffused, postdiscal creamy lunules in the form of band. Presence of two black spots at center of cell and one at end cell. Red spot on HW is encircled black. Female is little darker. This butterfly was recorded at 2990 from the eastern part of Rara lake of Mugu District. Parnassius epaphus robertsi (Epstein 1979) Size: 23–26 mm. Greyish white with dense black scales. Forewing (FW) with well-developed sub marginal band, two distinct black spots on cell, HW with faint black crescents in the form of curve band at post discal portion, red spots on both wings. This was recorded at 5000 m of the Manang district and 3640-5000m in the Rasuwa District of north central Nepal. Parnassius epaphus capdevillei (Epstein 1979) Size: 23–25 mm. White tinged creamy yellow butterfly with rounded termen of FW. Submarginal bands on both wings are in the form of small black spots. Black circled wide ocelii on HW. Epstein’s

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 publication of P. e. capdevillei (1979) was based on specimens that he collected at 4300–4400 m in Charkhabhot Northeast of Dangarjong Mustang. Its record was also made by Nepali & Khanal (1983) from the Nangase La of Dolpa, midwest Nepal. The occurrence of P. e. nigrocellata Bryk and Eisner has also been mentioned by Smith (2010) but no detail information is available yet except its occurrence in Palaearctic region. P. e. tsaiae ssp.nov.from N. W. Tibet (Huang 1998c) apparently resembles Nepal’s ssp. capdevillei but differs in some respects. This subspecies tsaiae is of the size of capdevillei but smaller than robertsi and himalayanus. Likewise, the upper costal spot of the female in P. e. tsaiae is centered red which is black in himalayanus and capdevillei (Huang 1998c). According to a concept of Remington (1950), if two subspecies did co- exist, they would inter-mate so freely that difference would disappear and only one subspecies would occupy the region which is the permanent resident of that locality and characteristics of the invaded subspecies disappear sooner from that locality. Parnassius epaphus has apparent resemblance to P. jacquemontii except its smaller size and narrower vitreous marginal band (Talbot 1975). Eisner (1964) distinguished P. jacquemonti from P. epaphus considering the shape of sphragis which lacks keel in the later species. P. epaphus appears in June to August and shares habitats of P. hardwickei, a common species seen year-round except the coldest month (Smith 1989). He (1983) also reported P.e chiddii, an endemic subspecies for the first time at 2380 to 2600 m in Mugu and Jumla districts of Northwest Nepal in summer of 1980. This is the lowest record for P.epaphus comparative to other Parnassius species found in Nepal. P.e.robersi, P.e. boschmai and P.e.capdevillei, all endemic subspecies were first reported by Epstein (1979) from Mustang and Manang districts of west Nepal. P.e. robertsi was also reported later at 3950 m in the Jumla District of Midwest Nepal (Khanal 2007). Innomata (1998) mentioned that its distribution ranges from the eastern part of Kaligandaki to the northern Annapurna and eventually reach to the Manasulu of northwest Nepal. The specimen collected at 5454 m in July 1978 from the Nangase Pass of Dolpo District was later identified as P.e.capdevillei, an endemic subspecies to Nepal (Nepali & Khanal 1983). This is the only species of Parnassius which shows six distinct subspecies comparative to other Parnassius species found in Nepal. Sidhu et al. (2010) included P. jacquemonti and P. epaphus in the first Apollo group among seven groups categorized on the basis of their different characteristic features.

Conclusion Parnassius epaphus is distributed mostly above 3500 m though has also been reported at 2300 m in Jumla and Mugu Districts of mid-western Nepal (Smith 1983). It shares its habitat with P. acdestis in west and P. hardwickei in central and east Nepal. P. epaphus has diverse representations of six subspecies including four endemic subspecies distributed in different regions of the country. No two subspecies were recorded at the same locality. Khanal (2008) mentioned that the three trans-Himalayan districts like

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Manang, Mustang and Dolpo represent very unique climate and topography where occurrence of 18 endemic species and subspecies of butterflies have been recorded.

Acknowledgements Mr. Hari Sharan Kazi, a senior ornithologist is highly acknowledged for providing his collection of butterflies from the upper Dolpo which also has been included in this study. His accompaniment with me in a study program at Ganesh Himal area of central Nepal was very significant. Prof. Dr. Nirmala Pradhan of the Natural History Museum is acknowledged for her significant help to identify habitat plants of this butterfly. Senior Botanist Mr. Puran Kurmi and Associate Professor Mr. D.M. Pradhan are highly appreciated for their essential help and accompaniment to the Langtang National Park during my study period. My thanks are also due to Mr. Sangram Singh Lama, Chhiring Sherpa, Nima Sherpa and Dandi Sherpa for their accompaniment and help in the field to Manang, Solukhumbu, Rara (Mugu), Jumla and Annapurna regions in different years.

References

Bridges, C. A. 1988. Catalogue of Papilionidae & Pieridae (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). C.A. Bridges, Urbana, Illinois: vii+ii+324. Ii+93, ii+131, ii+98, ii+37, ii+12. Collins, N.M. and Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The lUCN Red Data Book. lUCN, Gland and Cambridge. viH- 401pp. -I- 8 pis, pp.41. DNPWC (2019). Biodiversity Profile of the Api Nampa Conservation Area, Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337946734_api_Nampa_Conservation_Area_Biodiversity_Prof ile_of_the#fulltextfilecontent. Eisner, C. 1964. Parnassiana nova XXXIV. Subsequent considerations regarding the revision of the Parnassiinae family (continued 7). A new Parnassius epaphus Oberth, subspecies. Zoological Mededelingen 39:185–186. Elwes, H.J., 1882. On a Collection of Butterflies from Sikkim. Proceedings of Zoological Society 28: 399–407. Epstein, H. J. 1979. Interesting, rare and new Papilionids (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) from the central Nepal Himalayas. International Nepal Himalaya Expedetion for Lepidoptera Palaearctica –INHELP, Report No.3. Entomologist’s Gazette, 30:15. Huang, H., 1998c. Five New Butterflies from N. W. Tibet (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). Neue Entomologische Nachrichten 41:271–281. Innomata, T., 1998. Parnasiinae from Nepal. Moths of Nepal (Edited by T.Haruta), Tinea, The Japan Heterocists’ Society, Tokyo, Japan, Supplement 15:311–314. Kawasaki, Y. (1995): Description of one new species and four new subspecies of the Genus Parnassius Latreille from collecting expeditions in Thibet, China 1994. — Wallace, Oitashi (Japan), 1: 9–15, pls. XIV–XVI. Khanal, B., Chalise, M. and Solanki, G. 2012. Diversity of butterflies with respect to altitudinal rise at various pockets of the Langtang National Park, Central Nepal. International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 2:41–48. Khanal, B., 2008.Butterflies of the Himalayas: Case study of the trans-Himalayan districts. Water Tower of Asia: Experiences in Wetland Conservation in Nepal, Changwon, Gyeongnam, Ramsar Environmental Foundation South Korea, pp 71–74. Khanal, B., 2007a. Butterflies in and around Rara National Park Nepal. Journal of Himalayan Wetland (Edited: B. Bhandary and Gea Jae Joo), Ramsar Wetland Center, South Korea, 59–65.

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Khanal, B., 2007b. Butterflies of Gosainthan. Gosainthan a Sacred Wetland in Nepal (Edited by B.Bhandari and G.J. Joo), Nepal Wetland Society, pp 50–54. Khanal, B., 1984. Butterflies from Lamjung and Manang Regions of Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum, Nepal 8(1– 4):37–41. Lowndes, D.G., 1953. More butterflies from Nepal. Journal Bombay Natural History Society 5:756–758 Mani, M.S., 1986. Butterflies of the Himalayas. Springer, Netherlands. Mani MS (1968) Ecology and biogeography of high altitude insects. Dr W Junk NV Publishers, The Hague. Nepali, H. S., and Khanal, B. 1983. Some Trans Himalayan Butterflies from Dolpo and Manang regions of Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum 7:35–40. Oberthür, C. 1879. Catalogue raisonné des Papilionidae de la collection de Ch. Oberthür à Rennes. Études d'Entomologie 4: xviii + 19–117 pp, 6 pls Paudel, E.N., Shrestha, K.K. and Bhuju, D.R. 2010. Enumeration of Herbaceous Plants in Imja Valley, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Contemporary Research in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) Region, Nepal, Eds. P.K.Jha and I.P. Khanal, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, 173-188. Rajbhandari, K.R., Rai, S. K., Bhatt, G.D., Chhetri, R. and Khatri, S. 2017. Flowering Plants of Nepal, An Introduction. Dept. Pl. Resources, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Nepal, pp 1-431. Remington, C.L., 1951. Geographic sub speciation in Lepidoptera. The Lepidopterists’ News USA 5(3-5):17–20. Schmidt, H., & Schmidt, S., 2010. A new subspecies of Parnassius epaphus Oberthuer, 1879 from western Karakorum in north Ghizar (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae). Mitteilungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Westfaelischer Entomologen 26:33–38. Sidhu, A.K., Rose, H.S. and Grewal, J. 2010. Status and Taxonomic Revision of Butterflies of subfamily Parnassinae from Indian Himalayas along with notes on its Phylogeny. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No., 316:1–51. Smith, C., 2010. Lepidoptera of Nepal.Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal. Smith,C., 1989. Butterflies of Nepal. Tecpress Services, Bangkok, Thailand. Smith, C.P. 1983. Descriptions of 3 new subspecies of butterflies found in Nepal. The journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 80:166–170. Sorimachi, Y. 1995. The Primer of Parnassius. Sorimachi, Saitama, 181. Sugisawa, S., 1998. Two new subspecies of Parnassius epaphus Oberthur, 1879 from southern Tibet and southeastern Pamir. Wallace 4(2):43–46. Sugisawa, S. 1996. Geographical and individual variations of the genus Parnassius Latreille, 1804 (9) Parnassius epaphus Oberthür & Parnassius dongalaicus Tytler. Illustrations of Selected Insects in the World. Series A (Lepidoptera) 9:133–155. Talbot, G., 1975. Butterflies. The Fauna of British India, Today’s and Tomorrow’s publishers, India, 1:39-43. Varshney, R. K. and Smetacek, P. 2015. A Synoptic Catalogue of the Butterflies of India. Bhimtal and Indinov Publishing, New Delhi.

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Biodiversity of Mangsebung Rural Municipality, eastern Nepal

Bharat Raj Subba*

Department of Zoology, Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar, Province-1, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract The landscapes and physical environments of particular study area reflect types of flora and fauna of that place. Mansebung Rural Municipality Ward No.1(21.6 km2) is an east facing village (Nangrung) with corrugated forms, where there are emerging out streams and river. More than thirty-five per cent of land has been occupied by vegetation. A one year’s survey was carried out in 2018 with a view to document fauna and flora of the ward mentioned above. Random survey method was applied for observation and study of both fauna and flora throughout the survey. For keeping location record, GPS was used. Necessary equipments for the suevey were used. During the survey 310 floral species (herbs, shrubs climbers and trees) belonging to 78 families were recorded. Similarly, mammals 17 spp., birds 100 spp., reptiles 9 spp., amphibia 3 spp., fish 22 spp., and butterflies 40 spp. belonging to families 15,35,6,2, 8 and 7 respectively were recorded. Among mammals recorded, Lutra lutra, Nemarhaedus goral, Semnopithecus entellus, Manis pentadactyla, Canis aureus, Herpetes urva are threatened species. Likewise, among bird species Turdoides nipalensis, Latinaetus malayensis, Gyps indicus, Gyps bengalensis, Torgos calvus, Spilornic cheela, Aviceda leuphotes, and Buceros bicornis were rarely and occasionally sighted. Regarding herpetofauna, Varanus bengalensis,Varanus flavescens were hardly observed. Among 22 fish species Labeo angra and Labeo dyocheilus could not be collected, formerly they were common in Deumai river. In the forests, at low altitudes ,Shorea robusta, Terminalia alata, Terminalia bellirica showed their dominancy, whereas at a little bit higher altitudes Ulnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii and Engelhardtia spicata were dominant ,towards the upper reaches Juglans regia Engelhardtia spicata, Rhododendron spp., Myrica esculenta, Berberis asiatica, Michelia champaca etc. appeared to be ruling over there. Key words: Altitudes, Landscape, Mammals, Physical environment, Vegetation

Introduction Ward 1, situated between (26053'28" to 26056'05" N latitudes and 087046'49" to 46057'28"E) longitudes belongs to Mangsebung Rural Municipality (MRM), Provience 1. It is located in the farwest border of Ilam district within Provience 1. It is formerly a village called Nang Rung which lies between two altitudes, the lowest (488 m) and the highest (1585m) from the sea level and has covered 21.6 km2. It is an east facing corrugated landscape, having three streams namely Pheyong khola, Lamphengwa khola and Phewa khola, they all flow from west to eastwards. The first stream Pheyong khola lies between Phakphok Rural Municipality and MRM and Phewa khola borders between MRM Ward 1and 2. The east border of the Ward 1 has connection with Phakphok river little bit then with Deumai River all the 134 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 rest part. Deumai River runs southwards being a demarcation line between Mangsebung Rural Municipality and Deumai Municipality. The west part of MRM has touched to Ward 4 of Miklajung Rural Municipality of Panchthar, Province 1. This village is rich in biodiversity as more than thirty five percent area of the village has been covered by forests and uncultivated lands. There are three community forests namely Shalghare forest (Sal forest), Khark forest and Ghorlebhir forest (Fig. 1) The former two community forests are in subtropical region and the third one is located in temperate climate region. In addition to these forests, both sides of the streams are well covered with vegetation and cardamom plantation, which has extended forest area. One of the renowned rocky slope (Ghorlebhir) of Ilam district is located in this Ward. This rocky slope has provided safe shelter to some ungulates and many interesting fauna and flora. Study of biodiversity has been one of the attractive subjects in the present global climatic scenario. Because of erratic monsoon caused by changing global climatic condition, unpredictable numbers of plants and animals have been facing life threatening environmental condition. In such a state of environmental condition, enumeration of plants and animals of any place is crucial because without understanding the position of biodiversity, it will be rather unjustified step to plan a conservation strategy for the protection of wildlife. However, priority has been given to the biodiversity study of conservation areas. The present project was carried out in outside of conservation area with an objective to enumerate fauna and flora, the natural resources of the nation and let public know the importance of biodiversity. Several contributions were made by workers to biodiversity. During exploration and survey of forest vegetation, pteridophytic flora and edible plants of Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim were observed (Mehra & Bir1964; Yoda 1967). Fragmentary studies have been made on the uses of medicinal plants by ethnic community such as Tharu and Magar in some parts of Nepal (Tayler et al. 1996a, 1996b, Bhattarai 1998). Pioneer works on butterflies of Nepal (Smith 1977, 1977, 1978 and 1981-82) highlighted butterfly species of Nepal. Similarly, works on birds, molluscs, and butterflies (Subba 1984, 1995, 1995, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2002; Subba & Sharma 1996) have been informative reports for faunal diversity of different localities of Nepal. A survey of traditional medicine, medicinal plants and biodiversity conservation (Bhattarai et al.1998) in Nepalese context highlighted Nepalese medicinal plants. Under the planning of WWF Nepal (Yonzon et al. 2000) biodiversity assessment and conservation task of Kangchenjunga was carried out. Biodiversity of Sikkim (Subba 2002) was the remarkable work on biodiversity of Sikkim. A survey of flowering plants(Bhutia et al. 2002; Subba 2002; Badola & Subba 2012) reached to inform 4500 floral species belonging to 1371 genera of 197 families are in Sikkim alone, in KLe India. Fragmentary reports on molluscs and birds from different places of Nepal (Subba 2003, 2005; Subba & Pandey 2005; Subba & Ghosh 2008). Conservation of biodiversity (Gurung 2006) has to be considered on the basis stakeholders’ livelihood in Kangchenjunga Landscapes. Contributions to Nepal ichthyofauna of the Himalayan water (Shrestha 2008) could be more informative. Mammologists (Baral & Shah 2008) attempted to describe of mammals of Nepal. Length-weight relationship of Schistura rupicola (Ansumal & Subba 2009) studied from the collected fish from Deumai River and its tributaries. In the last few 135

Biodiversity in a Changing World decades, several surveys on flora of Kangchenjunga Landscapes (Chettri et al. 2009; Badola & Pradhan 2010) brought flora of KL into light. Enumeration of biodiversity in the eastern Himlayas (Chettri et al. 2010) focused on impacts of the climate change. Studies on on bats of Nepal (Acharya et al. 2010) was a successful attempt to enumerate bat species of Nepal. Collecting and reporting of amphibians from Kangchenjungha-Singalilla Complex (Rai 2011). Similarly, mammals of Nepal appeared in a checklist (Thapa 2011). Kangchenjunga Landscape (Chaudhary et al. 2016) studied from conservation and development perspectives. Historical exploration of plants in Nepal (Rajbhandari et al. 2016) was an outstanding work for Nepal. Fish diversity of Deumai River (Limbu et al. 2016) was surveyed. A thorough survey of fish fauna of Morang district (Subba et al. 2017) enumerated 118 fish species. A project report on studies on biodiversity conservation and public awareness (Subba 2019). A need of plant diversity survey of Kangchenjunga Landscape (Kandel et al. 2019) was fulfilled. On the way to study of plant diversity of different places, botanists made different types of attempts so as to collect varieties of information about plant diversity. Exploration of floristic composition and uses of ethnomedicinal plant species (Pala et al. 2019) recorded many valuable medicinal plant species in Eastern Himayayas. Enumeration of fauna of Tapli Rural Municipality and Udapur (Subba & Pokharel 2020) was a pioneer work on biodiversity of that place.

Materials and methods The Ward 1, situated between (26º53'28" to 26º56'05" N latitudes and 087º46'49" to 46º57'28"E) longitudes belongs to Mangsebung Rural Municipality Province 1. This ward covers 21.6 Km2 and its elevation ranges from 488 m to 1865 m from the sea level. This ward is situated 45 km far from the headquarter of Ilam district. East -West (Ilam Rabi) highway passes through this Ward. A through preliminary survey of the proposed area was carried out before commencing the routine work. Most of the important spots to be visited for the observations and collection both fauna and flora were identified and located on the basis of richness of flora and fauna. All necessary chemicals, equipments and literature, questionnaires were made ready on the basis of objectives. GPS of each spot visited for recording fauna and flora was recorded. Local people were consulted whenever their assistance was felt necessary for clarification of anything. Moreover, previous information about fauna and flora if they were not noticed during study time, were collected from local aged persons. Unidentified plants and animal species detected and photographed at the spots were taken to the Departments of Zoology and Botany, Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar for identification and confirmation with the standard literature and herbariums. In the case of nocturnal animal species, it was rather difficult to make observation of them, but regarding large animal species, information was gathered from local people. Maximum collection of plants and animals from both land and water was made so as to make detailed information about biodiversity of the proposed place. Random survey method was implemented in the study and nomenclature of the identified species followed (Hora et al. 1978, 1982; Hora & Williams 1979).

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Results The survey recorded 310 flora species belonging to 78 families, from the lowest point (488m) to the highest point (1585m) from the sea level. The richest family having 24 flora species was Leguminoceae. In the second third, fourth and fifth position, on the basis of their representatives were Gramineae (15), Gramineae (14), Solanaceae, Rutaceae and Euphorbiaceae (9) Moraceae and Rosaceae ( 8), Polygonaceae,Cruciferae and Cucurbitaceae (8). Similarly, rest families such as Araceae, Diascoraceae and Combrataceae have 4 representatives for each. Likewise, Aspidaceae, Musaceae, Menispermaceae, Verbenaceae, Umbelliferae and Ulnaceae each has 3 representatives, all the rest families have two and 1 representatives. Among 310 floral species tree (38.06%) shrub (21.06%) herb (29.67%) and climber (10.645%) were identified rest were fern and mushroom. Among trees Shorea robusta, Schima wallichii, Terminalia chebula, Michelia champaca, Ulnus nepalensis etc. are timber. Among fodders plants, Bauhinia variegata, Celtis australis, Ficus hispida, Saurauria napanlesis. Bridelia retusa, Ficus neriifolia, Ficus religiosa, Ficus bernghalensis, Ficus laco r etc.are a few. Among medicinal plants Psidium guava, Phyllanthus emblica, Drymaria diandra, Justicia adhatoda,, Zingiber officinalie. Amomum subulatum, Calotropic gigantea, Punica granatum, Ageratum conyzoideao, Citrullus colosynthis, Myrica esculenta, Citrus aurantifolia Mucuuna nigricans, Acacia catechu, Cannabic sativa, Jasminum arborescens, Oxalis, carniculata,Swerta angustifolia, Cissus repens, 'Alastonia scholaris, Oroxylum indicum, Ocimum americanum, Artemisia vulgaris, Tamarindus indica, Sesamum orientale, Brassica rapa, Cynodon dactyum, Datura stramonium , Xanthoxylum armatum, Curcuna angustofolia, Acorus calamus, Aegle marmeios, Terminalia bellirica, Solamum tovum, Trigonella foenumgraecum, Elaeacarpus sphaericus etc.are popular. Regarding fauna mammals (17 spp.) birds (100 spp.), reptiles (10 spp.), Amphibians (3 spp.), fish (22 spp.) Butterflies (40 spp.) (Table 2, 3, 4,5 & 6) were recorded during survey.17 species of mammal belonging to 17 genera, under 13 families and 8 orders were recorded. Likewise,100 species of bird belonging to 36 genera spread over 36 families species.(Table1&2) Besides animals recorded shown in the (Tables 1 to 6), several arthropods ants, crabs, scorpions, mantis, grasshoppers, earwigs, beetles, wasps, bees, hornets, Cicada, worms and leech, and land snails were collected. Table 1. Floral species of Ward No.1, Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam, Province,1 Family Scientific names Alangiaceae Allanpium Chinese (Lour)Hame Myrtaceae Psidium guajava. L. Graminae Thysanolaena maxima (Ro xb.) Melastomaceae Osbekia stellata Buch.Ham.ex D.con. Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L Salanaceae Capcicum frutescens L.var.cerasiforme Bailey Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Caryophylaceae Drymaria diandra Blume Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. 137

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Leguminoceae Leguminoceae Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Punicaceae Punicaceae Punica granatum L. Graminae Heteropogon contortus L. Zingibereceae Zingiber officinalie Rosc. Zingibereceae Amomum subulatum (Roxb.) Leguminoceae Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Ericaceae Lyonia ovalifolia(Wall.)Drube Convolvulaceae Cuscuta reflexa (Roxb.) Rosaceae Prunus cornuta(Wall.ex Royle)Stend. Rosaceae Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae Punus communis Huds Primulaceae Anagalis arvensis L. Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantean L. Thymelaeaceae Edgeworthia gardener (Wall.) Meisn Anacardiaceae Magnifera indica L. Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria agallocha (Roxb) Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum L. Convolvulaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Rosaceae Prunus domestica L. Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. Linaceae Lunum usitatissimum L. Sterculiaceae Sterculia villosa (Roxb.) Iridaceae Irichilia connaroides Sterculiaceae Sterculia villosa Roxb.ex DC)Walp Punicaceae Punica granatum L. Utricaceae Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Lamiaceae Thymus linearis Benth. Vitaceae Vitis vinifera L. Cucurbitaceae Sechium edule (Jacq.)Sw. Compositae Ageratum conyzoides L. Urticaceae Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. Cucurbitaceae Trichosanthes wallichiana (Scringe)Wight Aspidiaceae Dryopteris cichleata (D.Don)C Chr. Graminae Saccharum officinale L. Alnus nepalensis D.Don Rubiaceae Rubus ellipticus Smith Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe falcta (L.f.)Etting Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Rubiaceae Adina cordifolia(Willd.exRoxb.)Benth.Hook.f.ex. Brandis Fagaceae FFF Quercus sp

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Myricaceae Myrica esculenta Buch-Ham.ex D.Con Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L . Graminae Setaria ifalica L. Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia Chirst Euphorbiaceae Bischofia javanica Blume Compositae Eupotorium adenophorum Spreng. Auricularaceae Auricularia auricula (Hook.) Underwood Leguminoceae Vigna mungo L. Apocycynaceae Nerium indicum Miller Rubiaceae Adina cordifolia (Willd.exRoxb.) Benth.& Hook. f. ex Brandis Myrsinaceae Mersine semiserrata Wall. Cucurbitaceae Momordica salsaninis L. Leguminoceae Pisum sativum L . Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativum L. Moraceae Ficus lacor Buch-Ham. Liliaceae Asparagus officinalis L.var.altilis L . Leguminoceae Bauhinia variegate L. Leguminoceae Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud. Moraceae Morus nigra L. Gramineae Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae Setaria italic (L.)P.Beauv. Leguminoceae Acacia catechu DC Moraceae Ficus semicordata Buch.Ham.ex.D.Con Almaceae Celtis qustrlis L . Moraceae Ficus hispida L . Gramineae Arundinella nepalensis Trin. Liliaceae Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Sapium insigne (Royle) FFabaceae Microtyloma uniflorum Lam. Compositae Artemisia indica Wild. Actinidiaceae Saurauria napaulensis DC Euphorbiaceae Bridelia retusa L Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Menispermaceae Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Diascoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L. Pinaceae Pinus wallichiana A.B. Ericaceae Rhododendron arboretum Smith Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus paruifolia Wall.ex Royal Rosaceae Rosa alba L. Verbenaceae Premma integrifolia L. Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L Rosaceae Pyracantha crenulata (D.Don)

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Passifloraceae Passiflora caerulea L. Diascoreaceae Dioscorea alata L. Labiatae Leucosceptrum canum Sm. Theaceae Camelia sinensis L. Oleaceae Jasminum arborescens Roxb. Cruciferae Lepidium sativum L. Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Sapotaceae Aesandra butyracea (Roxb.) Verbenaceae Clerodendrum indicum L. . Oleaceae Jasminum officinale L Theaceae Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth Gentanaceae Swertia angustifolia Buch.D.Don Berberidaceae Berberis asiatica Roxb. Leguminoceae Cicer arietinum L. Urticaceae Gonostegia hisrta (Blume) Miq. Cucurbitaceae Trichosanthes anguina L. Gentanaceae Swerita multicaulis Buch.Ham.ex.D.Con Graminae Digitalia ciliaris Retz. Graminae Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & am. ex Munro Chenopodiaceae Beta vulgaris L. Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Vitaceae Cissus repens Lam. Ulmaceae Ulmus chumlia Melville & Heybrook Acanthaceae Phlogacanthus thyr siflorus (Roxb.) Plagiogyriaceae Alastonia scholaris R.Br. Cyatheaceae Cyathea spinulosa Wall.ex Hook. Agaricaceae Agaricus campestris L. Cyperaceae Cyperus attemifolius L. Berberidaceae Mahonia nepaulensis (DC.) Geraniaceae Pelargonium capitatum L. Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini L. Phytaraceae Phytolacca acinosa (Roxb) Rutaceae Cirtus limon(L.)Brum.f. Rutaceae Citrus junos Tanaka Permeliaceae Parmelia nepalensis (Jhayu) Rutaceae Citrus sp. Tayl.jhayau-NEHHPA/HOME Poaceae Sorghum vulgare Moench Solanaceae Capsicum microcarpum (DC.) Musaceae Musa sp Pentaphylacaceae Eurya acuminate (DC.) Dilleniaceae Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Leguminoceae Bauhinia purpurea L.

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Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Lamiaceae Tectona grandis L.f. Rutaceae Xanthoxylum armataus DC. Polygonaceae Aconogonum molle D. Don Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. Fagaceae Castanopsis indica (Roxb.) Miq. Labiatae Ocimum americanum L. Compositae Artemisia indica Wild Leguminosae Tamarindus indica L. Balsaminaceae Impatiens scalrbrida L.DC. Phalangeridae Sesamum orientale L. Polygonaceae Fagopyrum dibotrys(D.Don)hara Cruciferae Brassica rapa L. Anacardiaceae Garuga pinnata Roxb. Moraceae Ficus neriifolia SM. Utricaceae Debregeasia salicifolia(D.Don) Graminae Cynodon dactylon L. Leguminosae Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) Kuntza Amoranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Gramineae Oryza sativa L. Umbelliferae Coriandrum satium L. Lythroceae Woodfordia fructicosa L.Kurz Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Labiatae Colebrookia opositifolia SM. Umbelliferae Erynagium foetidum L. Cupressaceae Juniperus recurva Buch.Ham.ex.D.Con Rosaceae Pyrus communis L. Graminae Drepanostachyum intermedium (Munro) Keng f. Aspidaceae Dryopteris cochleata D.Don Moraceae Ficus caraca L. Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis L. Oleaceae Nictanthes abor-tristis L. Leguminoceae Mucuna macroscarpa Wall. . Combretaceae Terminalia myriocarpa Heurck&Muell-Agr Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa L. Leguminosae Albizia julibrissin Durazz. . Moraceae Ficus religiosa L Piperace Piper longum L. Labiatae Mentha arvensis L. Fagaceae Castonopsis hystrix Miq. Rosaceae Prunus cerasoides D. Don

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Polygonaceae Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Leguminoceae Erythrina stricta Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. Verbenaceae Duranta ripens L. Sapindaceae Acer oblongum Wall Compositae Guizotia abyssinica L.F. Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Musaceae Musa supeba Roxb. Compositae Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. Rutaceae Xanthoxylum armatum DC. Zingiberaceae Curcuna angustofolia Roxb. Moraceae Artocarpus lakoochaWall Graminae Paspalum distichum L. Malvaceae Kydia calycina Roxb. Graminae Eulaliopsis binata(Retz.)C.E.Hubbad Rubiaceae Hymenopogon parasiticus Wall Leguminoceae Mimosa pudica L. Araceae Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.Schott) Araceae Acorus calamus L. Moraceae Artocarpus lakoocha Wall Rutaceae Aegle marmelos L. Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica(Gaertn.)Roxb. Zingiberaceae Costus speciousus SM. Myrcinaceae Maesa chisia Bhuch.-Ham.ex D.Don Solanaceae Solanum torvum Swartz Meliaceae Melia azederach L. Leguminoceae Mucuna prurleus (L.) DC. Rutaceae Citrus medica L. Diascoriaceae Dioscoria bulbifera L. Rhamnaceae Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Labiatae Ocimumbasilicum L. Euphorbiaceae Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd. Leguminoceae Vigna unguiculata L. Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Cucurbitaceae Momordica balsamina L. Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Leguminoceae Vicia faba L. Leguminoceae Bauhinia vahliiWight & Am. Rutaceae Citrus maxima (Burm.) Myrcinaceae Maesa macrophylla (Wall.) A. DC. Loganiaceae Budleja asiatica Lour Diascoriaceae Dioscoria deltoidea Wall.

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Rubiaceae Leptodermis lamceolata Wall Betulacae Betula utilis D.Don Graminae Zea maya L. Leguminoceae Vigna umbellate (Thumb.)Ohw.&Ohashi Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Bignonaceae Begonia rubella Buch. -Ham.xe.D.Don Rubiaceae Rubia manjith Roxb. Euphorbiaceae Macaranga indica Wight Poaceae Ischaenun rugosum (Grass) Gramineae Dendrocalamus strictus Roxb. Cruciferae Raphanus sativus L . Asteraceae Mikania micrantha Fagaceae Castonopsis tribuloides(Sm.)A.DC. Rosaceae Docynia indica(Wall.)Decne Juglandaceae Engelhardtia spicata Lsch. Leguminoceae Trigonella foenumgraecum L. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sp. Cruciferae Brassica juncea (Thunb.) Sapindoideae Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Leguminoceae Albizia julibrissin Durazz Elaeocarpaceae Elacecarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K.Schum. Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendt. Chenopodiaceae Solanaceae Orchidaceae Pleione praecox (SM.) Don Amaryolidaceae Allium sativum L. Malvacae Malva verticillata L. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia pucherrima Wild. Lythraceae Duabanga grandiflora (Roxb.ex DC) Wall. Leguminoceae Abrus precatorius L. Verbenaceace Lantana camera L. Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. Betulaceae Betula alnoides Buch Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta Gaertn. Cruciferae Brassica rapa L. Pinnaceae Pinus roxburghii Sergeant Moraceae Ficus benjamina L. Moringaceae Moringa oliefera Lam. Compositae Tagetes erecta L. Combretaceae Terminalia alata Heyne ex. Roth. Tiliaceae Corchorus capsularis L. Leguminoceae Desmodium oojeinerese (Roxb.) Ohashi

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Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Graminae Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. Graminae Echinochloa colona Bixaceae Bixa orelana L. Bixaceae Boxa orelana L. Convolvulace Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Leguminosae Dalbergialtifolia (Roxb. Gramineae Echinocloa crus-galli (L.) Beauvois Bombacaceae Bombax ceiva L. Rutacaeae Murraya panicutata L. Cruciferae Rorippa nasturtium- aquaticum (L.) Hayok. Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. Rutaceae Citrus aurantium L. Palmaceae Areca catechu L. Papaveraceae Argemone maxicana L. Orchidaceae Orchid Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta (Cassava)Crantz. Betulacae Betula alnoides Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacun L. Leguminoceae Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Cruciferae Brassica campestris L. Araceae Arisaema tortuosum (Wall) Graminae Echinocloa colona L. Euphorbiaceae Jantropha curcas L. Bombaceae Bombax ceiba L. Rutaceae Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgaw. Loranthaceae Viscum album L. Zingiberaceae Curcuma angustofolia Roxb. Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retzz. Anacardiaceae Lannae coromandelica (Hautt.) Merr. Rubiaceae Hymenopogon parasiticus Wall. Violaceae Viola sp. Caryophyllaceae Drymaria diandra Blume Compositae Sonchus arvensis L. Moraceae Ficus semicordata Oxalidaceae Oxalis latifolia Hamb Compositae Sphaeranthus indicus L. Polygonaceae Polygonum plebeium Marchantaceae Marchantia palmate Equisetaceae Equisetum debile Roxb. Polygonaceae Polygonum plebieium R.Br. Compositae Bidens pilosa L.

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Saururaceae Hottuynia cordata Thumb Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Araliaceae Hydrocotyl sibthorpipides Lam. Rosaceae Malus baccata L. Asteraceae Gnapholium polycaulon Pers. Asteraceae Spilanthus paniculata Wall.ex.DC Rosaceae Fragaria rubicola Lindl.ex Lacaita. Asteraceae Senecio ramosus Wax.ex.DC. Asteraceae Tridax procumbens L. Solanaceae Datura strumarium L. Scrophulariaceae Lindenbergia grandiflora (Buch. - Han.ex D.Don Araceae Arisaema speciosum (Wall.) Mario.ex Schott Cactaceae Opuntia monacantha Haw.

Cruciferae, 6 Curbitacae, 6 Polygonaceae, 6 Moraceae, 8 Solanaceae, 9 Rutaceae, 9 Euphorbiaceae, 9 Compositae, 14 Rest Gramineae, 15 families, 196 Leguminoceae, 24

Figure 1. The dominant 11 families of plant species showing their representatives in number and the rest 67 families having 1 or 2 representatives

Mammals Table 2. Mamals of Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam, Province 1. Order Family Common Name Scientific name Local name Category Least Carnivora Viverridae Small Indian Civet, Viverricula indica* Nirbiralo concern Carnivora Mustelidae Common Otter Lutra lutra* Ot Rare Gangata Carnivora Herpestidae Crab- eating Mongoose Herpestes urva Venerable Khanne Ot Least Carnivora Mustelidae Yellow-throated Marten Martes flavigula* Malsapro concern Least Carnivora Felidae Jungle cat Felis chaus Ban Biralo concern Artiodactyla Suidae Wild Boar, Sus scrofa* Banel Common Artiodactyla Carividae Barking Deer, Muntiacus muntjak Ratte mirgha Vunurable 145

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Near Artiodactyla Bovidae Himalayan Goral , Nemarhaedus goral* Ghoral threatened House Shrew, Insectivora Sorcidae Suncus marcinus Chhuchudra Common Chhuchundra, Carnivora Canidae Golden jackal, Canis aureus Syal Primates Carcopithecidae Hanuman langur Semnopithecus entellus Dhedu Common Primates Carcopithecidae Rhesus Monkey Macaca mulatta Bandar Common Pholidata Manidae Indian Pangolin Manis pentadactyla* Salak Endangered Lagomorpha Leporidae Rufous- tailed hair Lepus margi cellis* Kharayo Common Rodentia Muridae House rat Mus musculus Musa Common Roof rat/ common House Chhanama Rodentia Muridae Rattus rattus Common rat, basne musa Rodentia Muridae Short- tailed Bandiscot rat Nesokia indica* Ban musa Common Rodentia Muridae Khar musa Baudicota indica Common N.B.: For categorization, INUC Red List Category(Red data Book 2001) and the IUCN red list of threatened species(2015) were followed.

Birds Table 3. List of birds of Ward 1, Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam, Province 1.

Family Common Name Scientific Name Ardeidae Cattle Egret Bulbulcus ibis Accitipridae Black Eagle Latinaetus malayensis

Accitipridae Black -crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes Accitipridae Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornic cheela Accitipridae Black Vulture Torgos calvus Accitipridae White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis Accitipridae Indian Griffon Gyps indicus Phasianidae Jungle Fowl Gallus gallus

Phasianidae Kali Pheasant Lophura leucomelana Phasianidae Common Bustard- quail Turnix suscitator Columbidae Rock Pigeon Columba livia Columbidae Rufous Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis Columbidae Spotted Dove streptopelia chinensis Columbidae Emerald Pigeon Chalcophaps indica Columbidae Imperial Pigeon Ducula badia Columbidae Wedge- tailed Green Pigeon Treron sphenura Psittacidae Rose- ringed Parakeet Psittacula Krameri Psittacidae Rose- breasted Parakeet Psittacula alexandri Cuculidae Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus Cuculidae Eurasian Cuckoo Cuculus caronus Cuculidae Koel Cuckoo Eudynamys scolopacea Megalainidae Large Green - billed Malkoha Rhopodytes tristis 146

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Megalainidae Great Himalayan Barbet Megalaima virens Megalainidae Blue throated Barbet Megalaima asiatica Megalainidae Crimson- breasted Barbet Megalaima haemacephala Picidae Small Yellow napped Wood pecker Picus chlorolophus Picidae Three- toed Golden- backed Dinopium shorii Woodpecker Picidae Brown- crowned Pigmy Woodpecker Dendrocapos nanus Picidae Large Yellow-napped Woodpecker Picus flavinucha Hirundinidae Brown Swallow Hirundo rustica Hirundinidae Straiated Swallow Hirundo daurica Lanidae Rufous -backed Shrike Lanius schach Orilidae Black- headed Oriole Oriolue xanthornus Orilidae Black- napped Oriole Oriolus chinensis Orilidae Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Dicruridae Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentotus Dicruridae Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimillis Srurnidae Common Myna Achridocheres tristis Srurnidae Gray- headed Myna Sturnus malabaricus Corvidae Green Magpie Cissa chinensis Corvidae Eurasian Jay Garrulus glandaricus Corvidae Grey Treepie Dendrocittaa formosae Corvidae Red- billed Blue Magpic Cissa erythrorhyncha Corvidae House Crow Corvus splendens Corvidae Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos Teprodornithidae Large Wood Shrike Tephrodornis gularis Teprodornithidae Pied Wood Shrike Hemipus picatus Campephasidae Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus Campephasidae Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamoemus Campephasidae Large cuckoo- Shrike Coracina novachollandiae Capephasidae Dark Cuckoo Shrike Coracina melaschistos Pycnonotidae Red- vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater Pycnonotidae White -cheeked Bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys Pycnonotidae Ashy Bulbul Hemixos flavala Pycnonotidae Gray Bulbul Hypsioetes madaqascariensis Pycnonotidae Black headed Yellow Bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus Muscicapidae Yellow bellied Fantail Flycatcher Rhipidura hypoxabtha Muscicapidae Orange gorgetted Flycatcher Muscicapa strophiata Muscicapidae Verditer Flycatcher Muscicapa thalassina Muscicapidae Slaty Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa leucomelanura Muscicapidae Red- breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa parva Muscicapidae Gray- headed Canary Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonesis Muscicapidae Timalidae Sliver-eared Mesia Leiothrix argentauris Timalidae Jungle Babbler Jurdoides striatus Timalidae Red- tailed Minla Minla ignotincta Timalidae Spiny Babbler Turdoides nipalensis Timalidae Streaked Laughing Thrush Garrulax lineatus

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Timalidae Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus schisticeps Sylviidae Large- crowned Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis Sylviidae Yellow- bellied Warbler Phylloscopus affinis Sylviidae Dusty Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus Sylviidae Crown Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus reguloiges Sylviidae Tickell's Leaf Warbler Abroscopus supercilliaris Cisticolidae Hodgson's Priria Prinia hodgsonii Sylviidae Tailor Bird orthotomus sutrius Turdidae White- crested Laughing Thrush Garrulax leucolophus Turdidae Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis Turdidae Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata Turdidae Black- throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis Turdidae WhistlingThrush Myiophoneus caeruleus Turdidae Eurasian Black Bird Turdus merula Paridae Yellow –cheeked Ttit Parus xanthogenys Paridae Great Tit Parus major Sittidae Chestnut- bellied Nuthatch Sitta castanea Sittidae Velvet fronted Nuthatch Sita frontallis Motacillidae Paddyfield Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae Motacillidae Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava Motacillidae Pied wagtail Motacilla alba Dicacidae Yellow- vented Flower Pecker Dicaeum melsnozanthur Zosteropidae OrientalWhite Eye Zosterops palpebrosa Nectariniidae Scarlet-breasted Sunbird Alhopyga siparaja Passeridae House Sparrow Passer domesticus Estrildidae Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata Placidae Baya Weaver Ploeus philippinus Chloropscidae Orange -bellied Leafbird Chloropsis hardwickil Turdidae Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros Sturnidae Talking Myna Gracula religiosa Bucerotidae Great Hornbill Brucerosrbicornis Charadriidae Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus Tyronidae Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo

Reptiles Table 4. Reptiles of Mangsebung Rural Municipality Ilam, Province, 1.

Order Family Common name Local name Scientific name Category Sauria Angamidae Garden lizard Chheparo Calotes versicolour Common Sauria Scincidae Skink Bhalemungro Eutropis carinata Common Sauria Varanidae Bengal monitor Goharo Varanus bengalensis Least concern Sauria Varanidae Yellow monitor Sun gohoro Varanus flavescens Endangered Sauria Gekkonidae House Gecko Mausuli Cosymbotus sp. Rare Sauria Viperidae Mountain pit viper Gurbe Ovophis monticola Common Sauria Colubridae Common cat snake Boiga trigonata Least concern Sauria Colubridae Common green whipsnake Hariyo chabuke sap Ahaetulla nasuta* Common

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Common bronze back tree Sauria Colubridae Sirrise Dendrelaphis tristis Common snake Sauria Colubridae Red-necked keelback Ratoo kante daline Rhabdophis subniniatus* Common N.B.: For categorization, INUC Red List Category (Red data Book 2001) and the IUCN red list of threatened species (2015) were followed.

Amphibians Table 5. Amphibians of Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam, Province No. 1 Order Family Common name Local name Scientific name Category Anura Bufonidae Black skin toad Khasre bhyaguta Duttaphrynus melanotictus Least concern Anura Ranidae Ahale bhyaguto Euphlycic cyanophlyctis Least concern Anura Ranidae Gaint tree frog Rhacophorus maximus Common N.B.: For categorization, INUC Red List Category (Red data Book 2001) and the IUCN red list of threatened species (2015) were followed

Fish diversity Table 6. Fishes of Mangsebung Rural Municipality Ward No1, Ilam, Province No.1

Order Family Common Name Local Name Scientific Name Category Anguilliformes Anguillidae Longfin fresh water Raj Bam Anguilla bengalensis Vulnerable eel Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Deep-bodied Falame Sahar Tor tor Endangered Mahaseer Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Golden Mahaseer, Sahar/Mahseer Tor putitora Endangered Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Angra Labeo Thed Labeo angra Not found Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Brahmaputra Labeo Garde Labeo dyocheilus Not found Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Copper Mahaseer Kattle, Neolissocheilus, Commom hexagonolepis Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Hamilton Barila Faketa Barilius bendelisis Common Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Stone sucker Buduna Garra gotyla gotyla Common Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Annandale garra, LahareBudunna Garra aannandalei Common Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Blunt- nosed Buche asala Schizothorax Common snowtrout richardsonii Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Spotted snowtrout Sun asala, Schizothorax Common plagiostomus* Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Devariodanio Bhitti Denio devario Common Cypriniformes Cyprinidae Assamese Kingfish Chepti Cyprinon semiplotus Common Siluriformes Sisoridae Freshwater Shark Gangetic Bagarius bagarius Common gounch Siluriformes Sisoridae Suleatus catfish Kabre Pseudecheneis sulcatus Common Siluriformes Sisoridae ……………. Kabre Glyptothorax Common Siluriformes Amblycipitidae Torrent catfish Boksi machho pectinopterus Common Amblicep mangois

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Cypriniformes Psilorhynchidae Nepalese minnow/ Tite machha Psilorynchus, Common Stone carp pseudecheneis Perciformes Channidae Snakehead Hile Machha Channa barca Common Perciformes Channidae Asiatic snakehead Garahi Channa orientalis Common

Cypriniformes Balitoridae Gadela (Godera) Schistura savona Common Bami, Schistura rupicola Common Synbranchiformes Synbranchidae Kathgainchi Macrognathus panchalus N.B.: For categorization, INUC Red List Category (Red data Book 2001) and the IUCN red list of threatened species (2015) were followed

Butterflies Table 7. List of Butterflies of Ward, 1. Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Province, 1. Family: Danaidae Phalanta phalantha Drury Danaus chryssipus Kluk 1802 Neptis Sp. Fabricius 1807 Danaus tytia Kluk 1802 Neptis hylas Linnaeus Family: Nymphanidae Cethosia biblist isamena Fabricius 1806 Precis iphita iphita Hubner 1807 Jamides celeno Hubner 1819 Cyrestis thyodamus Boisduval 1832 Zizeeria maha maha Chapman 1910 Family: Papillionidae Metaporia agathon Gray Family: Nemeobiidae Abisara fylla Felder 1860 Graphium nomius Scopoli 1777 Zemoros flegyas Boisduval 1836 Cramer Graphium sarpedon Linnaeus Family: Nymphalidae Papilio demoleus Linnaeus 1758 Papilio janake Linnaeus 1758 Aglais cashmirensis Dalman 1816 Papilio helenus helenus Linnaeus 1758 Vaness cardul Fabricius 1807 Family: Pieridae Issoria issaea Hubner 1819 Prioneris thestylis Wallace 1867 Argyreus hyperbius Linnaeus Catopsilia pomana Hubner 1819 Precis orithya Hubner 1819 Delias belladona Hubner 1819 Athyma sp. Westwood 1850 Appias lyncida Hubner 1818 Precis almanac almanac Hubner 1819 150

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Prioneris thestylis (Daoubleday,1842) Polyura arja Billberg 1820 Eurema hecabe Hubner 1819 Symbrenthia sp. Hubner 1818 Pieris brassica Schrank 1801 Family: Satyridae Lethe sp. Hubner 1819 Malanitis Fabricius 1807 leda Linnaeus Mycalesis sp. Hubner 1818 Ypthima ceylonica kashmira Hubner 1818 Orsotrioena medus Fabricus Dallacha Moore 1893 hyagriva Moore

Amphibia, 3 Reptilia, 10 Mammal, 17

Fish, 22 Birds, 100

Butterfly, 40

Figure 2. Animals recorded in the Ward 1 of Mangsebung Rural Municipality, Ilam

Discussion The ward No. 1 Mangsebung Rural Municipality is rich in vegetation and so does in fauna. There is a increasing trend of forest area due to abandoning of cultivated lands to use. Near about thirty to thirty five percent lands now have been left to be cultivated so those places are becoming full of vegetation, turning completely into forest. Because of unmanaged wildlife destruction, farmers have been suffering from heavy economic loss every year. Every year population of both faunae are hiking up in this area. In recent year exotic plant (Climber) Mikania micrantha has been a problem for local trees, shrubs and herbs. Removal of large trees of Alnus nepalensis from personal farm lands, for raiseing up economic has destroyed habitats of both plants and some bird species. As people don't have permission to keep gun for their personal safety, hunting is almost nil, so numbers of mammalian species such as barking deer, 151

Biodiversity in a Changing World porcupine, wildboar, monkey, squirrels, wild cat, and mongoose has increased remarkably and they have become unwanted guests for farmers. Increased population of some bird species Galluus gallus, Lophura leucomelanaos etc. also have been troublesome for farmers. Because of dam construction in Kankai River, migratory fish species which used to visit Deumai River have become rare. Protection and conservation of biodiversity of any place is paramount important in order to keep ecosystem in balance state, which, in turn, will pay back humans heavily .Public awareness is the only effective measure for making stakeholders conscious about wildlife so it is recommended.

Conclusion In respect of plants, within two climatic ranges, plants available in low as well as high altitudes were recorded. They are Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Bombax ceiba etc. are of low altitude trees. The research reached with the following important findings. The first important work was enumeration of flora and fauna of Ward 1, Mansebung Rural Municipality, Province No.1.which is the most valued step in the planning of local government for the protection and conservation of natural resources. It has enumerated 310 floral species belonging 78 families,17 mammalian species ,100 bird species,10 reptilian species,3 amphibian species,22 fish species, 40 butterfly species and some not tabulated mollusks, arthropods ,annelids .Among vertebrates recorded, mammals: Lutra lutra, Herpestes urva, Mrates flavigula, Nemarhaedus goral, Manis pentadactyla are threatened species.Similarly ,in case of bird species Buceros bicornis, Gracula religiosa ,Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus fall in the category of threatened species so do some reptiles such as Varanus flavescens, Varanus bengalensis. Research area comprises Schima walichii, Michelia champaca, Pinus roxburghii, Betula alnoides, Termalia alata, Ulnus nepalensis, Pinus wallichiana, Juglans regia etc.

Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Mangsebung Rural Municipality for financial assistance. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Bhakta Raj Subba, the President of Ward No 1. for his encouraging support to carry out the project. I would like to sincerely thank Mr. Tank Raj Limbu who assisted me in the field work throughout the project duration. Last but not least, many, many thanks are due to lovely local people who never felt discomfort to answer the questions asked and to extend their helping hands whenever there was necessary.

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Feeding ecology of red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Sindin, Panchthar, eastern Nepal

Kamala Rai* and Tej Bahadur Thapa

Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The diet choices of species are influenced by the availability of resources. We identified plant species consumed by the red panda (Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825), in Panchthar, Eastern Nepal to assess the diet composition, niche breadth and food preferences. In 2018, using altitudinal line intercepts and quadrate methods where fecal matters and reference plants were sampled. Micro-histological technique was used to prepare micro-photographs of reference food plants and fecal matters. Diet composition was expressed in percentage of occurrence, Levin’s niche breadth was used to understand feeding strategy and availability and use of different plants were compared to determine the food preference. We identified 10 plant species belonging to seven families in the scats collected during summer season. Two species of bamboos namely Arundinaria maling (49.33%) and Arundinaria aristata (39.83%) were the main diets followed by Sorbus cuspidata (2.17%), Schefflera impressa (0.33%), Acer caudatum (0.67%), Vitex heterophylla (0.5%), Litsea salicifolia (0.33%), Litsea khasyana (0.17%), Rhododendron spp. (0.5%) and Rubus spp. (0.84%). Niche breadth of red panda was found to be 0.0706, indicating high selectiveness in forage. Among the seven consumed trees, Sorbus cuspidata and Acer caudatum were the most preferred ones. Among two shrubs, Arundinaria maling was highly consumed whose availability frequency in the area was 59.15% and contribution in diet was 55.24%. Similar studies should be conducted to explore the species’ diet composition and preference on the basis of nutritional composition and their niche overlap as well as degree of competition with other species. Keywords: Bamboos, Diet composition, Food preference, Micro-histology, Niche breadth

Introduction Morphologically, red panda (Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825), averages 100 cm in length with its body being about 60 cm and tail about 40 cm long with alternating dark and light reddish rings (Williams 2004). In general adult red panda weighs 4 to 5 kg (Yonzon 1989, Roberts 2001). Predominantly the Panda has a white face, with reddish brown "tear" marks extending from the inferior region of the orbit to the corner of the mouth, post-cranial dorsal pelage reddish-or orange-brown and ventral pelage glossy black, limbs are black more or less equal in size and soles of its feet are covered in a dense mat of wool (Roberts & Gittleman 1984). It consists of enlarged ‘false-thumb’ which contributes in gripping actions especially it is used to grasp food items (Anton et al. 2006). There is no sexual 155 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World dimorphism in body size as well as in coat color (Roberts 1981). The average life span of Panda is about 8-10 years in wild (Johnson et al. 1988, Yonzon & Hunter 1991b, Pradhan et al. 2001b). It is solitary, except for a brief mating period and the time when a mother and its young are together (Yonzon 1989). It is commonly called as Pudhe Kudo by Rai community and Habre in Nepali. Taxonomically the species belongs to the order Carnivora and family Ailuridae (Glatston et al. 2017). Family Ailuridae consists of two subspecies, Ailurus fulgens fulgens and Ailurus fulgens styani (Chakraborty 1999, Wei et al. 1999). The animal is a monotypic species; the family, Ailuridae, has only one genus, Ailurus (Roberts & Gittleman, 1984). Red panda is an indicator and unique species with specialized food habits; herbivorous diet being a member of Carnivora (Williams 2004). Due to its specialized habitat and feeding behavior the species has been placed in the center of interest in conservation field (Glatston 1994, Wei et al. 1999a). Panda has been physiologically adapted to lowering the metabolic rate to cope with low nutrients, reducing energy expenditure for maintenance and reproduction and this evolutionary strategy results in a long gestation period, low fecundity and slow postnatal growth which place constraints on rapid propagation of its population (McNab 1989). Red panda is a habitat specialist species preferring subtropical, temperate, sub alpine and alpine forest at elevations from 1500 to 4800 m (Yonzon & Hunter 1991a, Pradhan et al. 2001a, Sharma & Belant 2009). Globally, it is known to be occurred throughout the narrower Himalayan range of Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar, and southern China, with a distinct population on the Meghalaya Plateau of northeastern India (Choudhury 2001). On the basis of the habitat suitability index, Nepal is home to approximately 1.9% of the estimated global population of the red panda (Bista & Poudel 2013). The estimated global population of the red panda is about 16,000-20,000 within the potential habitat of 142,000 sq. km in five countries (Choudhury 2001). In Nepal, Yonzon (1989) estimated a total of 73 individuals in LNP. Recently, 317-582 individuals have been estimated across Nepal (DNPWC 2011). Jnawali et al. (2012) suspected 237 to 1,061 individuals of Panda in Nepal. In the recent days, major threats facing by the red panda include habitat loss, poaching, inbreeding depression, parasitic infection, etc. (Choudhury 2001, Bista & Poudel 2013). Knowing the ecological significance of the species and to minimize the threats, red panda is protected throughout its distribution range and is listed in Appendix I of the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) since 1996 (Wei et al. 1999, Choudhury 2001, Pradhan et al. 2001a). The global conservation status of red panda is endangered with its declining population (IUCN 2015). It is legally protected by the Government of Nepal under section 10 of the NPWC Act 1973 (DNPWC 2011). Feeding ecology of wildlife may be variable with season, surrounding ecology, population status (Korschgen 1962) as well as body size and internal physiology of organism may also determine the quality and quantity of their diet. The diet that animal selects on pastures and rangelands generally differ from that which the animal would chooses in condition of complete freedom of choice (Dumont 1997). Preferred diets are the one which are exerted by animal when no constraints bear on their choice (Hodgson 1979), the situation which rarely occurs naturally at pasture. Selection is a function of preference, but it is obviously affected by the abundance and spatial distribution of preferred food plants and also by animals’ foraging abilities; to sort one food from the others, to digest the consumed 156

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 food properly, to walk long distances and to learn and remember the location of food patches (Dumont 1997). Preferences can be calculated in two ways: i) as the proportion of the total intake derived from each sward type; or ii) as the proportion of grazing time spent feeding on each patch (Dumont 1997). Identification of materials ingested by wild animals is a major problem in research of feeding habit of wildlife. Both direct observation and micro-histological techniques have been used for diverse species (Baumgartner & Martin 1939). Fecal analysis, the indirect technique through micro-histological process has been the most widely used method for identification of undigested epidermal fragments in the fecal samples of herbivores (Baumgartner 1939, Dusi 1949). In this technique, field work can be performed easily as sampling requires little equipment and does not require direct contact with the animal, although laboratory work is very tedious and time consuming. Knowledge on the resource use, especially the diet is very important to understand the species ecology, evolution and inter-specific competition (Hobbs et al. 1983). Feeding ecology of mammals is in the center of interest of population biology and ecology (Green 1987) as food plays an important role in species survival, growth and reproduction (Pekins et al. 1998). The knowledge plays a key role for the effective management as well as protection of wildlife species (Holechek et al. 1982, Mofareh et al. 1997), especially for endangered species (IUCN 2015) like red panda. Therefore, we aimed to determine the diet composition and food preference of red panda in Panchthar, eastern Nepal through Micro-histological technique.

Figure 1. Potential habitat of red panda in Nepal (Source: RPN Nepal, 2016)

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Figure 2. Map showing study areas in Panchthar district, Nepal

Materials and methods Study area The study was conducted in Sidin (2200m-3400 m) area of Falelung Rural-Municipality, Panchthar district (26 ̊ 53 ̍ - 27 ̊ 29 ̍ N, 87 ̊ 32 ̍ - 88 ̊ 02 ̍ E), Eastern Nepal (Figure 3). The district consists of 5,565 hector forests and 20,320 hectors is used as farmland (MoFALD/GoVN, 2018). The Panchthar- Ilam-Taplejung (PIT) corridor has been considered as an important habitat for the red panda as it contains 178 sq. km or 20% of total potential red panda habitat of Nepal, which support approximately 25% of Nepal’s red panda population, with an estimated 100 individuals (Williams 2004, Williams 2006, Williams et al. 2011). The northern portion of the PIT corridor consists of approximately 66.8 sq. km of red panda habitat area with an estimated Panda population of 28 individuals, based on a crude relative density of one individual per 2.42 sq. km.

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Figure 3. Average monthly rainfall (2013-2017) at Phidim, Panchthar, Nepal. (Data source: DHM/GovN)

Figure 4 Average monthly maximum and minimum temperature (2013-2017) at Phidim, Panchthar, Nepal (Data source: DHM/GovN).

Figure 5. Average monthly relative humidity of morning and evening (2013-2017) at Phidim, Panchthar, Nepal (Data source: DHM/GovN).

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Data collection A preliminary field survey was carried out during January, 2018 to identify the sampling sites. The survey was done by general observation of the potential habitat using existing trails. Additional informations about the habitat were collected from the secondary sources, semi structured questionnaires and informal interviews with local villagers, herders and hotel staff near the study area. Altitudinal line intercept method (Sutherland 1996) followed by Williams (2004) was used to collect fecal signs and reference plants between May and June, 2018. The survey was done between the altitudes of 2,900 m to 3,100 m, where each transect was of 200 m width. Within each transect random sampling method was used to collect different parameters. Quadrates sized 10m × 10m for tree (plants above 3m height and 5cm DBH), 4m × 4m for shrub (woody plants below 3m in height), and 1m × 1m for herbs (plants up to 1m in height) were plotted in the areas that contained red panda’s signs (scats, foot prints, resting sites, etc.). In each plot number of trees of each species as well as frequency of shrubs and herbs were recorded. The availability of each plant species recorded within the field was converted in terms of percentage. Then it was compared with its percentage of occurrence in diet. Different parts (leaves, twigs, fruits, flowers and bark) of potential food plants were collected which were later used for the preparation of reference slides. The plant species were labeled with their Nepali name. All the collected plant materials were preserved in herbarium press and brought to the Central Department of Botany for further identification and confirmation. The plant species were identified up to species level using the book Flora of Bhutan (Grierson & Long 1983-2000). Scats of red panda were identified based on the shape, size, color and texture following Yonzon (1989)’s report as scats of the red panda are spindle shaped, soft, moist, light green colored with average diameter of 19.2 ± 2.3 mm. About 25% of each fecal sample found within the transects were collected in polythene zip lock bags and labeled with GPS location. The samples were air dried in the field to remove moisture and prevent fungal growth. All the collected materials were brought to the laboratory of Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University for further analysis.

Micro-histological analysis The micro-histological technique introduced by Baumgartner and Martin (1939) was used to determine the diet composition of the red panda. This method is based on microscopic recognition of undigested plant fragments present in fecal samples, which mainly include epidermal features of various plant groups (Metealf 1960). This method involves preparation of reference plants and fecal slides and their interpretation.

Slide preparation The method introduced by Norbury (1988) was adopted to prepare the micro-histological slides. This method had been used by Singh (2015), Kunwar et al. (2016) and Magar (2016) in Nepal. The plant samples were identified up to species level and then dried in the oven at 60 °C in the laboratory of the CDZ, TU. The dried samples were powdered separately through electric blender and the powder was 160

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 sieved in mesh of size 1 mm to 0.3 mm. The powder remained on the 0.3 mm sieve was chosen as final reference sample for slide preparation. Same procedure was followed for fecal samples. Each of 0.5 gm of powdered sample was taken in a Petri dish and bleached with 50 ml of 4% Sodium hypochlorite for 6-24 hours at room temperature to remove mesophyll tissues and to render the epidermis identifiable. The bleached contents were then rinsed with distilled water thoroughly in a sieve and then treated with few drops of staining substance-gentian violet solution for 10 seconds and again well rinsed. The stained fragments were mounted on standard microscope slides in a glycerin medium and covered with a cover slip. Both reference slides and fecal pellet slides were observed immediately after preparation at different magnifications; 4X, 10X and 100X with a compound microscope and each fragments were photographed using digital camera for microscope (DCM510; USB2.0; 5M pixel, CMOS chip) in a laptop using software- ScopeTek Scope Photo; Version: x84, 3.1.615 (http://www.scopetek.com).

Slide interpretation At first the key features of the reference plants such as; structure, shape, size and arrangement of epidermal cells, stomata, vascular vessels, trichomes, etc. were photographed through 4X, 10X and 100X microscope. Then for each fecal sample, non-overlapping and distinguishable 20 fragments were observed moving the slide from right to left in the microscope. Each fragment of the fecal sample slide was identified by comparing it with the reference plants photographs.

Data analysis The plant fragments identified in the diet were classified into four major levels: 1. Functional group (F.G): a. bamboos, b. trees, c. herbs and d. mosses; 2. Broad Category (B.C.): a. monocots and b. dicots; 3. Family; and 4. species. Diet composition Diet composition of the animal was expressed in terms of percentage of occurrence (O%) (Caavalini and Lovari, 1991). Number of occurrence of each food Percentage of occurrence(%) = × 100 Total number of fragments read Niche breadth Levin’s measure of Niche Breadth (Levins 1968) described by Krebs (1999) was used to evaluate the degree of selectivity of plant species by red panda. The measures indicate how uniformly resources are being utilized.

ퟏ The equation is; B = 풏 ퟐ ∑풊=ퟏ 풑풊

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Where, B= Levin's Measure of Niche Breadth, pi = Percentage of total samples belonging to species i (i= 1, 2..., n) n= total number of plant species in all samples. Diversity was standardized to a scale of 0.0 to 1.0 by using Hurlbert’s method (Krebs 1999). B − 1 Bs = n − 1 Where, Bs = Levins’s standardized niche breadth and n = number of possible resource states A high value of Bs indicates that the animal is generalized feeder and low value indicates that the animal is selective or specialized feeder. Availability, use and preference of food plants For the determination the food preference of red panda, availability of food plants in the study area was compared with its percentage of occurrence in diet. The availability of each food plant in each quadrate was measured in terms of percentage. Average of each food plant’s availability percentage throughout the field was determined and it was compared with its percentage of occurrence in overall diet, which occurred through laboratory work. Relative importance value Relative Importance Value (RIV) of each plant species observed in the fecal sample was calculated using the formula described by Jnawali (1995) and Thapa & Basnet (2015).

RIVx = Dx√fx Where, RIV = Relative Importance Value for species X

Dx = Mean percent of species X in fecal sample fx = Frequency of species in fecal sample

Results A total of 30 fecal samples were collected and 600 plant fragments from those were analyzed using micro-histological technique. Micro-histological photographs showing different features (epidermal cell shape, size and arrangement, stomata, vascular vessels structure, shape of hairs and trichomes, crystal types, etc.) of the reference plants were prepared and compared them with fragments in the fecal remains through micro-histological technique. Among the collected plant samples 10 species (seven trees, two herbs, one herb) belonging to seven different families were identified in feces of red panda. About 5.33 percent of the diet could not be recognized and categorized as unidentified.

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Figure 6. Map of study area (Sidin, Panchthar, Nepal) showing transects locations.

Diet composition red panda was found to be specialized feeder mainly feeding on bamboo (Table 1). Table 1. Percentage occurrence of various plant categories (F.C. = Functional category; B.C. = Broad category; Family and Species) identified in fecal pellets of red panda in Panchthar, Eastern Nepal. F.C. B.C. Family Species Fragments Read % of Occurrence Rosaceae Sorbus cuspidate 13 2.17 Araliaceae Schefflera impressa 2 0.33 Sapindaceae Acer caudatum 4 0.67

Lamiaceae Vitex heterophylla 3 0.5 Trees Dicots Litsea salicifolia 2 0.33 Lauraceae Litsea khasyana 1 0.17 Ericaceae Rhododendron spp 3 0.5 Arundinaria maling 296 49.33 Shrubs Monocots Gramineae Arundinaria aristata 239 39.83 Herbs Dicots Rosaceae Rubus sp 5 0.84 Unidentified 32 5.33 Total 600 100.0

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Through analysis, the Red panda was found to be dependent mainly on shoots, leaves and fruits of various plant species. The species found were; Arundinaria maling, Arundinaria aristata, Sorbus cuspidata, Schefflera impressa, Acer caudatum, Vitex heterophylla, Litsea khasyana, Litsea salicifolia, Rhododendron spp, Rubus sp along with few wings and appendages of unidentified arthropods.

Figure 7. Percentage Occurrence of functional plant categories identified in the pellets of red panda in Panchthar, Eastern Nepal. Shrubs of category bamboos contributed highest proportion (89.16%) of the diet of red panda followed by trees (4.67%) and herbs (0.84%). Likewise, 5.33 percent of the dietary plants could not be identified (Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Percentage of occurrence of different plant families in diet of red panda in Panchthar, Eastern Nepal.

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Among the seven families of plant consumed by red panda the Gramineae i.e. bamboos were consumed in highest proportion (89.16%) followed by Rosaceae (3.01%), Sapindaceae (0.67%), Ericaceae, Lamiaceae and Lauraceae (0.5%), Araliaceae (0.33%). While 5.33 percent of the overall diet remained unidentified. Among plant species identified in the faecal matter of red panda, two bamboo species Arundinaria maling (Malingo) (49.33) and Arundinaria aristata (Nigalo) (39.83%) contributed significantly in diet. Among the seven different tree species found in diet, Sorbus cuspidata (Tenga) was found in highest proportion (2.17%). Other tree species found were Acer caudatum (Bhale kapasi), Vitex heterophylla (Panchpate), Rhododendron spp (Laligurans), Litsea salicifolia (Pahele ghans), Litsea Khasyana (Lampate) and Schefflera impressa (Bhalu chinde). Only one herb i.e. Rubus sp. (Kande aaiselu) contributing 0.84 percent was found in the diet. Niche breadth Standardized Levin’s Measure of Niche Breadth (Bs) of food plants for the red panda was found to be 0.0706 (Table 2) indicating that red panda is a specialized feeder foraging on highly selected plant species. Table 2. Incidence in number of samples (IN), Incidence in percentage (I%) and Levin’s Measure of Niche Breadth (Bs) of different plant species identified in fecal samples (n=30) of red panda in Panchthar, Eastern Nepal.

Food plant Species IN I% Bs Arundinaria maling 29 96.67

Arundinaria aristata 27 90 Sorbus cuspidate 10 33.33

Schefflera impressa 2 6.67 0.0706 Acer caudatum 4 13.33 Vitex heterophylla 2 6.67 Litsea salicifolia 2 6.67 Litsea khasyana 1 3.33 Rhododendron spp 3 10 Rubus sp 4 13.33 Unidentified 13 43.33

Diet preference A total of seven trees, two shrubs and one herb species were recorded to be consumed by the red panda. Among the trees, Sorbus cuspidata has the highest contribution (2.17%) and lowest were Schefflera impressa and Litsea salicifolia (0.33%) in overall diet of the animal. Similarly, highly consumed

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Trees Seven trees were found to be consumed by the red panda. Comparison of the frequency of availability in the field and frequency of occurrence in diet clearly revealed that the red panda showed distinct preference in diet selection. Among the trees Sorbus cuspidate and Acer caudatum were found to be highly preferred by the red panda, while Schefflera impressa, Litsea salicifolia, Vitex heterophylla, Litsea khasyana were found to be used according to their availability in the area. Rhododendron spp were consumed in very low proportion than availability which indicates least preference of the animal towards the food plant (Table 3). Table 3. Tree species preference in diet of red panda

S.N. Species Availability in field (%) Occurrence in diet (%) Preference 1 Acer caudatum 3.94 13.13 High preference 2 Schefflera impressa 3.76 7.33 Preference 3 Rhododendron spp 70.07 11.11 Least preference 4 Litsea salicifolia 4.37 7.33 Preference 5 Vitex heterophylla 6.16 10.11 Preference 6 Sorbus cuspidate 7.10 47.22 High preference 7 Litsea khasyana 4.6 3.77 Preference Total 100.00 100.00

Shrubs Two shrub species were found to be consumed by red panda. Comparison of the frequency of availability in the field and frequency of occurrence in diet clearly revealed that the red panda showed high preference towards the both Arundinaria maling and Arundinaria aristata (Table 4). Table 4. Shrubs species preference in diet of red panda

S.N. Species Availability in field (%) Occurrence in diet (%) Preference 1 Arundinaria maling 59.15 55.24 High preference 2 Arundinaria aristata 35.33 44.57 High preference Total 100.0 100.0

Herbs Only one herb (Rubus sp.) was found to be consumed by the red panda. Contribution of the Rubus sp. in overall diet composition of the animal was found to be 0.84 percent.

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Relative importance value of species Among the various food species, highest Relative Importance Value (RIV) was found of Arundinaria maling (848.70) followed by Arundinaria aristata (615.76), Sorbus cuspidata (7.82) and Rubus sps (1.88) (Table 4.3). Other species had very low RIV in red panda’s diet. These RIV of various plant species may show the relative preference of the animal for its diet supplement. Table 5. Relative importance value (RIV) of different plant species identified in fecal samples of red panda. D= Mean percent of species in sample, F= Frequency of fragments of species in sample Food plant Species F D RIV Arundinaria maling 296 49.33 848.70 Arundinaria aristata 239 39.83 615.76 Sorbus cuspidate 13 2.17 7.82 Schefflera impressa 2 0.33 0.47 Acer caudatum 4 0.67 1.34 Vitex heterophylla 3 0.5 0.87 Litsea salicifolia 2 0.33 0.47 Litsea khasyana 1 0.17 0.17 Rhododendron spp 3 0.5 0.87 Rubus sp 5 0.84 1.88 Unidentified 32 5.33

Discussion Descriptive accounts of diet composition and dietary niche breadth of red panda have been analyzed in different protected areas of Nepal (Yonzon and Hunter, 1991a; Karki 2009, Panthi et al. 2012, Sharma et al. 2014, Thapa & Basnet 2015); however, this study shows the similar dietary patterns and consumption patterns for specific plant species in area outside of the PAs. In-spite of differences in the species of bamboo availability and consumed by red pandas across their range (Thamnocalamus sp.: Yonzon & Hunter, 1991a; Karki 2009, Sharma et al. 2014, Thapa & Basnet 2015, Sinarundinaria fagiana and Fargesia spathecea: Reid et al. 1991, Bashania faberi: Zhang et al. 2009, Arundinaria sp.: Pradhan et al. 2001b, Panthi et al. 2012), the dependency in bamboo species probably suggests their co- evolutionary association with bamboo species.

Diet composition Micro-histological analysis of fecal matter of red panda clearly revealed that Arundinaria maling contributed the significant (49.33%) portion of the diet, followed by Arundinaria aristata (39.83%). The Sorbus cuspidata, Acer caudatum, Schefflera impressa, Vitex heterophylla, Litsea salicifolia, Litsea khasyana, Rhododendron spp. and Rubus sp. provided very little portion of the diet in comparison to the Arundinaria species like elsewhere (Pradhan et al. 2001b; Sharma et al. 2014; Thapa & Basnet, 2015). 167

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Yonzon & Hunter (1991a) reported the Panda’s diet was dominated by Thamnocalamus sp. up to 54– 100% in LNP, Nepal. Other supplementary food items were found to be Sorbus cuspidata, R. arboreum, mushroom, etc. Reid et al. (1991) reported that the Panda is highly dependent upon Sinarundinaria fagiana and shoots of Fargesia spathecea in Wolog Nature Reserve, China. Pradhan et al. (2001b) reported that Arundinaria sp. as highly consumed bamboo species. Overall result of showed Arundinaria aristata (45%), Arundinaria maling (35%) and various fruits as supplementary food especially in post- monsoon season. The current study also showed the highest availability of the Arundinaria sps. in diet but proportion of the two bamboo species were just opposite of Pradhan et al. (2001b). The current study showed Arundinaria maling (49.33%) and Arundinaria aristata (39.83%). The contradiction may be due to the high availability of a particular species in the study area. In the recent study we could not found fruits in noticeable proportion, probably due to the season we conducted study, as fruiting occur only during post-monsoon season. Zhang et al. (2009) reported that the animal almost exclusively fed on Bashania faberi, in China. Karki (2009), suggested that the red panda feed on various six plant species with Thamnocalamus aristatus highest proportion. Panthi et al. (2012), studied the summer diet of the animal and reported Arundinaria sp. (81.7%), as the dominant diet in scat of the red panda with Acer sp., B. utilis, and lichen also frequently present diet species. Sharma et al. (2014), observed 12 plant species in diet of the red panda and leaves and shoots of Thamnocalamus sp. were the major. They did not find any animal matter in the scat of the animal. In this sense the current study’s result is similar to Sharma et al. (2014), as no any animal remains were found but only some unidentified Arthropods’ parts were found. Thapa and Basnet (2015), suggested eight plants species were consumed by red panda with Thamnocalamus aristatus highest proportion throughout the year. Some of the supplementary food species suggested such as; Rubus sp, Sorbus cuspidata Rhododendron spp, Acer caudatum etc were similar to the current study. Out of the two bamboo species encountered in the study area, Arundinaria maling was found to be consumed in the highest proportion (49.33%). This high consumption may be probably due to high availability of the Arundinaria maling than the Arundinaria aristata in the area. Among the seven tree species found to be consumed, Sorbus cuspidata (2.17%) of the family Rosaceae was the most preferred. Thapa & Basnet (2015), reported Sorbus cuspidata contributed about 5 % of the summer diet of the animal in LNP. Other tree species; Acer caudatum, Rhododendron sps, Vitex heterophylla, Litsea salicifolia, Schefflera impressa, Litsea salicifolia were found to be consumed in very little portion (> 1%) in Sidin, Panchthar. Only one herb species i.e. Rubus sp. of the family Rosaceae was found to be consumed by the animal and it contributed 0.84 % of the diet. In overall, bamboo was found to be the most important food item for red panda, contributing 89.16 percent of the overall diet. Previous studies had shown this percentage ranged from 50-100 percent; 54-100% by Yonzon & Hunter (1991a), 89.9% by Wei et al. (1999a), 80% by Pradhan et al. (2001b), 81.7% by Panthi et al. (2012), 80-100% by Sharma et al. (2014), 91.25% by Thapa & Basnet (2015). All previous studies done on diet of the Panda till date had shown bamboo as major food item. Difference found is only the types of the bamboo species. It is difficult to say how particular the Pandas are about selecting the bamboo species (Pradhan et al. 2001b). The unidentified percentage was 2.5 168

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 percent in the study of Panthi et al. (2012), 4.96 percent in the study of Thapa & Basnet (2015). In- vitro digestibility as well as selection of plant parts by the animal greatly influences the results of micro- histological analysis (Vavra & Holechek 1980). Better the digestive system of the animal, better the digestion of the ingested food and greater the difficulty in identification of the food items. The digestive system of the red panda is not well developed (Oftedal et al. 1989), which may result in improper digestion of the foods, especially stem parts. This helps in little easier identification of food items. However, as it also consumes fruits, flowers and fresh leaves, which are easily and properly digested and could not be identified. So some food items remained unidentified. In the study of the diet composition of the red panda, due to ill-developed digestive system and not proper digestion, the percentage of unidentified plants usually does not remain high as in case of other animals having high digestion rate like; four horned antelopes. Also, sometimes the biasness subjected to micro-histological analysis, like sample preparation (Vavra & Holechek 1980), poor training of technician (Holechek & Gross 1982) and differential digestibility of diet components (Holechek et al. 1982) may have influenced in identification of diet items.

Niche breadth Niche breadth is a parameter that measures in how much extent the animal uses its surrounding resources; habitat, food etc. Most importantly, body size of a particular animal determines its metabolic rate, food requirement and also niche breadth as large bodied animals have higher food requirement since they have higher cost of maintenance and production (Geist 1974). In the present study niche, breadth of the panda was calculated 0.0706, which is low value as niche breadth ranges between 0-1 according to Krebs, 1999. The result suggested that the animal is highly specialized and it uses selected food items and habitats for its survival. Previous studies Yonzon (1989), Thapa and Basnet (2015) had also suggested narrower niche breadth of the red panda. Having narrower niche breadth is one of the most important reasons of declining the red panda’s population day by day. It can be said this in the sense that as the panda uses very limited resources for its survival, when that resources become scarce survival of the Panda may be in danger. So, it may be true that wider the niche breadth, lower the risk of extinction and narrower the niche breadth, higher the risk of extinction.

Diet preference Plant species differ in composition of protein and fibre contents which influences animals' food choice (Klaus-Hugii et al. 1999) and their digestion period. Diet selection and preference of different animals are found to be different as their body structure and internal organ systems are also different. Sometimes, it may be irrelevant to categorize the food items of a particular animal as preferred or non- preferred only through faecal analysis as the digestibility of different food plants may be variable. In spite of this, due to the lack of any scientific practical method for determining the food preference of wild animals, faecal analysis method has been applied in this study to determine the diet preference of the animal. In the current study, seven tree species were found to be consumed by the animal. Sorbus cuspidata and Acer caudatum were found to be the most preferred species among the trees. Similarly, 169

Biodiversity in a Changing World two shrub species belonging to bamboo category were found to be consumed. The both species of genera Arundinaria were highly preferred by the animal. Only one herb species, Rubus sp. was consumed by the animal. As the study was conducted between the month of May and June food preference of red panda determined through comparision of availability percentage and use based on the fecal analysis indicates only the summer season’s food preference. Previous studies; Yonzon and Hunter (1991a), Pradhan et al. (2001b), Zhang et al. (2009), Karki (2009), Panthi et al. (2012), Sharma et al. (2014), Thapa and Basnet (2015) had reported different bamboo species as the preferred food plant of the red panda in different study areas. The recent study also confirmed the bamboo (Arundinaria spp.) as the most preferred and major food item for the animal. So, it may be said that as the animal prefers the subtropical, temperate, sub alpine and alpine forest with dense bamboo-thicket understory (Yonzon & Hunter 1991a, Pradhan et al. 2001, Sharma & Belant 2009), it consumes any species of bamboo in high proportion that is available within its habitat.

Conclusion The study conducted in Sidin area of Panchthar district on 2018, showed that the red panda feeds on 10 plant species belonging to seven different families which were confirmed through micro-histological analysis of faecal samples. It feeds on highly selected plant categories in various proportions. Altogether, seven trees, two shrubs belonging to bamboo category and one herb were found as contributing foods of the red pandas’ diet. The dietary plants were Arundinaria maling, Arundinaria aristata, Sorbus cuspidata, Schefflera impressa, Acer caudatum, Vitex heterophylla, Litsea salicifolia, Litsea khasyana, Rhododendron spp and Rubus sp. Besides these, some wings and appendages of unidentified arthropods were observed in few faecal samples, which may be consumed along with the food plants. Bamboo was found to be consumed in high percentage; about 90% of the overall diet composition, indicating bamboo as the major food item. Niche breadth value was found to be low which concluded that the red panda is highly selective in diet and has specialized feeding behavior. Among the consumed food plants, Arundinaria maling was found to be highly consumed followed by Arundinaria aristata. The result indicates that the Arundinaria spp. as highly preferred food item of the animal. Similarly, Sorbus cuspidata and Acer caudatum were found to be highly preferred tree species whose proportions in diet were high in comparison of their availability in the field. Rhododendron spp were consumed in very low proportion in comparison to their availability in the field, indicating least preference of red panda towards Rhododendron spp.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Ministry of Forest, Nepal, District Forest Office Panchthar and Community Forest Committee Sidin for providing permission to conduct research. We would also like to thank the staff of Deep Jyoti red panda network for their instant support in field. We are thankful to Central Department of Botany for facilitating in identification of plants and to Central Department of Zoology

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 for the continuous support. We are thankful to both reviewers for their valuable and constructive comments to shape the manuscript.

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Phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and distribution in Ghodaghodi Lake, Nepal

Melina DC1, Archana Prasad1*, Smriti Gurung2, Rita Bhatta3, Dikshya Regmi4, Shrija Tuladhar2, Chhatra Mani Sharma4

1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 2Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Nepal 3Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Nepal 4Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The study was carried out during the winter of 2019 to observe the phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and distribution in Ghodaghodi Lake, Nepal. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, Secchi disc transparency, total dissolved solids, and turbidity were analyzed during the study. Collection of plankton samples were made by conical-shaped monofilament nylon plankton net of 90 μm mesh net size from approximately 10–12 cm depth from six different sites. A total of 58 individuals of zooplankton were enumerated during the present investigation. The maximum number was counted for Mesocyclops sp (18) and minimum for Diaptomus (1). Cladocera was the most dominating zooplankton group. A total of 85 individuals of phytoplankton were enumerated during the present investigation. The maximum number was counted for Spirogyra sp (30) and the minimum for Lamena sp (1). The most leading group of the phytoplankton was Chlorophyceae (30), followed by Cyanophyceae (13), Bacillariophyceae (7) and group Zygnematophyceae (6). Keywords: Abundance, Cladocera, Mesocyclops, Phytoplanktons, Zooplanktons

Introduction Plankton can be defined as the community of pelagic organisms, composed of different groups, which are in suspension in water and hence restricted mobility, often less than that of the water which carries them (Delincé 1992). Plankton is categorized into phytoplankton and zooplankton. Zooplanktons are identified as important components of water ecosystems. They help in regulating algal and microbial productivity through grazing and in the transfer of primary productivity to fish and other consumers (Dejen et al. 2004). Phytoplankton are minute microscopic chlorophyll bearing organisms or non- photosynthetic plants or saproplanktons passively floating in the water and multiply rapidly, which includes diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), blue-green algae (mixophyceae), green algae (Chlorophyceae) and Desmidaceae (Kushwaha 2012). These are at the base of aquatic food webs and of global importance for ecosystem functioning and services (Kumari et al. 2018). Plankton forms also provide

177 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World information on the environmental and physiological conditions of lakes. The number, type and heterogeneity of zooplanktons present in any aquatic habitat help to determine the biological condition existing in that particular habitat (Khanna et al. 2009). It is seen that many environmental factors interact to provide conditions for the development of plankton, both spatially and temporally (Khanna et al. 2009). Similarly, phytoplanktons have been identified as important bio-indicator of water quality (Jakhar 2013) as they portray the pollution status of aquatic ecosystem. Some members of Rotifera and Cladocera are reported as pollution indicators (Mallik et al. 2011, Virani & Makode 2011). According to Gupta and Shukla (1990), Adesalu and Nwankwo (2008), Chellappa et al. (2008) and Rajagopal et al. (2010), pollution indicator algal forms have been reported from Cyanophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, and Chlorophyceae. Studies in the past have been made by several researchers (e.g., Bista & Shah 2010, Lamsal et al. 2014, Joshi & KC 2017) in Ghodaghodi Lake, still the study on abundance and distribution of phytoplankton and zooplankton remain untouched. So, the present study was undertaken to study the physicochemical properties of water and plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) abundance and distribution.

Materials and methods

Study area The study was conducted in Ghodaghodi Lake, a Ramsar Site, in the Kailali District of western Nepal (28°41’03” N; 80°56’43’’E). It is a large and shallow lake, having finger-like projections, with associated marshes and meadows surrounded by tropical deciduous forest. The lake is fed by direct precipitation during the monsoon season and by surface flows from the watershed area, groundwater springs and small streams. Water depth varies from 1-4 m. Low secchi depth transparency and high phosphorus levels indicate the lake as hypertrophic, the nitrogen level as eutrophic, and low Chlorophyll “A” level (due to the rich growth of macrophytes) as oligo to mesotrophic. Dissolved oxygen has been reported low, ranging between 5.27-6.56 mg/l (Diwakar et al. 2009). A total of 45 species of aquatic macrophytes, 54 species of terrestrial/riparian vegetation, 19 fish species, 41 bird species, 17 mammals (endangered and vulnerable), and five reptiles (critically endangered, vulnerable, and near-threatened) were recorded at the lake complex (Lamsal et al. 2014).

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Figure 1. Map of the study area (the Ghodaghodi Lake)

Analysis of environmental variables Water quality parameters such as pH (pH meter), dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature and conductivity meter were measured by using digital probes. Transparency of the water was measured with the help of a Secchi disc and recorded in centimeters. Total dissolved solid and water turbidity were measured by using TDS meter and Turbidity meter respectively.

Plankton sampling Collection of plankton samples were made by conical-shaped monofilament nylon plankton net of 90 μm mesh net size from approximately 10 ‐ 12 cm depth, and the collected samples from six different sites were transferred to one litre capacity plastic bottles and immediately preserved in 5 % formaldehyde-labeled and then transferred to the Central Department of Zoology laboratory at Tribhuvan University for further analysis. The abundance of plankton was estimated by counting their presence per focus of the microscopic field under 10X and 40X magnifications. Each sample was stirred smoothly just before microscopic examination for qualitative analysis. 10 ml of water from each site was observed under a microscope in the laboratory, making five slides for each one ml. Plankton was identified by using the standard keys following APHA (1998).

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Figure 2. Plankton sample collection with the help of local fisherwomen

Statistical analysis Data obtained were compiled, tabulated, and analyzed for the descriptive statistics such as in mean values and standard deviation, particularly for water samples. The catch compositions of individual organisms were determined using the following formula:

Catch composition by number (%) = Total catch of an individual X 100 Total catch of all species Diversity Status A diversity index is a quantitative measure that reflects the number of different species and how evenly the individuals are distributed among those species. Typically, the value of a diversity index increases when the number of types increases, and the evenness increases. Zooplankton and phytoplankton species diversity were subjected to the analysis using the Shannon- Weiner diversity index. Species diversity index The diversity of species was calculated by using the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (Shannon & Weaver 1949). The Shannon-Weiner diversity index is designated as H’, which is calculated as: H' = -Σ (Pi) log (Pi)

Where, Pi = ni/N ni = number of all individuals in the species N = Total number of all individuals in the sample

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Log = Logarithm of base e 11

Results

Water quality parameters The mean value of temperature was 19.75±1.60 °C. The highest was recorded in site VI (22.4 °C) and the lowest in the site I (17.9 °C). The average value of pH was 7.65±0.7. The highest value was obtained in site VI (9.1) and low in the site I (7.21). The highest value of electrical conductivity was found in the site I (139.9 µS/cm) and the lowest in site II (122 µS/cm) with an average value of 134.15±7.01 µS/cm. The mean value of dissolved oxygen was 7.17±12.18 mg/L; the highest was obtained in the site I (9.4 mg/L) and the lowest in site VI (5.4 mg/L). The average value of Secchi disc was 27±8.52 cm, with the maximum value in site I (38 cm) and the minimum in site VI (16 cm). The mean value of total dissolved solids was 69.1±6.55 ppm. The highest was found in the site I (79.6 ppm) and low in site II (60 ppm). The average value of turbidity was 2.29±0.74 NTU. The highest was recorded in site III (3.19 NTU) and the lowest in site V (1.21 NTU).

Zooplankton abundance and distribution A total of 58 individuals were enumerated during the present investigation, which comprised of 8 genera of zooplankton belonging to Cladocera, Copepods and Rotifers. The percentage abundance of zooplankton was in the order of Cladocera (53.45%), copepods (41.38%) and rotifers (5.17%) (Fig. 3). The maximum number was counted for Mesocyclops sp (18 individuals) and minimum for Diaptomus (one individual), which contributes to 31.04 % and 1.7 %, respectively. The highest numbers (12 individuals) were recorded in the site I throughout the study period, whereas the lowest numbers (7 individuals) were found in site II. The most dominating group Cladocera (31 individuals), consisted of Daphnia sp, Bosomina sp, Alona, and crustacean larvae, followed by copepods (24 individuals) that constituted Mesocyclops, Trichocera sp, and Diaptomus followed by rotifers (3 individuals) constituted of Synchaeta.

5.17%

Cladocera Copepods 41.38% 53.45% Rotifers

Figure 3. Percentage composition of zooplankton in Ghodaghodi Lake during December 2019

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Phytoplankton abundance and distribution A total of 85 individuals of phytoplankton were enumerated, which comprised of 12 genera of phytoplankton belonging to 4 groups (i.e., Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae, and Zygnematophyceae). The percentage abundance of phytoplankton was in the order of Chlorophyceae (69.41%), Cyanophyceae (15.3%), Bacillariophyceae (8.2%), and Zygnematophyceae (7.1%) (Fig.4).The maximum number was counted for spirogyra sp (30 individuals) and minimum for Lamena sp (one individual), which are 35.3% and 1.2%, respectively. The highest number (19 individuals) was recorded in site II throughout the study period, whereas a poor number (4 individuals) were found in site VI. The most dominating group was Chlorophyceae (30 individuals), consists of Spirogyra sp, Selenastrum sp, Ankistrodesmus sp, Closterium sp, Elakatothrix sp, Lamanea sp, and Schizomeris sp followed by Cyanophyceae (13 individuals), comprising of Microcystis sp, Oscillatoria sp, Gloeotrichia sp and by Bacillariophyceae (7 individuals) consists Melosira sp and group Zygnematophyceae (6 individuals) consisting of Zygnema sp.

7.1%

15.3% Chlorophyceae Bacillariophyceae

8.2% Cyanophyceae Zygnematophyce 69.41%

Figure 4. Percentage composition of phytoplankton species in Ghodaghodi Lake

Diversity status Among sites, the value of the Shannon-Weiner diversity index for zooplankton was found highest at the site I (1.52) and lowest at site II (1.1). The value of the Shannon-Weiner diversity index for Phytoplankton was highest at site V (1.72) and lowest at site IV (1.35). The sites wise values of the Shannon-Weiner diversity index for zooplankton and phytoplankton are given in the figures 6 and 7, respectively.

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1.6 1.52 1.37 1.36 1.32 1.4 1.24 1.2 1.1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Site I Site II Site III Site IV Site V Site VI

Figure 6. Shannon-Weiner diversity index for zooplankton

2 1.72 1.54 1.46 1.41 1.5 1.36 1.35 1 0.5 0 Site I Site II Site III Site IV Site V Site VI

Figure 7. Shannon-Weiner diversity index for phytoplanktons

Discussion

Water quality parameters The highest value of temperature was recorded in site VI (22.4 °C) and the lowest in the site I (17.9 °C), and nearly the same value was also reported by Gautam (2016) from Rupa Lake. This might be due to variation in altitude, as reported (Sharma et al. 2008). pH has a major role in both lentic and lotic environments for determining the speciation of inorganic chemicals and influencing biotic life. Generally, pH value 6.5 to 8.5 is suitable for the growth and development of aquatic organisms (King 1970), and the pH value of the present study exceeds this range (i.e., pH=9.1). The electrical conductivity value was found to be higher in site I (139.9 µS/cm) compared to site II (122 µS/cm) because of groundwater and surface runoff from the grounding farmlands that might have increased ionic substances such as nitrate, chloride and phosphate from fertilizers as stated by Enrique (1992). During the previous phase of studies in Ghodaghodi Lake, dissolved oxygen ranged between 5.27-6.56 mg/L (Diwakar 2009) and 6.42 -8.09 mg/L (Bhatta et al. 2018) around winter seasons, which contradicts with the present study (DO = 9.4 mg/L).The macrophytic growth probably explains the higher DO values during the study period. The maximum value of the secchi disc was found in the site

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I (38 cm) and the minimum in site VI (16 cm). The minimum transparency at site VI could be due to its proximity to the water channel, which is opened only for irrigation, otherwise it is closed. This has caused a massive growth of algae blocking the light penetrate in deeper areas, which is similar to the findings of Gautam et al. (2016). The value of total dissolved solids was highest at the site I (79.6 ppm) and minimum at site II (60 ppm). TDS values in lakes and streams are typically found to be in the range of 50 to 250 mg/L (Bhateria & Jain 2016), and TDS values of this study fall within the typical values. The highest turbidity value was recorded at site III (3.19 NTU) and lowest at site V (1.21 NTU) with an average mean value of 2.29(±0.74) NTU. The high turbidity at Site III, situated just below the Ghodaghodi temple, could be due to the fact that it has the passage of some particles and debris along organic matters which supports the growth of plankton.

Zooplankton abundance and distribution Copepoda and Rotifera are common zooplankton groups in many water bodies (reference) and a number of studies reveal Cladocera as the most dominant group of zooplanktons (Dorlikar 2018). Similar findings have also been reported by Akther (2015) from Bangladesh. However, Rotifers were dominating over the other zooplankton in Turkaulia Lake, Motijheel Lake, Kararia Lake, and Suraha Lake (Prasad et al. 2009).

Phytoplankton abundance and distribution During the present investigation, the most leading group was Chlorophyceae (69.41%), followed by Cyanophyceae (15.3%), Bacillariophyceae (8.2%) and Zygnematophyceae (7.1%). This is similar to the study made by Bharati (2015) and Kumari et al. (2018).

Conclusion Cladocera and Chlorophyceae were the dominating groups of zooplankton and phytoplankton respectively. The species diversity of zooplankton and phytoplankton was found to be higher in the site I and V. In the present study, phytoplanktons were dominant over zooplankton. Therefore, we can conclude that the abundance of phytoplanktons portrays the increasing pollution status of Lake. However, these resources are also favorable for flourishing fish diversity in a lake ecosystem.

Acknowledgments We are thankful to Ghodaghodi Municipality and Ghodaghodi Conservation Committee for providing permits for this research and fisherwomen of the study area who helped in sample collection. This study was financially supported by the University Grants Commission of Nepal (Grant # CRG-73/74- S&T-04). Central Department of Environmental Science provided essential support for the completion of this research work.

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References

Adesalu, T. A. and Nwankwo, D. I. 2008. Effect of water quality indices on phytoplankton of a sluggish Tidel Creek in Lagos, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science 11:836–844. APHA, 1998. Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. 20th Edition, Washington DC. Akther, S., Ashad U. and Hossain, J. 2015. Abundance of zooplankton in Ramsagar-Dighi, Dinajpur, Bangladesh. Journal of Zoology 43:303–312. Bhateria, R. and Jain, D. 2016. Water quality assessment of lake water: a review. Sustainable Water Resources Management 2:161–173. Bharti, P. K. and Niyogi, U. K. 2015. Plankton diversity and aquatic ecology of a freshwater lake (L3) at Bharti Island, Larsemann Hills, east Antarctica. Global Journal of Environment Science and Management 1:137–144. Bhatta, J., Bohara, R., Bhatta, B. R. and Joshi, T. R. 2018. Limnological study of the Ghodaghodi Wetland in Kailali District. Proceedings of the Seminar on “NATURE FOR WATER”. Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur. Bista, D. and Shah, K. 2010. Assessment of the status of herpetofauna especially focusing on the turtles in Ghodaghodi Lake, Kailali a Ramsar Site of Nepal. Masters Dissertation submitted to the Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. Chellappa, N. T., Borba, J. M. and Rocha, O. 2008. Phytoplankton community and physicochemical characteristics of water in the public reservoir of Cruzeta, RN, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Biology 68:477–494. Delincé, G. 1992. The ecology of the fish pond ecosystem. Springer, Dordrecht. Dejen, E., Vijverberg, J., Nagelkerke, L. A. J., and Sibbing, F. A. 2004. Temporal and spatial distribution of microcrustacean zooplankton in relation to turbidity and other environmental factors in large tropical lake (L. Tana, Ethiopia). Hydrobiologia 513:39–49. Diwakar, J., Barjracharya, S., and Yadav, U. 2009. Ecological study of Ghodaghodi Lake. Banko Janakari 19:18–23. Dorlikar, A.V. 2018. Studies on composition and population density of zooplanktons in Koradi Power Plant Lake, Maharashtra, India. International Journal of Researches in Biosciences, Agriculture and Technology 6:153– 158. Enrique, V. 1992. Temperature and dissolved oxygen in Lake of the Lower River Floodplain (Venezuela). Hydrobiologia 25:23–33. Joshi, D., and KC, B. 2017. Fish diversity of Ghodaghodi Lake in Kailali, Far-West Nepal. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology 22:120–126. Gautam, G., Paudel, A., Poudel, A. and Shrestha, M. 2016. An investigation on the diversity of limnoplankton along with habitat parameters in a shallow Rupa Lake. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences 3:131–139. Gupta, P., and Shukla, A. C. 1990. Cyanophyceae and pollution interwebs in Ganga water at Bithoor. In R.K. Trivedi (Ed.) River pollution in India. Ashish Publishing House pp. 228. Jakhar, A. 2013. Role of phytoplankton and zooplankton as health indicators of aquatic ecosystem: a review. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies 2:490–500. Khanna, D. R., Bhutiani, R., Gagan Matta., Singh, V., Kumar, D., and Ahraf, J. 2009. A study of zooplankton diversity with special reference to their concentration in River Ganga at Haridwar. Environment Conservation Journal 10:15–20. King, B. L. 1970. The role of carbon in eutrophication. Journal of Water Pollution Control Fed, 42:2035-2051. Kushwaha, P. K. 2012. Biodiversity and density of phytoplankton in pond of Kirtipur. Academic Voices: A Multidisciplinary Journal 2:43–47. Kumari, S., Gayathri, S., and Mohan, R. M. 2018. Phytoplankton diversity in Bangalore lakes, importance of climate change and nature’s benefits to people. Journal of Ecology and Natural Resources 2(1). doi:10.23880/jenr- 16000118.

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Lamsal, P., Pant, K. P., Kumar, L., and Atreya, K. 2014. Diversity, uses, and threats in the Ghodaghodi Lake Complex, a Ramsar Site in Western lowland Nepal. ISRN Biodiversity, 680102 doi:10.1155/2014/680102. Mallik, R., Sinha, S. K., Abhishek 2011. Zooplankton biodiversity and pollution indicator species in Damodar river of Jharia coalfield, Dhanbad (Jharkhand). The Ecoscan 1:329–334. Prasad, S., Ranjan, R., Singh, R. B., and Singh, N. P., 2009. Studies on phytoplankton-zooplankton relationship in some lentic water bodies of east Champaran Bihar. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology 8:571–574. Rajagopal, T., Thangamani, A., Sevakodiyone, S. P., Sekar, M., and Archunan, G. 2010. Zooplankton diversity and physico-chemical conditions in three perennial ponds of Virudhunagar, Tamilnadu. Journal of Environmental Biology 31:265–272. Sharma, C. M. 2008. Freshwater fishes, fisheries, and habitat prospects of Nepal. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 11:289–297. Shannon, C. E., and Weaver, W. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, University of Illinois Press. Virani, R. S., and Makode, P. M. 2011. Role of rotifer diversity in a tropical lentic ecosystem with reference to eutrophication. Bioscience Biotechnology Research Communications 4:55–64.

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On the taxonomic status and habitats of Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, 1960 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) in Palpa, Nepal

Pit Bahadur Nepali1, 2* and Nanda Bahadur Singh2

1Tribhuvan Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Palpa, Nepal 2Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The caecilian Ichthyophis sikkimensis was described by Taylor, 1960 on the basis of morphological characteristics. Five specimens were collected at two new localities of Palpa, Nepal from 2016–2019. This study helps to review the taxonomy, distribution and assess the status of species of Ichthyophis sikkimensis at their type localities and to conduct intensive new fieldwork in order to determine habitats of Ichthyophis on altitudinal gradients. For identification, morphometric and meristic data such as total length; head width at jaw angles; tail length; dorsal transverse grooves on 2nd collar; distance between eyes; distance between eye and tentacle; distance between eye and naris; distance between eye and tip of snout; distance between eye and jaw angle; distance between naris and tentacle etc. were taken. These short tail unstriped Ichthyophis were examined and compared with previously described species. This taxonomic work and reported species extend distribution and status of Ichthyophis sikkimensis at new localities of Palpa. This species was found in a range of terrestrial macrohabitats including agricultural field and riparian habitat. In the light of amphibian decline, this study may encourage further baseline work on the ecology, taxonomical information for conservation and help to improve and expands the knowledge of previous research. Key words: Caecilian, Morphometric, Meristic, Riparian, Terrestrial

Introduction The taxonomic and nomenclatural reviews of amphibians in South Asia provide a major reassignment of species and their classification (Frost et al. 2006). More than fifty species of amphibians are reported from countryside including several unique and endemic species (Shah & Tiwari 2004) but still the poorly studied fauna in Nepal (Khatiwada 2015). The volume of research, publications and general concern in amphibians has been grown rapidly in this region. This indicated that a regional increase in research into taxonomy and that more field studies are being carried out (Molar 2008). Emphasis on the studies related to the revision of species-assemblages, genera and families has also brought to focus the revalidation of many taxa.

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Gymnophiona (Caecilian) is one of the three extant orders of class amphibia, comprises a group of limbless, secretive, rings or annuli on body, vermiform, burrowing form with cylindrical body. It is one of the most poorly understood tetrapod groups in terms of many basic aspects of their biology and evolution (Maddin & Anderson 2012). The order Gymnophiona includes 214 species and 10 families of which Ichthyophiidae has 57 species (Frost 2020) and 27 are known from Southeast Asia (Frost 2011; Nishikawa et al. 2012b). Before 1968, Gymnophiona had a single family of Caeciliidae. After that different author classified between three and ten families. However phylogenetic relationships of the nine caecilian families were recognized (Wilkinson, et al. 2011). Only one family of caecilians; the Ichthyophiidae, has been recorded from the region of Southeast Asia (Nishikawa, 2012) but identification can be challenging and the distributions of many species remain limited (Kotharambath et al. 2012, 2015; Gower et al. 2013). Taxonomy of ichthyophid is not sufficiently established to support a confident specific identification due to their external similarity (Mathew and Sen, 2009). Gower et al. (2002) suggested that the Ichthyophis of Sri Lanka, and those of South East Asia comprise diverse monophyletic groups. The ichthyophiids were present on the Indian plate earlier to its collision with Laurasia, and that south East Asian ichthyophiids result from one or more dispersals out of India (Wilkinson et al. 2002). However, San Mauro et al. (2004) indicated that Caeciliidae was the largest, most diverse, and cosmopolitan family, the diversity of caecilians remains poorly explored and has never been systematically studied (Pillai and Ravichandran, 1999). Morphological systematics, especially at low levels, has been determined by a rarity of noticeable external characters and a lack of understanding of· their variability. According to Pillai & Ravichandran (1999), Seba (1735) was prior to describe the caecilian species who included certain reptiles and amphibians under the name caecilia. Linnaeus described a new species, Caecilia tentaculata in 1749 and also reported the second species of caecilian (Caecilia glutinosa; lchthyophis glutinosus) from India in 1974. On the basis of Java specimens, Muller (1831) suggested that caecilians were truly amphibians. Frost (2015) recognizes two unstriped Ichthyophis sikkimensis and I. husaini from India. Several publications on caecilian systematics have appeared previously but Blackburn and Wake (2011) briefly reviewed the taxonomic history of this taxon and there is close relationship between the Icthyophiidae and the former Uraeotyphlidae. Vitt and Caldwell (2014) described a summary of range, diagnosis, life history, biology and taxonomy account of this species. The genus Ichthyophis is one of the largest geographical distributions than other caecilian, occurring in Sri Lanka and India through mainland Indochina, Sundaland and islands (including the Philippines) west of Wallace’s Line (Wilkinson, et al., 2014). A revival of the amphibian taxonomy and systematics at the global level with the beginning of new techniques and tools has made its imprint on the new species also develop in Nepal. Ichthyopis sikkimesis was described by Schleich & Kastle (2002), Rai (2003), Shah and Tiwari (2004) and (Schleich & Rai, 2012) in Nepal. Molur (2008) reported that Ichthyophis sikkimensis is endemic species of Nepal and India.

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This research helps to review the taxonomy, distribution and the status of species of Ichthyophis at their type localities and to conduct intensive new fieldwork in order to determine habitats, and latitudinal and longitudinal gradients. Despite additional reports of I. sikkimensis from this localities, no further information is known on the taxonomic status of these species, morphological variation, distribution and habitat preferences. This study helps to improve and expands the knowledge of previous research so far in the area. Accordingly, the identification and ecological characteristics are decisive for the success of actions directed to biodiversity conservation.

Materials and methods The study was conducted in Palpa district, Nepal. Field surveys were made in six closely grouped sites in Tansen municipality, Dammak and Rampur from 2016 to 2019. We surveyed Holangdi, Narayansthan, Setipokhari, Parvas in Tansen Municipality (27o 86.683 N and 83o 54.865 E, and 270 50.283N and 830 33.865E, 1278 m) and riparian and marshy areas of Dammak (27o 91’ 595'’ N & 83o 39. 785 E, 270 53.595N & 830 22.285E) and marshy areas of Rampur (27051.215 N & 83053.06 E / 437m, 27052.05N & 83053.04 E/ 402 m). Tansen sites were selected because I. glutinosous was previously recorded form Palpa but taxonomically no caecilians were reported from this area. Animals were sought during daylight hours in the field by digging moist porous and dark soil particurarly along the banks of permanent stream up to a depth of approximately 40 cm and/or raking through leaf litter and lifting decaying logs. With the combination all localities the altitudinal range extends from 402– 1670 m and covers most of the important habitat types from marshy depressions, banks of streams, both fast and slow flowing and ponds. The information was also collected from farmers and road workers around study areas where these animals had been sighted previously by them. All measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 mm with a vernier caliper except total length, which was measured using measuring tape. Following Nishikawa et al. (2012b), Kamei and Biju (2016), Pillai and Ravichandran (1999), Nishikawa et al. (2012), Kotharambath et al. (2012), and Wilkinson et al. (2014) we used the abbreviations for measurements: total length (TL); head width at jaw angles (HW); tail length (TAL) from posterior end of vent to tail tip; dorsal transverse grooves on 2nd collar (DT2C), distance between eyes (DBE); distance between eye and tentacle (DET); distance between eye and naris (DEN); distance between eye and tip of snout (DENa); distance between eye and jaw angle (DEJ); distance between naris and tentacle (DNT); distance between tentacles (DBT); head width at occiput (lateral edge of first nuchal groove) (HWO); distance between tip of snout and first nuchal groove (SN1); length of first collar (measured laterally)(LC); Length of second collar (measured laterally)(LC1); circumference at mid body(CM); length of tail from anterior end of vent (LVT). Specimens were collected with the help of local field assistants. Specimens were fixed in 5% formalin and subsequently transferred to 70% ethanol for morphological studies. Specimens were deposited in Department of Zoolgy, Tribhuvan Multiple Campus, Palpa, TU, Nepal. Available sources on the regional, national and international level were reviewed and classified up to species level by using keys of Taylor (1960), Bhatta (1998), Smith (1981), Stuart (1963), Pillai 189

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(1999), Schleich and Kaestle, (2002), Rai (2003) and, Shah and Tiwari (2004). Species identification is based on the original descriptions by Taylor (1968) and Kupfer and Müller (2004).

Figure 1. Map of Palpa district showing location of Ichthyophis observation in Tansen

Results and discussion Five specimens were collected from study area. Although the habitats were same these species were collected only from the Holongdi and Narayansthan; Three species from the agricultural field and riparian habitats of Holangdi and two species from the small streams or riparian habitat of Narayansthan. All specimens fall within the range of morphometric variation of the type specimens. Moreover, some variation in diagnostic characters is found in the examined material. Specimens from Narayansthan have slightly longer and more annuli than specimen collected from Holangdi that makes some morphological difference between them. Systematics Ichthyophis sikkimensis (Taylor 1960) Synonyms: Ichthyophis glutinosus (Blanford 1881) Common Name: Darjeeling Caecilian Nepali Name: Andha sarpa 190

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General characteristics: Vermiform medium-sized species with 293-313 mm in total length. Head is slender; tentacular aperture closer to eye than to nostril; eyes distinct; snout projects a little beyond mouth and placed immediately behind the tip of snout. Collars are very inconspicuous and not separated dorsally; annuli on body and lacking of lateral yellow stripe. First and third annular grooves distinct laterally. Second groove crosses throat passing up on sides of head. Tip of tail is short, relatively conical and 5 or 6 folds. Diagnosis This species has sub cylindrical body, splenial teeth and without lateral stripe with. It is slightly depressed dorso-ventrally, tapering posteriorly and blunt tip tail. The head is slightly wider around jaw angle and narrowing anteriorly. Snout is rounded anterior to tentacles, slightly longer than lower jaw. Head is relatively narrow, head width at occiput (lateral edge of first nuchal groove) (9.2 mm) less than length of head (11 mm); eye closer to lip than nostril; tentacle very close to lip, nearer to eye (1.7 mm) than to nostril (2.4 mm); distance between eyes (6.1 mm) greater than length of snout (5.2 mm). Distance between tentacles (8.2) larger than distance between eyes (5.4). Eyes are slightly protruding, midway between top of head and edge of mouth in lateral view. Tentacles are twice (2.3) as far from nostril than from eyes (4.9). The tentacular apertures are circular, lateral in position, visible in both dorsal and ventral views, and much closer to the margin of the upper lip than to the top of the head. The small sub-circular nostrils are close to the front of the snout tip. Nostrils is round which is positioned closely at anterior margin of mouth. Length of second collar (4.4) is longer than first collar (3.6). Collar region slightly wider than head. First collar groove marked as constriction separating head and trunk, and second collar groove evident ventrally but not apparent dorsally. Annular count 291- 307 dorsally; annular grooves complete dorsally, but narrowly separate ventrally. Body colour: The color is dark brown and a little lighter on the ventral surfaces. The lips and tip of snout are very light cream. After preservation body is brown throughout. Habit and habitat: They are found in wet places, near small streams and agricultural fields. They are active during rainy night. It inhabited in moist porous soil, rich in humus and organic matter. It burrows deep into the soil during dry season. Distribution: South Asia, South East Asia, Cambodia, China, India, Sri Lanka, Southern Philippines, Western Indo-Australian Archipelago. Distribution in Nepal: Ilam and Palpa. It was also reported from Tansen. Status: Data deficient Table 1. Morphometric and meristic data (in mm) for the I. sikkimensis. Measurements were made to the nearest 0.1 mm using vernier calipers.

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Specimens of Holangdi Specimens of

Measurement in mm Narayansthan in mm S.N. Sp.1 Sp.2 Sp.3 Sp.4 Sp.5 1 Total length (TL) 299 293 301 313 295

2 Total annuli (counted ventrally) (TAV) 292 287 297 307 291 3 Total annuli (counted dorsally) (TAD) 296 301 291 305 295 4 Tail anuuli (TAL) 5 5 6 6 6 5 Dorsal transverse grooves on 2nd collar (DT2C) 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 6 Distance between eyes (DBE) 4.9 4.9 5.7 5.8 5.6 7 Distance between eye and tentacle (DET) 1.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 8 Distance between eye and naris (DEN) 4.9 4.7 5.1 5.4 5.1 9 Distance between eye and tip of snout (DENa) 6.2 6.3 6.1 7.0 6.3 10 Distance between eye and jaw angle (DEJ) 4.2 4.1 4.8 5.1 5.0 11 Distance between naris and tentacle (DNT) 2.3 2.1 2.5 2.7 2.4 12 Distance between tentacles (DBT) 8.3 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.2 13 Head width at jaw angles (HW) 11.8 11.8 12.0 12.1 11.7 14 Head length (HL) 10.9 11.1 11.1 11.2 10.9 15 Head width at occiput (lateral edge of first nuchal 9.3 9.1 9.3 9.1 9.3 groove) (HWO) 16 Distance between tip of snout and first nuchal 13.8 13.9 14.1 14.9 14.1 groove (SN1) 17 Length of first collar (measured laterally) (LC) 3.2 3.2 3.9 3.9 3.7 18 Length of second collar (measured laterally) (LC1) 4.2 4.1 4.8 5.0 4.1 19 Circumference at mid body (CM) 41.3 41.0 41.6 43.2 43.0 20 Length of tail from anterior end of vent (LVT) 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.0

Figure 2. Ichthyophis sikkimensis Figure 2. Ichthyophis sikkimensis (preserved)

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Figure 3. Habitat of Ichthyophis

Based on our taxonomic revision, only unstriped Ichthyophis found in this region Stuart (1963) developed the identification key of order Gymnophiona and studied the two caecilian species with respect to distribution and taxonomy. Several species of ichthyophis were described by Taylor (1960) from various caecilian groups and study Ichthyophis as a valid taxon based on the number of annuli and the position of the tentacular aperture. In 1968, he made comprehensive taxonomic study of the caecilians of the world. All recorded counts and measures were match to those data given in the type description by Taylor (1960), Bhatta (1998) and Pillai & Ravichandran (1999). Except for some minor differences in annuli counts and total length. Pillai (1999) provided the knowledge on the systematics, distribution and habitat requirements of Indian Caecilians. The similar description was described by Schleich & Kaestle (2002) and Rai (2003) and Shah and Tiwari (2004) but there is no detail morphological measurements. Bhatta (1998) developed a field guide by using 26 morphological parameters with addition of nine species of Ichthyophis including I. sikkimensis based on a survey made all over the Western Ghats. Before Kamei & Biju (2016), there was the only unstriped I. sikkimensis found in the North east India. Schleich & Kästle (2002) identified and mapped the presence of I. sikkimensis in the Western Ghats as well as northeast India and Nepal. Likewise, Pillai & Ravichandran (1999) reported that Ichthyophis sikkimensis was previously thought to be a Himalayan species of Sikkim and Darjeeling. Species of Ichthyophis have been reported from diverse habitat types including open shrubs to secondary forests (Stuart 1999; Kupfer et al. 2005) and agricultural land (Measey et al. 2003a). Poudel, 2060 has been reported Ichthyophis glutinosus from beyond the localities but the study was unable to verify the existence of I. glutinuous due to lack of voucher specimen and exact location. He also not provided the measurements or meristic information for that specimens.

Key to studied Species 1a. Tentacular organ is present in adults; without limbs; eyes present or absent. Annulated skin on body and subdermal scales ...... Gymnophiona.

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1b. Tentacular organs are absent; limbs present...... 2 2. Body skin is usually if not invariably showing segmentation; without tympanum; presence of four limbs and tail...... : Caudata. 3. The body consists of truncate but absence of tail.………………………: Anura. Key to families of Nepal Gymnophiona, based on morphology l. True tail is present; ventral longitudinal; eyes visible externally ...... 2 2. Tentacular opening lies between and below the eye-nostril line; often closer to eye ……………...... : Ichthyophiidae Key to the genera of the family Ichthyophiidae Limbless, worn-like in general appearance, a short tentacle present on each side of the head between eye and nostril; small scales usually embedded in the skin; body with a series of annulations; with a short tail. Key to species of Genus Ichthyophis 1. A lateral stripe is absent ...... 2 2. Tail is short; with 10 or less caudal folds counted from the anterior end of vent…….....3 3. Teeth is not conspicuous sunk in pits on the gum; dentary 18 to 21 and splenial 8 to 10 on each half of lower jaw; annuli 288–310…………………………………….. Ichthyophis sikkimensis

Conclusion On basis of morphometric and meristic characters it is concluded that the unstriped Ichthyophis sikkimensis is reported from riparian habitats of Tansen Municipality that are more likely of other localities of India and south Asia. The continuation of field-based research and surveys of these species in near future will be helpful to explore the species from other parts also. This species is categorized as Data Deficient in the IUCN Red List and known very little about its geographic range or environmental requirements and tolerances. So, it needs further systematic study, their distribution, ecology, life history and conservation status.

Acknowledgments We would like to kindly acknowledge the University Grant Commission, Nepal to research support grant. We also would like to thank for Prof. Karan Bahadur Shah helping us with the identification of the species and preservation technique. We would like to gratitude to Mr. Mukta Bahadur Nepali and Neelam Nepal, Tribhuvan Multiple Campus, Palpa for editing language. Finally, a wholehearted thank to Munesh Ratna Guvaju, Santoshi Shrestha and other who kept our spirit up throughout the whole field work. 194

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References

Bhatta, G. K. 1998. A Field guide to the caecilians of Western Ghats. Journal of Biosciences 23:73–85. Blackburn, D. C., and Wake, D. B. 2011. Class Amphibia Gray, 1825. Zhang, Z.-q. ed., Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. Zootaxa 3148:39–55. Frost, D. R. 2020. Amphibian Species of the World: An Online Reference. Version 6.1 (Date of access). Electronic Database accessible at https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/index.php. American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA. DOI:10.5531/db.vz.0001 Gower, D. J., Giri, V. B., Kamei, R. G., Oommen, O. V., Khot, R and Wilkinson, M. 2017. On the absence of Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, 1960 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) in the Western Ghats of peninsular India. Herpetological journal 27:181–187. Gower, D. J., Giri, V., Torsekar, V. R., Gaikwad, K. and Wilkinson, M. 2013. On the taxonomic status of Gegeneophis nadkarnii Bhatta & Prashanth, 2004 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Indotyphlidae). Zootaxa 3609:204–212. Gower D. J., Kupfer, A., Oommen, O. V., Himstedt, W., Nussbaum, R. A., Loader, S. P., Presswell, B., Müller, H., Krishna, S. B., Boistel, R. and Wilkinson, M. 2002. A molecular phylogeny of ichthyophiid caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae): out of India or out of South East Asia? Proceedings of the Royal Society (London) B 269:1563–1569. Kamei, R. G. and Biju, S. D. 2016. On the taxonomic status of Ichthyophis husaini Pillai & Ravichandran, 1999 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae). Zootaxa 4079:140–150. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4079.1.10 Kotharambath, R., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O. V., and Gower, D. J. 2015. A new species of Indian caecilian highlights challenges for species delimitation within Gegeneophis Peters, 1879 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Indotyphlidae). Zootaxa 3948:60–70. Kotharambath, R., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O. V., George, S. 2012. On the systematics, distribution and conservation status of Ichthyophis longicephalus Pillai, 1986 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae). Journal of Natural History 46:2935–2959. Kupfer, A., Nabhitabhata, J., and Himstedt, W. 2005. Life history of amphibians in the seasonal tropics: habitat, community and population ecology of a caecilian (genus Ichthyophis). Journal of Zoology 266:237–247. Maddin, H. C., Russell, A. P. and Anderson, J. S. 2012. Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 166:160–201. Mathew, R. and Sen, N. 2009. Studies on Caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyopbiidae) of North East India with description of three new species of Ichthyophis from Garo Hills, Meghalaya and additional infonnation on Ichthyophis garoensis Pillai and Ravichandran, 1999. Records of zoological Survey of India 309:1–56. Measey, G. J., Gower, D. J., Oommen, O. V. and Wilkinson, M. 2003a. Quantitative surveying of endogeic soil vertebrates - a case study of Gegeneophis ramaswamii (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae) in southern India. Applied Soil Ecology 23:43–53. Molur, S. 2008. South Asian amphibians: taxonomy, diversity and conservation status. International Zoo Yearbook 42:143–157. Nishikawa, K., Matsui, M. and Yambun, P. 2012. A New Unstriped Ichthyophis (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) from Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. Current Herpetology 31:67–77. DOI: 10.5358/hsj.31.67. Nussbaum, R. A. and Pfrender, M. E. 1998. Revision of the African caecilian genus Schistometopum Parker (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Caeciliidae). Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan 187:1–32. Pillai, R. S. and Ravichandran, M. S. 1999. Gymnophiona (Amphibia) of India. A taxonomic study. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Papers 72:1– 117. Rai, K. R. 2003. Environmental impacts, systematic and distribution of herpetofauna from east Nepal. Doctoral dissertation, Central department of zoology, Institute of science and technology, Tribhuvan university Kirtipur, Kathmandu Nepal. 195

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Schleich, H. H. and Kastle, W. 2002. Amphibians and reptiles of Nepal: Biology, Systematic, field guide. A. R. G. Gantne Verlag, Germany Shah, K. B. and Tiwari, S. 2004. Herpetofauna of Nepal: Conservation companion. IUCN Nepal, Kathmandu. Smith, M. A. 1981. The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers New Delhi, Indi, III. San Mauro D., Gower, D. J., Oommen O. V., Wilkinson M., Zardoya R. 2004. Phylogeny of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona) based on complete mitochondrial genomes and nuclear RAG1. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33:413–427. Stuart, B. L. 1999. Amphibians and reptiles. In Wildlife in Lao PDR. 1999 status report: 43–67. Duckworth, J. W., Salter, R. E. & Khounboline, K. (Eds). Vientiane: IUCN. Stuart, L. C. 1963. A Checklist of the Herpetofauna of Guatemala. Miscellaneous publications Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, no. 122:1-151. Vitt, L. J. and Caldwell, J. P. 2014. Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier, Jamestown Road, London. Wilkinson, M., Presswell, B., Sherratt, E., Papadopoulou, A. and Gower, D. J. 2014. A new species of striped Ichthyophis Fitzinger, 1826 (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) from Myanmar. Zootaxa 3785:045– 058. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3785.1.4 Wilkinson, M., San Mauro, D., Sherratt, E. and Gower, D. J. 2011. A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona). Zootaxa 2874:41–64 Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O. V., Sheps, J. A. and Cohen, B. L. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of Indian caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) inferred from mitochondrial rRNA gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 2340:1–407.

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Diversity of bumblebees in the southern part of Kathmandu valley, Nepal

Prabha Ale Magar and Daya Ram Bhusal*

Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research was conducted to explore the diversity of bumblebees in the southern part of Kathmandu Valley focusing Kirtipur, Chandragiri, Dakshinkali and Taudaha. Bumblebee specimens were collected following accessible walking trial extensively in different sampling sites from April to October 2019. Five bumblebee species viz. B. haemorrhoidalis, B. eximius, B. breviceps, B. asiaticus and B. flavescens belonging to five subgenera were recorded, with the highest abundance of B. haemorrhoidalis (69.23%) and the least abundant B. asiaticus (2.05%). The study showed the highest abundance of bumblebees in purple-colored flowers (21.03%) whereas the least abundance in orange colored flowers (7.69%). Asteraceae family was highly preferred by bumblebees. The most commonly visited plants included Cirsiumfalconeri, C. arvense, Cupheaprocumbens, Solanum viarum, Gladiolus sp., Lantana camara and Duranta erecta. Bumblebee species showed significant relationship with their host plant families (p<0.05, F=9.47) and flower color (p<0.05, F=17.03). During this study, 54.87% of bumblebees were recorded from perennial plants over 45.13% of bumblebees in annual plants. The Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) also supported the positive correlation between bumblebee species, sampling sites of the study area and different seasons. The study also showed the significant relationship between abundance of bumblebees and habitats (F=3.53, p=0.032). The diversity of bumblebees in open grassland was comparatively higher than forests, home garden and vegetable farms due to availability of suitable floral host plants for bumblebees. The study also demonstrated the variation in floral preferences within individual bumblebee species. Keywords: Bumblebees, diversity, Host plants, Species, Preference

Introduction Bumblebees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus Latreille) are charismatic and conspicuous insect pollinators due to their robust body size, furry and brightly colored appearance and abundant setae (Williams 1998, 2007; Koch et al. 2018). They comprise approximately 265 species worldwide (Williams & Jepsen 2018), assigned to 15 subgenera that reﬂect major monophyletic lineages within Bombus, constituting the tribe Bombini (Williams et al. 2010). Bumblebees are ecologically and economically important insect pollinators (Velthuis & Van Doorn 2006; Potts et al. 2010; Garibaldi et al. 2013) in northern hemisphere, specifically in alpine and temperate ecosystems (William 2007;

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Hines 2008). Most of the native species of bumblebees are widely distributed throughout the Americas, Eurasia and parts of Northern Africa (Williams 1998). However, some species also occupy temperate zones of the Southern hemisphere and some are even present in tropical zones (Cameron et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2008). They exhibit a eusocial organization with a queen, many males and workers in their colony (Gadagkar 1996). Their nest sizes vary from 50 to 400 workers (Goulson et al. 2011). However, members of the subgenus Psithyrus are social parasites that invade host bumblebee nests to produce offspring (Saini et al. 2015). Adult bumblebees feed mainly on nectar, whereas the larvae depend on the honey and mixture of crushed pollen grains, which fulfills their necessities for growth (Richards 1973). Worker bumblebees have a pollen basket (corbicula) on meta-tibia to gather pollen, which is usually absent in males. Workers and queen bumblebees sting in defense of their nest or when disturbed during foraging (Newsholme et al. 1972). In contrast to honeybees, the bumblebees sting repeatedly due to the fact that the bumblebee's stinger lacks barbs (Jaffar et al. 2019). Sikora et al. (2019) reported that most bumblebee species prefer perennial and native plants, with violet and pink flowers with papilionaceous or bilabiate structure. It was found that flowers in the ultra-violet blue category contained significantly higher volumes of nectar than those in other hue categories in bee color space, hence they exhibit innate preference for short wavelength blue flowers (Giurfa et al. 1995).

Bumblebees are often considered keystone species because of their characteristic buzz pollination and generalist pollination services, whereby they support plant community diversity by visiting both rare and abundant plant species (Burkle et al. 2013; Brosi and Briggs 2013). Bumblebees are relatively vagile dispersers, resilient to habitat fragmentation and capable of maintaining pollination services in complex and resource-limited landscapes (Heard et al. 2007; Rao and Strange 2012). The efficiency of bumblebees in pollination is mainly due to buzz pollination, effectiveness in lower numbers (Heinrich 1993, Goulson et al. 2010), capacity to forage vigorously in a wider range of temperature and low light intensities, their long working hours, long tongue length and solitary colony structures (Chauhan & Thakur 2011). Within the past decade, several bumblebee species have shown a decline in abundance and marked contraction at local and regional spatial scales across the planet (Cameron et al. 2011; Koch & Schmid- Hempel 2011). Worldwide decline of insect pollinators, including bumblebees are attributed to a multitude of stressors such as habitat loss, reduced resources availability, emerging viruses and parasites, exposure to pesticides, introduction of new exotic bee species, climate change and in particular agricultural intensification operating at various spatial and temporal scales (Baude et al. 2016; Becher et al. 2018). Out of 265 bumblebee species, only 34 species have been recorded from Nepal. Nonetheless, the climatic and habitat suitability of bumblebees in Nepal, a very limited number of the bumblebee species are recorded from temperate and montane regions of Nepal. It indicates that narrow studies have been carried out on the bumblebees of Nepal (Williams 2010). This leads to an urgent need to document further research on the diversity and distribution of bumblebees, which plays a vital

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 role in the pollination of temperate flowering plants and crops. The objective of this study was to provide baseline data on diversity and floral preferences of bumblebees in the southern part of Kathmandu valley.

Materials and methods

Study area This study was focused in the southern part of Kathmandu Valley, focusing the Kirtipur municipality, Champadevi hill, Dakshinkali and Chandragiri municipality. The study area was further divided into eight sampling sites i.e. Tribhuvan University Campus, Thankot, Macchegaun, Salyanthan, Langol, Champadevi, Taudaha and Chovar.

Sample collection and identification The study was carried out from April to October 2019 in four different habitats covering open grasslands, forests, home gardens and vegetable farms. The bumblebee specimens were collected following accessible walking trial extensively (Saini et al. 2015; Bhusal et al. 2019). The collected bumblebees within vials were kept in the refrigerator at a cooling temperature (-4°C) for 48 hours. As the color of the pubescence in bumblebees hold great importance in the identification of species, so its proper care was taken during the collection period. The bumblebees were pinned on the right side of the thorax by using scientific insect pins size (No. 3). Then, they were labeled for locality, date, elevation, longitude, latitude, host plant and collector’s name.

Figure 1. Map of study area (Abbreviations: KM=Kirtipur Municipality, DM=Dakshinkali Municipality, CM=Chandragiri Municipality, LM=Lalitpur Metropolitan)

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Data analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with frequency of bumblebees, families of host plant and flower color from the sampling sites was performed. All data visualizations and analyses were conducted by using “Vegan” package in R 3.4.1. Canonical Cluster Analysis (CCA) was performed to show the association of bumblebee species with different seasons across all sampling sites. The relatively clustering groups of bumblebee species was shown by cluster analysis.

Results

Bumblebee richness and relative abundance In total, 195 bumblebee specimens were collected over the sampling period belonging to five species of five different subgenera from the study area. The most common species which encountered abundantly was B. haemorrhoidalis (69.23%) followed by B. eximius (17.95%), B. flavescens (6.67%), B. breviceps (4.1%) and B. asiaticus (2.05%) respectively.

80 69.23 70 60 50 40 30 17.95 20 6.67 10 4.1 2.05 0 Relative Abundance (%) (%) Abundance Relative B. hae B. exi. B. fla. B. bre. B. asi.

Bombus Species Figure 2. The relative abundance of Bombus species in the study area (Abbreviations: B. hae.=Bombus haemorrhoidalis, B. exi.=Bombus eximius, B. fla.=Bombus flavescens, B. bre.=Bombus breviceps, B. asi.=Bombus asiaticus)

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Monthly variation in abundance of bumblebees Bumblebee species abundance varied in different months. The highest abundance of bumblebees was recorded in July (24.62%) followed by May (23.08%), August (20%), September (15.89%), June (12.82%) and October (3.08%). There was the least abundance of bumblebees during April (0.51%). 30 24.62 25 23.08 20 20 15.89 15 12.82 10 5 3.08 0.51 Relative Abundance(%) 0 Apr. May June Jul. Aug Sep. Oct.

Months Figure 3. The bumblebee abundance in different months

Abundance and diversity of bumblebees in different sampling sites The relative abundance of bumblebees in different sampling sites in decreasing order was found in Tribhuvan University area (24.62%), Langol (16.93%), Macchegaun (12.82%), Taudaha (12.30%), Chovar (12.30%), Salyanthan (9.23%), Thankot (8.21%) and Champadevi (3.59%).

30 24.62% 25 20 16.93 15 12.82 12.30 12.30 9.23 10 8.21 3.59 5

Relative Abundance Relative Abundance (%) 0 Tribhuvan Thankot Macchegaun Salyanthan Langol Champadevi Taudaha Chovar University Sampling sites

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Figure 4. The relative abundance of bumblebees in different sampling sites

Relationship of bumblebees with seasons and sampling sites The result obtained from CCA was plotted as shown in Fig. 5. The abundance of bumblebee species had a significant relationship with seasons and sampling sites. The result showed that B. haemorrhoidalis was mostly occurred in Tribhuvan University, Taudaha and Chovar during summer; B. eximius in Langol and Champadevi during spring whereas B. flavescens, B. breviceps and B. asiaticus were more frequently observed in Thankot, Macchegaun, and Salyanthan during autumn.

Cluster analysis Cluster analysis (CA) was performed on the bumblebees’ data set to classify the recorded bumblebee species into their relatively similar groups. A total of five species of genus Bombus were grouped into

Figure 5. CCA Ordination diagram showing the relationship among bumblebee species abundance, seasons and sampling sites (Abbreviations: B_hae. = Bombus haemorrhoidalis, B_exi. = B. eximius, B_fla. = B. flavescens, B_bre. = B. breviceps, B_asi. = B. asiaticus, stTU. = Tribhuvan University, stTh. = Thankot, stM. = Macchegaun, stS= Salyanthan, stL= Langol, stCh= Champadevi, stT= Taudaha, stC= Chovar, seaspr. = Spring, seasum. = Summer, seaaut. = Autumn, CCA= Canonical Correspondence Analysis) three clusters on the basis of presence/ absence data. The vertical axis of the dendrogram represents the distance or dissimilarity between clusters. The horizontal axis represents the objects and clusters. Altogether three cluster groups were formed. B. eximius (Melanobombus) and B. flavescens (Pyrobombus) formed the first cluster group. B. haemorrhoidalis (Orientalibombus) and B. breviceps (Alpigenobombus) formed the second cluster group on the right hand side. Only one species B. asiaticus (Sibiricobombus) did not form any significant clustering relationship with other bumblebee species. Thus, a given cluster dendrogram (Fig. 6) showed that B. haemorrhoidalis and B. breviceps along with B. eximius and B. flavescens exhibited close relationship to each other sharing a similar type of ecological niche.

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Figure 6. Cluster analysis dendrogram of bumblebee species in the study area ((Abbreviation: sp1=B. haemorrhoidalis, sp2=B. eximius, sp3=B. flavescens, sp4=B. breviceps, sp5=B. asiaticus)

Abundance of bumblebees in different habitats Among different habitats, the highest abundance of bumblebees was observed in open grassland (58.46%) followed by forest (18.46%), vegetable farm (13.34%) and home garden (9.74%). Among all five bumblebee species, B. haemorrhoidalis was the most frequently encountered in open grassland (40.51%), vegetable farms (12.31%), home gardens (8.72%) and forest (7.69%). B. eximius was only found in forest (10.26%) and open grassland (7.69%). B. flavescens was observed in open grassland (6.15%) and forest (0.51%). B. breviceps was present in open grassland (2.56%), home garden (1.03%) and vegetable farm (0.51%). Only 1.54% and 0.51% of B. asiaticus was observed in open grassland and vegetable farm respectively.

70 58.46 60 50 40 30 18.46 13.34 20 9.74

10 Relative Abundance Relative Abundance (%) 0 Open grassland Forest Home garden Vegetable farm

Habitats

Figure 8. the relative abundance of individual Bombus species in different habitats One-way ANOVA was also performed to interpret the relationship of bumblebee abundance in different habitats. This analysis supported that the abundance of bumblebees had a significant relationship (p<0.05) with habitats (Table 1).

Factor S.S. d.f. M.S. F Cal. P-value F Crit.

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Habitats 3023.5 4 755.88 3.53 0.032 3.06 Table 1. One-way ANOVA showing the relationship between bumblebees and different habitats

Abbreviations: S.S.=Sum of Squares, d.f.=Degree of Freedom, M.S.=Mean sum of Square Fcal.=F calculated value, Fcrit.=F critical value

Relationship of bumblebees with host plant families A total of 42 plant species from 17 families were recorded in the study area. The highest bumblebee visits in order of importance received by host plant families were Asteraceae (27.18%), Lythraceae (11.28%), Convulvulaceae (10.26%), Verbenaceae (9.74%), Solanaceae (8.21%), Cucurbitaceae (7.69%) and Fabaceae (6.15%). There was lesser abundance of bumblebee visit in the following plant families: Iridaceae (4.62%), Lamiaceae (3.59%), Malvaceae (3.08%), Cannabaceae (2.56%), Apocynaceae (1.54%), Rosaceae (1.54%) and Cannaceae (1.03%). Similarly, each of three plant families viz. Plantaginaceae, Balsaminaceae and Acanthaceae recorded 0.51% bumblebees during the study. 30

10 (%) 5

Ast. Mal. Cucu. Sol. Con. Lyt. Iri. Ver. Cann. Fab. Apo. Canb. Lam. Plan. Bal. Ros. Acan. Relative Abundance Relative Abundance of bumblebees Host Plant Families

Figure 9. bumblebee abundance in different host plant families (Abbreviations: Ast. =Asteraceae, Mal.= Malvaceae, Cucu=Cucurbitaceae, Sol.=Solanaceae, Con.=Convulvulaceae, Lyt. =Lythraceae, Iri. =Iridaceae, Ver.=Verbenaceae, Cann.=Cannaceae, Fab.=Fabaceae, Apo.=Apocynaceae, Canb.=Cannabaceae, Lam.=Lamiaceae, Plan.=Plantaginaceae, Bal.=Balsaminaceae, Ros.=Rosaceae, Acan.=Acanthaceae) One-way ANOVA was performed to assess the relationship between bumblebee species and their host plant families. The result showed the significant relationship between bumblebee species and flowering host plant families (P<0.05) (Table 2). Table 2. Summary of ANOVA (One-way) showing the relationship between bumblebees and host plant families

Factor S.S. d.f. M.S. Fcal. P-value F crit.

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Plant families 711.41 4 177.85 9.47 2.55E-06 2.49

Abbreviations: S.S.=Sum of Squares, d.f.=Degree of Freedom, M.S.=Mean sum of Square Fcal=F calculated

value, Fcrit.=F critical value

Relationship of bumblebees with flower color of host plants Among seven different flower colors observed during the study, the highest frequency of bumblebee species was found in purple-colored flowers (21.03%). The flower choice of bumblebees for nectar and pollen in other different color was: blue color (17.44%), white (17.44%), pink (16.92%), yellow (9.74%), red (9.74%) and orange (7.69%).

25 21.03 20 17.44 17.44 16.92 15 9.74 9.74

10 7.69 (%) 5

Blue Red White Yellow Pink Purple Orange Relative Abundance Relative Abundance of bumblebees Flower Colors

Figure 10. The relative abundance of bumblebees and flower color of host plants The association between the abundance of the bumblebees and the flower color of host plants was further analyzed by one-way ANOVA. The result also showed the significant relationship between bumblebee species and flower colors of host plants (P<0.05) (Table 3). Table 3. Summary of ANOVA (One-way) showing the relationship between bumblebees and flower colors of

Factor S.S. d.f. M.S. Fcal. P-value F crit. Flower color 1727.71 4 431.93 17.03 2.18E-07 2.69 host plants

Abbreviations: S.S.=Sum of Squares, d.f.=Degree of Freedom, M.S.=Mean sum of Square Fcal.=F

calculated value, Fcrit.=F critical value

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Relationship of bumblebees with life cycle of host plants The result showed that 54.87% of bumblebees foraged on perennial flowering plants whereas 45.13% bumblebees foraged annual plants during the study period (Fig. 11). There was a relatively higher abundance of B. haemorrhoidalis in both annual (34.36%) and perennial host plants (34.87%). B. eximius exhibited higher preference for perennial plants (14.87%) as compared with annual plants (3.08%). Similarly, B. flavescens visited in annual plants (4.10%) and perennial host plants (2.56%). In other hand, only 3.08% of B. breviceps showed floral preference for annual plants and 1.03% in perennial plants. The least abundant species B. asiaticus was observed in perennial plants (1.54%) and annual plants (0.51%) (Fig.12)

45.13% Life cycle of plants Annual 54.87% Perennial

Figure 11. the relative abundance of bumblebees in annual and perennial flowering host plants

40 40 35 35 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15

10 10

Relative abundance Relative abundance (%) Relative Abundance Relative Abundance (%) 5 5 0 0 B. hae. B. exi. B. fla. B. bre. B. asi. B. hae. B. exi. B. fla. B. bre. B. asi. Bombus species Bombus species

Figure 12. Relative abundance of individual Bombus species in Annual plants (A) and Perennial plants (B) 206

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Discussion

Species richness and abundance of bumblebees Five bumblebee species recorded in this study area were also similar to the bumblebee species richness from eastern Bhaktapur, Nepal (Baniya 2017) and Tokha, Nepal (Dulal 2017) who recorded six and seven bumblebee species respectively. In contrast, Roka (2019) recorded 10 species from a higher altitude of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL). There are many evidences of higher species richness of bumblebees along higher altitudinal gradients (Williams et al. 2010). In this study, B. haemorrhoidalis was the most widely and commonly visited bumblebee species in flowering plants similar to the result revealed by Dayal and Rana (2007) and Chauhan et al. (2014) in India, and Bhusal et al. (2019) in Kathmandu Valley. B. haemorrhoidalis was also the most abundant Bombus pollinator at all sub-locations of Rawalakot, Pakistan (Sheikh et al. 2017) which was also with the same status in Margalla and Murree hills of Pakistan (Sheikh et al. 2014). Sinu et al. (2011) also reported it to be the most important and common pollinator at different altitudes in central Himalayas of India. Several evidences indicated the species richness and abundance of bumblebees depended on flower resources availability, plant species composition, abundance (Heinrich 1979, Williams and Osborne 2009) and their foraging distances (Elliott 2009). Previous studies in agricultural landscapes suggested that mass ﬂowering crops had a strong positive inﬂuence on bumblebee densities (Walther- Hellwig and Frankl 2000, Westphal et al. 2003). Raine et al. (2006) observed that bumblebees with a long proboscis usually visit flowers with a long corolla and bumblebees of short proboscis length are more efficient on short corolla tubes especially highly rewarding forage crops in agricultural landscapes (Walther-Hellwig and Frankl 2000) and native wildflowers (Carvell et al. 2007). Hence, the presence of long proboscis might be the one of the main reasons supporting for the higher abundance of B. haemorrhoidalis in the study area. The higher abundance of bumblebees during July, May, August and September in study area was similar to the result obtained by Sabir (2011) in agricultural habitat of Darkot, Pakistan. The presence of limited flower resources availability and initial bumblebee queen emergence for nectar collection during April, highly rainy season in June and the end of colony cycle from October resulted in comparatively lower abundance of bumblebees during these months in the study area.

Diversity and distribution of bumblebees The maximum Shannon-Weiner diversity index was for Champadevi, Macchegaun and Thankot might be due to rich natural flora and less human disturbances in natural habitats of bumblebees compared to that of Tribhuvan University area, Salyanthan, Taudaha, Langol and Chovar. The divergence in diversity indices in different locations of Southern part of Kathmandu valley, indicated uneven distribution of bumblebees throughout the Valley. The most dominant species B. haemorrhoidalis was found in six sampling sites apart from Langol and Champadevi. Similarly, B. eximius as was the most

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Biodiversity in a Changing World commonly found species in Langol and Champadevi. In other hand, B. flavescens and B. breviceps were observed more easily in Thankot and Macchegaun respectively. The least abundant bumblebee species B. asiaticus was obtained more easily in Taudaha compared to other sampling sites during the study. Chapman et al. (2003) also estimated that urban cemeteries and public parks in London supported over 50 separate bumblebee colonies and concluded that urban habitats support large bumblebee populations. The abundance of some bumble bees in urbanized landscapes may partially be due to the diversity and abundance of floral resources in gardens (Owen 1991) and other urban green spaces (Chapman et al. 2003). Therefore, the distribution of bumblebees in different sampling sites also showed that urbanized areas can also support a diverse group of bumblebee species providing with suitable host plants in properly managed habitats. In this study, the higher abundance of bumblebee species in open grassland with sufficient perennial flowering plants matched with result obtained by Raina et al. (2019); because in addition to providing abundant floral resources, grasslands also provide nest sites for bumblebee queens, which generally prefer withered grasses and tussocks as a nesting substrate (Svennson et al. 2000). Such nesting habitats have been limited in agricultural landscapes as a result of mechanical disturbances over large areas (Hines and Hendrix 2005). Sabir et al. (2007) has also mentioned that the semi-natural habitats provide a greater density and diversity of floral resources than farmland. The sunny and open grassland was favored by bumblebees in comparison to the closed deep and dense forests as they prefer sunshine and dry weather as compared to moist, cloudy and wet conditions. In contrast, the lower abundance of bumblebees in home gardens and vegetable farms was correlated to the negative effects of growing urbanization, use of chemical pesticides, disturbances due to anthropogenic activities and the change in floral plant community for bumblebees (Sikora et al. 2016). Croxton et al. (2002) also reported significantly higher species richness within the green lanes than on the field margins because of the difference in abundance of floral resources. Thus, floral diversity has great effect on pollinator-plant interaction and numbers of plant species are positively correlated with the diversity of pollinators and their population (Bawa 1990). Walcher et al. (2019) revealed that bumblebee species richness and richness of long-tongued species were significantly higher in managed meadows associated with total flower cover. Mallinger et al. (2016) examined the effects of landscape composition including land-cover diversity and semi-natural habitat on wild bee abundance and species richness. He found that bumblebees were more common in the open habitats, grasslands, and annual croplands. Mass- flowering crops are proved to be play important role in providing ample resources of pollen and nectar for a short time period, enhancing pollinator abundance, colony growth, and brood cell production (Holzschuh et al. 2012). Bumblebee richness was positively associated with natural areas and negatively associated with areas disturbed by human beings (McFredrick et al. 2006). Landscape and patch factors were linked with bumblebees' positive richness in meadows (Hatfield and LeBuhn 2007). Variations in response of different bumblebee species has previously been observed for different landscape and vegetation type which showed differences in such preferences with species-specific characteristics (Kells and Goulson 2003).

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Thus, the above result showed that the bumblebees prefer less disturbed habitats with sufficient floral resources for nectar and pollen collection.

Host plant preferences of bumblebees Plants belonging to Asteraceae family was proved to be the most visited floral host plants by bumblebees as shown in Margalla and Murree hills, Naran-Kaghan valley (Sheikh et al. 2014, 2015) and in other Northern areas of Pakistan (Suhail et al. 2009). Raina et al. (2019) also observed the highest population of bumblebees in Asteraceae followed by Scrophulariaceae, Lamiaceae and Papilionaceae. In this study, the plants visited by bumblebees for nectar and pollens also belonged to Iridaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Convulvulaceae, Cannaceae, Cannabaceae, Plantaginaceae, Rosaceae, Acanthaceae and Balsaminaceae. The most commonly visited plants included Cirsiumfalconeri, C. arvense, Cupheaprocumbens, Solanumviarum, Gladiolus sp., Lantana camara and Duranta erecta. From cultivated plant species Helianthus annuus, Cucumis sativus, Cucurbita pepo, Vigna unguiculata, Luffa cylindrica, Tagetes sp. Solanum melongena, S. betaceum and Abelmoschus esculentus were also recorded as host plants of bumblebees in the study area. Non-crop habitat resulting from natural regeneration provided good foraging habitat for bumblebee species, but most of the key forage species were pernicious weeds of agriculture (Cirsium spp.) similar to the result of a study by Pywell et al. (2005). In contrast, Baniya (2017) found that Verbenaceae plants were most frequently visited by bumblebees in Bhaktapur district. Dulal (2017) showed the preference of bumblebees for Rosaceae family in Tokha whereas Roka (2019) mentioned the highest number of bumblebees in host plants of Oleaceae family in CHAL. Previous works found bumblebee richness and abundance to be highest in sown Fabaceae patches (Goulson et al. 2015, Carvell et al. 2007) and suggested that pollen of Fabaceae is relatively rich in protein (Hanley et al. 2008). Iserbyt et al. (2008) also found that the most visited ﬂower families by bumblebees were Fabaceae (Trifolium, Vicia), Scrophulariaceae (Rhinanthus), Asteraceae (Centaurea, Carduus), Lamiaceae (Sideritis, Thymus, Prunella), Onagraceae (Epilobium), Apiaceae (Eryngium) and Ericaceae (Rhododendron) in Eyne Valley, France. Sheikh et al. (2014) also found that the most commonly visited plant family by B. haemorrhoidalis was Asteraceae. According to Comba et al. (1999), most of short-tongued bumblebees (B. terrestris, B. lucorum, B. lapidarius, B. pratorum) collected nectar from Asteraceae. The present study also pointed out that Asteraceae was also a nectar source for both long-tongued bumblebee (B. haemorrhoidalis) and short-tongued species (B. eximius). Sikora et al. (2016) found the variation of flower choices among seven bumblebee species having different tongue length in Wroclaw Botanical garden showing the highest degree of preference for the Lamiaceae family. Thus, the shape and length of the flower tube are correlated with the length of the tongue (Inouye 1980). The potential of plants representing the Fabaceae and Asteraceae families was also appreciated by bumblebees in the urban areas of Great Britain (Blackmore and Goulson 2014).

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Considering plants representing different life cycles, perennial plants were mostly visited by bumblebees in this study probably due to their ability to produce more nectar and pollens based on their longer growth periods; as similar to the result of Hicks et al. (2016). According to Dramstad (1996) and Corbet et al. (1994), some bumblebee species nesting in different kinds of above-ground holes, bird nests, etc. prefer perennial dicotyledonous ﬂowering plants as their food resource. Flowers abundance was regarded as a better predictor of bumblebee richness and activity than plant species richness (Hegland and Boeke 2006) as bees react to nectar influx with their increased foraging activity (Pelletier and McNeil 2004) with their regular arrival and departure schedules (Williams and Thomson 1998). Choice of flowers as minor, medium or major source of visitation by these bumblebees might be due to variation of sucrose concentration to decrease their foraging time with maximum reward (Cnaani et al. 2006).

Flower color preferences of bumblebees In this study, bumblebees exhibited the highest preference for purple colored flowers while there was the least abundance of bumblebees in orange colored flowers as shown by Eidesen et al. (2017). Briscoe and Chittka (2001) and Raine et al. (2006) also supported the flower preference of bumblebees for blue spectrum of visible light (400–500 nm) by direct observations of bumblebees' pollinating behavior. The presence of higher number of bumblebees in blue colored flowers was due to their innate preference for blue flowers (Simonds and Plowright 2004, Raine and Chittka 2007). The attraction for more insect visitors in blue colored flowers is also associated with the presence high amount of sugar availability than in other colored flowers (Dyer and Chittka 2004). Miller (1981) also found that a higher seed set of blue flowers in Central Colorado has been associated with years of high bumblebee abundance. In contrast, Bhusal et al. (2019) documented the highest variation of all six bumblebee species from the yellow-colored flowers and the least variation of bumblebees represented in the blue- colored flowers. An interesting fact is that B. lapidarius clearly prefers yellow colored flowers (Sikora et al. 2019). Unusually large proportions of white and yellow flowers present in the high Arctic of Canada, along with low abundances of ultraviolet (UV)-reflecting flowers (Kevan et al. 2001) had been considered to the paucity of Bombus species and prevalence of Diptera in that region (Willmer 2011). Similarly, bumblebees of Wroclaw botanical garden found pink and purple, lipped, capitular globular, and saucer-shaped flowers to be most attractive (Sikora and Kelm 2012). Thus, these results showed the variation in the floral preference of bumblebee species in this study area.

Conclusion The monthly variation of bumblebees across different habitats, higher abundance in Asteraceae family host plants and blue colored flowers showed their diverse floral host range for nectar and pollens collection. The findings of this study demonstrated that open grassland and forests are suitable habitats as a refuge to bumblebees. The presence of the highest abundance of bumblebees in grassland is correlated to mosaic and diverse plant communities with less anthropogenic modifications.

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Agroecosystems such as vegetable farms as well as home gardens shared a lot more species in common with each of the natural habitats. However, the occurrence of lesser diversity and abundance of bumblebees in agricultural lands indicated the gradual decline of bumblebees due to change in land use pattern, habitat degradation, monoculture, use of chemical pesticides and decline in plant diversity along with growing urbanization in the study area. Furthermore, perennial plants supported higher abundance of bumblebees than annual plant communities due to a constant availability of nectar and pollen content in perennial plants. The variation in the diversity and abundance of bumblebees in different sampling sites demonstrated the uneven distribution of bumblebees in the study area. This study implies the need of multi-crop farming and preserving as many natural habitats as possible to attract bumblebees and benefit both cultivated and wild plant production. An assessment on similar lines is needed to understand important insect pollinators such as bumblebee diversity occupying natural and arable habitats in different regions of the world. Acknowledgements: Thanks go to National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory, Lalitpur for host plant identification. I am also thankful to my family and friends for their kind support.

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Williams, N. M. and Thomson, J.D. 1998. Trap line foraging by bumble bees: III. Temporal patterns of visitation and foraging success at single plants. Behavioral. Ecology 9:612–621. Williams, P. and Jepsen, S. 2017/2018. IUCN SSC Bumblebee Specialist Group Report. Williams, P.H. 1998. An annotated checklist of bumble bees with an analysis of patterns of description (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Bombini). Bulletin of Natural History Museum London (Entomol.) 67:79–152. Williams, P.H. 2007. The distribution of bumblebee color patterns world-wide: possible significance for thermoregulation, crypsis, and warning mimicry. Biological Journal Linnean Society 92:97–118. Williams, P.H. and Osborne, J.L. 2009. Bumblebee vulnerability and conservation worldwide. Apidologie (Celle) 40:367–387. Williams, P.H., Ito, M., Matsumura, T. and Kudo, I. 2010. The bumblebees of the Nepal Himalaya (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Research gate. New series 66:115–151. Willmer, P. 2011. Pollination and floral ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA. pp 7–17.

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Shifting habitats of the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park of Nepal

Prayag Raj Kuikel* and Khadga Basnet

Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The recent changes in the population of greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) has been attributed to many factors including habitat conversion, fragmentation, indiscriminate burning, human encroachment, infestation of weeds and climate change. With the objectives of exploring shifting habitats of rhinoceros, we examined abundance and distribution, population, and habitat conditions in different time periods and areas of Chitwan National Park of central Nepal using periodic rhinoceros census data, field observation, geographical information system and remote sensing. Data analysis showed that the rhinoceros in the park have been shifting from the east to the west with high a population from Sukibhar to Tiger Tops area. Population of rhinoceros would be increased from 605 in 2015 to 645 in 2020 and exceeding 700 in 2025 in the CNP. Changing habitats of the park has influenced abundance, distribution and population of rhinoceros over time. We found that land cover has significantly (χ2=271.87, α=0.05) changed over time and influenced habitat utilization of R. unicornis in Chitwan Valley. Interestingly, we found that preferred habitat of R. unicornis significantly (χ2=410.21, α=0.05) different in Chitwan Valley and, preferably habitat is sparse forest/grasslands and river beds. Unfortunately, shifting habitats of R. unicornis are also attributed by climate change and infestation of weeds like Mikania micrantha in the Chitwan valley. Our findings are expected to aid in developing and implementing effective strategies to protect rhinoceros and their potential habitats in Chitwan National Park and other rhinoceros occurring areas. Keywords: Field survey, One –horned rhinoceros, River beds, Spatial distribution, Sparse forests

Introduction Understanding abundance and distribution of wildlife species is the primary step for its protection in natural habitats that are changing rapidly all over the world (Dinerstein 2003). Various factors including habitat conversion, fragmentation, and human encroachment are responsible for such change that has become a driving force for habitat shifting of wildlife species (Hutson 2005). The greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) of the Chitwan National Park (CNP) of Nepal is a good example of habitat shifting of wildlife species due to habitat changes over time. Data generated through periodic rhino counts (Rhino count 1994; DNPWC 2000, 2005, 2015) and surveys (DNPWC 2008, 2012)

216 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 have clearly indicated such phenomenon in CNP. The purpose of this paper is to document spatial distribution indicating habitat shifting of rhinoceros and causatives factors in CNP. Worldwide, only five species of rhinoceros are surviving in Africa and Asia. The Population of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are in vulnerable condition in Africa (Dinerstein 2003; Emslie et al. 2007; Patton et al. 2007; Talukdar et al. 2009; Talukdar 2013). There are less than 65 Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and less than 85 Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in the protected areas of Java and Sumatra respectively (Patton et al. 2007, Talukdar 2013). Similarly, less than 3300 greater one-horned rhinoceros (henceforth rhinoceros) have been recorded from Nepal, India and Pakistan. Kaziranga National Park of India has the largest rhinoceros population of 2330 individuals (Laurie 1978; Dinerstein 2003; Talukdar 2013). In Nepal, more than 645 rhinoceros have been recorded from three national parks: Bardia, Chitwan and Shuklaphanta. CNP holds the biggest population of rhinoceros with more than 600 individuals (DNPWC 2015). Before the establishment of CNP in 1973, the population of the rhinoceros declined drastically from around 800 rhinoceros in 1950 to less than 100 in 1960 in the whole Chitwan valley of Nepal (Gee 1960, Gee 1962, Laurie 1978). This is due to a massive human migration from hillside to lowland of Chitwan valley after malaria control that destroyed most of the habitats of rhinoceros for the settlement of the hill migrants and their agriculture. After the establishment of CNP, population of the rhinoceros increased to 310 in 1975 (Laurie 1978), 358 in 1990 (Dinerstein & Price 1991), 466 in 1994 (Yonzon 1994), and 544 in 2000 (DNPWC 2000). Unfortunately, a decade long armed conflict accompanied with accelerated poaching resulted decline in the population of rhinoceros to 372 in 2005 (DNPWC 2005). With an improvement in the political situation of the country, populations of the rhinoceros started to revive from 408 in 2008 (DNPWC 2008) to 503 in 2012 (DNPWC 2012) and 605 in 2015 (DNPWC 2015, Subedi et al. 2017). Rhinoceros were distributed in small patches of riverine plains of Reu, Rapti and Narayani rivers in CNP (Laurie 1978; Dinerstein 1988). Dinerstein and Price (1991) recognized four distinct subpopulations of rhinoceros in CNP: the Sauraha, the Bandarjhola-Narayani river, the west, and the south. The Sauraha had the highest number of rhinoceros from 1970s to 1990s (Laurie 1978, Dinerstein & Price 1991). Similarly, tall grassland and riverine forest in the western part of the park had the highest number of rhinoceros during 2005-2015 (DNPWC 2005, 2010, 2015). The Sauraha and the western subpopulations were separated by sal forests in between the two areas (Laurie 1978; Dinerstein 1988). The Sauraha subpopulation is bounded by non-rhinoceros habitatsin the east, north and south of CNP. However, a 12 km long narrow strip of riverine grassland forest in the western side facilitated outmigration of the species (Kafley et al. 2009; Subedi et al. 2017). In order to understand the habitat shifting of rhinoceros, we examined abundance and spatial distribution of the rhinoceros over time in CNP. Abundance and distribution of wild animals are determined by habitats – food, water, shelter, and also associated species. Long tracts of riverine forests-Saccharum spontaneum along beds of the Rapti river are prime habitats of wild ungulates including rhinoceros. These species of riverine forests and Saccharum spontaneum in the Chitwan Valley regenerate

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Biodiversity in a Changing World in all seasons after burning, grass cutting, grazing and inundation of flood (Dinerstein 2003). This research would generate information on changing habitats of rhinoceros, population/subpopulation status, and spatial distribution in CNP over time. Our objectives were to examine abundance and distribution of rhinoceros together with their habitat conditions in CNP.

Materials and methods

Study area The study area is CNP, which is situated in the southern central part of Nepal (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 932 km2 in the subtropical lowlands of the inner tarai. The study was concentrated mainly in floodplain riverine grassland created by the Rapti, Narayani and Reu rivers, which harbors a healthy population of tiger (Panthera tigris) and is one of the prey abundant areas in central Tarai region. It was gazetted as the country's first national park in 1973. UNESCO listed CNP a World Heritage Site in 1984. In 1996, an area of 750 km2surrounding the park was declared a buffer zone, which consists habitats of rhinoceros. The park consists of diverse ecosystems-including the churia hill, sal forests, mixed deciduous forests, riverine forests, tall grasslands and wetlands. The park is bounded by Parsa National Park (PNP) in the east, Rapti river in the north, Narayani river in the west, and Reu river, Someshwor hill and Indian border in the south. The average annual temperature is 25˚C but it rises as high as 43˚C during March-June. The monsoon season that brings a heavy rainfall followed by flood usually starts from June and ends in September.

Figure 1. Map of Chitwan National Park showing the study area

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Shifting habitats of the greater one-horned rhinoceros Data on distribution and population of rhinoceros were collected from previous studies (e.g., Laurie 1978; Dinerstein & Price 1991; Jnawali 1995; Dinerstein 2003; Subedi 2012; Subedi et al. 2013; 2017) and Periodic rhino counts (Rhino count 1994; DNPWC 2000 2005 2015) and surveys (DNPWC 2008, 2012). Field observations were carried in total area of 470.2 km2 of potential rhinoceros habitats both inside and outside (Buffer zone) the national park. Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) identified and divided this area into 16 blocks (Fig. 2). During April 15 to May 30, 2016, we searched rhinoceros in these blocks with the assistance of wildlife technicians of DNPWC to verify the status (abundance, distribution and population) of rhinoceros recorded from previous studies and periodic rhino counts. Most rhinoceros can be identified individually from their features such as horn shape, skin fold, and body marks (Laurie 1983; Dinerstein & Price 1991). We recorded sighting locations of rhinoceros directly in the east and west area; and indirectly in Island of Narayani river by counting dung piles. Repeated sighting locations of the same individual are discarded. Sighting locations are digitized in map (1: 25000) using Arc GIS 10.2.2 with help of satellite land cover data. In the field, we used binoculars to observe and count rhinoceros from distance, a 1:25,000 topography maps for locating the areas of sightings in different habitats. Global positioning system (GPS) points of all rhinoceros sighted areas were taken. We covered 95% potential rhinoceros habitats by elephant riding canoe riding in the Rapti river from Icharni Island to Reu-Rapti junction and walking on riverine grassland of intensive study area. We used GIS software ARC/INFO and remote sensing software ERDS IMAGE to analyze spatial distribution pattern of rhinoceros. We created a base map (1:25000) by digitizing contour lines in each 10m. The locations where rhinoceros were observed were digitized into the base map and ARC point coverage of rhinoceros’s distribution was then created. Our data obtained from the field survey and GIS were tallied with the ‘rhino count sweeping operation’ conducted from 11April 11 to 2 May 2015 by DNPWC and Department of Forests (DoF) in collaboration with WWF Nepal and National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) in CNP, Bardia National Park (BNP), Shuklaphanta National Park (SPNP) and their Tarai ARC Landscape (TAL). We applied arithmetical increase method to predict population of rhinoceros. This method uses the past censes data and calculates the average increase in population per decade. The calculated average increase is added to the present population to estimate the population of the next decade. This method gives lower population estimate than actual number because it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate. Hence, dp/dt =c, i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant. Therefore,

th Population after n decade will be Pn= P + n.

Where, Pn is the population after ‘n’ decades and ‘P’ is present population. We verified habitats condition of rhinoceros in CNP through ground observation and data collected from previous studies and geospatial images of periodic landsat images of 1993, 2000, 2010 and 2014.

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Figure 2. Map showing survey blocks (1-16) in CNP and its buffer zone (Source: DNPWC 2012) Effect of cover change on habitat of rhinoceros was determined by percentage of sighting location of rhinoceros in different habitats and landuse change pattern of these habitats with reference to field observation, GIS and satellite data. Data were analyzed using Chi-Square test. Infestation of Mikania micrantha was assessed through circular plots in rhinoceros potential area demarcated by DNPWC (2012) included only Rapti's river beds, adjacent riverine forests and grassland of 1 km wide apart north to south.

Results

Abundance and distribution The main rhinoceros abundant areas were Khagendramali, Amrite, Kuchkuche, Icharny, Marchauli, Forests-1, 2, 3, Kharshar, Barandabhar Corridor, Dumaria, LamiTaal area; Sukibhar, Rapti-Reu junction, Tiger Tops, Khorimuhan, Tempal Tiger; Bandarjhola, Narayani river, Tamsapur, in order from the east to west and other areas respectively in CNP. We recorded 807 sighting locations of rhinoceros in the study area. Out of them 179 were in the east, 452 in the west and 166 in the other areas. The highest sighting locations were in Sukibhar to Reu-Rapti junction, a part of the western area (Fig. 3). We recorded 249 rhinoceros in the western area, 134 in the eastern area and 117 in other area of CNP (Table 1). Rhinoceros were mostly distributed in the beds of Rapti and Narayani rivers. 220

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In 1980, there were reported 186 rhinoceros in the eastern area and only 59 in the western area. After 10 years in 1990, 228 were in the eastern area and 72 were in the western area. In 2000, number of rhinoceros was increased to 326 in the eastern area and 169 in the western area. After that, the number of rhinoceros was increasing in the western area showing only 111 in the eastern area and 305 rhinoceros in the western area in 2010. In 2015, DNPWC recorded increasing number as 134 rhinoceros in the eastern area and 349 in the western. Application of arithmetical increase method on the past data showed population of rhinoceros would be 131 with average increment 7.25 in the eastern area, 391 with average increment 83.5 in the western area and 128 with average increment 21.25 in the other areas of CNP by the year 2020 (Fig. 4). With these average increments, populations will exceed 700 by the year 2025. Table1. Population of greater one-horned rhinoceros in Chitwan National Park over time. Year Area East West Other 1980 (Laurie 1983) 186 59 46 1990 (Dinerstein and Price 1991) 228 72 40 2000 (Rhino count 2000, Dinerstein 2003) 326 169 33 2010 (DNPWC 2012, Subedi et al. 2013) 111 305 83 2015(DNPWC 2015) 134 349 117 2020(Predicted) 131 391 128

Figure 3. Population of rhinoceros in different habitats of CNP.

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450 400 350 300 1980 1990 250 2000 200 2010 150 2015 100 2020 50 0 East West Other

Figure 4. Population of rhinoceros in the east (Sauraha area), the west (Sukibhar to Temple Tiger) and Other (Bandharjhola-Narayani River)

Populations trend Data showed four distinct scenarios about population trend of rhinoceros in CNP. First scenario was drastically decreasing phase from 800 in 1950 to <100 in 1962. Second scenario was gradually increasing phase from <200 in 1972, 310 in 1978, 358 in 1988, 466 in 1994, to 544 in 2000. Third scenario was short decreasing phase and number declined to 372 in 2005. Fourth scenario was increasing phase as 408 in 2008 503 in 2012 and 605 in 2015. Analysis of data of past predicted that population of rhinoceros will continue to increase and exceeding 650 by the year 2020, and 700 by the year 2025 (Fig. 5).

900 800 800 650 700 605 600 544 503 500 446 372 408 400 358 310 300 200 200 100 100 0 1950 1962 1972 1978 1988 1994 2000 2005 2008 2012 2015 2020

Figure 5. Population of rhinoceros in Chitwan National Park over time.

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Habitat conditions Study found that 68% dense forest, 9% sparse forest/grassland, 8% river beds, 2% river area, 8% bushes, and 4% barren land in CNP (Table 2). Sparse forests, river beds and river area were high in the western area. Land cover change pattern are significantly (x2=271.87, α=0.05) different in CNP and surrounding area over time. Infestation of Mikania micrantha was 23.3% in the eastern area and 18.3% in the western area. Study showed that infestation of Mikania micrantha was high orderly in the river beds, riverine forest and grassland We found that 49% sighting locations of rhinoceros in sparse forest/ grassland, 38% in river beds, 10% in river area and 3% in dense forests (Table 2). Preferred habitats of rhinoceros were river beds and oxbow lakes for wallowing, grassland for grazing, and sparse forests for browsing. During the monsoon, they stayed in forests to protect themselves from flooding and visited agriculture land during winter. The most preferred habitats of rhinoceros were grassland dominated by Saccharum spontaneum. We found that preferred habitat as river beds and sparse forests interspersed with long tracts of grassland increased in the western area. Distribution of rhinoceros increased in different areas of the western area (e.g., Sukibhar, Reu-Rapti junction, Tiger Tops, Temple Tiger) of CNP over time. The highest population of rhinoceros was in Sukibhar to Tiger Tops area which supports pure stands of Saccharum spontaneum and proximity to Rapti river. Table 2. Sighting location of rhinoceros in different habitats of CNP Habitats types Land cover Sighting location of Inference rhinoceros

Dense forests 68% 3% Sparse forests/grassland 9% 49% Highest sighting location River beds 8% 38% River 2% 10% Bushes 8% Nil Barren land 4% Nil

Discussion

Abundance and distribution In CNP, rhinoceros were abundant in large tracts of Saccharum spontaneum grassland (e.g., Forests-1, 2, Dumria, Ghatgai- Lami Taal, Sukibhar, Tiger Tops, and Temple Tiger). Areas covered mainly by Narenga porphyracoma (e.g., Bhimpur, Ichani,Bhimle, Badit Camp) and Themeda arundinacea along the edge of sal forests ( e.g., Jerneli, Kachuwani, Simalchaur) supported low abundant of rhinoceros. Areas with the lowest abundant lay farthest from the Rapti river and included the most sal forests (e.g., Amrite, Gaur Machan, Thapalia Machan, and Bikrababa Temple). Areas near Rapti river (e.g., Padampur, Forest-3, Reu-Rapti junction) supported highest abundant of rhinoceros. Abundant of wild animals is attributed by richness of habitat resource. Several studies on rhinoceros revealed that they are mostly abundant in large tract of Saccharum- riverine floodplain and proximity to the Rapti river 223

Biodiversity in a Changing World in CNP (Dinerstein 2003). Data before 2000 showed that rhinoceros were abundant in Kagendramali, Icharni, Patch (1,2,3). Since 2000, number of rhinoceros has been increasing in the western region and most abundant area has been identified such as Sukibhar, Reu-Rapti junction, Tiger tops and Temple Tiger. These areas support pure mono stands of Saccharum spontaneum (DNPWC 2016). Research has recorded reverse condition over time in CNP that is in earlier periods (1950 to 2000), 46% rhinoceros has distributed in different parts of the eastern area (Laurie 1978, Dinerstein 2003) and after 2000 to now, 48% rhinoceros has been concentrating in different parts of the western area in CNP (DNPWC 2005, 2008, 2012, Subedi et al. 2017). Some factors like flood, infestation of weeds, poaching, translocation for viable population influenced abundance and distribution of rhinoceros in CNP. Severe flood of 1994, 2003, 2008, 2017 after establishment of 9 km dykes from Lothar to Kumrose has been swept wildlife including rhinoceros. In 2017, DNPWC rescued 10 rhinoceros after huge flood (e.g., Nurendra Aryal, former information officer of DNPWC, Chitwan). Annual flood retreated vegetation and distribution of oxbow lakes in CNP (Dinerstein 2003, Subedi et al. 2017). After the establishment of dykes, such phenomenon stopped in the east area of CNP. Infestation of invasive species such as Mikania micrantha, Lantana camera decouple with climate change has been degrading habitat of wildlife. Rhinoceros potential area of the eastern area has infested 48% by Mikania micrantha over 27 years. It has been competing for nutrient and sunlight with rhinoceros's preferred food species and its heavy infestation has also causesd vegetative succession in wetland land (Subedi et al. 2017). These are main habitats of rhinoceros for regulation body temperature and protection from insects (Dinerstein 2003). 171 rhinoceros has poached during this time period. 48% poaching were noticed from the Sauraha (DNPWC 2012). 103 rhinoceros were translocated during 1986 to 2017 for reintroduction and captive breeding. Out of them, 96 were from the Sauraha’s population (Dinerstein 1988, DNPWC 2005, 2008, 2012, Subedi et al. 2017). Huge poaching and translocation process has disturbed rhinoceros in original territories and they searched new area (Subedi et al. 2017). It is also supported by current distribution pattern of rhinoceros in CNP. Now rhinoceros are concentrated in the gorges of Someshor hill after translocation of 13 rhinoceros from Sukibhar area in 2017.

Population trend With expectation of recovery of rhinoceros as 394 in the western area, 131 in the eastern area and 128 in the other area of CNP by 2020; Our study has recorded 391 rhinoceros in the western area, 134 in the eastern area and 117 in other area of CNP. The increase in number of rhinoceros since 1962's to 2000 and 2008's to 2016 demonstrate that population could be rapidly recovered from heavy poaching when provided with sufficient habitats and strict protection. After declining from as estimated 800 rhinoceros in 1950 to <100 rhinoceros by 1962 and from recorded 544 in 2000 to 372 in 2005, when land clearing for hill migrants, heavy poaching and compromising protection declined the population, CNP population has increased by 544 individuals in 2000 and 600 animals in 2016. Research predict that the CNP population will continue to increase by at least another 45 individuals to a population since exceeding 650 by the year 2020 and at least another 55 individuals to a population since exceeding 700 by the year 2025. The recovery of wild animals secure risk condition: at the time of compromising 224

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 protection from 2000 to 2005, population has decreased (DNPWC 2005). Similar recovery history was recorded in Kaziranga's rhinoceros, Kenya's black and Umfolozi's white rhinoceros (Amin et al. 2006, Emslie et al. 2007, Talukdar 2013).

Habitat condition Our study noticed that rhinoceros has been shifted toward the western area of CNP over time after preferred habitats has been significantly coincided in these areas. Annual flood has been changing course of river, regenerate oxbow lakes and retreat vegetation. Climate change and infestation of invasive species like Mikania micrantha has modified wetland. These are critical habitat of rhinoceros in CNP (Dinerstein 2003, Thapa et al. 2014). With decreasing sparse forests/grassland over CNP and, deceasing river beds and river in the eastern area; increasing river beds and river in the western area of CNP, population of rhinoceros has been increased in western area. However, the grasslands in Chitwan are rapidly converting to woodland and has also infested by invasive weeds like Mikania micrantha (DNPWC 2010, Subedi 2012, Murphy et al. 2013). Human induced activities such as threats of poaching during political unstable period, translocation of rhinoceros for viable population in historical area, over grazing, grass cutting has been increasing in the eastern area of CNP (Dinerstein 2003, DNPWC 2012, Subedi et al. 2017). Population of rhinoceros has been increased on Sukibhar to Temple Tiger over time. Subpopulation of Kagendramali area has separately counted by Laurie (1978) but Dinerstein (1984) has counted rhinoceros's population of these areas along with subpopulation of Sauraha area due to shifting of population of rhinoceros from Kagendramali to Sauraha area. This shifting has been continuing towards Sukhibar to Temple Tiger area from Sauraha area.

Conclusions Abundance and distribution pattern of rhinoceros have been changed in CNP over time. Until the 1950s, rhinoceros were common in flood plain of Rapti, Reu and Narayani river. After the establishment of CNP in 1973, distribution of rhinoceros concentrated on the south to the Rapti river and island of the Narayani river. With increasing preferred habitats of rhinoceros such as sparse forests/grassland and river beds in the western area, rhinoceros has been shifted from the eastern area to the western area. Therefore, population of the west has been increased since 2000. Now high population of rhinoceros is living in Sukibhar to Tiger Tops in CNP. This shifting is attributed by habitat conversion, fragmentation, poaching, indiscriminate burning, infestation of weeds and climate change.

Acknowledgements We thank the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation for permission to carry out this study and the former chief warden of Chitwan National Park, Mr. Ram Chandra Kadel, and his staff for practical assistance during the field work.

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References Amin, R., Okita-Ouma, B., Adcock, K., Emslie, R., Mulama, M. and Pearce-Kelly, P. 2006. An integrated management strategy for the conservation of eastern black rhinoceros diceros bicornis michili in Kenya. International Zoololgy Year Book 40:118–129. Dinerstein, E. 1988. Ecology of Rhinos influence of Rhinos on landscape process. Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington DC, USA. Dinerstein, E. and Price, L. 1991. Demography and Habitat use by Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros in Nepal. Journal of Wildlife Management 55:401–411. Dinerstein, E. 2003. The Return of the Unicornis, Columbia University Press, New York, USA. DNPWC, 2000. Rhino count 2000 initial report. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. DNPWC, 2005. Annual Reports. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. DNPWC, 2008. The status and distribution of the greater one-horned rhino in Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. DNPWC, 2012. The Status and distribution of the greater one horned Rhino in Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. DNPWC, 2015. Rhino count sweeping operation. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. DNPWC, 2016. Grassland habitat mapping in Chitwan National Park. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Emslie, R. H., Milledge, S., Brooks, M., Vanstrien, N. and Dublin, H. T. 2007. African and Asian Rhinoceros – Status, Conservation and Trade. Cop 14, Doc.54. CITES Secretariat, Geneva, Switzerland. Gee, E. P. 1960. Report on a survey of the Rhinoceros area of Nepal. Oryx 5:67–76. DOI: 10.1017/S0030605300000326. Gee, E. P. 1963. Report on a brief survey of the wildlife resources of Nepal, including rhinoceros. Oryx 7:67–76. DOI:10.1017/S0030605300002416. Huston, M. A. 2005. The three phases of land-use change: implications for biodiversity, Ecological Applications 6:1864- 1878. Jnawali, S. R. 1995. Population Ecology of greater one horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) with particular emphasis on habitat preference, food ecology and ranging behavior of a reintroduced population in Royal Bardiya National Park in Low land Nepal. A doctor scientiarum thesis submitted to Agricultural University of Norway, As Norway, 129. Kafley, H., Khadka, M. and Sharma, M. 2009. Habitat evaluation and suitability modeling of Rhinoceros unicornis in Chitwan National Park, Nepal: A geospatial approach. XIII World Forestry Congress. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Laurie, W. A. 1978. The Ecology of the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros. Ph.D. dissertation; University of Cambridge, Cambridge UK. Laurie, W. A. 1983. Behavioural ecology of greater one-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoology 196:307–341. Murphy, S. T., Subedi, N., Jnawali, S. R., Lamichhane, B. R., Upadhyaya, G. P., Cock, R. and et al. 2013. Invasive Mikania in Chitwan National Park, Nepal: Threat to the Indian rhinoceros and factors driving the invasion. Oryx 47:361–368. Patton, F., Campbell, P. and Parfet, E. 2007. Establishing a monitoring system for black Rhinoceros in the Solio Game Reserve, central Kenya. Pachyderm 43:87–95.

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Subedi, N. 2012. Effect of Mikania micrantha on the demography, habitat use, and nutrition of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. PhD dissertation. Forest Research Institute University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 209 pp. Subedi, N., Jnawali, S. R., Dhakal, M., Pradhan, N. M. B., Lamichane, B. R., Malla, S. and et al. 2013. Population status, structure and distribution of greater one-horned Rhinoceros in Nepal. Oryx 47:352–360. Subedi, N., Lamichane, B. R., Amin, R., Jnawali, S. R. and Jhala, Y. V. 2017. Demography and Viability of the largest population of one-horned rhinoceros in Nepal. Global Ecology and Conservation 12:241–252. Talukdar, B. K., Emslie, R., Bist, S. S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B. S. and et al. 2009. Rhinoceros unicornis. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.Version 2015.3. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Talukdar, B. N. 2013. Asian rhino specialist group report. Pachyderm 53:25–27. Thakur, S., Upreti, C. and Jha, K. 2014. Nutrient analysis of grasses species consumed by Greater One -Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. J. Applied Science and Technology 2:402– 408. Thapa, V., Miguel, F. and Limbu, K. P. 2014. An Analysis of the habitat of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) at the Chitwan National Park Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa 6:6313–6325. Yonzon, P. 1994. Count Rhino 1994. Report Series No. 10, WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu.

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Study on habitat status of red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Sinja, Jumla, Nepal

Purushottam Jaishi* and Narayan Prasad Koju

Nepal Engineering College, Center for Postgraduate studies, Pokhara University, Prayagpokhari, Lalitpur *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In Nepal, the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) has been sparsely studied, although its range covers a wide area. The present study was carried out in the previously untapped Jumla district which is situated in Karnali Province with an aim to study habitat status. Extensive field surveys conducted in Sinja rural municipality of red panda range were used to estimate species distribution by presence-absence occupancy modeling and to predict ecology by presence-only modeling. The presence of red pandas was recorded in three community forest: Badathum CF and Siyalamul CF. The predictive distribution model indicated that 15 Km of potential red panda habitat is available in study area. The habitat suitability analysis based on the encounter rate (ER=1) of the total potential habitat is highly suitable. Red Panda occupancy was estimated to be around 1.0, indicating nearly 5% (25 km2) of the total habitat is occupied. Based on the habitat use analysis, altogether eight variables including elevation, proximity to water sources and threats analysis were observed to have significant roles in the ecology and habitat of red pandas. In addition, 10 tree species were documented from red panda sign plots out of 15 species recorded in the survey area. Most common was Betula utilis followed by Rhododendron spp. and Abies spectabilis. The extirpation of red pandas indicates a need for immediate action for the long-term conservation of this species in Jumla district. Keywords: Bamboo, Conservation, Jumla, Red panda

Introduction The word panda is derived from a Nepali dialect word nigalya ponya: nigalya is thought to come from nigalo meaning bamboo, but the source of ponya is less certain, although it may come from ponja meaning the ball of the foot or claws - making the complete meaning ‘bamboo foot’ (Glatston 2011). The name like red panda, lesser panda, shinning cat, fire fox, and fox bear are used for red panda in English. It is Reddish-brown color on fur on the upper parts and blackish on the lower part looks exactly the same color as of moss and lichen found on the trees where they live. This camouflages them from predators. Its body length ranges from 50 to 64 cm where as its tail length 28 to 59 cm. Its weight is about 6 kg (Male-3.7 to 6.2 kg and Female 4.2 to 6 kg). Long bushy tail helps red pandas to balance while climbing down the trees. The tail’s 12 to 18 alternating rings also provide excellent camouflage.

228 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020

Individual red panda can be identified by their tail rings and facial markings (Shrestha et al. 2015). However, red panda has no sexual dimorphism in color or size (Roberts & Gittleman 1984) Ailurus fulgens fulgens has sparse distribution in temperate and sub-alpine forest zones of the Himalayan ecosystem between 2000 m and 4800 m in Nepal (Baral & Shah 2008). Red panda is a small crepuscular, arboreal mammal living in temperate forests with abundant bamboo in the under-storey. Red panda prefers to live in forests close to water sources (within 100-200 m) and with moderate tree canopy (>30%) and bamboo cover (>37%) where an average bamboo height should be more than 2.9 (Yonzon et al. 1991; Pradhan et al. 2001; Williams 2006; Dorji et al. 2012). They also prefer gentle to steep slopes with fallen logs, tree stumps, and snags (Zhang et al. 2008; Dorji et al. 2012). Red panda also shows a preference for north, north-west and south-west aspect slopes (Yonzon & Hunter 1991; Pradhan et al. 2001; Dorjiet al. 2012). However, in eastern Nepal, they show a preference for south, southeast, and west slopes (Bista et al. 2016). Their elevational distribution ranges from 2200-4800 m (Roberts & Gittleman 1984). Red panda is considered to be one of the earth’s living fossils, its ancestry can be traced back in Europe during the late Oligocene – early Miocene (Peigne et al. 2005). Its ancestors were widely distributed in Eurasia and North America; but now, its distribution is confirmed in the eastern Himalayas in temperate bamboo forests in Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar and Nepal (Glatston et al. 2015). The species is now limited to temperate, conifer and adjacent broadleaf forest (Choudhary 2001) where it specializes on a diet of bamboo (Reid et al. 1991; Wei et al. 1999). Some reports support that red panda’s presence in Khaptad National Park (KNP) and Api-Nampa Conservation Area (ANCA) in far-west Nepal (Jnawali et al. 2012), recent study has marked Tila Karnali river in Kalikot district (81.660E) in Nepal as the westernmost distribution limit of red panda (Bista et al. 2016) and easternmost limit in the Minshan Mountain and Upper Min valley (1040 E) in Sichuan province, China (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1966). The estimated potential red panda habitat available in its entire distribution range varies greatly between different studies. Choudhury (2001) estimated the potential habitat of about 142,400 km2, while two other studies have suggested different area available across the entire range, e.g. 47,000 km2 (Kandel et al. 2015) and 134,975 km2 (Thapa et al. 2018). The total range-wide red panda population is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals (Glatston et al. 2015) along with captive population of 959 red panda including 610 A. f. fulgens and 349 A. f. styani outside China (pers comm. Angela Glatston 2018). The main objective of this study was to collect the data about habitat characteristics of red panda in the Sinja RM, Jumla. The objective is

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Materials and methods

Study area Jumla district is situated in Karnali Province with total area, 2531 square km. The district is surrounded by Dolpa district in the east, Kalikot district in west, Mugu district in north and Jajarkot district in south. Jumla khalanga is district headquarter of Jumla district. Jumla district is divided into 4 sub division forest, 1 municipality and 7 rural municipalities. The district can be accessed either through Surkhet to Jumla Karnali Highway (232 Km.) or via air service from Surkhet (Bhatta et al. 2014). Sinja and Patarasi rural municipality (Fig. 1) are selected for the study purpose and the detail study has been carried out in Badathum community forest Sinja- 2 Bistbada, Siyalamul community forest Sinja-2 Awasthibada and Maharudra community forest Patarasi-7, Patmara.

Figure 1. Location map of the study area Unstructured Questionnaire survey Unstructured questionnaire survey was done with local people of Siyalamul CF and Bsdsthum CF of Sinja Rural municipality of Jumla. Face to face unstructured questionnaire survey was done. This

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 method provides information about threats for red panda and its prevalence for minimization and its protection. Questionnaire survey was done to understand the view of local people towards red panda. Direct Observation Direct observation was done between 5 June to 15 June to identify the presence of red panda on that area. We recorded presence of its fecal, presence of any sign of red panda, identification of red panda presence in main road side and forest side and so on in the study area. Questionnaire survey Questionnaire survey was done with local people of gidikhola, Hanku from 5 June to 15 June to find the view of local people on red panda and their threats on that place. Face to face semi structured questionnaire survey was done by the help of local assistant with each house head. This method provides information about threats for red panda and its prevalence for minimization and its protection. Questionnaire survey was done to understand the view of local people towards red panda.

Results A map showing the habitat status of red panda in Siyalamul community forest Awasthibada (n=5) and Badathum community forest (n=4) Sinja rural municipality. It was found at log as compare to others substrates, which conclude that occupancy prefer by species from my study area is log.

Figure 2. Map showing habitat status of red panda A total of 9 indirect sightings (Scat) were found. Comparatively, red panda signs (i.e. droppings) has been encounter in Badathum CF (ER=1) in compare to others in Table 1.

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Table 1. Relative Abundance of Red panda in three CF Community No of Transect survey Transect length ER forest signs number (Km) (sign/km) Badathum CF 3 4 3 1.000 Siyalamul CF 5 4 8 0.002

Ground Rock Log Tree

Figure 3. Pie-chart indicating different substrates Red panda droppings (n=9 piles) were observed on four different substrates: tree branches, fallen logs, ground, and rock. Logs were most common for defecation (38%) followed by the tree branches (31%) and ground surface (23%). Rocks were the least preferred substrate

6 5 4 3

No ofNo sign 2 1 0 2800-300 3000-3200 3200-3400 3400-3600 3600-3800 3800+ Elevation

Figure 4. Number of signs along an elevation gradient Evidences of red pandas were observed between 2800 m to 3800+ m elevation with an average elevation of 3300.38±100 m demonstrating its significant contribution to red panda. Most of red panda signs were encounter at elevation ranges 2800 to 3000 meter from my study areas.

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6 5 4 3 2 No. No. Speciesof 1 0 Tsuga dumosa Quercus Abies spectabilis Rhododendron Betula utilis semecarpifolia arboreum Tree species

Figure 5. Tree species prefer by Red panda From our study areas, tree species (Tsuga dumosa, quercus semicarpifolia, Abies spectabilis, Rhododendraon arboreum, Betula utilis) are mostly recorded within the habitat areas of red panda.

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20 No ofNo signs 15 15 8 8 0 0-50 51-150 151-200 201-250 250+ Distance

Figure 6. Bar Diagram showing water distance from sign Red panda signs were found within a distance of zero to 250+ m from water sources with an average distance of 50m. The majority of signs (54%) were observed within less than 100 m of water sources. None of the signs were observed beyond 300 m from water sources, indicating the import of proximity to water sources for red panda distribution.

Discussion The occurrence of red panda was found only between 2800 and 3800 m elevation in the study area, whereas it was found between 3000 and 4000 m in LNP (Galston 2015), between 2800 and 3650 m in KCA (Hujc 1991), between 2800 and 3400 m in SNP, between 2600 and 3000 m in Jamuna and Mabu VDC of Illam district in Eastern Nepal (Panthi 2012), between 3000 and 3600 m in DHR (Yonzon 1969), between 3117 and 3591 m in RNP ( Kandel 2015) and between 2600 and 3600 m in the Singhalila National Park Darjeeling, India (Yonzon 1991). The Siyalamul forest of Sinja possessed

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Biodiversity in a Changing World highest percentage (ER=1) of sign evidences. This might be due to the low practice of local people in bamboo collection and less evidence of forest fire in Siyalamul forest. The sign encounter rate was considered as the tool for quantifying the abundance by different researchers. This study found average red panda sign encounter rate as 1 per hr. which is comparable to that reported by Yonzon (1991) in term of number of sign encountered per 100 hours. Red pandas are known to be habitat specialists, maintain a small home range, and are restricted to small pockets of microhabitat (Galstion 2015). In this study, red panda were found to be distributed between 2800 and 3800 m elevation with the frequency of the pellet groups increasing markedly from 2800 to 3800 m and then declining gently towards the higher elevation. No evidence of red panda’s presence was observed at the elevations <2800 m and >3800 m. Red panda preferred the altitudinal range of 2800 - 3800 m (Figure 4). In comparison, Pradhan et al. (Yonzon 1991) found red panda distributed in the entire study area in Singhalila National Park with the mean altitudinal range of 2600 - 3600 m; however distribution was relatively more abundant within an altitudinal range of 2800 - 3600 m. Karki (Dangol 2016) found that the red pandas were mostly distributed within the altitudinal range of 3000 - 3200 m of Cholangpati- Dokachet Area, Langtang National Park. However, contrary to this, Sharma and Belant (Yonzon 1969) found that, the most preferable elevation of the red panda was 3500 m and no evidences of red pandas were observed at the elevation above 3730 m. Distribution of the pellet groups within the narrow elevation range found in the present study was possibly due to the availability of habitat requirements, which is supported by the findings of Sharma and Belant (Yonzon 1969) i.e. distribution of pellet groups appeared positively associated with the abundance of bamboos Arundinaria spp. and availability of water sources. Red panda mostly preferred the steep slopes followed by escarpments/cliffs. Pradhan et al. (Yonzon 1991) mentioned the water availability as the habitat requisite for red panda, as 79% of the evidences of the red panda were at the distance 0 - 100 m from water bodies which further reflected the importance of water in its preferred habitat sites. This is supported by the observation made by multiple studies (Schaller 1994; Dorji 2012). Red panda mostly preferred the distance less than or equal to 100 m (54%), moderately preferred the distance of (101 - 200) m whereas mostly avoided the distance greater than 250+ m from the water sources in the present study area. As high as 38% of pellet groups were found on fallen logs followed by ground and tree barnches with 23% and 31% respectively. Most signs observed during the study were old and most of the evidences were found in the fallen logs, ground and tree barnches, probably the substrates were used during post monsoon and winter seasons. Similarly, Pradhan et al. (Yonzon 1991) suggested that the higher use of forest floor during monsoon was probably because the red panda was seeking bamboo shoots on the forest floors. Besides, pellet groups mostly found on the forest floor, paths on ridges and slopes, could be a mode of communication between the species as winter happens to be its mating season. The habitat of red panda is associated with the occurrence of subtropical and temperate forests with exceptional case in tropical forest of Meghalaya in India (William BH). Based on the vegetation classification given by Shrestha (Chalise 2013) the habitat of red panda in this study area falls within the temperate and subalpine forests. The preferred habitat of red panda in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve was dominated by Abies spectabilis, Rhododendron campanulatum, Betula utilis, Juniperus indica and 234

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Arundinaria spp. (Schaller 1994; Yonzon 1969). In the present study area habitat of red panda was dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia, Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis and Acer spp. Furthermore, out of nine species recorded in the study area, red panda preferred Acer spp., Betula utilis and Quercus semecarpifolia where as it randomly used Abies spectabilis and avoided Tsuga dumosa, Juglans regia, Picea smithiana and Pinus wallichiana. The present study was supported by the study conducted by Panthi et al. (Jnawali 2012) who reported that the red panda showed higher preference to Acer caesium, Abies spectabilis and Quercus semecarpifolia.

Conclusion The study revealed the presence of red panda in the Badathum CF- Bistabada- 2 Sinja, Siyalamul CF- Awasthibada-2 Sinja RM. The evidences (pellet groups) of red panda were found distributed from the elevation of 2800 m to 3800 m. Red panda mostly preferred the habitat in the elevation range from 2800 to 3800 m with southwest facing steep slopes, associated with water availability (at distance ≤100 m). In addition, red panda mostly preferred the tree species of Acer spp., Betula utilis and Quercus semecarpifolia, shrub species of Elaeagnus parvifolia, Drepanostachyum spp. and Jasminum humile, and herbaceous of Polygonatum cirrhifolium, Fragaria nubicola and Galium asperifolium. Besides, this work also provides further avenues to carry out an in-depth study on the impact of climatic and non-climatic environmental factors on red panda distribution and survival in Jumla which is crucial for devising an appropriate conservation long-term plan. Moreover, fallen logs (38%) were mostly preferred to use by red panda for defecation.

References

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Hu J. C., Reproductive biology of the red panda, J. Sich. Norm. Coll. 12 (1991) 1_5 (in Chinese). Hu, Y., Guo, Y., Qu, D., Zhan X, Wu, H., Bruford, M. W. and Wei F. 2011. Genetic structuring and recent demographic history of red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) inferred from microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Ecology. Jul: 20:2662-75. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05126.x.Epub 2011 May 17. Jnawali, S., Leus K., Molur, S., Glatston, A. and Walker, S. (Editors). 2012. Red panda (Ailurus fulgens). Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) and Species Conservation Strategy (SCS) Workshop Report. National Trust for Nature Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group and Zoo Outreach Organization, Coimbatore, India. Kandel, K., Huettmann, F., Suwal, M. K., Regmi, G. R., Nijman, V., Nekaris, K. A., Lama, S. T., Thapa, A., Sharma, H. P. and Subedi, T. R. 2015. Rapid multi-nation distribution assessment of a charismatic conservation species using open access ensemble model GIS predictions: Red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya region. Biological Conservation 181:150–61 Panthi, S, Aryal, A, Raubenheimer, D, Lord, J, and Adhikari, B. 2012. Summer Diet and Distribution of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens fulgens) in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal. Zoological Studies 51:701–709. Peigné, S., Salesa, M. J., Antón, M. and Morales, J. 2005. Ailurid carnivoran mammal Simocyon from the late Miocene of Spain and the systematics of the genus. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 50(2). Pradhan, S., Saha, G. K. and Khan, J. A. 2001. Ecology of the red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Singhalil National Park, Darjeeling, India. Biological Conservation 98:11–18. Reid, D. G., Jinchu, H. and Yan, H. 1991. Ecology of the Red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Wolong Reserve, China. Journal of Zoology 225:347-364. Roberts, M. S., and Gittleman, J. L. 1984. Ailurus fulgens. Mammalian Species Archive 222:1-8. Schaller, G. B. 1994. The last panda. University of Chicago Press. Shrestha, S., Shah, K. B., Bista, D. and Baral, H. S. 2015. Photographic Identifi cation of Individual Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825). Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences 3:11–15. Wei, F. W. and Hu, J. C. 1993. Status and conservation of Red pandas in Sichuan. Changes of Mammal Resources under Human Activities. China Science and Technology Publishing House, Beijing 56–60. Wei, F., Feng, Z., Wang, Z. and Hu, J. 1999. Current distribution, status and conservation of wild red pandas Ailurus fulgens in China. Biological conservation 89:285–291. Williams, B. H. 2006. Red panda in Eastern Nepal: How does it fi t into Eco-regional Conservation of the Eastern Himalaya? In: J. T. McCarthy (Eds.), Conservation Biology in Asia. Society of Conservation Biology and Resources Himalaya, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 236–251. Yonzon, P. B. and Hunter Jr, M. L. 1991. Conservation of the Red panda Ailurus fulgens. Biological Conservation 57:1– 11. Yonzon, P. B. 1990. Ecology and conservation of the red panda in the Nepal-Himalayas (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maine). Yonzon, P. B. and Hunter, M. L. 1989. Ecological study of the red panda in the Nepal-Himalaya. Red panda biology 1(7). Zhang, S. L., Ran, J. H., Tang, M. K., Du, B. B., Yang, Q. S. and Liu, S. C. 2008. Landscape pattern analysis of Red panda habitat in Liangshan Mountains. Acta Ecologica Sinica 28:4787–4795.

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Annex 1: Snaps of questionnaire, field visit and monitoring

Picture 1. Questionnaire Survey Picture 2. Red Panda Scat

Picture 3. Threats of red panda Picture 4. Habitat Range

Picture 5. Visiting with CFUGS of habitat area Picture 6. Visiting with CFUGS of habitat area

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Assessing the impacts of Tikauli section of east-west highway on wildlife of Barandabhar Corridor, Forest, Nepal

Pushpa Rana Magar*, Jhamak Bahadur Karki, Lilu Kumari Magar and Nripesh Kunwar

Kathmandu Forestry College, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Roads construction plays the vital role for national development especially for developing countries like Nepal. However, their impacts on wildlife are not sufficiently studied. This study was an attempt to inquire the impacts of Tikauli section of East West highway on wildlife of Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF), particularly wildlife vehicle collisions (WVCs). This study was carried out from December 2019 to September 2020 by dividing a day into morning, day, and late evening time. Primary data were collected through reconnaissance survey, direct road survey, key informant interviews (n=22) whereas secondary data were collected from the annals of concerned government offices like division forest office, national park, like Chitwan National Park, Chitwan. Data were analyzed with the help of MS-Excel, ArcGIS 10.5. Similarly, Kernel Density Function was used to identify the hotspot of WVCs. During the study period, 33 various wildlife including mammals (11 Axis axis) followed by reptiles and amphibians were found killed due to WVCs. The maximum number of deaths were recorded in winter and in late evening. Trucks and tippers were the major killer vehicles and were perceived to be prime threats to wildlife. The most vulnerable species due to WVC was Axis axis followed by Calotes versicolor. Besides, keeping track of WVC records properly and further research are recommended from concerned offices. Keywords: Biological corridor, Kernel density estimation, Vulnerable species, Wildlife vehicle collisions

Introduction Generally, infrastructure means mam-made linear infrastructures such as roads and highways firebreaks and fences, its intrusions into natural ecosystems. These intrusions cause linear opening through the habitat or breakage in landscape connectivity due to infrastructure creation and maintenance, which is known to have multiple ecological effects in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Goosem 1997). These effects include habitat loss and fragmentation, spread of invasive alien species, desiccation, wind throw, fires, animal injury and mortality (e.g. roadkill), changes in animal behavior, pollution, micro-climate and vegetation changes (Louise 2006), loss of ecosystem services (Labarraque et al. 2015) increased pressures from development, tourism, hunting, garbage disposal, and associated human disturbances (Raman 2011). The ubiquity of road networks and the growing body of evidence of the negative impacts that roads and other infrastructure have on wildlife and ecosystems suggest that infrastructure represents a major

238 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 driving factor of biodiversity loss. The most reported impacts from roads and utility corridors include habitat loss, intrusion of edge effects in natural areas, isolation of populations, barrier effects, road mortality and increased human access (Andrews 1990). Road construction leads to habitat destruction and creates open spaces in otherwise closed forests (Gullison 1993). The open spaces may fragment populations (barrier effect), attract light demanding species, and may be avoided by others (edge effect) (Kroodsma 1984). Besides roads, other types of infrastructure, such as mesh wire, power lines, pipelines, hydroelectric developments, seismic lines, and wind parks, have an impact on wildlife populations (Errington 1964). All these impacts may influence the long-term viability of populations and, eventually, biodiversity. Infrastructure and traffic impose movement barriers to most terrestrial animals and cause the death of billions of animals each year (Seiler 2005). Furthermore, ecosystem fragmentation, and specially the loss of connectivity between different habitat areas, is considered to be one of the main impacts of biodiversity caused by linear transport infrastructure and also known as the barrier effect to wildlife dispersal movements (Manuel et al. 2015). The indirect effects of roads and associated networks can have major ecological impacts on landscape processes and biodiversity because roads disrupt natural processes for example animal movement and alter ecosystem functions. Similarly, direct effects of roads and vehicles on wildlife in several ways and can have profound impacts on abundance of wildlife species, availability of habitat, community diversity and ecosystem health and integrity. Mortality of animals is the most significant direct effect of road on wildlife (Kassar 2005). The significant physical barrier to movement for many species and a major source of mortality has been the presence of road and of vehicular traffic and its continuousness (Carr et al. 2001). Wherever the highways have bisected protected areas and corridors, the mortality of wildlife due to roads kills is in increasing trends (Hariyo Ban Program, 2019). Studies of roadkill can provide valuable information to assess the impact of road traffic on population of animal however, they are challenging to do on a large scale (Canal et al. 2018). Biodiversity, which occurs in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, is constantly changing. It can be increased by natural evolutionary processes and genetic change or reduced by threats which lead to population decline and species extinction. According to recent data, there are 17097 of a total species of fauna (mammals: 212, birds: 886, reptiles: 123, amphibians: 117 etc.). Plant species richness of Nepal comprises 792 species of lichens, 2467 species of fungi, 1001 species of algae, 1213 species of bryophytes, 580 species of pteridophytes, 41 species of gymnosperms: and 6973 species of angiosperms (MoFE 2019). The biological diversity contained in the Terai and Siwalik Hills (lowlands) ecosystems are of international importance both in view of the number of globally threatened species of fauna and flora as well as the diversity of ecosystems in these area (Dhakal et al. 2011). Corridor is a more or less continuous connection between adjacent rows, stream, and irrigation ditches. There are eight corridors such as Barandabhar, Khata, Basanta, Laljhadi- Mohana, Brahmadev, Khamdi and Karnali exist in Nepal. Its important role in biodiversity conservation via gene flow across landscape, integrates ecosystem (forest, wetlands, rangeland, agro-ecosystems, and mountains),

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Biodiversity in a Changing World mitigates park-people conflicts, conserves meta-population of endangered species, contribute to ecotourism etc. Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF) is only one vertical (south-north) bio-corridor and trans-boundary linking two different ecosystems, CNP in the south which connects with Valmiki Tiger Reserve of India and the Mahabhrat hill range in the north. The corridor is bisected by east-west Highway. Besides being important for bird areas and aquatic life like Beeshhazari Lake and many other water bodies and marsh lands, this corridor supports for the gene pools of flagship species like tigers (Panthera tigris) and rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) (WWF 2013). The Wild animals are our national heritage. One-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Asiatic wild elephant (Elephus maximus), Gharial (Gavilias gangeticus) and many others are our pride and glory. However, the populations of wild animals are in threats due to several reasons, one of prime reasons is collision with vehicles plying in linear infrastructures. It is prime time to study the effects of linear infrastructures in wildlife basically to their habitats and movements. It was a least studied subject in Nepal, so that the one cannot be sure about the idea of kind of effect linear structures have in wildlife. Biological corridor links two or more wildlife habitats which is the important part of landscape. These corridors show a vital role in biodiversity conservation by facilitating the migration of wildlife among their prime habitats. BBC is frequently utilized by mega-species like rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), tigers (Panthera tigris tigris), and leopards (Panthera pardus), reptiles like mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris), waterfowls, and wintering birds. It also serves as a refuge during the monsoon floods (Kandel 2012). Tikauli section of E-W highway bisects the BBC into two parts, buffer zone in south and community forests in north, consequently wildlife of there cannot movement easily. And traffic pressure is very high about a total of 62,396 vehicles pass weekly through this highway section. In an average, daily vehicle flow is 8990 (Lamichhane 2019). At least 5-6 animals every year have been killed in highway road accidents (Tiwari et al. 2007). In fiscal year (2017/2018), there were 30 wildlife was killed by vehicle in jungle of Tikauli, Chitwan (Sauraha online 2018 as cited by Bhandari 2019). Hence, the first rationale behind carrying out this research was the importance of Barandabhar corridor and its need to be taken seriously from the conservation point of view. Several wild species dwell here, and several linear infrastructures are constructed to address human needs and deeds like highways and mesh wire. It is an important network across the landscape. Corridors can act as barriers as many animals tend to avoid crossing even narrow roads. The Bharandabhar corridor is one of the pathways that links the Terai Arc Landscape to Chitwan Annapurna Landscape through which most of wild animal move from one to other habitat according to their necessity. Secondly, paucity of these kinds of studies carried out concerning the effect of linear infrastructures on wildlife, the significance of research is obvious. Thirdly, these kinds of research would be beneficial to the policy makers and conservation activists, also developers such as DNPWC, Department of Roads, Nepal Electricity Authority, drinking water to decide what to do, what not do and how to do in corridors with high biodiversity. Last but not the least, this research might be guide to the following

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 researchers of the similar theme and can serve as an important literature in impact of infrastructure to wildlife and ecology. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Camera trapping method has been in use in Nepal for census of wildlife, along with uses of radio collar, GPS tracking of selected wildlife species that are getting popular amongst for Nepalese conservationists. In some countries, not as a social control measure, but as a management tool for transport system, CCTV video surveillance technology has rationalized the maintenance of construction, fire control. However, the use of CCTV Camera to monitor the movement of wild animals across and along the road passing is new practice in Nepal that mainly focuses on activities of animals, discourages vehicles from stopping and producing pressure horns, also prevents passengers and other local people from polluting the roadsides (Shrestha 2019). Biodiversity of Barandabhar Corridor Forest (BCF) The Chitwan National Park, the world heritage site, including BBC supports rare and threatened fauna, more than 70 mammal species, 600 bird species, 56 species of herpetofauna, 156 species of butterflies and 120 species of fish (CNP 2017). Particularly, the BBC is home to rare and endangered species of flagship species like Royal Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, and Rhino. Besides, it also supports vital megafauna such as leopard, wild boar (Sus scorfa), etc. (Kandel 2012) and 3664 individuals of water bird belonging to 54 species, 11 orders and 13 families in BCF. The highest number of the species belonged to order Anseriformes (17 species) followed by Pelecaniformes (11 species), Coraciiformes (6 species), and Gruiformes (6 species) (Adhikari et al. 2019). The BBC is dominated by almost monotypic stands of sal (Shorea robusta) and small fragments of riverine and mixed-hardwood forests (NTNC 2003 Thapa 2003 as cited by Aadhikari et al. 2019). BBC is also rich in wetlands that are the pristine habitats for the wetland dependent birds. The major wetlands of this area are five rivers (Narayani, Rapti, Budhirapti, Khageri and Devnagar Khola) and lakes (Beeshazari lake- a Ramsar site in 2003, Batulpokhari, Rhino lake and association, Gundremandre lake system) (Thapa 2011). These wetlands are under grave threats due to high pressure of people from two sides (east and west) of BBC. Wetlands have been facing a serious eutrophication problem that significantly decreases the quantity (shrinking area of wetlands) and quality (physicochemical parameters) of water. Impact of roads and wildlife vehicle collision As the mitigation steps are not in effect along the EW Highway, the effects of roads are likely to worsen. In Parsa National Park (PNP), Chitwan National Park (CNP), Banke National Park (BaNP), Bardia National Park (BNP), Shuklaphanta National Park (ShNP), and their buffer zones and corridor forests, the extension of the East-West Highway collectively bisects 271 km of significant wildlife habitats, and similarly, 122 Km east of Kamdi, Khata, Karnali, Basanta and Laljhhadhi-Mohana corridor forests including one that connect with India (Hariyo Ban Program 2019). Since highways and other roadways constitute a significant force altering ecosystems and impacting ecology, these kinds of linear structure 241

Biodiversity in a Changing World are global threats to wildlife (Forman et al. 2003). There may be a number of factors associated with highway impacts, generally, there are two types of impacts based on nature i.e. direct and indirect (Fahrig & Rytwinski 2009) and they are discussed briefly in the following. Direct highway impacts Wildlife vehicle collision (WVC) is recognized as direct impact and threat to wildlife. Besides, road construction, whether temporary or permanent, leads to immediate loss of habitat and impacts integrity of ecosystem (D’Amico et al. 2015). The mortality associated with WVC and degradation of habitats are direct impacts from construction of roadways (ADB 2019). Wildlife vehicle collisions From a wide range of taxonomic groups being killed each year, WVC is the foremost known effects of roads on wildlife populations (Fensome et al. 2016). WVC is a serious threat to wildlife populations besides human injuries, deaths, and property loss (Schwabe et al. 2002). Over 200 human deaths, 30,000 injuries, and economic impacts exceeding $8 billion are caused by WVC annually in the US (Huijser et al. 2008). Likewise, an estimated 300 casualty, 30000 injuries, and 50000 WVC take place each year in Europe (Groot- Bruinderink & Hazebroek 1996). Amphibians and reptiles are the most vulnerable to road mortality, even when traffic volumes are low (Fahrig & Rytwinski 2009). Loss or degradation of habitat The soil and hydrology adjacent to the roads are impacted by road construction, both temporarily and permanently along with potentially alteration of stream sedimentation and flow levels (Trombulak & Frissell 2000 as cited by ADB 2019), and even causing flooding that kills vegetation (Laurance et al. 2009) and also disrupts vegetative community processes and composition with the removal of forest and other habitats (Kalwij et al. 2008 as cited by ADB 2019). Table (1) shows the comparative impact on direct loss of habitats associated with three road alignments, with the impact tied to comparative roadbed formation construction width requirements and slope steepness. Thus, a longer alternative alignment on gentle terrain that altogether avoids steep terrain and the generally associated higher biodiversity and intact forests could be 3 times as long (and still have comparable habitat loss), but yet could potentially pose less impact on biodiversity, soil erosion, and water quality. Table 3. Comparative Impact of three Road alignments on habitat loss

Proposed Slope Road Roadbed Impact area % Increase over alignment (%) length (km) Width (m) length × width Gentle terrain (ha) Gentle terrain 0−15 25 10 25 − Moderate terrain 10−30 25 20 50 100%

Steep terrain 25-60 25 30 75 300% Source: Asian Development Bank consultant’s estimates as cited by ADB 2019 Indirect highway impacts

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Indirect highway impacts are more pervasive than direct ones. Diminished connectivity, and higher impermeability are caused by barriers and fragmentation due to highways (Forman et al. 2003). Highway traffic leads to wildlife avoidance zones (Forman & Alexander 1998) adjacent to highways, where traffic may become a “moving fence” that creates an impermeable barrier to wildlife passage and reduces habitat quality (Bellis & Graves 1978 as cited by ADB 2019).

Materials and methods This section deals with how research as executed from very conception of the idea of thesis to the preparation of final draft. Materials and methods include research design, data collection methods and data analysis in details.

Research design The conceptual flow diagram (Fig. 1) of methodology began with selections of study topic and site. The study moved ahead with problem identification, research objectives, research question, information collection, data collection, data verification and compilation, analysis, interpretation, presentation, finalization, and thesis submission.

Wildlife Vehicle Collision in Tikauli Highway, BBC

Problem identification, Research objectives Literature Review Published Articles, Journals, Previous Relevant Thesis Reports Data collection

Primary Data collection Secondary Data 1. Key Informants’ Interviews (Park Warden, Collection NTNC Officials, DFO officials etc.) Document from DFO, 2. Direct observation CNP, NTNC, CCTV

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Finding and Conclusions

Report submission Figure 6. Research methodological framework 2.2 Study area 243

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The study was conducted in the Tikauli, the East-West highway section, BBC in Chitwan. BBC is a bio-corridor that joins the two unlike ecosystems with significant altitudinal variations, specially the lowland Chitwan National Park and the highland Mahabharat range in Nepal. It is located between 27⁰ 33’ 30” to 27⁰ 44’ 30” North Latitude and 84⁰22’30” to 84⁰34’ 00” East Longitude in central part of Chitwan District in Bagmati Province, Nepal and BBC covers an area of 11124.72 ha. East-West Highway divided the BBC into two executive jurisdictions. The buffer zone forest in the south of the East-West highway is managed under the patronage of CNP, while the northern side of the highway is patronized by the Division Forest Office, Chitwan. This study was focused in Tikauli East- West highway that lies between Ganesh chowk on east and Godrang chowk on west covered about 4.9 km. It was under traffic pressure due to the East-West highway in between the corridor forest. Varieties of wetlands are there serving as pristine habitats for birds. Rapti, Budirapti, and Khageri rives, Beeshazari (Ramsar site), Ratomate lakem, Batulpokhari, Rhino, Tiger lakem, Tikauli, and Gundre-Mandre lake and Bikash taal are also present there.

Significant faunal and floral values Rich faunal and floral diversities are found in BBC. According to Aryal et al. 2012, around 75% of this landscape was previously forested, supporting a rich diversity of flora and fauna. Majority of the flora of Barandabhar forest is dominated mainly by Sal forest and partly by riverine, tall grassland and short grassland. As per the annual report of CNP 2076, BBC consists more than 70% sal forest (a moist deciduous type), grassland (20%), Riverine forest (7%) and approximately 3% covers wetland area. Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba, Trewia nudiflora Sapium insignene and Listsea monopelata are the dominant tree species of riverine forest. The BBC is the only remaining natural forest that connects the CNP and Chure Siwalik range with the Mahabharat range, it contains about 70 species of mammals allowing the endangered one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), spotted deer (Axis axis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac) etc. and 546 species of birds including giant hornbill (Buceros bicornis), common myna (Acridotheres tristis) and stork (Ciconia Ciconia). Since 2005, government has declared CNP and BBC is an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA). It is a critical habitat for many species of migratory birds (e.g., Siberian crane) and mugger crocodile. More than 100 species of herpetofauna represented by python, frog, toad, lizards etc. are found here. This section of the East-West Highway under vehicle pressure and has problems of wildlife vehicle collision and the study might help to develop effective mitigation measures to overcome these problems.

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Figure 2. Maps of the study area showing the Tikauli highway Data collection Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data was collected from the study area (East west highway, Tikauli section) while secondary data was collected from published and unpublished documents regarding wildlife vehicle collision. Both primary and secondary data were collected using various techniques discussed in following section. Primary data collection

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Primary data was collected from the Tikauli section of East-west highway, BCF Chitwan using key informants’ interview (KII), direct observation of frequently accident occurring sites and animal crossing sign. Reconnaissance survey A week-long reconnaissance survey was carried out in the Tikauli section of east west highway, BCF which was to familiarize with animal movement path, water passageways, ecology, and behavior of the main wildlife species. Key informant interview (KII) Key informant interview (KII) was carried out to identify the potential impact of existing linear infrastructure in the study area. KII was carried out with personnel’s from NTNC, CNP, Division Forest Office, TAL, PABZ and other relevant offices. A standard questionnaire (Appendix 1) was used for getting informants from the key personnel’s like Chief Conservation Officer, Assistant Conservation Officers, Project Managers, Division Forest Officer, Rangers etc. Road survey (Direct observation) Direct field observation was carried out in the study area that was 4.9 km passing through the corridor in different time frame. The data collection for the study was conducted from December 2019 to September 2020. Data was collected from all seasons except fall or autumn which could be covered partially. The study area was observed in three time from Morning; 6:00 AM-10:00 AM, Day; 11:00 AM – 3:00 PM, Late evening; 4:00 PM-7:00 PM. The road was surveyed systematically in the early morning from 6:00 AM mostly by bicycle and sometime by motorbike, auto-vehicle and by public bus. Road was divided into five sections; distance of each section was 1km and each side for recordings incidents by using a standard format for recording the data. The accident occurring sites and wildlife crossing routes were observed directly seasonal wise (winter, summer, spring, and autumn). All information of death animal and live animal while seen on the road and roadside in the observation period were recorded. Binoculars, digital cameras, GPS were used to capture the ground points and movements of wildlife. Death spot mapping Study was carried out in those area and regions where wildlife died on the study area in observation period and collected in a standard format (Appendix 3). Causes of death of wildlife either natural death or road accidents/others were identified and through consultation with concerned stakeholders/local people. Such spots were mapped and correlated with the vegetation types, movement routes, water sources and other clues which might help us to argue why such areas are more preferred by wildlife than others if concentration occurs in certain hotspots. Hot spot identification

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Kernel Density Estimation has been widely used for hotspot detection and analysis. Kernel density expresses the number of collisions per kilometer of roads for all of the species of interest. Mapping kernel density allows identifying hotspot zones where mitigation measures should be set up (Morelle et al. 2013). It was calculated according to the following equation.

where, n is the number of analyzed points, h is the band width, K is the kernel function, x is the vector of x, y coordinates of the location where the function is estimated, Xi is the vector series of the coordinates where all the analyzed points are defined in above equation (özcan & Ozkazanç 2017). Road length was broken down into different sections, each having 1 km, and counted the no. of collision. Based on the frequency of events hotspot was identified. Secondary data collection Secondary data were collected from Offices of CNP, NTNC/BCC, Division Forest Office, websites of DNPWC and the obtained data were analyzed by using statistical tools. Recorded data on vehicle wildlife accident was collected from DFO, CNP, TAL, PABZ and also studied the CCTV camera image or recorded video information from Armed Forest Guard Training Center (AFGTC). Data analysis Different layers of data from different sources were processed and analyzed. Collected data (spatial and temporal pattern of road-killed species) were thoroughly analyzed by using MS excel and illustrated accordingly. Likewise, the thematic maps were prepared by using the Arc GIS 10.5 software.

Results

The status of killed wildlife from WVCs The first objective was to examine the extent of killed wildlife from WVCs in the study area. Species-wise number of killed wildlife During study period, 33 animals were killed; 11 were spotted deer (Axis axis), 5 were lizard (Calotes versicolor), 4 were pythons (Python bivittatus) and other species were 6 that included Leopards (Panthera

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Biodiversity in a Changing World pardus), Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) etc. (fig 3). Both figure and (table 2) were illustrated that majority of killed animal was spotted deer and followed by herpetofauna and Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and others. According to KII, majority of respondent also said that higher number of spotted deer was frequently killed due to WVCs and followed by Barking deer, Sambar, Sloth bear and Wild boar etc.

12 10 8 6

4 Frequency 2 0 Axis axis Python Melursus Paradoxurus Calotes Fejervarya Others bivittatus ursinus hermaphrodi versicolor limnocharis tus Number 11 4 1 2 5 4 6

Figure 3. Number of killed Wildlife from WVCs in study area Table 4. Total killed animals during study period S.N. Nepali Name English name Scientific name No. of Animals killed from WVC 1 Syal Golden Jackal Canis aureus 1 2 Chital Indian Spotted Deer Axis axis 11 3 Chituwa Pantherus pardus 1 4 Bhalu Sloth Beer Melursus ursinus 1 5 Badel Wild Boar Sus scrofa 1 6 Pahadi Biralo Asian Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 2 7 Jure Dumsi Indian Crested Hystrix indica 1 Porcuppine 8 Thulo Nir Biralo Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha 1 9 Aajingar Burmese Python Python bivittatus 4 10 Bhyaguta Asian Grass Frog Fejervarya limnocharis 4 11 Dangre rupi Common Myna Acridotheres tristis 1 12 Cheparo Oriental Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor 5 Total 33

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Seasonal pattern of killed animals

Mammal 7 6 6 Reptiles 5 Amphibians 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 Others 2 2 2 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

July

May

June

April

March

August

January

October

February

November

September Decemeber Winter Spring Summer Fall/Autumn Figure 4. Seasonal pattern of killed animal The study (Fig 4) revealed that the highest number of mammals (9) species was killed in winter, however highest number of reptiles (6) was killed in summer and higher number of amphibians (i.e. 3) was killed between summer and autumn. In the winter season, there is insufficient food availability to the wildlife, so they are move to the different habitat for searching their food and water and they collide with high speed of vehicles. Another reason that happened the highest number of accidents due to the visibility effects that is dew, mirage effect, dust occurred in the winter season as a result high speed of vehicle collide with the unexpectedly passes the wildlife. At the same time, in the summer season the animals may feel very hot inside the forest, so they came to the highway to protect their body from extreme hot and they need more water to adopt in changing the climate. The road may be greasy in the spring and rainy season due to the heavy rainwater and driver may be aware about their driving in this period and a lesser number of accidents was happened. Temporal pattern of killed animal due to WVCs Temporal patterns were studied based on incidence in the morning (6:00-10:00AM), day (11:00- 3:00PM) and late evening (4:00-7:00PM). Most of the killing happened during late evening and least happened during daytime (Table 3). This might be caused by threats from tigers which are active during late evening time. Next reason behind the WVCs, they became blind by the moving headlights of vehicle while crossing the roads at late evening. As a result, shows that there was highest number of wildlife species had been killed on highway at late evening time while they are crossing the road/highway. Table 5. Temporal pattern of killed wildlife

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Types of Temporal Wise Total species Morning Day Late Evening Mammal 2 0 17 19 Reptiles 4 3 2 9 Amphibians 4 0 0 4 Others 1 0 0 1 Total 11 3 19 33

Spatial pattern of killed Species The study area was divided into five sections, each section was 1km viz: section 1: (from Ganesh chowk at east to Tikauli BZCF gate at west), section 2: (from Tikauli BZCF gate at east to Sasastra Talim Centre at west), section 3: (from Sasastra Talim Centre at east to Joint venture Camp/last point of Ratnanagar boundary at west), section 4: from Joint venture Camp (check point) at east- near to Sambar board at west and section 5: from Sambar board at east to Godrang post at west. Out of the total 33 events 12 were recorded from section 1 followed by 4 in section 2, 10 in section 3, 2 in section 4 and 5 in section 5 (Fig 6).

Figure 5. Spatial patterns of WVCs in Tikauli highway

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Study area consists of higher density of animals specially ungulates and they prefer to cross the road during evening and late evening to graze. Therefore, kill events may happen due to the wildlife attempts to cross the road that collide with the vehicles in higher speed. Trends of wildlife species killed in WVCs There were recorded approximately 125 roadkill of wildlife inside BBC within five years (2072-2076) in BBC. Of the nearly 79 wildlife killed in Tikauli highway due to WVCs, 63 were spotted deer (Axis axis), 6 were Muntiacus mantjak, and 4 were Rusa unicolor (Fig. 8). 30 25 20 15 10

Frequency 5 0 Paradoxur Rusa us Martes Muntiacus Panthera Axis axis Sus scorfa unicolor hermaphr flavigula muntjak tigristigris oditus Species Year 2072/73 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 Year 2073/74 14 0 0 1 1 0 0 Year 2074/75 28 2 1 0 2 5 0 Year 2075/76 16 1 0 0 0 1 1

Figure 6. Killed animals due to WVCs at the study area in different years 3.2 Wildlife species that are most vulnerable to vehicle collision The section relates with the second objective i.e. was to find out the wildlife species that are most vulnerable to impact of roadways and vehicle collision. Spotted deer was killed most i.e. around 33%. About 12 % of python, 12% of frog, 6% of sloth bear etc. were killed (Table 4). Table 6. Showing the most vulnerable species Name of species Frequency Relative Frequency (%)

Axis axis 11 33 Python bivittatus 4 12 Fejervarya limnocharis 4 12 Melursus ursinus 2 6 Panthera pardus 1 3

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Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 2 6 Calotes versicolor 5 15 Hystrix indica 1 3 Viverra zibetha 1 3 Sus scorfa 1 3 Others 1 3 Total 33 100

Above table illustrated that mostly spotted deer, sloth bear and herpetofauna were seen higher vulnerable wildlife species for roadkill events due to WVCs as per relative frequency. Frequently, spotted deer and other herbivore species prefer to graze in open area like grassland and agricultural land. Road may provide some open place and way for good food resources on another side. It might cause spotted deer and sloth bear and herpetofauna posed higher vulnerable for road accidents. But herpetofauna was not found in recorded in relevant institution. Frequently, spotted deer move from one to another area for grazing on palatable grassland and they also abruptly run to survive their life from unexcepted predator ‘attacks like Tiger at nighttime. So, they are highly killed in WVCs in grassland area while they are crossing the highway. Generally, rhino, monkeys were also crossing the highway because they were attracted by agriculture crops such as wheat, rice, maize etc. Hotspot identification Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) was used and identified the risk zone of Tikauli road (Figure9).

Figure 7. Distribution Map of Risk Zone of WVCs in study area

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The area was characterized as very low, low, medium, high, and very high WVCs risk zone area, which was represented by different color as light red, yellow, light green, light blue and dark purple respectively (Table 5). The Kernal Density estimation was based on the filed data collected from study area. Table 7. Intensity of WVCs based on the Kernel Density Estimation

Risk Value Color WVCs/km2 Very low White 0-3.921 Low Yellow 3.921-7.843 Medium Green 7.843-11.764 High Sky Blue 11.764-15.685 Very high Dark blue 15.685-19.607

According to the spatial analysis of WVCs data, distribution of events along the road was not uniform. Even though WVCs occurs all over the highway, highly clustering pattern in same section was observed and considered as risk zone (RZ) for WVCs. Overall, main risk zones were recognized specially at near to grassland, water availability area, namely in around mid-section of Tikauli and secondly around Sichai gate and around AFGTC. In the southern part of road section that is Buffer Zone community forest (BZCF), patronized by CNP have abundance source of water and grazing area in comparison to the northern part of road section as community forest it under division forest office. So, most of the animals cross the road from north to south for searching food and drinking water during in scarcity period as well as they have move in breeding season.

Discussion This chapter deals with comparison and contrast of studies' findings with previous research and findings killed from WVCs that are increasing worldwide as roads network and traffic are increasing and intervening wildlife and habitats. Here discussion relating to the findings of the study is given in the following paragraphs. BBC corridor forest area offers a refuge for the species like rhinoceros and deer that depends on the grassland (Kandel 2012). Roads can affect abundance and distribution of individuals within habitats adjacent to it (known as the road-effect zone) (Forman et al. 2003). According to Bennett, 2017 found that a wide variety of birds, mammals, reptiles, and invertebrates could be displaced from habitats in proximity to roads.

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Status of WVC and deaths Animal behavior changes with seasons, and so does accident patterns in certain seasons. Most numbers of animals were killed in winter and summer seasons as per frequency of accidents. However, study of Shrestha (2019) found the higher record of wildlife vehicle accidents occurred in the spring and summer. Mostly, mammals and herpetofauna were killed in WVCs in the study area. However, according to the study by Baskaran and Boominathan, 2010 in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, most affected were amphibians followed by reptiles. The greatest number of mammals killed there were nocturnal which is similar to what have been found in this study that most animals were killed during evening or in the late evening. Likewise, a study carried out in Sweden had studied and found that roughly estimate on avian road-kills was around 8.5 million in 1995. Likewise, national roadkill of England estimates from some hundred thousand to some hundred million casualties each year and the number of railroad- kills may be almost as large (Van, 1999). In the study, few cases of avian casualties have been recorded. Majority of road-related accidents occur during the hours of darkness, and particularly at dusk or dawn (Pokorny 2006 as cited in Torsten et al. 2015) While this coincides with the period of maximum deer activity, the effect may also be partly due to reduced driver visibility at these periods and accentuated when ‘rush hour’ periods coincide with poor light conditions of dawn and dusk in autumn (Sanders 1985, Langbein 1985). Langbein (1985) suggested that the coincidence of rush hour traffic peaks with twilight in autumn and spring may be important in exacerbating the seasonal peaks in traffic accidents; and that this may contribute to the fact that Deer Vehicle Collisions (DVCs) overall tend to peak just after rather than at the height of the fallow deer, red deer and sika deer rut (Langbein et al. 2011). Concerns over road passing have not become the concern of government or any non-government agencies working in conservation sectors. Even data about killings are not well recorded. Bangladesh however has seen the growing concern over road passing adjacent to its national park (Satchari National Park), WVC has become a growing concern. Dasgupta in 2018 found that five elephants were killed in Assam and a tiger was killed in Maharastra. This has to do with abundance also. The Tikauli section where study was carried has abundance of Spotted dear and tiger, elephants inside the core regions of CNP or BBC. The information of Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, between mid-July 2016 and mid-April 2017 in the BaNP, there were 69 deaths, including the death of hyena, wild boar, spotted dear and porcupine (Mandal 2017). According to Sauraha online, 30 wildlife killed by vehicle in jungle of the Tikauli in Chitwan only in fiscal year 2017/2018.

Wildlife vulnerable to vehicle collision The rates of killing due to vehicle movement found during the study shows that wildlife is vulnerable from Wildlife-Vehicle Collision associated with more abundance of vehicle and higher traffic. Due to its frequent movement and mobile behavior spotted deer was found to be most vulnerable species which was similar to study of Rana (2018), which found that the most susceptible species was spotted deer in Banke National Park. Similarly, according to Mandal (2017), most of spotted deer were hit by vehicles in the Tikauli highway. Similar cases were also seen in a US study where an estimated 1 million

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 deer collided with vehicles every year (Biossoneete et al., 2008). However, a study in Netherland had confirmed over 0.2 million mammalian deaths (John et al. 2015). A study from Belgium showed that vertebrates were killed over 4 million in number, which is a huge threat overall (Rodts et al. 1998). Likeise, this study also showed that vertebrates (mammals and amphibians) were more vulnerable than any other wildlife. On the contrast on Danish roads, Birds and amphibians were killed more and found vulnerable. Trends of the WVCs are continuingly in increasing rate as comparing to data of each year. The data from last 4 years shows the trend of increasing wildlife death from vehicular collision. In addition, many kinds of animals had been killed due to vehicle collision and natural death as well. According to the available data from concerned sectors that is collected from CNP, Divisional Forest Office, NTNC-BCC, TAL and AFGTC, the spotted deer was killed in higher number by WVCs in the study area. According to the recorded previous roadkill data, spotted deer was killed higher every year. WVC is the crucial problems of BBC as well as other PAs and the incidents of WVCs are in increasing as per the KIS. Spotted deer was most vulnerable, due to its mobile nature, its abundance, and frequently crossing the highways. The similar statements were made park officials and divisional forests officials that spotted deer were comparatively higher in number than any other species.

Conclusions From the study it was concluded that major impact of road on wildlife is their massacred due to WVCs. Some conclusions of the study are as follows: In total 33 killed wildlife found during the study period (i.e. mostly spotted deer-11) due to WVCs. The predominant species killed was spotted deer followed by herpetofauna in comparison to others. Primarily they were killed in winter and summer season at late evening from vehicle collision. Most of the WVCs were found in the section 1 (from Ganesh chowk on east to Tikauli BZCF on west) and section 3 (from AFGTC gate on east to check point on west) of Tikauli section of EW highway.

Acknowledgements Execution of this research project was possible due to the financial support by World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Nepal. I am extremely thankful to WWF Nepal. I am greatly indebted especially to Mr. Ana Nath Baral, the Chief Conservation Officer of Chitwan National Park (CNP), Mr. Padamraj Nepal, Divisional Forest Officer, Chitwan, Dr. Baburam Lamichhane, Chief of National Trust for Nature Conservation-Biodiversity Conservation Center (NTNC-BCC) and Mr. Kamal Raj Rai (Project Co- Manager, Terai Arc Landscape, Protected Area and Buffer Zone) for extending help, their valuable guidance and exposing me to techniques and procedures, and support in this study.

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References

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Errington, D. A. 1964. Casualties among birds along a selected road in Wiltshire. Bird Study.Casualties among birds along a selected road in Wiltshire. Bird Study. Fahrig, L. A. 2009. Effects of Roads on Animal Abundance: An empirical review and synthesis. Ecology and Society. Fensome, A. A. 2016. Roads and bats: a meta‐analysis and review of the evidence on vehicle collisions and barrier effects. Mammal Review 46(4): 311-323. Flahaut, B. 2003. Impact of infrastructure and local environment on road unsafety Logistic modeling with spatial autocorrelation. Elsevier. Forman R. T. T. 2003. Road ecology: science and solutions. Washington, DC: Island Press. Forman, R. T. 1998. Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29:207–231. Forman, R. T. 2000. The ecological road-effect zone of a Massachusetts (US) suburban highway. Conservation Biology 14:36–46. Fraser, M. and Shilling, D. P. 2015. Wildlife-vehicle collision hotspots at US highway extents: scale and data source effects.

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Garrah E, D. R. 2015. Hot spots and hot times: wildlife road mortality in a regional conservation corridor. Environ Manag. Goosem, M. 1997. The effects of roads, highways and powerline clearings on movements and mortality of rainforest vertebrates. Tropical Forest Remnants. Grant S. and Joseph, C. L. 2016. The effect of infrastructure on the invasion of a generalist predator: Pied crows in southern Africa as a case-study. Elsevier. Groot Bruinderink, G. A. 1996. Ungulate Traffic Collisions in Europe. Conservation Biology 10: 1059–67. Gullison, R. H. 1993. The effects of road design and harvest intensity on forest damage caused by selective logging: empirical results and a simulation model from the Bosque Chimanes, Bolivia. Huijser, M. P. 2007. Wildlife–vehicle collision reduction study: Report to Congress. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia. Adhikari, J. N., Bhattarai, B. P. and Thapa, T. B. 2018. Diversity and conservation threats of water birds in and around Barandabhar corridor forest, Chitwan, Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum 30:164–179. https://doi.org/10.3126/jnhm.v30i0.27553 John Wiley and Sons, L. V. 2015. The ecological effects of linear infrastructure and traffic: Challenges and opportunities of rapid global growth. https://doi.org/978-1-118-56818-7. Juffe-Bignoli, D. S. 2014. United Nations environment Programme–World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Cambridge, United Kingdom. Kandel, R. 2012. Wildlife use of Bharandabhar forest corridor: Between Chitwan National Park and Mahabharat foothills, Central Tarai, Nepal. The journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment. Karki, S. 2018. 133 Wildlife killed in road accident. Nature khabar,[online] 28 March. Avilable at: < http://naturekhabar.com/ne/archives/9076> [Accessed 1 December 2018]. Kassar, C. 2005. Wildlife-vehicle collisions in Utah: An analysis of wildlife road mortality hotspots, economic impacts and implications for mitigation and management. Utah State University. Kong, Y. Y. 2013. Road wildlife ecology research in China. Social and Behavioral Sciences 96:1191–1197. Kroodsma. 1984. Effect of edge on breeding forest bird species. Wilson Bulletin. Labarraque, D., Roussel, S., and Tardieu, L. 2015. Exploring direct and indirect regulation ecosystem services loss caused by linear infrastructure construction. doi:10.3917/redp.252.0277. ISSN 0373-2630. Lamichhane, A. 2019. Understanding the vehicular pressure along East-West Highway in Barandabhar Corridor, Nepal. A project paper submitted for the partial fulfillment of Bachelors of Science in Forestry. Langbein, J. P. 2011. Road traffic accidents involving ungulates and available measures for mitigation. In: Ungulate Management in Europe: Problems and Practices (eds. R.J. Putman, M. Apollonio and R.Andersen ), 215– 259. Cambridge. Laurance W. F. 2009. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Loss, S. T. 2014. Estimation of bird–vehicle collision mortality on United States roads. Journal of Wildlife Management 78:763−771. Louise, P. A. 2006. Internal fragmentation in the rainforest: edge effects of highways, powerlines and watercourses on tropical rainforest understorey microclimate, vegetation structure and composition, physical disturbance and seedling regeneration. James Cook University. Lu, T. D. 2015. The traffic accident hotspot prediction: Based on the logistic regression method. In 2015 International Conference on Transportation Information and Safety (ICTIS) (107–110). Manuel Loro, E. O. 2015. Ecological connectivity analysis to reduce the barrier effect of roads. Elsevier. Marey-Pérez, M. F. 2013. Spatiotemporal analysis of vehicle collisions involving wild boar and roe deer in NW Spain. Accident Analysis and Prevention 60:121–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.07.032. MFSC. 2014. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: 2014-2020. Retrieved from www.mfsc.gov.np. Government of Nepal, G., & Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. MoFE. 2019. Report of Forest and Biodiversity in Nepal. Ministry of Forest and Environment.

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Identification and domestication of native ornamental fishes of Begnas Lake, Pokhara, Nepal

Sapana Chand1*, Archana Prasad1 and Md Akbal Husen2

1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuwan University, Kritipur, Nepal 2Fishery Research Station Begnas, Pokhara, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Native fishes have great value as an ornamental fish in Nepal as well as in the global fair. Most of the ornamental fish species of Nepal are imported from the India and Thailand. The main goal of this experiment is to identify and domesticate the indigenous ornamental fishes for commercial production. Begnas area, Pokhara was selected as study site as it has different small indigenous fish species which might have great potential as ornamental fish. The study was carried from February to September 2019. Native fishes were collected from outlets and irrigation canal of Begnas Lake by using cast net. Five fish species Puntius conchonius, Puntius sophore, Barilius barna, Danio devario and Danio rerio were identified and found suitable for ornamental purpose. These fish species were domesticated with different feed with maintaining the water quality in aquarium during experiment period. Survivalist of these fish species was low during winter season; and at the same time, they could adapt to any kind of food. Danio devario was selected for the breeding purpose; and among all, 33 individual were selected and placed in different condition (-in the aquarium with heater and aerator, in the outer tank exposed to direct sunlight, tank having continuous water flow without sunlight and in open artificial pool) with 40% CP and bloodworms and maintaining the proper water quality. Out of all different conditions, environment that was artificial made pool with enough sunlight was found to be suitable for breeding. Their breeding was also influenced by the environmental condition since they bred one month later than their regular breeding periods in captive condition. Keywords: Aquarium, Breeding, Captive, Indigenous, Water parameters

Introduction Ornamental fish are also known as aquarium fish and they are the live jewels and the most attractive living organisms of the aquatic world. Their lively and fascinating activities are worth enjoying as colorful fish has high aesthetic value. Ornamental aquaculture industry is global industry where it is estimated that more than two million people are involve both directly and indirectly including hobbyists (Dominguez & Botella 2014). Throughout the world, ornamental fish keeping is very popular as interior decorative materials, an easy and stress relieving hobby. Besides home aquaria, public aquarium in hotels, parks and other public places are common in metropolis. The growing interest in

259 © Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University Biodiversity in a Changing World aquarium fishes has resulted increase in aquarium fish trade globally where European Union are the largest market however, United States is the single largest importer of ornamental fish in the world (Chapman 2000). In USA, about 7.2million houses and 3.2 million in the European Union have an aquarium (Ghosh et al. 2003). Ornamental fish culture is getting more popular now-a-days and is one of the fastest emerging branches of aquaculture due to its tremendous prospects and economic opportunities. About 120 countries contribute to the global ornamental fish trade and more than 1,800 species of fishes are traded, of which over 1200 are of freshwater origin. Most of the ornamental species globally traded are warm water tropical fishes except some eurythermal carps. Advancement in breeding and aquarium technology has added a new dimension in the ornamental fish trade with more species and varieties being introduced to the aquarium trade. The global freshwater ornamental fish industries heavily rely on cultured fishes and fishes from wild contribute only inadequate proportions. In total contrast to this, the marine fish species constitute only 15% of the global market by value, however, nearly 98% of these fishes are wild caught and very few from captive-breeding (Sureshkumar et al. 2013). Captive fish species can be produced anywhere in the world once it is domesticated. Yet, aqua cultural operations tend to be focused in the more prosperous consumer countries for the high cost of developing the necessary infrastructure where there is sufficient capital investment required (Murray & Watson 2014; Tlusty 2002; Wood 2001). So, domestication and cultivation of ornamental fish mainly freshwater species raised on farms satisfy commercial demand which reduces pressure to wild populations. The domestication of ornamental fish, among others, has increased in recent decades worldwide (Teletchea 2016). Total of 230 native fish species belonging to 104 genera, 34 family and 11 order are found in Nepal (Rajbanshi 2012). Among them some of the native fishes also have value as an ornamental fish and about 15 native fishes are potential candidate as an ornamental fish that possess a great color (Husen 2019). Some exotic fish species such as Goldfish, Fancy carp, Guppy, Platy and swordtail as well as native fish Colisa sp. are reared for breeding purpose in fishery research station, Begnas, Pokhara which are very popular in aquarium purpose in Pokhara Valley (FRS 2018). Most of the ornamental fish species are imported from the India and Thailand. The main goal of this study is to identify the potential native ornamental fish species from Begnas Lake, domesticating them and assessing the suitable environment for breeding activities. So, this study helps to find out whether the native ornamental fish can replace the exotic ornamental fish.

Materials and methods Study area and animals The study was conducted in the Fishery Research Station, Begnas, Pokhara. Native fishes were collected from irrigation canal of Begnas lake, Pokhara from Magh 21st to Falgun 21st 2076 and from 12th Ashad to 18th Ashad 2077 by using cast net. The collected fishes were identified by using taxonomic keys, and the standard literature such as Shrestha (2008). Small to medium size native fishes ideal for 260

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 aquarium having good coloration, feeding habit (Carnivores, Herbivores, Omnivores), their behavior with other fish species and having ability to sustain in controlled environment were selected. Domestication After selecting their nature, initial length and weight of these fishes was taken before introducing into the stocking tank for acclimatization and then theses fishes were kept in the aquaria having 40 liter capacity where proper aeration was maintained and water was replaced once a week by siphoning. Fishes were fed with autoclaved powdered feed having 40% CP thrice a day. The survival rate of the fishes as calculated by the following equation (Francis 1995).

Investigation of breeding activities of species and assessing the suitable environment Out of the total domesticated native fish species, Danio devario was selected for investigating breeding activities and assessing the suitable environment. For assessing the suitable environment, 33 individual Danio devario were exposed into the four different after measuring their weight to know which female lays the eggs. The first condition (A) is in the aquarium with heater and aerator whereas natural bedding was made with sand, gravel, pebbles and aquatic submerged plant Hydrilla verticillata but there is absent of the direct sunlight. Likewise, second condition (B) is the one where fish species were kept into the outer tank which is exposed to direct sunlight and in natural bedding was made like first condition. Similarly, for the third condition(C) fishes were exposed to the tank with running water where natural bedding was like previous two condition but there is absence of direct sunlight. The fourth and the last condition(D) is in the open environment which can be called as semi captive condition where natural bedding was made like three condition which is exposed to direct sunlight. For all the condition aeration was properly maintained and those fishes were fed with autoclaved 40% CP powdered feed and sometimes bloodworms were also fed as supplement feed. Temperature, pH and DO for all these conditions were checked by the mercury filled thermometer, portable Hanna pH and DO by wrinkle method.

Results In this study, five native fishes are found suitable for the ornamental purposes from the Begnas Lake which is Barilius barna, Danio devario, Danio rerio, Puntius sophore and Puntius conchonius (Table 1, Fig. 1), belonging to order cypriniformes and family cyprinidae. The length weight of the fish species was given in the (Table 2). The survivality for the Barilius barna was zero as it could not survive that’s why there was no further domestication for it. Since Puntius conchonius and Danio rerio were not found during the catch of ornamental fishes during the winter season and summer season so there is no survivality rate for the winter months and summer months for those species. Survivality rate for the Puntius sophore

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(86.66%) and Danio devario (94.59%) were higher in the months of summer than the winter months (Table 3). Table 1. List of native fish species found in Begnas suitable for ornamental purpose S.N. Fish species Order Family Local name 1. Puntius conchonius Rato pothi 2. Puntius sophore Cyprniformes Cyprinidae Pothi machha 3. Barilius barna Fageta 4. Danio devario Sera vitta 5. Danio rerio Chelawa,zebra fish

Table 2. Length weight of the native ornamental fish species collected form the Begnas Lake Fish species Length (cm) Mean ± sd Weight (gm) Mean ± sd Puntius sophore 5.7±0.9 3±1.4 Danio devario 6.3±0.5 3.1±0.7 Danio rerio 3.3±0.4 0.4±0.2 Puntius chonchonius 4.7±0.3 2.1±0.2

Table 3. Seasonal effects on domestication of local ornamental fish species Scientific name Local name Winter month’s Summer month’s survival (%) survival (%) Puntius conchonius Rato pothi 66.6 - Puntius sophore Pothi machha 82.82 86.66 Danio devario Sera vitta 62.35 94.59 Danio rerio Chelawa/ zebra fish - 84

Survivality rate for summer months are higher which could be due to the temperature, as temperature is directly related the dissolved oxygen. These fish species can be domesticated at the temperature range from 16 to 30℃, pH 7 to 8 and DO 4 to 7 mg/l. Among the four conditions to investigating breeding activities of Danio devario for assessing the suitable environment, breeding was successful in the fourth condition which is in the open environment (10 m length, 0.75 m wide and 30cm depth) that can be called as the semi captive condition. Danio devario can be breed in the temperature range from 27 to 28℃, pH 7 to 7.8 and DO range 5.5 to 7.5 mg/l. Since only one female Danio was able to breed there was only 25 hatchlings were survive in open environment. For the hatchlings, they were kept in the aquaria and feed with micro feed thrice a day. The water quality for the species are all in acceptable range as shown in the table for four condition of breeding environment and normal domestication process (Table 4). Table 4. Mean and standard error (SE) of water quality parameters

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Water quality First Second Third Fourth Normal for condition(A) condition(B) condition(C) condition(D) domestication Temperature 29.2134±0.159 28.0147±0.138 27.878±0.183 27.435±0.139 27.9329±0.1581 DO 5.25±0.086 6.325±0.156 5.55±0.07 5.85±0.03 5.318±0.07 PH 7.433±0.064 7.55±0.043 7.45±0.084 7.65±0.03 7.37±0.056

Figure 1. Native ornamental fish species suitable for ornamental purpose: A- Puntius conchonius; B- Puntius sophore; C- Danio rerio; D- Barilius barna; E- Danio devario

Discussion Native fishes are one of aquatic vertebrates which needs to be further studied however before completing understanding their occurrence, distribution and ecology, there are certain threats roaming around native fishes due to climate change, over fishing, pollution, alteration of natural habitats and poor understanding of fish ecology etc. (Gurung 2012). Contribution of native fish to total production 263

Biodiversity in a Changing World is declining worldwide, as most fishes have been over fished (Allan et al. 2005; Allen et al. 2010). Therefore, usually native fishes of Nepal considered as not valuable in the case of the economic benefit so there needs to be proper management for the native fish species. That’s why in Kali Gandaki Fish Hatchery as designated research station for native fish and nine native fishes has been bred in captivity successfully (KGFH 2005-06). This station produces about one million fingerlings of native fishes for the purpose of restocking in the regulated rivers for the conservation of native fishes (Gurung & Baidya 2012). Different native ornamental fish species such as Puntius sp., Colisa sp., Bhurluk etc. were collected from different water bodies and reared for domestication and propagation in plastic tank. Similarly, broods of some exotic species such as Goldfish, Fancy carp, Guppy, Platy and Swordtail were also reared for breeding purposes. Native fish Colisa sp. is successfully breed in fishery research station. (FRS 2018). However, there are not much work done in the case of domestication and breeding native ornamental fishes of Nepal. According to (Husen 2019), there are about 43 ornamental fish shops from the Kathmandu and Pokhara Valley of Nepal which sales the 27 exotic ornamental fishes which are mostly imported from India, Thailand and some of the native fishes are also popular in the market however Nepal also has great native ornamental fish which can contribute as ornamental fishes in Nepal as well as global fair and there are 15 potential native fish species in Nepal which can contribute as an ornamental fish that possess an attractive colors. These kinds of the activity can help to commercialized and conserve the native fishes. The present study shows five native fishes are found as the potential for the ornamental purpose from the Begnas Lake which can be domesticated from wild to captivity that can promote the native fish species in the ornamental fish industry of Nepal. According to McClure et al. (2006) Danio devario species typically inhabits faster flowing water unlike zebrafish, which inhabits the margins of streams and rivers. Therefore, similarly in this study, Danio devario was able to breed in the semi captive condition in the open environment without use of hormone where continuous water was supplied through pipe for the moderate amount of water current. Breeder and Rosen (1996) noted that the sudden cooing of the temperature in the spawning aquarium by the artificial rain and then gradual increasing temperature is the main induction for the breeding of D. aequipinnatus. In the same way for the induction for the breeding of Danio devario in this experiment is seen due to natural rain cooling the temperature of the water. Although freshwater ornamental fish industry mainly relays on the cultured fishes from captive conditions, significant numbers are still removed from the wild (Andrew 1990). Therefore, domestication and breeding of the native ornamental fishes can play a great role for promotion of native ornamental fishes in Nepali market as well as for conservation which can be used by aquarium keepers so that this species can remain sufficient number in the natural environment along with its habitat protection.

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Conclusion This study documents native fishes possess the great potential as ornamental fishes in Nepal and it can be domesticated from the wild to the captive conditions. In cases of Danio devario it can be breed in the semi captive condition in the open environment where all the water qualities are maintained. This study could provide the insight in the native ornamental fishes which can contribute to ornamental fish industry in Nepal.

Acknowledgements We thanks to Fisheries Research Station, Begnas, Pokhara for giving platform to perform the research activity and funding the whole experiment as well as for support and guidance throughout the journey.

Funding’s information The research fund was provided by Fisheries Research Station, Begnas, Pokhara for overall experimental research.

References

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McClure, M., McIntyre, P. and McCune, A. 2006. Notes on the natural diet and habitat of eight danionin fishes, including the zebrafish Danio rerio. Journal of Fish Biology 69:553–570. Rajbanshi, K. 2012. Biodiversity and distribution of freshwater fishes of Central/Nepal Himalayan Region. Nepalese Journal of Aquaculture and Fisheries Shrestha, T. K. 2008. Ichthyology of Nepal. Himalayan Ecosphere. Sureshkumar, S., Ranjeet, K. and Radhakrishnan, K. 2013. Live Handling and Domestication of Selected Indigenous Ornamental Fishes of India. Teletchea, F. 2016. Domestication level of the most popular aquarium fish species: is the aquarium trade dependent on wild populations. Cybium 40:21–29. Tlusty, M. 2002. The benefits and risks of aquacultural production for the aquarium trade. Aquaculture 205(3–4): 203– 219. Wood, E. 2001. Collection of coral reef fish for aquaria: global trade, conservation issues and management strategies.

266

Diversity of ground-dwelling ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Lahachowk, Kaski, Nepal

Shambhu Adhikari1,2, Dibya Rai1,2, Sandesh Gurung3 and Indra Prasad Subedi3*

1Tri-Chandra College, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 2Amrit Science College, Tribhuvan University, Nepal 3Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Ants are the important components of terrestrial ecosystem. Diversity and distribution patterns of ants in Nepal remain poorly documented. Here, we explored the diversity of ants in Lahachowk, Kaski, Nepal. We further assessed ant species richness and compared their diversity habitat-wise and seasonally. Ants were sampled using pitfall trap, food baits (sugar, ghee and biscuits) and general search methods from three different habitats, viz. forest, cultivated land and grassland during autumn 2015 and spring 2016. A total of 9389 ants representing seven subfamilies, 30 genera and 77 morphospecies were recorded from the study. Overall, forest was the most diverse habitat in terms of number of species. Diversity (3.278) and evenness index (0.856) were the highest at cultivated land while individual species abundance (3297) was maximum in grassland. Grassland had the lowest species richness, diversity and evenness. Species richness (62), species diversity (3.521) and species evenness (0.853) were higher during spring season than in autumn but species abundance (5522) was more during the autumn. Among three habitats, the similarity index between forest and grassland (0.615) was the highest while the index between cultivated land and forest was the lowest. Camponotus Mayr, 1861, was the most speciose genus with 16 morphospecies while Odontoponera Mayr, 1862, had maximum relative abundance (14.49). Subfamily Ectatomminae Emery, 1895 and genera Gnamptogenys Roger, 1863, Centromyrmex Mayr, 1866, and Buniapone Schmidt & Shattuck, 2014 are new records for Nepal. Keywords: ACAP, Myrmecofauna, Pitfall, Seasonal, Species richness

Introduction Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are eusocial insects evolved in the mid- cretaceous period between 110 to 130 million year ago. Ants are one of the important components of terrestrial ecosystem because they act as “keystone species” which play important roles in predation, mutualism, resource species (Holldobler & Wilson 1990; LaSalle & Gauld 1993), nutrient flow, herbaceous vegetation structure (Beattie & Culver 1977, Handel et al. 1981) and soil improvement (Lyford 1963; Petal 1978).

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Ants occur from Arctic Circle to Equator (Brian 1978) and are absent in Iceland, Greenland and Antarctica (Holldobler & Wilson 1990). Ants occupy wide range of ecological niches (Holldobler & Wilson 1990; Lasalle & Gauld 1993) such as woods, trees, stones and thrives in most ecosystems to form 15-25% of the terrestrial biomass (Schultz 2000). Many species exhibit habitat preferences and they rapidly respond to the environmental changes. Moisture, soil temperature, vegetation and population of other arthropods (Andersen et al. 2002; Brown 2002; Kaspari & Majer 2002), as well as clearcutting (Jennings et al. 1986, Punttila et al. 1991), mining (Majer 1983, Andersen 1990), waste disposal (MacKay 1993), and land use (Bestelmeyer & Wiens 1996; Peck et al. 1998) are the disturbance factors to ant diversity. This shows that ants are ideal taxon for comparative studies of diversity among habitats and environmental change (Andersen 1990; Alonso 2000; Kaspari & Majer 2000). So, ants are used as bio-indicator (Andersen 1988; MacKay et al. 1991; Touyama 1996; Vanderwoude et al. 1997) as well as ecologically important group of organisms that are nearly ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems (Hölldobler & Wilson 1990). Globally, 17 valid subfamilies, 338 genera, and over 13,861 species of ants have been described (Bolton 2021). AntWeb (2021) listed following number of ant species in different bioregions viz. Afrotropical – 2095, Antarctica – 1, Australasia – 2486, Indomalaya – 2917, Malagasy – 877, Nearctic – 977, Neotropical – 3633, Oceania – 268 and Palearctic – 2054. Collingwood (1970) was the first list of ants from Nepal with 34 species reported from elevation of 850 m to 4500 m. Currently, Nepalese ants represent 8 subfamilies (Amblyoponinae, Dolichoderinae, Dorylinae, Formicinae, Leptanillinae, Myrmicinae, Ponerinae and Pseudomyrmicinae), 48 genera and 128 species (Subedi et al. 2020). Ants in Nepal, occupy a variety of habitats such as leaf litter, trees, soil and dead logs, while tramp species prefer human-modified habitats. Myrmicinae is the largest subfamily (49% species) followed by Formicinae (28%), Ponerinae (10%) and Dolichoderinae (4.63%) (Subedi et al. 2020). However, the study of ants in Nepal is incomplete with few published records. Here, we explored the ant genera and assessed their species-richness and compared the diversity habitat-wise and seasonally in Lahachowk, Kaski, Nepal.

Materials and methods

Study area The study of formicidae was conducted in Lahachowk (28.51666 N, 83.86666 E), Kaski District, Gandaki Zone, Nepal (Fig. 1). Lahachowk located at 900 m to 2768 m elevation fall within the subtropical mountain climate to temperate mountain climate. The study was carried out in three different habitats viz. cultivated land, forest and grassland and lies with in elevation range of 935 m to 1100 m. The average temperature of autumn was 19°C (maximum 22°C and minimum 13°C) and of spring was 25°C (maximum 27°C and minimum 21°C). Lahachowk is bounded to the East by Seti river, to the South by Mardi river, to the West by Pathi Khola and to the North by dense forest called Lalka forest. Different types of vegetation were found in three different habitats. In forest, Azeretina

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 adenophora, Reinwartina indica, Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Alnus nepalensis were dominant plant species, in Grassland Cynodon dactylon, Imperata cylindrica, Oplimenus sp. of grass were dominant while in cultivated land Zea mays, Brassica sp., Triticum astivum, Eleusine corocana, Oryza sativa, Glycine max were common. Forest contains sandy soil with stone but cultivated land and grassland had clay soil. In forest anthropogenic activities were relatively low in comparison to cultivated land and grassland. Forest and cultivated land were protected against grazing but grassland was of open type.

Figure 1. Map of study area

Sampling methods Samples were collected from three different types of habitats i.e., forest, cultivated land and grassland by using pitfall trap, bait trap and general search methods. In each habitat 18 pitfall and 18 bait traps were set in linear series. The distance between two adjacent traps was maintained at 5 m. Pitfall traps and bait traps were kept parallelly separated by 5 m. Data were collected up to eight times per habitat per season (all habitats in same days) with monitoring in regular interval. Pitfall trap samples were collected during morning (6:30 am to 10:30 am) and bait traps samples were collected during day (12:00 pm to 4:00 pm). Data were collected seasonally viz. autumn and spring. Pitfall trap Pitfall traps were exposed for 48 hours. Each trap (12 cm height and 8 cm diameter) was buried in ground containing diluted (50%) 20 ml ethylene glycol. After 48 hours contents of trap were collected and rinsed with water and preserved in 70% ethanol. Bait trap

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Eighteen bait traps were used in each habitat using sugar, dead insect and biscuits as bait materials. The traps were exposed for forty-five minutes and the specimens were collected manually with the help of feather-weight forceps and specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol. Hand collection In manual collection ants were collected opportunistically and general visual search under stones, under logs, under moss at Lahachowk in autumn and spring seasons. Identification of ants, data processing and analysis The specimens were point mounted and examined under zoom stereo microscope. The collected specimens were identified up to genus using standard identification keys (Bingham 1903, Bolton 1994), tallying with deposited specimens and type images available at antweb.org and antwiki.org. Specimens were identified up to genus and sorted by morphospecies. Data were processed by using MS-Excel 2007. For analysis, calculate Shannon diversity index, Pielou’s Evenness index and Sorensen similarity index.

Results and discussion In this study, 9389 ant specimens were collected representing 7 subfamilies (Fomicinae, Myrmicinae, Dorylinae, Ponerinae, Dolichoderinae, Pseudomyrmicinae and Ectatomminae), 30 genera and 77 morphospecies through 1728 trap samples (pitfall trap and bait trap) as well as opportunistic manual collection. Subfamily myrmicinae was represented by 11 genera and 29 morphospecies followed by Ponerinae 8 genera and 9 morphospecies, Formicinae 6 genera and 27 species, Dorylinae 2 genera and 2 morphospecies where rest of the 3 subfamilies Dolichoderinae (4 morphospecies), Ectatomminae (1 species) and Pseudomyrmicinae (4 morphospecies) have only one genus. Out of seven sub-families Ectatomminae Emery 1895 is new to Nepal. Similarly, genera Gnamptogenys Roger 1863, Centromyrmex Mayr 1866, and Buniapone Schmidt & Shattuck 2014 are the genera new to Nepal (Table 1). Table 1: Ant genera reported from the study area SN Subfamilies Genera Morphospecies 1. Dolichoderinae Technomyrmex Mayr 1872 4 2. Dorylinae Cerapachys Smith 1857 1 3. Aenictus Shuckard 1840 1 4. Ectatomminae Gnaptogenys Roger 1863 1 5. Camponotus Mayr 1861 16 6. Formica Linnaeus 1758 1 7. Formicinae Lepisiota Santschi 1926 4 8. Paratrechina Motschulsky 1863 1 9. Polyrhachis Smith 1857 6 10. Prenolepis Mayr 1861 1 11. Aphaenogaster Mayr 1853 6

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12. Cataulacus Smith 1853 1 13. Crematogaster Lund 1831 4 14. Lophomyrmex Emery 1892 3 15. Lordomyrma Emery 1897 1 16. Myrmicinae Meranoplus Smith 1853 1 17. Pheidole Westwood 1839 3 18. Carebara Westwood 1840 3 19. Recurvidris Bolton 1992 1 20. Tetramorium Mayr 1855 3 21. Monomorium Mayr 1855 1 22. Buniapone Schmidt & Shattuck 2014 1 23. Centromyrmex Mayr 1866 1 24. Diacamma Mayr 1862 1 25. Leptogenys Roger 1861 2 26. Ponerinae Odontomachus Latreille 1804 1 27. Odontoponera Mayr 1862 1 28. Brachyponera Emery 1900 2 29. Pseudoneoponera Donisthorpe 1943 30. Pseudomyrmicinae Tetraponera Smith 1852 4 Total 7 30 77

Out of 30 genera most speciose genus was Camponotus (16 morphospecies), followed by Aphaenogaster (6 morphospecies), Polyrhachis (6 morphospecies), Crematogaster (4 morphospecies), Lepisiota (4 morphospecies), Technomyrmex (4 morphospecies) and Brachyponera (2 morphospecies). Seventeen genera (Cerapachys, Aenictus, Gnamptogenys, Formica, Cataulacus, Meranoplus, Recurvidris, Lordomyrma, Monomorium, Buniapone, Centromyrmex, Diacamma, Odontomachus, and Odontoponera) were represented by single morphospecies. These results somehow agree with Wilson (1976) and Ryder Wilkey et al. (2010) because they also recorded Pheidole, Camponotus, and Crematogaster as the most prevalent genera. In this study area Camponotus, Odentoponera, Leptogenys, Polyrhachis, Aphaenogaster, Lophomyrmex, Lepisiota, Crematogaster, were most abundant genera, found in 61% of samples. Out of 77 morphospecies Odontoponera sp. was the most abundant species, found in 11.42% of samples. Bernadou et al. (2013) recorded 75 species at Andorra which is nearly equal to this result because both studied sides are located around with in elevation range of 950 m to1100 m species viz. Lahachowk lies within 935 m to 1100 m where Andorra 1000 m above the sea level. Similarly, Lucky et al. (2013) recorded 92 ant species in an elevation of 920 m in Nakanai Mountains. In comparison to Andorra, species number of Lahachowk little bit more and that of Nakanai Mountain was more than Lahachowk because Species richness decreased with increased elevation (Fisher 1996). Ant diversity among habitats

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The forest was slightly rich in ant species (47 morphospecies) than the cultivated land (46 morphospecies) and the grassland (45 morphospecies). This finding was partially agreed with Fisher and Robertson (2002) because they recorded 19 species from grassland and 59 species from forest in Plateau of Madagascar. But species recorded by Fischer and Robertson (2002) was highly maximum in comparison to this verdict because they used five methods for data collection. Among them leaf litter shifting was highly effective in forest. This is the reasons that Madagascar forest have more ant species recorded in comparison to Lahachok. Apart from this, vegetation is also an important factor to change the Species composition (Fisher & Robertson 2002). So, species composition of grassland and cultivated land was different from forest. And also, Calcaterra et al. (2010) recorded higher number of species (39) in forest and in grassland (29) of Argentina which was parallel with Lahachowk outcome. Similarly, in Amaravati City of India, Chavhan and Pawar (2011) recorded 30 species of ant in forest, 22 species in human settlement and 15 species in grassland which agree with this finding. Lower species richness as well as evenness of ant in different habitat is due to disturbance (Bruhl et al. 2003; Bickel & Watanasit 2005; Fayle et al. 2010). In this study area, anthropogenic disturbance in cultivated land mostly occurred during tillaging period and harvesting period, similarly in grassland livestock disturbance occurred. Due to this reason a smaller number of ants were recorded in cultivated land and grassland in comparison to forest. In grassland least number of species were collected in comparison to forest and cultivated land. The lower species richness of grassland could be the consequence of fragmentation, cattle grazing and disturbance and smaller area structure. Grazing is also a cause to reduce and affected the faunal composition, including ant species in grassland. Similar evidence was recorded by Hays and Holl (2003) in California. According to Turner and Foster (2009) canopy less habitat face direct sunlight, rise in soil temperature and increase evaporation rate tend to make more stress full environment for ground- dwelling ant leading to decline species richness and community structure. This is the reason lower ant species richness in grassland and cultivated land. In contrast, Fisher and Robertson (2002) recorded 33 species in grassland and 31 species in forest at High Plateu of Madagascar in an elevation of 1750 m. Species richness of ant in forest was maximum at mid-elevation (800 m) and declines rapidly at higher elevations. When elevation increase, reduction in radiant energy then decrease in species richness (Fisher 1996). Due to this, forest in High Plateu of Madagascar had less species of ants. Soil is abiotic factor which altered the species richness, species diversity and abundance of ants. Species richness, species diversity and abundance of ant are positively correlated to sandy soil and negatively correlate to the clay soil (Horrison et al. 2003). This evidence support Lahachowk result because forest and cultivated land of this research area contain sandy soil. So, species richness in forest and cultivated land is greater than grassland. Alike to this research, Boulton et al. (2005) found high abundance, richness, and composition of ants at McLaughlin Reserve was positively affected in sand contain soil and negatively affected in clay soil. The study of species diversity indices compared among 3 types of habitats such as forest (3.299) grassland (3.15) and cultivated land (3.299) indicates that the difference in habitat influence the kinds

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 of ant species inhibiting in these habitats. The similarity indices, tools for comparing the similarity between two community samples, vary from 40% to 60% among those habitats’ sites. By the similarity measurement, grassland and cultivated land showed the most similar ant species diversity. The highest similarity index between them indicated the highest number of ant species coexistence in both sites. It is possible that the places of cultivated land may consist of some similar microhabitat types occurring in grassland. Although forest and cultivated land have nearly same number of ant species, the lower index value indicates the microhabitats between the two areas are more dissimilar. Sunil et al. (1997) reported the ant species richness generally increases with increase in vegetation. In this research 20 species were overlapped in all three habitats which were 25% of total species. This is because all three habitats located in the altitudinal range of 950 m to 1050 m and their distance gap is also very close is about 1000 m to 1200 m. This is the reason there is no such vast difference in species richness in between habitats.

0.86 3.35

0.855 3.3 0.85 3.25 Pielou's index 0.845 3.2 0.84 Shannon div 3.15 0.835

0.83 3.1

0.825 3.05 Cultivated land Forest Grassland

Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of Pielous Evenness index and Shannon index of species diversity cultivated land, forest and grassland of Lahachowk

The study has shown strong seasonal fluctuations within the ant community. There were variations in total ant abundances from the autumn to the spring season. Species number varied in different seasons due to climatic and abiotic factor. The amount of energy available in a system (primary productivity) is thought to be one of the major determinants of species diversity, especially species richness (Bailey et al. 2004). So, community composition also changed (Turner & Foster 2009) considerably over the seasons. Above reason are positively act on environment. Thus, out of total species, 62 morphospecies were recorded in spring and 59 morphospecies in autumn. Similarly, in Western Ghats, India, 29 species in spring and 13 species were recorded in late autumn (Basu 1997) which was correlates with this research finding. Ants were found to be less active during the coldest and driest time of the year (Gray 1998). As the weather warmed in the spring, activity increased at different rates in different

273 Biodiversity in a Changing World habitats, depending upon ground temperature and moisture availability (Levings 1983). Temperature and moisture availability in soil gradually decreased in late autumn which was unfavorable to formicidae (Levings 1983). Thus, ants alter their activity from late autumn and gradually halt their activities and progress to hibernation due to cold. Food intake activity of ants were found to be increasing rapidly during April, with its peak in May (Horstman 1972), which was flourished in parallel to seed production of ant-dispersed plants in different habitats. Not only that, honeydew is available to red ants mainly later, after the middle of May (Scheurer 1964). As a result, species richness increased in spring in comparison to autumn. In this study area, autumn was a season of crop harvesting, so there should be disturbance in their activity and lack of food for grainyvore ants which lead to retard ant species and their number.

0.62 0.615 0.61 0.605 index value 0.6 0.595

Sorensen 0.59 0.585 0.58 Cultivated & grass Forest & cultivated Grass & forest

Habitats

Figure 3. Sorensen similarity index of different habitats Seasonal variation In the same way, in the Moroccan Argan Forest ant species were highest in spring then in the early autumn (Keroumi et al. 2012). They observed foraging activity of ant below Argan trees was peak at spring in warmer temperature which could be the main abiotic stress factor to regulating ant community. Dreyer (1932) observed that temperature gradually decreased in autumn and gradually increased from spring. In autumn temperature steadily decrease due to this ant face problem in gaseous exchange and low respiratory quotient then reduction in metabolic activities. Finally, went to hibernation due to cold temperature. Thus, Species richness, Shannon diversity and evenness are higher in spring. But species abundance was maximum in autumn season which follows the Currie (1991) Productivity hypothesis, the energy entrance rate to a system limits the species richness by limiting the density of its individuals. Among 79 morphospecies 43 morphospecies were common in both seasons, only 16 morphospecies were recorded in autumn season and 20 morphospecies were only recorded in spring season. The community also became more even in the spring seasons.

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Some species are restricted by the extreme summer and have a short period of activity in spring (Davidson 1977; Whitford 1978). This shows that ant species richness was fewer in autumn. Spring season was favorable for ant in comparison to autumn season.

Cultivated 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 J in Autumn 0.75 J in Spring

Grassland Forest

Figure 4. Pielou’s Evenness index (J) in three different habitats in autumn and spring seasons and their ascending or descending ratio

3.1 3.025 3 3.048 2.991 2.9 H in Autumn H in Spring 2.8 2.881 2.852 2.7 2.6 2.726 2.5 H in Spring H in Autumn Cultivated Forest Grassland

Figure 5. Shannon-Weinner diversity index (H) of habitats type in autumn and spring seasons

Conclusion Altogether 7 subfamilies, 30 genera and 77 morphospecies were recorded from three types of habitats. The most preferred habitat was forest area (47 morphospecies) followed by cultivated land (46 morphospecies) and grassland (45 morphospecies). Similarly, Shannon diversity index was species

Biodiversity in a Changing World evenness were highest in forest, cultivated land and grassland respectively. But abundance was maximum in grassland and minimum in cultivated land. More than 25% of ant species were overlapped in all habitat and 30 species were found in only one habitat. Remaining ants were found in two different habitats. Spring season was the more diverse (62 morphospecies) than autumn (58 morphospecies). Likewise, Shannon diversity index and evenness were higher in spring season.

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge Seiki Yamane, Prof. emeritus Kagosima University, Japan for identification of some of the ant genera. We are very thankful to Amrit Gurung, Prabin Baral and Pradip Subedi for carding and mounting of ants in Laboratory of Central Department of Zoology, Kathmandu, Nepal.

References

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Keroumi, A., Naamani, K., Soummane, H. and Dahbi, A. 2012. Seasonal dynamics of ant community structure in the Moroccan Argan Forest. Journal of Insect Science 12:94. Laselle, J., and Gauld, I. D. 1993. Hymenoptera diversity and their impact on the organism of other organism. In: Laselle, J. and Gauld, I. D. (eds.). Hymenoptera and Biodiversity, CAB International, Washington DC, pp 1– 27. Levings, S. C. 1983. Seasonal, annual, and among-site variation in the ground ant community of a deciduous tropical forest: some causes of patchy species distributions. Wiley 53(40):435–455. Lucky, A., Sagata, K. and Sarna, E. 2013. Ants of the Nakanai mountains, East New Britain Province, Papua NewGuinea. Conservation International. Rapid biological assessments of the Nakanai mountains and the upper Strickland Basin: surveying the biodiversity of Papua New Guinea's sublime karst environments, 45–53. Lyford, W. H. 1963. Important of ant to brown podzolic soil genesis in New England. No.7.Harverd forest paperi Petersham, MA MacKay, W. P. 1993. A review of the New World ants of the genus Dolichoderus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 22:1–148. MacKay, W. P., Rebeles, A., Arrendondo, H. C., Gonzalez, A. D. and Vinson, S. B. 1991. Impact of the slashingand burningof a tropical rain forest on the native ant fauna (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 18:257–268. Majer, J. D. 1983. Ants: bio-indicators of mine site rehabilitation, land-use and land conservation. Environmental Management 7:375–383. Peck, S. L., McQuaid, B. and Campbell, C. L. 1998. Using ant species (Hymenopter: Formicidae) as a biological indicator of Agro-Ecosystem condition. Environmental Entomology 27(5):1102–1110. Petal, J. 1987. The role of ant in ecosystem. In: Brian, M.V. (ed.). Production ecology of ants and termites, International Biology Program, No.13. Cambridge University press New York, pp 292–325. Punttila, P., Haila, Y., Pajunen, T. and Tukia, H. 1991. Colonization of clearcut forests by ants in the south Finnish taiga: a quantitative survey. Oikos 61:250–262. Ryder Wilkie, K. T., Mertl, A. L. and Traniello, J. F. A. 2010. Species Diversity and Distribution Patterns of the Ants of Amazonian Ecuador. PLoS ONE 5(10):e13146. Scheurer, S. 1964. Zur biologie einiger fichten bewohnender lachnidenarten (Homoptera, Aphidina). Zeitschrift fur an- gewandte Entomologie 53:153–178. Schultz, T. R. 2000. Ants: standard methods for measuring and monitoring a quantitative survey. Oikos 61:250-262. Subedi I. P., Budha P. B., Bharti H., Alonso L. 2020. An updated checklist of Nepalese ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). ZooKeys 1006:99–136. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1006.58808 Sunil, K. M., Shrihari, K. T., Nair, P., Varghese, T. and R. Gadagkar, 1997. Ant species richness at selected localities of Bangalore. Insect Environment 3(1):3–5. Touyama, Y. 1996. Myrmecofaunal change under Þre disturbance. Edaphologia 56:25–30. Turner, E. C. and Foster, W. A. 2009. The impact of forest conversion to oil palm on arthropod abundance and biomass in Sabah, Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25: 23–30. Vanderwoude, C., Andersen, A. N. and Housem, A. P. N. 1997. Ant communities as bio-indicators in relation to Þre management of spotted gum (Euclyptus maculata Hook.) forests in southeast Queensland. Mem. Mus. Victoria 56:671–675. Wang, C., Strazanac, Z. S. and Butler, L. 2001. Association between ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and habitat characteristics in oak-dominated mixed forests. Entomological Society of America 30(5):842–848. Whitford, W. J. 1978. Structure and seasonal activity in Chihuahuan desert ant communities. Insectes Sociaux 25:79– 88. Wilson, E. O. 1976. Which are the most prevalent ant genera? Studia Entomologica 19:187–200.

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Synergetic effects of nettle (Urtica parviflora) powder with multienzyme on growth performance of rainbow trout (Onchorhynuss mykiss)

Soniya Maharjan1, Archana Prasad1*, Prem Timalsina2 and Churamani Bhusal3

1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuwan University, Kritipur, Nepal 2Senior Scientist, National Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur 3Technical Officer, National Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In order to enhance fish growth and its survivability, different antibiotics, hormones and other synthetic drugs have been administered in the field of aquaculture but these chemical compounds support the proliferation of drug resistant microbes and production of toxic substances affecting health of host and environment. The use of medicinal plants with phytochemical properties such as nettle can be safer, less toxic and ensure biosecurity in comparison to the chemical products. But plant or its products can contain anti-nutritional factors which limit nutrition digestibility and fish growth. Thus, exogenous multienzymes were added on aquafeed to decrease antinutritional factors and ensure availability of digestible nutrients. So, this study was conducted to evaluate the use of nettle powder as feed additive along with multienzyme on growth performance and survival rate of rainbow trout. Five isonitrogenous diet (35% CP) i.e., Control diet with 0.05 gm/kg multienzyme, control diet without multienzyme, diet with 1.5% nettle powder and 0.05 gm/kg multienzyme; diet with 3% nettle powder and 0.05 gm/kg multienzyme and diet with 5% nettle powder and 0.05 gm/kg multienzyme were formulated. The nettle supplementation enhanced fish growth over the control diet; the highest fish growth and better feed utilization was obtained when fish fed on a diet containing diet with 1.5 % nettle powder. There were no significant changes in fish survival among the different treatments and its range was 98.4–100% suggesting that nettle had no toxic effect. Keywords: Aquaculture, Aquafeed, Biosecurity, Digestibility, Phytochemical

Introduction Rainbow trout is salmonid species native to cold water tributaries of Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America which has been domesticated and introduced worldwide to gain profit. Intensive culture of O. mykiss in flow through systems is commonly practiced in hills and mid hills of Nepal due to the suitable environmental condition (Timalsina et al. 2017). Although, the production of rainbow trout in Nepal has increased from 0.045 metric tons in 1998 to 317 metric tons in 2016, but still there is not

Biodiversity in a Changing World sufficient supply of rainbow trout in Nepalese market (Bhandari & Parajuli 2016). Therefore, there should be rapid growth of rainbow trout with better organic quality to fulfill market demand. In order to control mortality and avoid huge economic losses, fish farmers frequently adopt inappropriate practices such as excessive use of pesticides, disinfectants and antibiotics violating the concept of sustainable and responsible aquaculture (Pullin et al. 2007; Valladão et al. 2015) and causing different health hazards to the consumer (Reverter et al. 2014). However, phytochemical rich plants or its isolated compounds can be useful source of growth promoting dietary additives, immunostimulants, antimicrobial and anti-stress booster instead of synthetic compounds in aqua-feeds (Chakraborty et al. 2013). Therefore, the scientists are more focused to identify and develop safe dietary supplements and additives of plants or its derivatives (Shim et al. 2009) Phytogenics or phytochemicals are a relatively young class of feed additives (Tacon & Metian 2015, Encarnação 2016) and are easy access, cheap in price. These are used on large scale in aquaculture to provide better growth and protection (Awad & Awaad 2017). Phytochemicals consists of several biological compounds especially alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, terpenoids, steroids and essential oils that have made them attractive for use as growth promoters in fish production with proliferation of gut flora that stimulates appetite and muscle conversion rate maintaining health status (Citarasu 2010; Pandey et al. 2010; Chakraborty et al. 2013; Pohlenz & Gatlin 2014). Urtica parviflora commonly known as Sishnu (Nepali), Himalayan stinging nettle (English) and Bichubuti (Hindi) is a monoecious, perennial herb, mainly found in the Nepal, Bhutan, Western China and India (Kumar et al. 2017). U. parviflora is used as a leaf vegetable, primarily in soups, vegetable pies, and salads and also traditional veterinary medicine for livestock (Barman et al. 2015). Despite the use of nettle in food and folk veterinary medicine is well documented, it is today an underestimated and frequently neglected plant considered as a weed to be eliminated in agriculture (Vico & Carella 2018). Nettle is also a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (60%) whose 50% corresponds to linoleic acid (C18:2), an omega-6 and it can strengthen the immune system of fish (Chakraborty & Hancz 2011; Rutto et al. 2013). The phytochemical screening of U. parviflora revealed the presence of chemical constituents like alkaloids, polysaccharides, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic compounds, carotenoids and tannins in U. parviflora (Pandey et al 2010). Extracts of stinging nettle (U. dioica) had a strong ability to promote growth, stimulate immune system and potential to impact the hemoglobin and hematocrit and develop disease resistance capacity against pathogens in different fish species including rainbow trout (Awad & Austin 2010; Bilen et al. 2016; Saeidi et al. 2017). These nutritional and functional roles of nettle clearly show the possibilities for transforming a common weed into a commercial plant with a wide range of applications in aquaculture (Vico et al. 2018). Rainbow trout is a predatory fish, although it consumes and assimilates plant or its compounds, its intensity of growth on such feed is much lower in comparison to feed containing complete fish products (Singh et al. 2019) Also, rainbow trout feed is super complex mixture composed of crude protein, crude lipid, carbohydrates, inorganic salt and so on (Ghomi et al. 2012). Thus, the use of exogenous

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 enzyme mixture (multienzyme) is better choice rather than individual enzyme as multienzymes can synergistically degrade the target substrates of feed (Zheng et al.2019). Nettle can be used as feed additives in several forms either as crude or extract or its isolated active component but using crude plants has the advantage of little effort being made to obtain and apply it and develop practical diet especially for fish farmers (Awad & Awaad 2017). Therefore, the aim of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of feeding crude nettle powder supplemented diet with multienzyme on growth performance of rainbow trout such that the result of this study would be helpful to prepare practical plant-based diets to fish farmers

Materials and methods Experimental fish and set up Fingerlings of rainbow trout were obtained from Fisheries Research Centre, Nuwakot. Fish were acclimatized to the experimental rearing conditions for one month. Fingerlings were fed with control diet during acclimation. Advanced fish with average weight of 38.89 ± 5.55 gram was be selected from acclimatized fish and salt treatment was done to avoid fungal infection. The stocking density was 125 fingerlings per 2.5m2. Eight raceways of National Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur with length 5m, breadth 1m and height 0.6m was subdivided into equal portion with 2.5 m 2 area for fish stocking on the basis of treatments. Each treatment was replicated thrice in completely randomized design. The raceways were supplied with water from nearby water resource with the help of cemented canal. The depth of the water was maintained 50 cm and flow of water was maintained 6 liters per second. The floors and bottom of raceways were scrubbed to clean at the interval of four days.

Feed preparation Fresh flag nettle leaves were collected from Rainbow Trout Fishery Research Station, in Dhunche, Nepal. Then, they were cleaned, cut into small pieces and shade air dried. Other major feed ingredients were also cleaned and sundried whereas fish meal was dried in electric dryer. Soybean was roasted in soybean roaster. All the major ingredients were pulverized into fine powder in a grinder, and stored at 4°C until use. Proximate analysis of macro ingredients was conducted to prepare five isonitrogenous diets (35% CP) at animal nutrition division by following standard protocol of Analysis of Office Association of Chemists (AOAC 2000) (Table 1). Table 1. Proximate of different feed ingredients used in preparing experimental diets Feed ingredients Crude Protein Crude Fat (CF) Crude Ash Moisture (CP) Wheat flour 14.78% 5.26% 5.41% 11.33% Shrimp meal 60.76% 1.95% 18.66% 9.56% Soybean 36.33% 2.13% 5.75% 5.36% Nettle powder 24.45% 2.13% 18.86% 9.56%

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In the mixture machine, nettle powder was mixed with other feed ingredients in different percentage compositions. (Table 2). Pellets was prepared by help of pellet feed machine. The multi-enzyme supplied from Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Vadodara was used in research and each 500 grams of it contained Amylase 250000 units, Protease 350000 units, Lipase 20000 units, Cellulase 30000 units, Phytase 45000 units, Alpha Galactosidase 45000 units, Glucanase 70000 units, Pectinase 120000 units and Xylanase 35000 units. Feed formulations include T1: Control diet with 0.05gm/kg multienzyme,

T2: Control diet without 0.05gm/kg multienzyme, T3: Control diet with 1.5% nettle powder and

0.05gm/kg multienzyme, T4: Control diet 3% nettle powder and 0.05gm/kg multienzyme and T5: Control diet with 5% nettle powder and (Table 2). Table 2. Formulation and chemical composition of used of Experimental diets

Experimental diets T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 a) Feed ingredients (%) Full fat Soybean 35 31.55 35 35 35 Soybean oil 6 6 6 6 6 Wheat flour 11.22 12.45 10.05 8.88 7.31 Fish meal 47.78 50 47.45 47.12 46.69 Slack 5.3 5.25 5.3 5.3 5.3 Nettle powder 0 0 1.5 3 5 b) Proximate composition (%) Dry matter 94.94 94.86 94.95 94.88 94.27 Crude protein 33.09 35.5 37.79 41.49 44.06 Crude Fiber 2.15 1.55 1.52 2.41 3.78 Ether Extract 10.72 15.78 15.32 15.08 15.46 Energy (cal/g) 4287.06 2635.74 3633.68 3452.66 2947.06

Water quality parameters Digital pen thermometer, Portable Hanna pH and Orion 5-star S.N. 005840, thermo-electron corporation, U.S.A was used to monitor temperature, pH and dissolve oxygen respectively. Water samples were collected from each race at the same time and stored in refrigerator. Alkalinity, hardness, ammonia, Nitrite (NO2) and Nitrate (NO3) was determined in laboratory from collected water sample with the help of eXact Ecocheck Kit #48698K. Fish sampling and growth check up Fish sampling was done for the growth checkup of the fishes. Ten percent of the fish was taken out randomly by help of scoop net at the interval of 15 days. Length and weight of sampled fish was measured by ordinary scale (± 1mm) attached with wooden board and electronic weight balance (± 0.1-gram SN-014739, Phoenix instrument model respectively. During final growth checkup, all fish stocks in each treatment were weighed by using heavy duty electronic weighing machine to determine

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 the harvesting weight of fish as well as total number of survived fishes in each treatment was also counted one by one simultaneously to determine the survival rate of fish. The fish production and related parameters were analyzed using following formulae: Daily growth rate (g/fish/day) =Average harvest weight (g) − Average stock weight (g) Culture days Specific growth rate (% per day) = (Log. harvest weight - Log. stock weight) × 100 Culture days Net fish yield (ton/ha/cycle) = (Harvest weight in kg - Stocked weight in kg)/1000 10000 × Culture days Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = Quantity of feed supplied (kg) Net fish yield (kg) Protein efficiency ratio (PER) = gain in weight (g) Protein intake in feed (g) Condition Factor (gm/cm3) = Weight of fish in gram (Length of fish in cm) ^3 Survival Rate (SR) = Number of fish that survived ×100% Total number of fish Statistical analysis The differences between the group means of Daily growth rate, Net fish yield, Specific Growth Rate, Feed Conversion Ratio, Condition Factor, Survival Rate and final weight was tested by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with average stocking weight All statistical tests were performed using statistical package SPSS 16.0 Software (SPSS; Chicago II). Comparisons were made at 5% level of significance.

Results Water quality was within acceptable ranges throughout the experiment (Table 3). Total hardness was found < 5 ppm, Nitrite (NO2) was found < 0.01 ppm, Nitrate (NO3) was found > 0.12 ppm and

Ammonia (NH3) was found > 0.01 ppm. No significant differences were observed in water quality parameters among treatments. Table 3. Mean and standard error (SE) of water quality parameters Water quality T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Temperature 14.0714±0.87 14.61±0.79 14±0.96 14.03±0.92 14±0.95 DO 8.06 ± 0.18 8.07± 0.21 7.94±0.18 7.98±0.18 7.93±0.18 PH 7.89± 0.12 7.9±0.12 7.93±0.11 7.94±0.14 7.88±0.11 Alkalinity 103.14± 5.12 107± 7.99 101.29±3.74 101.71±4.68 99.28±1.92

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No significant differences were observed in survival among the treatments since fish survival rate ranges from 98.4–100%. In this study, fish growth was enhanced significantly (p<0.05) with 1.5 % nettle supplemented diets containing multienzyme as compared to the other diet (Table 4). Table 4. Mean ± S.E. value of growth parameters and feed utilization of rainbow trout during experimental period of 90 days. Mean value with different superscript letters in same row is significantly different. Growth parameters Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

Survival rate 98.41 100.00 99.21 100.00 99.21 ±0.79 ±0.00 ±0.79 ±0.00 ±0.79 Total Harvesting 5856.29 5418.78 6383.32 5565.545 5625.237 weight (gm) ±106.63b ±109.59a ±111.52c ±93.357a ±108.75ab Feed Conversion Ratio 1.61 1.65 1.53 1.59 1.68 ±0.03bc ±0.02cd ±0.02a ±0.01b ±03d Daily growth rate 1.12 0.95 1.19 1.16 1.03 (g/fish/day) ±0.02c ±01a ±0.01d ±0.01cd ±0.02b Specific growth rate 0.61 0.57 0.65 0.58 0.59 ±0.02b ±0.006a ±0.01c ±0.004a ±0.01a Condition factor (C.F) 1.31 1.24 1.36 1.33 1.30 ±0.04 ±0.04 ±0.03 ±0.04 ±0.06 Extrapolated Net yield 51.32 45.15 53.92 52.80 46.61 ton per ha per cycle ±0.94c ±0.82a ±0.09e ±1.17d ±0.06b Protein efficiency 3.44 2.84 3.52 2.67 2.53 Ratio ±0.04b ±0.06a ±0.29b ±0.11a ±1.18a

Moreover, the highest Harvesting weight, SGR, Extrapolated Net yield ton per ha per cycle and DGR were obtained at a diet containing diet with 1.5% nettle supplementation (6383.32±111.52, 0.65±0.01, 53.92±0.09 and 1.19±0.01 respectively). The lowest and highest growth performances

(harvest weight and daily growth rate) were observed for fish fed the diets containing T2 (control diet without enzyme) and T3 (1.5% nettle supplemented diet with multienzyme) respectively. The results indicated that there were improvements in the growth performances of the fish fed nettle‐fortified diets when compared to those fed the control diet with multienzyme except for T5 (5% nettle supplemented diets with multienzyme) which showed a slight decrease from the control. The condition factor (length-weight relationship) also did not show any significant relationship among treatments during experimental period (Fig. 1). FCR was found significantly lower in diet with 1.5% nettle supplementation in comparison to other diets. 1.5% nettle with multienzyme supplemented diets and control diet with multienzyme showed significantly higher PER than other diets which demonstrate that crude protein supplied in these diets were utilized than protein supplied in other diets.

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Figure 1. The relationships between dietary nettle levels supplementation and condition factor The results of this study also showed that fish fed control diet with multienzyme have significantly higher Harvesting weight, SGR, Extrapolated Net yield ton per ha per cycle and daily growth rate in comparison to fish fed control diet without multienzyme. FCR and PER was also significantly improved in fish fed control diet with multienzyme when compared to fish fed control diet without multienzyme.

Discussion Intensification of fish culture is set to increase because of the need for more food to feed the ever- increasing human population. Yet pitfalls of increased intensification are widely recognized including poor growth prospects and increased incidences of massive death in the culture units. Therefore, wide range of pharmaceuticals including hormones, steroids, antibiotics, and parasiticides were used in aquaculture which have caused imbalances in aquatic ecosystems (Valladão et al. 2015) as emissions of chemical products used in the aquaculture directly or indirectly exploits environmental health (Pullin et al. 2007). Also, consumption of chemically treated fish leads to the different health hazards to the host (Reverter et al. 2014). Therefore, sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to aquaculture with use of phytochemical plants would be a win–win situation for farmers, consumers and environment (Makkar et al. 2007) that could enhance the growth activity, health and immune system of farmed fish (Shim et al. 2009). Growth and improvement in fish health can provide benefits for aquaculture by decreasing production times, reducing FCR, and increasing productivity. The present study indicated that the highest fish growth and feed utilization were obtained at 1.5% nettle supplementation. These results were

Biodiversity in a Changing World consistent with Awad and Austin (2010) who found that rainbow trout fed for 2 months with a diet supplemented with 1% and 2% of stinging nettle, (Urtica dioica) powder recorded significant increase in growth performance, especially weight gain, SGR and digestive enzymes. Saeidi et al. (2017) demonstrated that O. mykiss juveniles receiving 3% U. dioica dietary supplementation improved weight gain, growth rate and feed conversion ratio. Similarly, in an experiment conducted by Mehrabi and Firouzbakhsh (2019), 0.5% nettle powder supplemented diets improved Final weight, Weight Gain, Feed Efficiency Ratio, SGR and FCR). In another study, methanolic extract (0-12%) of nettle was examined on growth performance of rainbow trout within 30 days of feeding; significant rises were recorded in final weight, SGR, and FCR in supplemented treatments compared with the control (Bilen et al. 2016) and supplementation of diet with various percentages (1-5)% of nettle powder fed to Labeo victorianus for 4 weeks revealed significant elevations in final weight, SGR, and FCR values in comparison with the control (Ngugi et al. 2015). When nettle is used in extract form, high doses are required for better performance but even low doses of nettle powder can cause positive impact on fish growth which can be more economical and practical. The growth performance and feed utilization of fish fed control diet with multienzyme was also significantly higher than fish fed control diet without multienzyme. Being predatory fish, the digestive system of rainbow trout lacks the several enzymes needed to degrade compounds present in plants which deceases feed efficacy and fish growth (Singh et al. 2019). Therefore, rainbow trout feed containing plants are to be supplemented with exogenous mixture of enzymes such that mixture of enzymes can damage the antinutritional factors present in plants and increase the interaction between feed and digestive system which helps to improve the utilization rate of feed and enhance growth of fish (Zheng et al. 2019).

Conclusion Supplementation of phytochemical rich plant such as (Urtica parviflora) in feed can improve fish growth and thereby reduce management costs. Among growth promoters, nettle can be used as a feed additive to replace the antibiotic and enhance sustainable aquaculture. The results of this study demonstrate that dietary nettle (U. parviflora) powder levels are an important factor in a practical diet for rainbow trout. A dietary level U. parviflora of 1.5% with multienzyme provided the best fish performance. Further work is needed to explore U. parviflora impact on nutrient digestibility, fish health and innate fish immunity. Multienzyme supplementation in diets of O. mykiss can also significantly enhance growth performance and feed utilization.

Acknowledgements This research work is supported by National Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur. We would like to thank Fisheries Research Centre, Nuwakot for providing us rainbow trout fingerlings and Animal Nutrition Division, Khumaltar for providing us laboratory facilities to conduct proximate analysis of feed ingredients and feed. We are grateful to Dr. Nita Pradhan, Former Chief (NFRC),

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Mrs. Asha Rayamajhi Chief (NFRC) and all the staff of NFRC for providing technical support, advice and helpful suggestions. Funding information: The research fund was provided by National Fisheries Research Centre, Godawari, Lalitpur for overall experimental research.

References

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Diversity of butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies along Madi River, Nepal

Subarna Raj Ghimire1* and Purna Man Shrestha1,2

1Wildlife Research and Education Network, Kathmandu Nepal. 2Resources Himalaya Foundation, Lalitpur, Nepal. *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Order of Lepidoptera and Odonata are colorful insects with varied morphological features which found hovering mainly over the forest, agricultural land, river and rivulets. Butterflies are scaly insects with terrestrial larval forms. Odonata have large eyes with aquatic larval form. The purpose of this research is to document the diversity of butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies along Madi River. Madi River originates from Kapuche glacial lake which runs through Annapurna conservation area and flows through Kaski, Lamjung and Tanahu districts of Gandaki province. Study was carried in June to August 2019. Pollard walk method is carried out in each line transect with same effort, time and area covered. The checklist method is also used flexible opportunistic method where Butterflies, Damselflies and Dragonflies were from breeding place and foraging areas. A total of 68 species, 58 Butterflies from eight families (45 Genus) and 10 Odonata from five families (Nine Genus) were recorded from Madi river system. The order Nymphalidae covers more than 40% (n=25 species) followed by Lycaenidae nearly 20% (n=11 species) and Pieridae 14% (n=8 Species). In Odonata, family Libellulidae covers 40% (n=4 Sps.), followed by Calopterygidea and Chlorocyphidae 20% each (two species from each family). Family Gomphidae and Platycnemididae also cover 10% with one species from each family. This baseline study documents the diversity of Butterflies, Dragonflies and Damselflies along Madi River. Keywords: ………………………………………….

Introduction Nepal is rich in biodiversity due to its atypical change in its elevation and location in the intersection of Indo-Malayan and Palearctic realms. Nepal occupies about 0.1 percent of the global area containing 1.1 percent of World's known fauna with high diversity of birds, mammals and butterflies (GoN/MoFSC 2014; BCN & DNPWC 2011) and 0.44 percent of global Insects occupies in Nepalese biodiversity. Insects play an important role in maintaining natural ecosystems and play an important role in different ecosystem services like pollination, predation and herbivory. There are about 5,680 species of odonatan (Kalkman et al. 2008) and 18.000 species of butterflies are found in world (IUCN 2020). Nepal's biodiversity is supported by 660 species of butterflies (Smith 2011; Tamang et al. 2019)

Biodiversity in a Changing World which is 3.7 percent of global diversity (GoN/MoFSC 2014) and 176 species of Odonata (Conniff et al. 2020). Order of Odonata and butterflies are common insects inhabiting agricultural land, wetlands and forest area. Odonata are ecotone species whose adult and larval odonatan plays an important role of predators in the natural ecosystem which preys on the diversity of insects including insects of public health (Kalkman et al. 2008). Butterflies and Odonata are bio-indicator species (Chovanec & Waringer 2001; Thomas et al. 2004; Silva et al. 2010) which plays an important role as pollinating agents of different crops and forest vegetation. Odonata are amphibious organisms having aquatic breeding sites and terrestrial foraging areas. Butterflies are highly susceptible to climate, slight change in environment from different developmental activities like road construction, infrastructure impact greatly in diversity of butterfly (Van Swaay & Warren 2006). The river basin provides an important habitat for Odonata. The marginal flow, water bodies and rivulets directly influence the breeding and adult population (Hofman & Mason 2005). The distribution of dragonflies and damselflies along river basin is related with natural river system and human interference, some modification in river system shows positive relation to species abundance (Hofman & Mason 2005). The different habitat and micro-habitats like forest patches, slow-flowing river section, delta, temporary water in flood plain, floating macrophytes are responsible for high diversity of dragonflies (Chovanec et al. 2015) Global climate change and habitat alteration is directly affecting insect distribution in world (Wilson & Maclean 2010). There is a sharp decline of the invertebrate population by habitat modification and range shift of species by global warming (Aspin et al. 2019).

Materials and methods

Study area Madi river basin originates from Kapuche glacial lake (28.44669°N, 84.11694°E. with elevation of 2546 masl) in the Nepal's largest conservation area, Annapurna conservation area. It is one of the major tributary of Gandaki river and meet with Seti river (N: 27.96865, E: 84.26796) with elevation of 305 masl). in Tanahu district. It runs out 25m inside the Conservation and 40 km outside conservation area covering Kaski, Lamjung and Tahanu districts. The study area includes various habitats like agricultural land, grazing areas, forest, rivulets and flood plains. The study was carried on September 15 to October 10, 2019.

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Figure 1. Map of study area

Line transect method Butterfly and dragonfly were surveyed on the time-constrained transect survey. Each transect are of size 500m length X 4m width along river basin. The speed of walking is 1km/hr in line transect and surveyed between 7–10 am and 4–6 pm in warm and favorable environmental condition. Line transect were laid in different potential habitat like agricultural land, forest, flood plains. The number of individuals were counted in transects following Pollard walk (Pollard & Yates 1993, Nowicki et al. 2008; Sedhain et al. 2020) and took photograph as well.

Checklist survey This study uses Checklist Survey method. It is widely used survey method for lepidoptera and odonatan species. This method provides the researcher flexibility in recording species in study area such as from breeding site or foraging site outside the transect (Royer et al. 1998). It is a simple and flexible method where confirmation of species can be easily done in without any complex method with minimum effort (Royer et al. 1998).

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Biodiversity in a Changing World Taxonomic study and documentation Individuals were photographed by a digital Canon 70D camera with 18-135 mm USM lens. Some species were collected manually by using a sweep net and were released in the field after identification. The species were identified in the field with the help of field guide book (Smith 2011; Smetacek 2017) and further identification was done with the help of taxonomic keys (Borror & De Long 1981).

Results A total of 68 species of insects were recorded during study period (Table 1). We reported 58 species of butterflies from 45 Genus and eight families as well as 10 species of dragonflies and damselflies from nine Genus and five families from study area. The order Nymphalidae covered more than 40% (n=25 species) followed by Lycaenidae nearly 20% (n=11 species) and Pieridae 14% (n=8 Species) as shown in Fig. 2. In the case of Odonata, the family Libellulidae covers 40% (n=4 Sps.), followed by Calopterygidae and Chlorocyphidae 20% each (n=2/2 species) as shown in figure 3. Family Gomphidae and Platycnemididae also cover 10% with 1/1 species from each family.

80 Number Percentage 60

Figure 2. Families of Butterflies (order Lepidoptera) 50 Number Percentage 40

0 Libellulidae Calopterygidae Chlorocyphidae Gomphidae Platycnemididae

Figure 3. Families of order Odonata 292

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Table 1. Checklist of Butterflies, Dragonflies and Damselflies of Madi River basin, western Nepal. Order Family Common name Zoological name Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Autumn Leaf Doleschallia bisaltide Nymphalidae Blue Pansy Junonia orithya Nymphalidae Blue tailed jester Symbrenthia lilaea Nymphalidae Chocolate pansy Junonia iphita Nymphalidae Common Lascar Pantoporia hordonia Nymphalidae common map Cyrestis thyodamas Nymphalidae Common nawab Polyura athamas Nymphalidae Common Sailor Neptis hylas Nymphalidae Indian Tortoiseshell Aglais cashmirensis Nymphalidae Orange Oakleaf Kallima inachus Nymphalidae Orange staff seargernt Athymas cama Nymphalidae Popinjay Stibochiona nicea Nymphalidae Red lacewing Cethosia biblis Nymphalidae Tabby Pseudergolis wedah Nymphalidae White commondore Limenitis dudu Nymphalidae Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica Nymphalidae Common Earl Tanaecia julii Nymphalidae Commander Limenitis Procris Nymphalidae Common Leopard Phalanta phalanta Nymphalidae Lemon Pansy Precis lemonias Nymphalidae Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina Nymphalidae Grey pansy Precis atlites Nymphalidae Chocolate pansy Precis iphita Nymphalidae Peacock Pansy Precis almanac Nymphalidae Painted Lady Vanessa cardui

Lycaenidae Long Banded Silverline Spindasis lohita Lycaenidae common cerulean Jamides celeno Lycaenidae common pierrot Castalius rosimon Lycaenidae Dark Pierrot Taracus Ananda Lycaenidae Fluffy Tit Zeltus amasa Lycaenidae Green Sapphire Heliophorus Androcles Lycaenidae Large Fourline Blue Orthomiella Pactolus Lycaenidae Purple sapphire Heliophorus epicies Lycaenidae Golden Sapphire Heliophorus brahma Lycaenidae Pale Grass Blue Zizeeria maha Lycaenidae Gram Blue Euchrysops cnejus Pieridae Pale Wanderer Pareronia avatar Pieridae Small grass yellow Terias brigitta Pieridae yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene

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Pieridae Common grass Yellow Terias hecaba Pieridae Red spot Jezebel Delias descombesi Pieridae Great Orange Tip Hebomoia glaucippe Pieridae Spotless Grass Yellow Terias laeta Pieridae Three spot Grass Yellow Terias blanda Danaidae Glassy Tiger Parantica aglea Danaidae Common Indian Crow Eueploea core Danaidae Common tiger Danaus genutia Papilionidae Common Mormon Papilo polytes Papilionidae Common Yellow Swallowtail Papilio machanon Papilionidae Lime Papilio demoleus

Nemeobiidae Mixed punch Dodona ouida Nemeobiidae punchinello Zemeros flegyass Nemeobiidae Dark Judy Abisara fylla

Papilionidae Common Mormon Papilo polytes Papilionidae Common Yellow Swallowtail Papilio machanon Papilionidae Lime Papilio demoleus

Satyridae common five ring Ypthima baldus Satyridae Confusing Threering Ypthima confuse Satyridae Banded Tree brown Lethe confuse

Hesperiidae Spotted Small Flat Coladenia purendra Hesperiidae Large Snow Flat Tagiades parra

Odonata Libellulidae Blue Marsh Hawk Orthetrum glaucum Libellulidae Plantala flavenscens Libellulidae Crimson-tailed Marsh Hawk Orthetrum pruinosum Libellulidae Fulvous Forest Skimmer Neurothemis fulvia

Calopterygidea Anisopleura comes Calopterygidea Stream Glory Neurobasis chinensis

Chlorocyphidae Three-banded Emerald Jewl Aristocypha trifasciata Chlorocyphidae Three Banded Emerald Jewel Rhinocypha trifasciate

Gomphidae Common Clubtail Ictinogomphus rapax

Platycnemididae Calicnemia nipalica

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Discussion Madi river originates at an elevation of 2546 m asl from the glacial lake and meets with Seti river at an elevation of 305 masl. It runs 25 km inside the Annapurna Conservation area and 40 km outside the protected area. The diversity of 68 species of butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies might be related with greater elevation range in a short distance consisting of tropical and temperate climate with forest, grassland, agricultural land which is the preferred habitat for insects. Khanal et al. (2012) reported high diversity of butterflies at the elevation of 1500-2000 m due to diverse host plants and less diversity above 3000 m due to patches of vegetation. Nearly 25 percent of this river basin is under cultivation and nearly 50 percent is covered by forest, grazing land and shrub (Khanal 2004) which is supportive of the richness of insect fauna. The diversity of butterflies is often correlated with foraging areas. The Nymphalids assemblage was dependent on floral species (Issn & Issn 2013) hence they were recorded in large proportion as the Madi river basin consists of forest areas with 25 % agricultural land (Khanal 2004). We have recorded 25 species of butterflies from Nymphalidae family as this family was dominant (Richards & Davies 1997). Study area consists mainly forest areas and agricultural land hence only two species from Hesperiidae were recorded as the species from this family prefer grassland habitat. The diversity of butterflies does not correspond with dry and rainy season but dependent of favorable habitats (Soldati et al. 2019), so we have listed a significantly high number of species even though we visited the study area during October, 2019 only. Family Libellulidae was the large and variable family breeding in stagnant waters which agreed with Richards and Davies (1997). The small rivulets and flood plains along with agricultural land in study area provide suitable breeding sites. Orthetrum sp. was cosmopolitan (Richards & Davies 1997) which was also dominant species in Madi river basin. Madi river is a hub for hydroelectricity as the Upper Madi hydroelectric project (25 MW) were in operation and Super Madi river (44 MW), Bajra Madi river (24.8 MW) and Madhkyu river (13 MW) hydroelectric project is under construction along with Rudi A (8.8 MW), Middle Midim (3.1MW) hydropower on its feeder river . This river was under pressure of road construction and urbanization. Due to transportation facilities, different local markets like Bhaisey, Bhagawati Tar, Ram bazzar, Bhorletar, Duipipley Kalesti are under pressure of urbanization which willchange health of river and may affect diversity of insects. Butterflies are directly dependent on host plants (Ashari et al. 2019) moisture and temperature. The chance of decline of insects might occurs due to changing in habitat, forest functions, water pollution (Fauziah et al. 2017; Ashari et al. 2019). The diversity of dragonflies, richness and evenness did not change along urbanization. the urban wetlands serve as natal habitat for numerous species. Some species shows strong relationship to degree of urbanization (Aliberti & Ginsberg 2010). But butterflies show negative result with reduction of diversity with anthropogenic activities and habitat loss (Khanal et al. 2012)

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Roadways are basic infrastructure for development which have a negative impact on wildlife. There is prsence of roadways along river basin nearly 70% of river length. The Mid Hill Highway, the Megaproject of the Government of Nepal also runs through Madi river covering 22km. Butterflies and dragonflies were major insect groups facing pressure of road casualties on weekends (Rao & Girish 2007, Gaudel et al. 2020). The roadkill hotspots were generally species-rich areas so road mortality can be reduced by speed limit traffic signs (Skórka 2015). Different studies determined the influence of environmental changes especially the land cover, host plant on the butterfly population. Butterflies were at higher rate of disappearance in urbanized and intensive agricultural areas but dragonflies show lower and heterogeneous variation to alteration of aquatic habitats (Delpon et al. 2018). Odonata are indicator species of river health hence Odonate River Index (ORI) was the useful evaluation system of river health that is applied for monitoring the effect of river restoration Action (Golferi et. al. 2015).

Conclusions This study revealed that Madi river basin was rich in diversity of insects with 68 species of insects, 58 butterflies and 10 Dragonflies and Damselflies were recorded. This climate and topography of river basin includes forest area, flood plains, rivulets, large portion of agricultural land provides suitable habitat for butterflies, dragonflies and damselflies communities.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Forest, Annapurna conservation Area, Division forest office of Kaski, Lamjung and Tanahu for research permission. Many thanks to Rishi Baral, ACAP for his technical assistance and Roshila Koju for her assistance to prepare GIS map of the study area. We also like to express gratitude to Prem Bahadur Budha, Janak Raj Khatiwada, Jagananth Adhikari and Mohan Bikram Shrestha for providing fruitful suggestions and guidance during the writeup. We are also thankful to Subid Ghimire, Adish Ghimire for their assistance during fieldwork.

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Diversity of ladybird beetles in Tribhuvan University premises, Kirtipur, Nepal

Sushila Bajracharya* and Prem Bahadur Budha

Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) are economically important predators of aphid pest species. This research aims to explore species diversity of ladybird beetles in Tribhuvan University area premises, Kirtipur. Beetles were observed and collected for 20 minutes from nineteen plots (each plot is about 100 m2) at an interval of fifteen days from 14th May to 9th November in 2019. Nineteen plots were located in agricultural land (4), grassland (7), forest area (6) and garden (2) for six months and identified. A total 17 ladybird beetle species belonging to 11 genera, one subfamily Coccinellinae, 4 tribes (Coccinellini, Epilachni, Sticholotini and Noviini) were reported namely Coccinella septempunctata, C. transversalis, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Coelophora bissellata, Coelophora sp., Harmonia sedecimnotata, Henosepilachna kathmanduensis, Hippodamia variegata, Kirro confusa, Jauravia quadrinotata, Oenopia kirbyi, O. mimica, O. sauzeti, O. quadripunctata, Propylea dissecta, P. luteopustulata and Novius sexnotatus. The Shannon diversity index of ladybird beetles was higher in the autumn season (H=1.54 and J=0.58) as compared to summer season (H=0.85 and J=0.33).Comparatively, ladybird beetle diversity is highest in agricultural land (H=1.43) followed by garden (H=1.36), forest (1.21) and least in grassland (H=0.94). Among them, C. transversalis, H. sedecimnotata are found only in grassland, H. kathmanduensis, J. quadrinotata found only in garden, N. sexnotatus and O. quadripunctata are found only in agricultural land. P. luteopustulata, N. sexnotatus, C. transversalis, C. bissellata, H. kathmanduensis, H. variegata, K. confusa, O. kirbyi, O. mimica, O. sauzeti and O. quadripunctata were reported for first time from Kirtipur. Keywords: Beetles, Coleoptera, Coccinellid, Endemic species

Introduction Ladybird beetles belong to the insect family Coccinellidae of the order Coleoptera. There are about 6000 species and 360 genera of ladybird beetles distributed worldwide (Vandenberg 2002; Slipí nskí 2007) including some geographically restricted species (Majerus & Kerns 1989). They are reported in tundra, forest, grass-land and agroecosystems (Iperti 1999). There are 235 species of ladybird beetles reported from Nepal belonging to 57 genera and six subfamilies including 26 endemic species (Thapa 2015).

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The most recent classifications of the family Coccinellidae showed two subfamilies, Microweiseinae and Coccinellinae, and different tribes (Slipí nskí 2007). This classification was later confirmed by both morphological and molecular studies (Giorgi 2009, Seago et al. 2011, Robertson et al. 2015). Ladybird beetles vary in sizes ranging from minute to large (0.8 -28mm) in length and have usually oval or rounded body with distinctly convex dorsal body part (Slipinski & Tomaszewska 2010). Elytral colour can differ according to trophic range from bright red, yellow, pink in aphidophagous coccinellid, dark in coccidophagous coccinellid to light maroon, white or lemon yellow in mycophagous coccinellid (Iperti 1999). The melanic morphs increase with increase cold and humid condition to adapt the environmental condition (Dobzhansky 1933). Adult coccinellid emerge in the spring and disperse, then enter aestivation and hibernation in summer and autumn respectively depending on species (Iperti 1999). They are generalist among the predaceous beetle groups (Giorgi 2009). Coccinellid activities are comparatively higher in small landscapes with variety of crops along with semi natural habitats (viz. grasslands and forests) than in the large landscapes dominated by annual crops only (Woltz & Landis 2014). Urban agroecosystems also change abundance and species richness of beetles in any positive or negative pattern according to change in urbanization history (Egerer et al. 2018). Coccinellid community composition, species diversity, species richness and dominance significantly changes during the each vegetative season (Honek et al. 2015). Agriculture, habitat changes, invasive nonnative species and climate changes influence coccinellid species in different ways (Honek et al. 2017). There is still no any list of recorded species of coccinellids in Tribhuvan University (T.U.). So, this study was carried out to find the species diversity of ladybird beetles fauna of Nepal with reference to the university owned land of T.U., Kirtipur.

Materials and methods

Study area Tribhuvan University area at Kirtipur spreads over an area of 154.77 ha with an elevation of 1334 m asl (Fig. 1). Altogether nineteen sites were selected with varied characteristic features viz. agricultural land (4 spots), grassland (7 spots), garden (2 spots) and forest area (6 spots). Common vegetation found were Parthenium hysterophorus, Artemisia vulgaris, Rosa chinensis, Tagetes erecta, Sigesbeckia orientalis, Oryza sativa, Ageratina adenophora, Zinnia elegans, Urena lobata, Zea mays, Coriandrum sativum, Xanthium strumarium, Circium arvense, Pine tree during study period.

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Figure 7. Sampling sites of Coccinellids Tribhuvan University area, Kirtipur

Sampling methods Beetles and aphids were monitored at an interval of 15 days from 14th May to 9th November in 2019 in 19 selected sites in Tribhuvan University premises (Fig. 1). Visual observation for 20 minutes was done in each sites within approx. 100 m2 area, and beetle samples were collected via beating technique. The number of ladybird were counted on field and picked by hands.

Insect preservation, pinning and identification The collected insects were transferred into air tight killing jars containing ethyl acetate soaked cotton. Specimens were transferred into separate container or ziplock plastic bags and brought to the laboratory and pinned with proper labeling. Small sized specimens were mounted on a small triangular card. Large specimens were pinned directly on right elytra just behind pronotum. The specimens were then kept in wooden insect boxes for permanent storage (Ashfaque 2012). The collected specimens were identified with the help of available taxonomic keys, photographed and labelled and deposited in the Central Department of Zoology Museum of Tribhuvan University (CDZMTU). Beetles were identified using (Mulsant 1850; Kapur 1946; Kapur 1955; Bielawski 1972; Kapur 1973; Miyatake 1985; Canepari & Milanese 1997; Poorani 2002; Hayat et al. 2017; Janakiraman & Thangjam 2019)

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Biodiversity in a Changing World Statistical analysis The Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index (H’) was used to calculate diversity and Pielou’s evenness index (J) was used to calculate evenness. ′ 푠 퐻 = ∑푖=1[푝푖 ln 푝푖] where, pi is the proportion of i th species among all collected samples, and s is the total number of ladybird beetle species. J = H’/ln (S) where, S is the total number of species (species richness) and H’ is Shannon’s diversity index.

Results

Seasonal diversity of ladybird beetles A total of 17 species of Coccinellidae were identified from 569 individuals of Coccinellidae belonging to subfamily Coccinellinae under 11 genera four tribes (Coccinellini, Epilachni, Sticholotini and Noviini) from study area. The diversity was H’=1.54 and J=0.58 in autumn and H’=0.85 and J=0.33 in summer with overall Shannon Diversity index (H) and evenness (J) of 1.25 and 0.15 respectively. Abundance of coccinellid number was relatively higher in summer (335) than in autumn (234). The most dominant species was C. septempunctata (71.40%) (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Number of ladybird beetles 302

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Ladybird beetle diversity in different habitats Shannon Diversity Index of Ladybird beetle was highest in agricultural land (H=1.43, J=0.55) followed by garden (H=1.36, J=0.69), forest (H=1.21, J=0.67) and least in grassland (H=0.94, J=0.38). Among them, C. transversalis, H. sedecimnotata were found only in grassland, H. kathmanduensis, J. quadrinotata found only in garden, N. sexnotatus and O. quadripunctata were found only in agricultural land whereas C. septempunctata was found in all the sites.

1 2 3

5 6 4

7 8 9

Figure 3. Lady bird beetles; 1-2: Coccinella transversalis; 3-9: C. septempunctata

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10 11 12

1 dj ih h 13 hj 14 15 dj jd 0

16 17 18

20 21 19 10. Oenopia quadripunctata; 11. O. mimica ; 12. O. sauzeti 13. O. kirbyi; 14. Novius sexnotatus; 15. Jauravia quadrinotata; 16. Henosepilachna kathmanduensis; 17. Harmonia sedecimnotata; 18. Coelophora sp. 19. Coelophora bissellata 20-21. Illeis confusa 304

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22 23 24

25 26 27 7

28 29 30

31 32 33 22–23. Hippodamia variegata 24–25. Cheilomenes sexmaculata 26–28. Propylea dissecta; 29–33. P. luteopustulata

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Biodiversity in a Changing World Discussion In this study, 17 species belonging to 11 genera from 4 tribes and subfamily Coccinellidae were recorded from Tribhuvan University premises with Shannon Diversity index (H) of 1.30 and evenness (J) of 0.45. Similarly, exclusive study in NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur found 14 species from 9 genera and 1 tribe which were same species except two species i.e. Calvia quatuordecimguttata and Coelophora biplagiata (K.C. et al. 2019).This may be due to presence of both location in similar altitude within range of 1300-1400masl. Likewise, observation during Sundarbazar, Lamjung and Pokhara, Kaski showed 27 species from 20 genera, 6 subfamilies and 8 tribes (K.C. et al. 2018). The species diversity was comparatively higher in autumn than in summer in present study and high abundance in summer. This is accordingly with (Burgio et al. 2006) in which coccinellid population showed peak in early summer and late summer. Again, (Salehi et al. 2013) showed high abundance in June and decrease in summer, and again increase in September and October. (Elekcloglu 2020) also detected coccinellid population high in spring and early summer. This may be because coccinellids display increased activity responding aphid abundance during spring, seems to disappear in summer in spite of presence of aphids and reproduce in autumn to enter hibernation (Hagen 1962). In contrast, (Honek et al. 2015) studied that C. septempunctata and H. axyridis were in frequent in the spring, became abundant in summer and maximum in late august. Similarly, (Maqbool et al. 2020) found high species diversity in summer with maximum abundance in August. (Marković et al. 2018) also showed increase of coccinellid community diversity from beginning of spring to middle of summer. This may be because the dominance of a species in the coccinellid community varies depending on the host plant (Vandereycken et al. 2013). Ladybird beetle diversity was highest in agricultural land (H=1.43, J=0.55), garden (H=1.36, J=0.69), forest (H=1.21, J=0.67) and grassland (H=0.94, J=0.38) respectively in decreasing order. Previous study of coccinellid fauna in different landscape of southern Michigan, U.S.A. also showed higher diversity in semi natural habitats such as grasslands and forests with variety of crops grown in smaller fields and lower diversity in large fields with annual crops (Woltz & Landis 2014). It may be because land cover diversity within landscape is positively related to natural enemy abundance (Isaia 2006).

Conclusions This study provides information on diversity of 17 ladybird beetle species in Tribhuvan University premises showing relatively high diversity in autumn season than summer season, agricultural land being most diverse among grassland, forest and garden. C. septempunctata was most abundant and found all the time.

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to Central Department of Zoology for providing laboratories facilities. Similarly, we appreciate friends and siblings for assistance in data collection. This work received grant from the National Youth Council (NYC).

References

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Kapur, A. P. 1973. On a collection of ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) from Bhutan. Zoological Society of India 7(3):457–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/00305316.1973.10434102. Majerus, M. E. N. and Kerns, P. 1989. Lady birds., University of Cambridge. Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd. Maqbool, A., Rather, S. U., Akbar, S. A. and Wachkoo, A. A. 2020. Preliminary Survey of Ladybird Beetle Composition (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in Unmanaged Apple Orchard Ecosystems of Kashmir Himalayas. Proceedings of the Zoological Society 73(2):160–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12595-020-00322-w. Marković, Č., Stojanović, A. and Dobrosavljević, J. 2018. Diversity and abundance of coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on trees in parks and tree rows of Belgrade. Biologia 73(9):857–865. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-018-0087-5. Miyatake, M. 1985. Coccinellidae collected by the Hokkaido University Scientific Expedition to Nepal Himalaya.1968 (Coleoptera). Insecta Matsumurana, New Series 30:1-33. Mulsant, M. E. 1850 Species des Coléoptères trimères sécuripalpes. Annales des Sciences Physiques Naturelles, d’ Agriculture et d’ Industrie, Lyon. 2:1–1104. Poorani, J. 2002. An annotated checklist of the Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) (excluding Epilachninae) of the Indian Subregion. Oriental Insects 36(1):307–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/00305316.2002.10417335. Robertson, J. A., ŚLipiŃSki, A., Moulton, M., Shockley, F. W., Giorgi, A., Lord, N. P., et al. 2015. Phylogeny and classification of Cucujoidea and the recognition of a new superfamily Coccinelloidea (Coleoptera: Cucujiformia). Systematic Entomology 40(4):745–778. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12138. Salehi, T., Mehrnejad, M. R. and Pashaei Rad, S. 2013. Diversity pattern of adult ladybird (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) communities on pistachio trees in southern parts of Iran in different months. Zoology and Ecology 23(4):286– 292. https://doi.org/10.1080/21658005.2013.838071. Seago, A. E., Giorgi, J. A., Li, J. and Slipinski, A. 2011. Phylogeny, classification and evolution of ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) based on simultaneous analysis of molecular and morphological data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 60(1):137–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.015. Slipí ński, A. 2007. Australian ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): their biology and classification / Adam Slipí́ ński. Canberra, Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Slipinski, A. and Tomaszewska, W. 2010. Coccinellidae Latreille, 1802. In: R. A. B. Leschen, Beutel, R.G. and Lawrence, J.F. (Eds) Handbook of Zoology. Walter de Gruyter GmbH and Co. KG Berlin/New York. 2:454–472. Thapa, V. K. 2015. Insect diversity in Nepal. Kathmandu Nepal. Vandenberg, N. 2002. Coccinellidae Latreille 1807. American Beetles 2:371–389. Vandereycken, A., Durieux, D., Joie, E., Sloggett, J. J., Haubruge, E. and Verheggen, F. J. 2013. Is the multicolored Asian ladybeetle, Harmonia axyridis, the most abundant natural enemy to aphids in agroecosystems? Journal of Insect Science 13(158):1–14. Woltz, J. M. and Landis, D. A. 2014. Coccinellid response to landscape composition and configuration. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 16(4):341–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/afe.12064.

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Anthropogenic impacts on fish diversity in Sudurpaschim Province, Nepal: A review

Suyatra Ghimire1*, Bishal Poudyal1, Ganesh Bahadur Thapa2, Laxman Prasad Poudyal3 and Ishan Gautam2

1Department of Zoology, Amrit Campus, Tribhuvan University, Thamel, Kathmandu, Nepal 2Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Swayambhu, Kathmandu, Nepal 3Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The Sudurpaschim province has wetlands with high diversity as 87 fish species have been recorded so far. A total of 38% land area of the region is covered by wetlands and many people rely heavily on water resources. With rapid population growth and increasing urbanization in the area, anthropogenic impact on water resources is indubitable. Moreover, due to sparse scientific data, assessing the impact of human activities on water resources in the province is a difficult feat. Nonetheless, this paper aims to paint a picture of major anthropogenic activities affecting the ichthyofaunal diversity in the Sudurpaschim province by assessing available secondary data and reviewing existing literature comprehensively. From this review, it is clear that the water bodies in the province are impacted by anthropogenic activities. Unsustainable harvesting of wetland resources, habitat alteration and destruction for developmental activities, water pollution from agricultural runoffs are some of the primary causes. Furthermore, ichthyofaunal diversity is also affected by religious activities, domestic and other toxic wastes, eutrophication, deforestation and encroachment, poverty, inadequate monitoring and public awareness. More research in the aforementioned causes is needed. Preventing exotic species invasion, overfishing and water pollution, improvement of spawning grounds, building fish ladders in dams, effective implementation of rules and regulations, awareness campaign, including and implementing socio-economic factors in planning, providing alternative livelihood options, and local community mobilization are some steps that could alleviate the human impacts on fish diversity and prevent further damages in the region. Keywords: Conservation measures, Fish community, Human impacts, Ichthyofaunal diversity, Priority setting

Introduction Freshwater resources have been the most crucial aspect of human life since the beginning of time. As a source of drinking water and a vital necessity in agriculture, freshwater has remained a source of food and economy for people living near them (FAO 2017). As such, freshwater ecosystem is one of the most intensively hampered ecosystems by humans because of its usage viz. transportation, domestic

Biodiversity in a Changing World water supply, irrigation, electricity generation, source of food and in most cases, waste product basins (Tejerina-Garro et al. 2005). Terrestrial landscape limits the dispersal of species from one place to another due to which freshwater fish species are one of the most diversified organisms on earth (Dudgeon et al. 2006). This, however, potentially limits the habitat for endemic fish species and renders them to extinction with external pressures like natural or man-induced activities. Nepal. a small landlocked country situated in South Asia between India and China, only has inland water resources including the river systems, lakes, reservoirs, village ponds, wetlands, and irrigated rice fields. Nepal has a geographically unique landscape where altitudinal variation of the country ranges from 70 m above sea level to the world’s highest peak, Mount Everest (8,848m). Nepal encompasses flatlands, hills as well as mountains where Terai covers 14% whereas hills and mountains cover 86% of its total area (Chaudhary et al. 2009). Nepal has freshwater wetlands comprising of more than 6,000 rivers, 3252 glaciers, 2323 glacial lakes and 23,000 ponds with innumerable lakes, springs, ox-bow lakes, marshes and swamps (Siwakoti & Karki 2009). A total of 382,700 ha i.e. 2.6% of the area of Nepal is covered by wetlands where 94% of the water area is covered by rivers (ADB 2018) and approximately 68.2% of the wetland sites are located in Terai (23,488 ha), 31.6% (10,877 ha) in high Himalaya and less than 1% (90 ha) in midhills (Chaudhary et al. 2009). Terai region of Sudurpaschim Province contains 38% of the total wetlands in Nepal which is the highest, with Kailali district entailing 21%, followed by Kanchanpur at 16% of the area of Sudurpaschim Province (Bhandari 1998). However, with rapid population growth and increasing urbanization in the area, anthropogenic impact on water resources is indubitable. A total of 75% of land in Nepal is covered by the drainage area for approximately 6,000 rivers and rivulets where Karnali river catchment covers the highest land area of Nepal at 29.3% of the total land, followed by Gandaki (21.7%), Koshi (19%), and Mahakali (3.2%) (MFSC 2014). The Sudurpaschim Province alone has three of the major catchment areas viz. Karnali basin, Churiya basin and Mahakali basin (MFSC 2014). Furthermore, it has major wetland sites like Ghodaghodi lake complex (which is the largest natural lake in the plain lowland of Nepal and comprises of 14 oxbow lakes/ponds, marshes, swamps, rivers, springs) (Joshi & KC 2017), wetlands of Shuklaphanta National Park, along with numerous lakes and other important rivers like Chameliya, Chalaune, Tinkar, Seti, Budhiganga, Kailash, Pathraiya, Chaudhar, Syali and so on. Nepal’s wetlands are globally significant due to the presence of wide assortment of rare and endangered biodiversity (Bhandari 2008) with fish being one of the most important indicators. Fish are important natural assets that provide support in food, income, as well as sports in many rural areas of Nepal (ADB 2018). The fish species in Nepal are analogous to those of other parts of Southeast Asia, consisting mainly of carps, catfish, sheatfish, feather backs, eels, and hill stream fishes. Nepal boasts of 252 different species of fish comprising of 236 native, 16 exotic and 17 endemic species (Shrestha 2019) where the lowland Terai alone is home to more than 100 of those species (Sharma 2008). Freshwater fish everywhere on earth are vulnerable with current estimates showing 25% near extinction chiefly due to anthropogenic activities (Vie´ et al. 2009). On one hand, indecorous management of massive

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 amount of anthropogenic wastes is one of the most critical problems in any developing country. On the other hand, unsafe disposal of these wastes into water bodies is more challenging. This has often rendered freshwater resources unsuitable for both primary and/or secondary usage (Bukola et al. 2015). Majority of the challenges in fish conservation stems from incompetence, lack of knowledge, and ignorance towards the effects of anthropogenic disturbances. In a developing country like Nepal, lack of stringent monitoring of rules and regulations has left fish to be exceedingly vulnerable to unsustainable and haphazard anthropogenic activities. The rapid technological advancement and random environmentally detrimental plans in developing infrastructures have left many geographical clefts and further aided in chaotic destruction of freshwater fish habitat and ultimately their diversity and population. Humans have directly altered streams and riparian wetlands chiefly by channelization, ditching, construction of dams and bridges and removal of riparian vegetation (Mensing et al. 1998). With increasing population and swelling industrialization and urbanization, water pollution by agricultural, municipal and industrial sources has become a major concern for the welfare of humanity (Bukola et al. 2015). This paper comprehensively paints a concise picture of major anthropogenic activities affecting the ichthyofaunal diversity in the Sudurpaschim province by assessing available secondary data and reviewing existing literature.

Anthropogenic impacts a. Unsustainable fishing Unsustainable fishing, the most direct and notorious of all anthropogenic activities, refers to the selfish way of capturing or harvesting fish by using various fishing methods without keeping in mind the decline in rate of fish population and diversity (WWF 2020). Overfishing by the use of plant or chemical toxins, improper fishing gears like small sized nets, use of illegal fishing methods, electrofishing, dynamiting, and harvesting of fingerlings and gravid fish, come under unsustainable fishing practice (Matangulu et al. 2017; ADB 2018; WWF 2020). These activities not only affect fish species, but can alter the whole ecosystem of the area by affecting water quality as well as micro and macro invertebrates that balance the freshwater ecosystem (Jha 2006; ADB 2018). b. Hydrological alteration Fish population is hampered because of change in the hydrological structure of riverine ecosystem due to various anthropogenic activities such as resources extraction, construction works, water channelization, and deforestation near and around the water resources alter hydrological conditions. Construction of dams hinder breeding and even feeding in many migratory species despite the presence of fish passes and ladders (Jha 2006; ADB 2018; Rai 2019). Predation of fish can occur during epilimnion release of water in dam when oxygen concentration is high and fish are attracted towards tail-water (ADB 2018). Also, during low flow, fish migrating down from dam can get injured in jutting 311

Biodiversity in a Changing World stones (Rai 2019). Change in river bed by removal of sand, boulders, cobbles and gravel; destruction of spawning ground by crushers during extraction, and construction of reservoirs, bridges and dams destroy existing habitat of fish which can cause mass mortality to the verge of extinction. c. Exotic species One of the direct impacts on indigenous and endemic fish species arise from exotic species introduction (both flora and fauna). Exotic plants usually invade lakes and turn it into terrestrial ecosystem in the long run. Aquaculture of exotic fish can lead to accidental release into the wild and eventual invasion of the water resources. Exotic fish species typically lack natural predators which aids them to proliferate unnaturally whereas local and endemic species have to ward off predators as well as fight for food. These exotic species are usually carnivore or omnivore and prey upon the native fish as well. Exotic species imported from other countries for aquaculture are often left unmonitored and the quarantine aspect of these fish for parasitological study has not been conducted. This leads to accidental release of diseased exotic species in wild and wreak havoc among native species (Ormerod 2003; IUCN 2004; Dudgeon et al. 2006; Bukola et al. 2015). d. Intensive agriculture and pollution Another impact on fish comes from water pollution due to intensive modern agricultural practices near water resources where surface runoffs of insecticides and pesticides is common. Rivers and lakes have been the site for all kinds of human waste disposal. River banks are still used in lieu of public toilets in many regions. Both point-source (contaminants from a single discrete source like pipes or ditch) and non-point source (diffused contaminants from various sources) pollution deposit pollutants in water bodies. Accumulation of such pollutants increase nutrients and minerals in water that leads to eutrophication, algal blooms and increased toxicity of water which renders the ecosystem unfit for fish survival (National Geographic Society 2019). Most of the water bodies in Nepal are considered culturally and religiously important. Cultural and religious practices like cremation, mass bathing and religious offerings in water bodies are important part of many cultures (Khanal 2001). People clean such lakes or rivers during special occasions for mass bathing and to make offerings of flowers, food and abir (red or yellow powder) into the water. Such offerings pollute water as people do not clear away the flowers and food and they eventually rot inside the water. Abir dissolves in the water and increases chemical pollution. The rotten flower and food along with chemical powder changes physicochemical parameters of water and increases stress in fish and other aquatic fauna. The exposure of fish to chemical contaminants induce biochemical, cellular, tissue, and organ modifications which can sometimes prove lethal (Bukola et al. 2015). e. Lack of alternatives Many people residing near water bodies rely heavily on its resources for living and have fish resources as their chief source of income (Gurung 2003; CBS 2014). With increasing external anthropogenic

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 impacts on water due to urbanization along with rapid population growth, and plummeting fish resources, fishing communities have no other options but to over harvest the existing fish population. Lack of alternative means of income for such community further fuels the decline of fish diversity and population in waters of Nepal. f. Urbanization and climate change Fish diversity and population in any water body is indirectly affected by copious number of anthropogenic activities. Increased haphazard urbanization and technological development has been used against the environment for selfish purposes preceding ultimately to global warming and climate change. Climate change might not seem like a direct impact on fish but even the slightest change in microclimate can affect their feeding, breeding and spawning period. Climate change has changed the physicochemical parameters of water and altered the feeding, breeding, and migratory behavior of fish while changing their spatial and temporal distribution (Petitgas et al. 2013) in many freshwater bodies around the world. g. Weak Implementation of legislatives and policies Strong legislatives and conservation policies have a direct way of saving ichthyofaunal diversity and population. Imposing restrictions and guidelines on development activities play a critical role in saving biodiversity. Nepal has negligible plans and policies involving integrated management of land and water use. This accelerates overexploitation of watershed areas. Nonetheless, Nepal has some existing legal wetland conservation measures like the Aquatic Life Conservation Act 1961 (amended in 1999), The Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982, The Water Resources Act 1992, The Electricity Act 1992, The Forest Act 1993, The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, National Wetland Policy 2003, etc. for advancing sustainable environment and biodiversity protection. However, lack of proper monitoring and strict regulation of these policies have made many species vulnerable. h. Lack of research and data Another reason for dwindling ichthyofaunal population and diversity is lack of research in the sector. Most of the research in Nepal have been focused on areas of international importance like the Ramsar sites which has unwarily led many areas to be ignored (Neupane et al. 2010). Many unexplored wetlands in Nepal hold a potential for scientifically important, new and endemic fish species but can go unmonitored and undocumented as they might already be on the way of extinction due to degradation of their habitat from anthropogenic activities. Shrestha (2019) considers fishes of western Nepal; especially, Mahakali, Karnali and their feeder streams like Chameliya to be least studied compared to the major rivers in eastern part of Nepal. However, these rivers have had an upsurge in fish studies in the recent past. One way to save ichthyofauna is to conduct a base line survey and study their habitat and behavior to amend or promulgate legislatives accordingly.

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Biodiversity in a Changing World Materials and methods This paper adopts a review approach where relevant information were gathered from journals, books, technical papers, online articles, thesis dissertation papers and other beneficial scholarly materials. A total of 69 such materials were selected by accessing them from Google, Research Gate, Google Scholar and Central Library at Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. Journals like International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies; Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management; International Journal of Environment; Nepal Journal of Science and Technology; Nepal Biodiversity Strategy; Journal of Environmental Management; Danphe; Journal of Institute of Science and Technology; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper; Poultry, Fisheries & Wildlife Sciences; Aquaculture Asia; Biodiversity International Journal and such were browsed for articles. Keywords searched in journals and internet sites were chiefly “anthropogenic effects”, “anthropogenic impacts”, “human impacts” “fish” “fish diversity” “ichthyofauna”, “Far-West Nepal”, “freshwater pollution”. Secondary data collection was done from all these to paint an overall picture of available fish species and analyze any anthropogenic impacts on water bodies and fish resources in the Sudurpaschim Province of Nepal.

Review area This review of literature on anthropogenic impacts on fish diversity is done on the Sudurpaschim Province (concomitant with the former Far-Western Development Region) of Nepal. Sudurpaschim Province covers an area of 19,515.52 km2 which is 13.22% of the total area of Nepal (The Himalayan Times, 2018) and lies in the far west of Nepal bordering Tibet in the north, Karnali and Lumbini Provinces in the east and Indian states of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh in the south and west. Figure no. 1 shows the water bodies present in the Sudurpaschim Province whereas Figure no. 2 illustrates the sites selected for review in this paper.

Fish fauna of Sudurpaschim Province Sudurpaschim Province of Nepal consists primarily of Terai flatlands with numerous waterbodies and wetlands. The ichthyological study in Sudurpaschim Province is negligible but focus has been increasing in the recent past. Shah (2005) recorded 18 fish species from Budhiganga River comprising of 1 species from Cobitidae family, 8 species from Cyprinidae, 5 from Balitoridae, and 4 from Sisoridae family whereas Rai (2019) reported 25 fish species from Budhiganga in an Environmental Impact Assessment for Budhiganga Hydropower Project.

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Table 1. List of fish species found in the Sudurpaschim Province according to review of literature S.N Scientific name of fish Family Common name 1. Acanthocobotis botia Nemacheilidae Pate Gadela/Baghe 2. Amblyphryngodon microlepis Cyprinidae Mada/Dhawai 3. Amblyphryngodon mola Cyprinidae Mada/Dhawai 4. Anguilla bengalensis Anguillidae Raj Bam/Long fin freshwater eel 5. Aorichthys seenhala Bagridae Giant River Catfish/Tengra 6. Aspidoparia morar Cyprinidae Chakale/Karangi 7. Badis badis Badidae Badis/Dwarf chameleon fish 8. Bagarius bagarius Sisoridae Gangetic gonch/Giant catfish 9. Bagarius yarrellii Sisoridae Gonch 10. Barilius barila Cyprinidae Barred baril 11. Barilius barna Cyprinidae Barna baril 12. Barilius bendelisis Cyprinidae Hamilton baril 13. Barilius shacra Cyprinidae Sachra baril 14. Barilius vagra Cyprinidae Vagra baril 15. Botia almorhae Botidae Almorha loach 16. Botia lohachata Botidae Y-Loach/ Tiger loach 17. Catla catla Cyprinidae Catla/Bhakur 18. Chagunius chagunio Cyprinidae Changuni/Pattharchatti 19. Channa gachua Chanidae Asiatic snakehead 20. Channa punctatus Chanidae Spotted snakehead 21. Channa striatus Chanidae Striped snakehead 22. Cirrhinus mrigala Cyprinidae Mrigal/Naini 23. Cirrhinus reba Cyprinidae Reba carp/striped carp 24. Clarias batrachus Claridae Mangur/walking catfish 25. Clupisoma garua Ailiidae Garuwa bachcha 26. Colisa fasciatus Osphronemidae Striped gaurami 27. Crossocheilus latius Cyprinidae Stone roller 28. Cytnopharyngodon idellus Cyprinidae Grass carp 29. Esomus danricus Cyprinidae Flying barb 30. Garra annandalei Cyprinidae Garra 31. Garra gotyla Cyprinidae Gotyla 32. Glyptosternum blythi Sisoridae 33. Glyptothorax alaknandi Sisoridae Capre/Cavre 34. Glyptothorax cavia Sisoridae Vedro 35. Glyptothorax pectinopterus Sisoridae Capre 36. Glyptothorax telchitta Sisoridae Telcapre 37. Glyptothorax trilineatus Sisoridae Telcapre 315

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38. Heteropneustes sp. Heteropneustidae Stinging catfish/Singhi 39. Labeo angra Cyprinidae Angra labeo/Thed 40. Labeo boga Cyprinidae Boga/Tikauli 41. Labeo caeruleus Cyprinidae Sind Labeo 42. Labeo calbasu Cyprinidae Black Rohu/Gardi 43. Labeo dero Cyprinidae River Rohu/Gurdi 44. Labeo dyocheilus Cyprinidae Brahmhaputra Labeo/ Gardi 45. Labeo gonius Cyprinidae Kuria Labeo/Karsa 46. Labeo pangusia Cyprinidae Pangusia Labeo/Termassa 47. Labeo rohita Cyprinidae Rohu 48. Lepidocephalus guntea Cobitidae Guntea loach/Lata 49. Lepidocephalus menoni Cobitidae Goira 50. Macrognathus aral Mastacembellidae Bami/Gainchi 51. Macrognathus/Mastacembelus Mastacembellidae Bami/ Kataganchi 52. pancalus Mastacembellidae Spiny eel/ Chuche bam 53. Mastacembelus armatus Symbranchidae Gangetic mud eel/Andho bam 54. Monopterus cuchia Bagridae Day’s mystus/Tenger 55. Mystus bleekeri Bagridae Tengra 56. Mystus tengara Bagridae Striped dwarf catfish/ Kanti 57. Mystus vittatus Nandidae Mottled Nandus/ Dalahai 58. Nandus nandus Cyprinidae Dark Mahaseer 59. Naziritor chelynoides / Nemacheilidae Pate Gadela/baghe 60. Puntius chelinoide Nemacheilidae Stone loach/ Rai gadela 61. Nemacheilus botia Nemacheilidae Copper mahaseer/Katle 62. Nemacheilus corica Nemacheilidae Bhote gadela 63. Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis Nemacheilidae Dharke gadelo 64. Noemacheilus rupicola Notopteridae Grey featherback/ golhai 65. Noemachilus beavani Siluridae Butter catfish/ nauni 66. Notopterus notopterus Cyprinidae Chilwa 67. Ompok bimaculatus Ambacidae Himalayan grassy 68. Oxygaster bacaila Ambacidae perchlet/chanari 69. Pseudambassis baculis Sisoridae Murius vacha/ranga Chanda 70. Pseudambassis murius Sisoridae Kabre 71. matrepsis Psilorhinchidae Sulcatus catfish/hami machchha 72. Pseudechenies crassicauda Cyprinidae Nepalese minnow/stone 73. Pseudoechenies sulcatus Cyprinidae carp/titae 74. Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis Cyprinidae Swamp barb/pothiya/sidre 75. Puntius chola Cyprinidae Red bard/sidre 76. Puntius conchonius Cyprinidae Golden barb 77. Puntius gelius Cyprinidae Olive barb 316

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78. Puntius sarana Cyprinidae Spot fin swamp barb/pate sidhra 79. Puntius sophore Cyprinidae One spot barb/pothi 80. Puntius terio Cyprinidae Two spot barb/tite pothi 81. Puntius ticto Cyprinidae Blackline rasbora/dedhura 82. Rasbora daniconius Cyprinidae Bengala barb/dedhaura 83. Rasbora elonga Cyprinidae Cirruh snow trout 84. Schizothoraichthys esocinus Cyprinidae Pointed nose snowtrout/chuche 85. Schizothoraichthys progastus Cyprinidae asla 86. Schizothorax Cyprinidae Golden snowtrout/sunasala 87. plagiostomus/sinuatus Belonidae Blunted nose snowtrout/buche Schizothorax richardsonii asala Tor putitora Golden mahaseer/sahar Tor tor Deep bodied mahaseer/falame Xenentodon cancila sahar Freshwater garfish/kauwa

Joshi (2008) recorded 21 fish species of 15 genera and 7 families (i.e., 11 species of Cyprinidae, 3 of Channidae, 3 of Cobitidae, 2 of Schilbeidae, 1 of Sisoridae, and 1 of Mastacembelidae family) from the Mahakali River close to the suspension bridge. Poudel (2008) recorded 23 fish species comprising of 3 orders, 4 families and 15 genera in Mahakali River from Dodhara and Chadani VDCs where a total of 14 species from Cyprinidae family, 2 from Bagridae, 5 from Sisoridae and 2 from Mastacembelidae family were collected. Saund et al. (2012) recorded 24 fish species belonging to 3 orders, 4 families (Cyprinidae, Balitoridae, Sisoridae and Mastacembelidae) and 13 genera from Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project area in Mahakali River. Bist (2014) recorded 16 species from the junction of Mahakali and Chameliya River comprising of 11 species of Cyprinidae family, 1 species of Sisoridae, 2 species of Cobitidae and 2 species of Channidae family. Bhatt and Shrestha Shrestha (2019) mentions 89 species from Mahakali river basin, the species’ name have not been listed out. IUCN (1998) mentions prevalence of 27 fish species in Ghodaghodi Lake complex and Kafle et al. (2007) states more than 25 fish species (1 threatened and 2 endemic) from Ghodaghodi Lake complex without mentioning their names; whereas Joshi (2015) recorded 13 species of fish from Ghodaghodi lake consisting of 5 species from Cyprinidae family, 1 each from Bagridae, Belonidae, Mastacembelidae, Ambassidae, Nandidae and Channidae family respectively. Joshi and K.C. (2017) recorded 13 fish species belonging to 5 order, 8 families and 11 genera from different sections of Ghodaghodi Lake. Neupane (2018) recorded 25 fish species in Pathraiya river of Kailali district comprising of family Cyprinidae (53.56%), Bagridae (17.44%), Mastacembelidae (11.31%), Channidae (8.11%), Cobitidae (5.65%), Claridae (1.72%), Nandidae (1.47%) and Siluridae (0.74%).

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From the review of literature regarding name and number of fish species found in Sudurpaschim Province, a total of 87 fish species have been recorded over time all of which are listed in Table 1. Table 2 illustrates the order of fish species found in each review areas. Although, Bhatta and Shrestha (1977) recorded 26 species of fish in water bodies of Shuklaphanta National Park. The present list of fish of Sudurpaschim Province has been compiled from a number of publications and reports and it should not be considered as final. This will require a systematic survey of all water bodies of the region and most of them have not been studied yet and further investigations are needed to complete this task. Table 2. Order of fish species recorded in the review area

Order of fish species recorded in review sites S.N Name of orders Budhiganga Pathariya Mahakali River Ghodaghodi Lake River River

1 Anguilliformes ✓ - - - 2 Cypriniformes ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Siluriformes ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Perciformes - ✓ - ✓ 5 Synbranchiformes - ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Beloniformes - - - ✓ 7 Anabantiformes - ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Osteoglossiformes - - - ✓

Majority of indigenous people in the Sudurpaschim province rely heavily on water resources for living. With rapid population growth and increasing urbanization in the area, anthropogenic impact on water resources is indubitable. However, due to lack of research and concrete data, assessing the impact of human activities on water resources in the province is a difficult feat. Since the number of literature available on Sudurpaschim province was scant and most of the research are pioneer in the area, accurate assessment of the anthropogenic impacts by comparing the effect of human activities on fish with previous data was next to impossible. Sudurpaschin Province accounts for 38% of the total wetlands in Nepal (Bhandari 1998) but seriously lacks ichthyologic or any other wetland researches. Water bodies of the province has been illustrated in Fig. 1 and the number of existing or accessible literature in the whole region is shown in Fig. 2. Nevertheless, major anthropological disturbances on fish population seen in the review area are mostly similar and have been discussed below as well as illustrated in Fig. 3. i. Pathariya River The river bank of Pathariya has faced deforestation and land encroachment for human settlement and agriculture. This removal of riparian vegetation used by fish for shelter from heat and for laying eggs in case of some species has led to serious repercussions. Removal of wooden debris, sand and cobble 318

Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 stones extraction, construction of dam, intensive agriculture, and pollution has nudged in the decline of fish population (Neupane 2018).

Figure 1. Water bodies of Sudurpaschim province

Figure 2. Water bodies of Sudurpaschim Province with existing literature ii. Mahakali and Chameliya rivers Part of Mahakali River that does not lie in the protected area of Shuklaphanta National Park has serious problems in fish conservation and management. Indigenous fishermen (majhi) people living near the 319

Biodiversity in a Changing World river rely heavily on its resources. Lack of education and awareness among people has resulted in forests and steep slopes along the river Mahakali and Chameliya to be used for intensive agriculture which is the major factor for frequent landslides and soil erosion, especially in monsoon when the erosion increases siltation and destroys breeding and spawning grounds of fish by altering river hydrology (Bist 2014). Overfishing; unconventional and destructive fishing methods like dynamiting in pools, hammering, stream poisoning in river channels, and electrofishing in shallow waters (Joshi 2008, Poudel 2008, Bist 2014) road and bridge construction along the river banks; clothes laundry; use of insecticides, pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers in agriculture (Bist 2014), construction of leeves, lack of monitoring of fish ladders in dams and canals, sand mining, illegal overharvesting and indiscriminate fishing throughout the year (Joshi 2008) are the chief causes that have aided in rescinding fish diversity and population in the area.

Figure 3. Anthropogenic impacts on fish diversity in Sudurpaschim Province, Nepal iii. Ghodaghodi Ghodaghodi lake complex, the largest interconnected natural lake system (138 hectare) in the Terai region of Nepal has an exceptional biodiversity value which is why it was allocated as a Ramsar site in 320

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2003 (Lamsal et al. 2014). However, due to lack of monitoring and ineffective conservation approach, the protected area faces plethora of human disturbances (Joshi & KC 2017). Joshi (2015) recorded haphazard domestic use of lake water by communities living around the lake area; lake inundation during monsoon chiefly due to deforestation; illegal fishing; aquatic weeds; and above all lack of awareness regarding environment and fish conservation among people in the area. Degradation of upper watershed areas have caused habitat destruction by causing siltation. Meanwhile, rapid deforestation and encroachment in watershed area and surrounding forest, which is major source of water, have caused reduced water supply to the lake complex. Nakhodi Lake in Ghodaghodi complex also faces rapid succession due to agricultural runoff, high nutrient, and balance shift in aquatic plants (Kafle et al. 2007). The major causes for reduction in fish population and diversity in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex stems from unsustainable harvesting, habitat destruction, rapid deforestation, unplanned construction, siltation, unmanaged irrigation over the interconnected lakes, channelization, agricultural runoffs, overgrazing, illegal fishing, mass killing, poison fishing, overgrazing, eutrophication accelerated by religious and agricultural activities, animal sacrifice, picnics, farming of exotic species, lack of awareness (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2004; Kafle et al. 2007; Lamsal et al. 2014; Joshi & KC 2017), population pressure; buffalo wallowing; easy accessibility (Gurung 2003), ineffective conservation approach and monitoring; and lack of education and awareness (Joshi & KC 2017). iv. Budhiganga The river Budhiganga struggles with use of poison, explosives and hammering for harvesting fish; land encroachment for irrigation; agricultural runoff; pollution; heavy deforestation resulting in landslide, soil erosion and siltation; lack of management and conservation activities; and above all, lack of awareness among the local residents (Shah 2005). Boulders that provide shelter and food to fish in Budhiganga and its tributary Chippi Khola have been extensively removed and are hardly left which has disturbed the habitat for spawning and rearing as well. Extensive boulders removal; dam construction; hydrological alteration; improper drainage system; reservoir and river contamination; and microclimate change are the anthropogenic impacts seen in Budhiganga river that are responsible for hampering fish diversity and population (Rai 2019). v. Mudka, Bedkot and Jhilmila lakes Natural lakes Mudka, Bedkot and Jhilmila in the dry sub-tropical churiya hills of Kanchanpur are impacted by various religious activities involving animal sacrifice and offerings of flower, food and abir; road construction; overgrazing; deforestation leading to erosion and silt flow; illegal and unsustainable fishing; pollution; hydrological alteration and microclimate change. Lack of scientific research focusing on water resources and ecology in such backwaters like Churiya region makes the water bodies highly susceptible to be dried up or rendered completely useless before carrying out any documentation (Neupane 2010).

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Biodiversity in a Changing World vi. Seti River Seti along with its tributaries have been reported to have direct discharge from hotels and household effluents without any treatment. High human activities around the river and release of domestic, agricultural. and chemical wastes into the river have altered the water quality. This accounts for the poor macro-invertebrate species richness (Matangulu et al. 2017), which can correspondingly be assumed to tally with low species richness and diversity of fish as well.

Discussion Nepali society has always relied ecologically, economically, culturally and spiritually on biodiversity but the socio-economic, natural and anthropogenic impacts have exploited ecosystem in an alarming manner (Chaudhary et al. 2009). About 20 ethnic communities of Terai in Nepal used to be directly or indirectly dependent on wetland products for living (IUCN 1998) but CBS (2002) recorded only 13 communities i.e. 11% of Nepal’s total population (2,449,823 individuals) to be extensively wetland dependent. Even though urbanization has created new jobs and sources of income for many people, many indigenous fishers still depend heavily on wetlands without any alternative options for livelihood (Siwakoti & Karki 2009). Direct exploitation of freshwater resources from indigenous communities continues because poverty leaves them no other options as they are not given opportunities for alternative livelihoods or responsibilities for wetland managements (IUCN 2004). Nepal is an agriculturally dependent nation with majority of population relying on farming for livelihood. Irrigation is an essential part of such communities but fertilizers and pesticides along with weirs for irrigation collectively affects river and its ecology, mostly affecting fish community (Jha 2006). Fish diversity usually reduce around areas with elevated agricultural cultivation but their abundance increases where proportions of open water and rangeland becomes high (Mensing 1998). However, greater fish abundance and diversity doesn’t necessarily indicate high water quality as high agricultural runoff in East Rapti, Seti, Tinau and Narayani rivers were characterized by higher diversity and abundance due to nutrient input in water (Jha 2006). Use of river water in aquaculture pens followed by outlet of such water back into the river is a popular practice in Nepal but this method risks transfer of diseases and escaping of exotic fish into the river which ultimately makes endemic fishes prone to extinction (Shrestha 2019). Some exotic species like Tilapia (Oreochromis mosambicus) have proliferated so much that many of Nepal’s aquatic bodies have no endemic fish left in them (Shrestha 2019). In the recent years, observations show that riverine fisheries have debilitated more so by hydrological alterations and impacts of dams compared to pollution and baleful fishing (Nilsson et al. 2005). Freshwater fish in Nepal are threatened by dams resulting in habitat loss, conversion of downstream river into dry stretch, deterioration of water quality and limnological parameters by creating reservoir, blockage of fish movement and migration, physical injury, predation (Gubhaju 2002; Jha et al. 2006; Jha et al. 2007; ADB 2018), diseases, parasitic infection, mortality, breeding failure and eventual extinction (ADB 2018). 322

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Numerous fish species in South Asia have been reported to be under protection due to their threatened status but to no avail since they seem to be rapidly vanishing (Lakra et al. 2010). While fish fauna of India is well-explored and those contributions having strongly aided in fish conservation and management (Shrestha 2019). Developed countries and many developing countries focus on protecting biological resources over developmental activities which is why research and conservation supports are given to encourage scientists and researchers. However, such plans and policies are still at their infancy in Nepal with contributions of grants to researchers being made to the field only during the recent past. The ability to protect biological resources depends on the ability to identify and predict the effects of human activities on biological systems (Tejerina-Garro et al. 2005). Fish ecological studies are crucial for conservation, management and monitoring of both fish and water resources (Jha 2006). Assessing riparian wetlands is incomplete without considering the innumerable anthropogenic activities in the surrounding spatial landscapes since its multiple pathways and mechanisms influence the water bodies (Allan & Johnson 1997; Wiley et al. 1997). Freshwater biodiversity conservation is the ultimate challenge in today’s world. Nevertheless, its maintenance is the sole way for preservation of ecosystem (Bassem 2020). Human intervention is essential for preventing terrestrial succession in lentic water bodies like ponds and lakes. Activities like cattle grazing and fodder collection from the banks of such water bodies prevent invasion of aquatic plants. Nonetheless, extensive human disturbances from over exploitation of all wetland resources leads to precarious loss of biodiversity and ecosystem imbalance (Jacoby et al. 2015). Sustainable conservation of fish is only possible through actively involving dependent and local communities in decision making process, coordinating and integrating approach of different responsible institutions and promulgating strong and practical policy measures (Siwakoti & Karki 2009).

Conservation measures It is now high time to save fresh water and its components in the Sudurpaschim Province. With initial emergence of urbanization and other developmental activities in the area, prompt actions to save wetlands in the region can go a long way. Lessons should be learnt from past mistakes and the issues mitigated. By reflecting on recent scientific progress in fish conservation, a set of core challenges and priorities should be identified and acted upon to overcome fish conservation challenges in the province and other wetlands of Nepal as well. Some of the measures to alleviate anthropogenic impacts on fish diversity in the far-western region are suggested below: Development of quality assessment methods and understanding effects of anthropogenic stressors play a critical role in minimizing anthropological disturbances. This can be achieved by monitoring contaminants, hydrological alterations, impact of dams, canals, fish ladders and weirs, and preventing point source/non-point source pollution to ultimately implement strict rules and regulations on construction, waste disposal. fisheries, agricultural practices and tourism. Strict rules against sand and stone mining in rivers.

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Rigorous monitoring and maintenance of spawning grounds, fish passages, fish hatchery, water flow, and proper catch and haul arrangement in dams. Regulating fish harvest by providing protection to eggs, fry, fingerlings and broods; observing closed fishing period; banning fishing and sale of rare and endemic fishes; preventing invasion of exotic species; undertaking safe aquaculture and quarantine aspect seriously; and establishing aquatic reserves, protected areas and sanctuaries to protect fish diversity and population. Identifying alien species, assessing their threat value, preventing accidental release in wild and properly quarantining exotic species before aquaculture while promoting local indigenous fish species. Preventing further deforestation by planting trees along the banks of water bodies and relocating intensive agricultural practices away from the immediate vicinity of wetland areas. Development, planning and establishment of sustainability and management strategies for freshwater resources, aquaculture, economic development and urbanization; and implementing socio-economic factors in planning to ensue holistic conservation. Improving restoration of wetland and endemic species, conservation plans and strategies by means of integrated management; research; increased monitoring efforts across sectors; endorsing indigenous knowledge and innovation; and involving stakeholders from conservation, governance, industry and academia. Promoting scientific rigor and conducting more research on wetlands like experimental trials and case studies to understand the challenges and provides measures to mitigate them. Active local participation in decision making process and mobilizing local communities in wetland conservation to promote sense of ownership over the resources and thus its sustainable use. Linking up the use of land, forest and water resources to biodiversity conservation through economic incentives to local people and safeguarding their traditional livelihood opportunities assists in ecosystem conservation. Trade-offs between conservation of freshwater biodiversity and human use of ecosystem goods while introducing alternative means of livelihood for wetland dependent communities alleviates poverty. Economic stability then increases access to proper education and awareness. Increasing access to proper schooling and education for all.

Conclusion The major impacts on fish diversity usually stems from anthropogenic disturbances, incompetent laws and policies, competition for water resource and its produce, inadequate management, infrastructure construction, lack of knowledge and above all, ignorance. From this review, it is clear that the water bodies in Sudurpaschim province are impacted by anthropogenic activities chiefly from unsustainable use of wetland resources, habitat alteration and destruction for developmental activities like irrigation canals, and dams, water pollution from 324

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Authors’ contributions Ghimire, S. and Gautam, I. designed and conceptualized the review. Ghimire, S. and Poudyal, B. collected and analyzed the literature for review and wrote the manuscript. Ghimire, S., Poudyal, B. and Gautam, I. did the formal analysis of literature. Ghimire, S., Poudyal, B., Thapa, G. B., Poudyal L. P., and Gautam, I. curated the data. Thapa, G. B., Poudyal, L. P., and Gautam, I. reviewed the paper and did the editing. All authors contributed in manuscript improvement and gave final approval for publication.

References

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Mensing, D. M., Galatowitsch, S. M., and Tester, J. R. 1998. Anthropogenic effects on the biodiversity of riparian wetlands of a northern temperate landscape. Journal of Environmental Management 53(4):349–377. MFSC. 2002. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal. Miranda, L. E. 2001. A review of guidance and criteria for managing reservoirs and associated riverine environments to benefit fish and fisheries. FAO fisheries technical paper 419:91–137. Point Source and Nonpoint Sources of Pollution. Encyclopedic Entry. Resource Library. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/point-source-and-nonpoint-sources-pollution/ National Geographic Society. 23 July, 2019. Accessed 4 October 2019. Neupane, N. P. 2018. Spatiotemporal Variation of Fish Assemblage Structure in Pathariya River of Kailali District, Far Western, Nepal. MSc Thesis, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Neupane, P. K., Khadka, M., Adhikari, R., and Bhuju, D. R. 2010. Lake water quality and surrounding vegetation in Dry Churiya Hills, Far-Western Nepal. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 11:181-188. Olden, J. D., Kennard, M. J., Lawler, J. J. and Poff, N. L. 2010. Challenges And Opportunities In Implementing Managed Relocation For Conservation Of Freshwater Species. Conservation Biology 25(1):40–47. Olden, J. D., Kennard, M. J., Leprieur F., Tedesco, P. A., Winemiller K. O. and Garcıa-Berthou, G. 2010. Conservation Biogeography of Freshwater Fishes: Recent Progress and Future Challenges. Diversity and Distributions 16:496–513. Ormerod, S. J. 2003. Current Issues With Fish And Fisheries: Editor’s Overview and Introduction. Journal of Applied Ecology 40:204–213 Petitgas, P., Rijnsdorp, A. D., Dickey‐Collas, M., Engelhard, G. H., Peck, M. A., Pinnegar, J. K. et al. 2013. Impacts of climate change on the complex life cycles of fish. Fisheries Oceanography 22(2):121–139. Poudel, L. 2008. Study on fish and fishery resources of Mahakali River at Dodhara and Chadani VDC area, Far-Western, Nepal. Rai N. G. 2019. Environmental impact assessment of Budhi Ganga Hydropower Project (20 MW) Achham & Bajura district, Nepal. A report submitted to Ministry of Forests and Environment through Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation, Nepal. Rajbanshi, K. J. 2020. Zoo-geographical distribution and the status of coldwater fish in Nepal. http://www.fao.org/3/y3994e/y3994e0r.htm. Accessed on October 7, 2020. Ramsar C. 2004. The list of wetlands of international importance. RAMSAR Secretariat: Gland, Switzerland. Ranjan, J. B. 2007. Fish base study of the impacts of dams in different rivers of Nepal and its seasonal variations. Ultra- Science 19(1):27–44. Ranjan, J. B., Herwig, W., Subodh, S., and Michael, S. 2006. Fish Species Composition, Number and Abundance in Different Rivers and Seasons in Nepal and Reevaluation of their Threat Category for Effective Conservation and Management. Ecology Environment and Conservation 12(1):25. S. R. Gubhaju. 2002. Impact of Damming on Aquatic Fauna in Nepalese Rivers. In T. Petr and D. B. Swar, eds. Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan Countries. Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). p. 376. Sarkar, U. K., Pathak, A. K. and Lakra, W. S. 2008. Conservation of freshwater Fish resources of India: new approaches, assessment and challenges. Biodiversity Conservation 17:2495–2511 Saund, T. B., Thapa, J. B., and Bhatt, H. P. 2012. Fish Diversity at Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project Area in Mahakali River. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 13(2):225–230. Segura, J. L. F., Vergara, G. G., Cala, P. C., Alzate, G. C. A., Casas, L. S., Pulgarín, R. M. I., et al. 2016. Freshwater fish faunas, habitats and conservation challenges in the Caribbean river basins of north-western South America. Journal of Fish Biology 89:65–101 Shah, R. B. 2005. Fish Diversity of Budhiganga River, Far-Western, Nepal. MSc Thesis, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Sharma, C. M. 2008. Freshwater Fishes, Fisheries, and Habitat Prospects of Nepal. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 11(3):289–297. DOI: 10.1080/14634980802317329 327

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Siwakoti, M., and Karki, J. B. 2009. Conservation status of Ramsar sites of Nepal Tarai: an overview. Botanica Orientalis: Journal of Plant Science 6:76-84. Suski, C. D. and Cooke, S. J. 2007. Conservation of aquatic resources through the use of freshwater protected areas: opportunities and challenges. Biodiversity Conservation 16:2015–2029 Tejerina-Garro, F. L., Maldonado, M., Ibañez, C., Pont, D., Roset, N., and Oberdorff, T. 2005. Effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental changes on riverine fish assemblages: a framework for ecological assessment of rivers. Brazilian Archives of biology and technology 48(1):91–108. Tesfaye, G. 2010. Impacts of anthropogenic activities on fish diversity of the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes: A review. Journal of Agriculture and Development. St. Mary’s University College, Ehtiopia. Vié, J. C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S. N. 2009. Wildlife in a changing world – analysis of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. W.W.F. and DNPWC. 2006. Factsheet: Wetlands of Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and WWF Nepal, Kathmandu. Wiley, M. J., Kohler, S. L. and Seelbach, P. W. 1997. Reconciling landscape and local views of aquatic communities: lessons from Michigan trout streams. Freshwater Biology 37:133–148. WWF. 2020. Overfishing. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing. Accessed on October 7, 2020.

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Fish diversity in Mahakali River of Nepal

Yagya Raj Joshi1, 2* and Promod Joshi2

1Department of General Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Far Western University, Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur, Nepal 2Radhey Hari Government P.G. College, Kumaun University, Kashipur, Uttarakhand, India *Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Human population explosion has over-pressurized on natural resources; accordingly, fish diversity is gradually declining in many fresh water bodies. The primary objective of the present study was to determine current diversity of fishes in the Mahakali River of Nepal. Using a descriptive cross-sectional design, this study was conducted from October 2019 to November 2019 in the Mahakali River. Three sites of the river were sampled during the study period. Fish species were collected with the help of cast net, drag net and temporary diversion of water. All the collected fishes were preserved in 10 percent formalin with labeling for further analysis. The fish diversity was calculated by Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H). Altogether 23 fish species belonging to 4 orders, 7 families and 16 genera were recorded from the study area. Order Cypriniformes had the highest number of species (83%) followed by Siluriformes (9%), Synbranchiformes (4%) and Perciformes (4%). Family Cyprinidae had maximum fish diversity represented by 15 species. Similarly, family Balitoridae comprised 2 species, Sisoridae 2 species, Parapsilorhynchidae 1 species, Cobitidae 1 species, Mastacembelidae 1 species and Channidae 1 species. Fish diversity was high in middle reaches of the river than lower and upper reaches. The river still harbored good diversity of fishes (H=2.587) but the diversity is in decreasing pattern. So, further investigation is needed to determine the causes of declining the fish diversity and conservation of threatened fish species. Key words: Cypriniformes, Fresh water, Perciformes, Siluriformes, Synbranchiformes.

Introduction Nepal, a Himalayan country, is well known for its running and standing water. More than 6,000 rivers and rivulets present in Nepal are belonging to four main drainage basins, viz. Saptakoshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali river basins (Sharma 1997). These major rivers along with other small rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs are rich in fish biodiversity and home to 230 native fish species. The indigenous fishes of Nepal comprise 23.3% and 2.6% of Indian sub-continent and world fresh water fish respectively (Rajbanshi 2012, as cited in Husen 2019). Shrestha (2019) reported a total of 252 fish species belonging to 104 genera, 34 families and 11 orders from Nepal. The large diversity of fish species in Nepal is explained by the diversity of climatic zones, from subtropical to high mountains,

Biodiversity in a Changing World and the fact that Nepal lies at the transition point of the Indo-Malayan and Palaearctic biogeographical realms. The Mahakali River, where the present study area was conducted, had a rich fish diversity comprising 69 fish species before three decades (Shrestha 1990). Later, regional studies suggest that the diversity of fish species is gradually declining in the river (PACO 1991; Shrestha 1992; Shrestha 1997 as cited in Saund et al. 2013; Saund et al. 2013; Upadhyay 2014) probably due to obstacle of dam, changes in water quality, unpredictable fluctuations in water levels, obliteration of breeding places, over fishing, illegal and indiscriminate fishing practices, capture of brood fishes during breeding season, capture of threatened fish species, global warming and natural disasters. Fish species viz. Tor putitora is in danger of extinction and Schizothorax richadsonii, Schizothoraichthys esocinus and S. progastus are threatened in Mahakali River (Shrestha 2002) due to increased anthropogenic interference, global warming and natural disasters. Hence, knowledge of the diversity and distribution of the fish fauna is essential for designing and implementing conservation strategies. Also, fish diversity is necessary for the stabilization of an aquatic ecosystem. So the present study is conducted to determine the current fish diversity in Mahakali River.

Materials and methods

Study area Mahakali River, formed by the joining of two streams of headwaters, the Kalapani River descending from the western border of the Lipulekh Pass, and the Kuthi Yankti River descending from the Limpiyadhura range, is a perennial, torrential river at its upper headwater. The river bed is rocky and sandy with a poor algal growth (Shrestha 1990). The Mahakali River flows along Nepal's western border (Sudurpashchim Pradesh joining four districts– Darchula, Baitadi, Dadeldhura, and Kanchanpur) shared with India in the Himalayas and Uttarakhand. The Kali receives the right-bank (R) Dhauliganga at Tawaghat (29°57′N 80°36′E). It passes a town Dharchula (R) and receives Gori Ganga at Jauljibi (R), exiting the high mountains that reach into the alpine zone. At 29°36′N 80°24′E the first important left-bank (L) tributary from Nepal, the Chameliya joins after flowing southwest from Nepal's Gurans Himal (including Api). Then the Kali receives the Sarju River (R) at 29°27′N 80°15′E. The Kali exits the Hill Region at Jogbudha Valley and receives two tributaries: Ladhiya (R) at 29°12′N 80°14′E and Ramgun (L) at 29°9′N 80°16′E. Then, the river exits the lower Shivalik Hills into the Terai plains, passing towns Banbasa (R) and Mahendranagar (L) and changes to Sharda. It flows southeast another 100 km in Uttar Pradesh to join the Ghaghra (Karnali) as a right-bank tributary at 27°39′N 81°17′E, some 30 km. NNW of Bahraich.

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Mahakali, one of the five major river basins of Nepal, has a total basin area of 14871 km up to Upper Sharda Barrage. The total catchment area is 17,818 km up to Lower Sharda Barrage (Midha & Mathur 2014).

Sampling design, Sampling sites and time schedule of the study The research design was cross-sectional study. The sampling design was probability sampling. Three sampling sites viz. Darchula-Khalanga area, Parsuramdham area and Sarada Barrage- Mahakali Suspension Bridge area were selected purposively for fish sampling to include the fishes of higher reaches, middle reaches and lower watershed areas of Mahakali River. The study was conducted in Mahakali River from October 2019 to November 2019. Site I: Darchula-Khalanga Area: The Darchula Khalanga area lies between 29º 50' 18" North latitude and 80º 32' 05" East longitude in the Darchula district of the Sudurpashchim Province of Nepal. Site II: Parsuramdham Area: The Parsuramdham area lies between 29º 08' 50" North latitude and 80º 16' 17" longitude in the Dadeldhura district of the Sudurpashchim Province of Nepal. The fish samples were collected 1Km above and below the confluence of Ramgun Khola. Site III: Sarada Barrage-Mahakali Suspension Bridge Area: The Sarada Barrage-Suspension bridge area lies between 28º 55' 21" North latitude and 80º 06' 30" longitude in the Kanchanpur district of the Sudurpashchim Province of Nepal. The fish samples were collected from Sarada Barrage to suspension bridge.

Fish sampling The fish species were collected by the use of nets and temporary diversion of water with the help of local fishermen from the three sampling sites. Drag net of mesh sized (25 × 25 cm2) and temporary diversion of water were used in sampling site I. Drag nets of mesh sized (25 × 25 cm2) and temporary diversion of water were used in sampling site II. The temporary diversion of water was carried at confluence of Ramgun Khola into Mahakali River. Cast net and drag nets of mesh sized (12 × 12 cm2, 25 × 25 cm2 respectively) were used in sampling site III.

Fish collection and identification A small lateral incision was made on right lateral side of abdomen of large sized fishes with a scalpel. Then all the collected fishes were preserved in formalin (10%) and brought to the laboratory of Department of General Science, Far Western University, Mahendranagar, Nepal for further analysis. Species identification was carried out using standard fish taxonomy book of Jayaram (2010). The photographs of collected fishes were taken in the laboratory by the camera Canon (model number Cannon 8000 D).

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Biodiversity in a Changing World Measurement of water quality Water sample was collected (in 1-liter PVC container) from each site. Temperature was measured in the field by using mercury thermometer at 10:00 am. The water samples were brought in the laboratory and pH measured by using pH meter- Hanna Instruments (model: HI96107), Italy, calibrated in buffer pH 7.

Fish diversity calculation The fish diversity was calculated by Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H).

S H = - Σ i=1 pi × ln pi Where, H= Shannon-Wiener diversity index S= total number of species in the community (richness) Pi = proportion of S made up of the ith species Interpretation: Typical values of Shannon-Wiener diversity index are generally between 1.5 and 3.5 in most ecological studies, and the index is rarely greater than 4. The Shannon index increases as both the richness and the evenness of the community increase.

Results A total of 23 fish species belonging to 4 orders, 7 families and 16 genera were collected from the Mahakali River (Table 8). Among these, order Cypriniformes was found species rich order, comprising of 4 families and 19 (83%) species followed by order Siluriformes with 1 family and 2 (9%) species, Synbranchiformes 1 family and 1 (4%) species, and Perciformes 1 family and 1 (4%) species. Similarly, family Cyprinidae constituted largest family, possessing 8 genera and 15 (66%) fish species followed by family Balitoridae with 2 genera and 2 (9%) species, Sisoridae with 2 genera and 2 (9%) species, Parapsilorhynchidae with 1 genus and 1 (4%) species, Cobitidae with 1 genus and 1 (4%) species, Mastacembelidae with 1 genus and 1 (4%) species and Channidae with 1 genus and 1 (4%) species. Genus Labeo had maximum species (22%, 5 species) followed by Barilius (7%, 2 species), Puntius (7%, 2 species), Tor (7 %, 2 species), Brachydanio (4%, 1 species), Schizothorax (4%, 1 species), Schizothoraichthys (4%, 1 species), Garra (4%, 1 species), Parasilorhynchus (4%, 1 species), Acanthocobitis (4%, 1 species), Schistura (4%, 1 species), Lepidocephalichthys (4%, 1 species), Bagarius (4%, 1 species), Glyptothorax (4%, 1 species), Mastacembelus (4%, 1 species), Channa (4%, 1 species). The Shannon- Wiener diversity index showed high fish diversity (H= 2.587). Middle reaches (Site II, Parsuramdham Area) had higher species richness (15 fish species) than lower water shed area (Site III, Sarada Barrage-Suspension Bridge Area with 9 species of fishes) and upper reaches (Site I, Darchula-Khalanga Area with only 5 species of fishes) of Mahakali River (Table 8).

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Table 8. Fish species and their distribution in sampling sites of Mahakali River Systematic of fish species Sampling sites Site I Site II Site III Order: Cypriniformes Super family: Cyprinoidea Family: Cyprinidae Sub family: Danioninae (= Rasborinae) Genus: Barilius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 Barilius bendelisis Hamilton-Buchanan + + - Barilius vagra Hamilton-Buchanan - - + Genus: Brachydanio Weber and Beaufort, 1916 Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Sub family: Cyprininae Genus: Puntius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 Puntius sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Puntius ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Genus: Tor Gray, 1834 Tor tor (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + + Tor putitora (Hamilton-Buchanan) - - + Genus: Labeo Cuvier, 1816 Labeo angra (Hamilton-Buchanan) - - + Labeo dero (Hamilton-Buchanan) - - + Labeo dyocheilus (McClelland) - - + Labeo pangusia (Hamilton-Buchanan) - - + Labeo macmahoni Zugmayer - - + Sub family: Oreininae (=Schizothoracinae) Genus: Schizothorax Heckel, 1838 Schizothorax richardsoni (Gray) + + - Genus: Schizothoraichthys Misra, 1962 Schizothoraichthys macrophthalmus (Terashima) + + - Sub family: Garrinae Genus: Garra Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray) - + - Family: Parapsilorhynchidae Genus: Parasilorhynchus Hora,1921 Parasilorhynchus tentaculatus (Annandale) - - + Family: Balitoridae Subfamily: Nemacheilinae Genus: Acanthocobitis Peters, 1861 Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Genus: Schistura McClelland, 1839 Schistura beavani (Gunther) + + - Family: Cobitidae Subfamily: Cobitinae Genus: Lepidocephalichthys Bleeker, 1858

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Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Order: Siluriformes Super family: Sisoroidea Family: Sisoridae Subclade: Bagarini Genus: Bagarius Bleeker, 1853 Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Subclade: Erethistini Genus: Glyptothorax Blyth 1860 Glyptothorax conirostris (Steindachner) + + - Order: Synbranchiformes Sub order: Mastacembeloidei Family: Mastacembelidae Sub family: Mastacembelinae Genus: Mastacembelus Scopoli, 1777 Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) - + - Order: Perciformes Sub order: Channoidea Family: Channidae Genus: Channa Scopoli, 1777 Channa gachua (Hamilton-Buchanan) - + - Note: symbol + indicates present; symbol - indicates absent

The physico-chemical parameters of the water of the sampling sites of Mahakali River were shown in Table 9. Table 9. Physico-chemical parameters of water of the sampling sites Sampling sites Physico-chemical parameters of water Temperature (C) PH Site I 10 6.6 Site II 17 7.2 Site III 18 7.1

Discussion The present study recorded 23 species of fishes belonging to 4 orders, 7 families and 16 genera from the Mahakali River of Nepal. Shrestha (1990) reported 69 fish species. Saund et al. (2013) documented a total of 24 fish species belonging to 3 orders, 4 families and 13 genera from Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project area of Mahakali River. Upadhyay (2014) reported a total of 14 fish species belonging to 3 families and 10 genera from the Purnagiri temple areas of Sharda River. Over exploitation of fish resources, more anthropological interferences on aquatic resources, and more use of pesticides, dynamites and electro-fishing in recent years reduce the fish diversity in the river. This study showed that Order Cypriniformes had the highest number of species (19, 83% species)) followed by Siluriformes (2, 9% species), Synbranchiformes (1, 4% species) and Perciformes (1, 4%

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Proceedings of First National Conference on Zoology (NCZ 2020) | 28–30 November 2020 species) in the Mahakali River. Similarly, 66% (15 species) fish species belonged to the family Cyprinidae, 9% (2 species) to Balitoridae, 9% (2 species) to Sisoridae, 4% (1 species) to Parapsilorhynchidae, 4% (1 species) to Cobitidae, 4% (1 species) to Mastacembelidae and 4% (1 species) to Channidae. Research also suggests that Order cypriniformes (family Cyprinidae) has the highest number of species followed by Siluriformes (family Sisoridae) in snow fed rivers (Sharma & Shrestha 2001, Shrestha et al. 2009, Sarkar et al. 2012, Goswami et al. 2012, Jha and Bhujel 2014, Shrestha 2016, Joshi & K. C. 2017, Limbu et al. 2018, Selakoti 2018, Aravazhi Arunkumar & Manimekalan 2018, Huang et al. 2019, Limbu et al. 2019) but cases differ in small and medium sized seasonal and perennial jungle streams and rivers (Rajan et al. 2018). This study revealed that the middle reaches of Mahakali River had high species richness (15 fish species) and diversity of fishes followed by lower water shed area with 9 species of fishes and upper reaches with only 5 species of fishes. Contrary to this, some studies suggest that the species richness as well as fish diversity significantly increases from upstream to downstream (i.e. increases with decrease in altitude). The stream headwater contains few species than to those occurring downstream (Wu et al. 2011). In our study favorable physico-chemical parameters of water (temperature 17 ºC, pH 7.2) and low human interference in the middle reaches of river caused high species in the middle reaches; Over exploitation of fish resources using small mesh sized fish nets, poisoning, more human interference in the river for the collection of riverine resources and favorable physico-chemical parameters of water (temperature 18 ºC, pH 7.1) created moderate species richness of fishes in the lower water shed area; and low water temperature (10 ºC), and more use of electro-fishing, dynamiting, and poisoning for fish capturing produced low species richness of fishes in the upper reaches of the Mahakali River. Further, altitude, conductivity, velocity, turbidity, depth and wetted width have significant relationships within fish assemblage (Huang et al. 2019). In this study, more fish species (5 fish species viz. Barilius bendelisis, Schizothorax richardsoni, Schizothoraichthys macrophthalmus, Schistura beavani and Glyptothorax conirostris) were found common to upper reaches and middle reaches of the river than middle reaches and lower reaches where only one fish species (Tor tor) was common. This is due to that there is no barrier for fish migration between the upper reaches and middle reaches but is Sarada Barrage barrier between middle reaches and lower reaches that provides somewhat obstacle for fish migration. The fish species viz. Barilius vagra, Brachydanio reri, Puntius sarana, Labeo macmahoni, Schizothoraichthys macrophthalmus, Parasilorhynchus tentaculatus, Schistura beavani, Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Glyptothorax conirostris, Channa gachua not reported in the previous investigation of Saund et al. (2013)were reported in the present study due to whole river sampling. But the fish species viz. Neolissiochilus hexagonolepis, Chagunius chagunio, Schizothorax sinuatus, Schizothoraichthys progastus, Schizothoraichthys esocinus, Garra annandalei, Barilius barila, Barilius barna, Glyptothorax trilineatus, Glyptothorax alaknandi, Glyptothorax telchilta, Pseudecheneis crassicauda reported by Saund et al. (2013) were not observed during the present study. Similarly, the fish species viz. Barilius bola, Schizothorax plagistomus, Botia almorhae, Botia dario, Nemacheilus rupicola, Glyptothorax pectinopterus, reported by Upadhyay (2014) were not observed during

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Biodiversity in a Changing World the present study. We only studied from October to November in this river. Different species preferred different environmental variables potentially due to differences in species' ecological requirements (Huang et al. 2019). During the study period, low numbers of fishes in each species and over fishing by the use of nets was observed in the river. The present study showed high fish diversity (H=2.587) in Mahakali River during post monsoon period. It is because of the connection of Mahakali River with Ghaghara River, India, in lower watershed area. Similar good fish diversity was reported by Joshi Bhatt et al. (2016) in the River Yamuna, India. The seasonal variations in Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index was not studied in the present study due to time constrains.

Conclusions Overall, this study suggests that the Mahakali River has still good diversity of fishes (H= 2.587) but the fish diversity is gradually decreasing, probably due to over consumption of fishes and environmental pollutions. Interestingly, middle reaches of the river harbour high species richness. Fish species are not evenly distributed in the river due to variations of temperature. So, further investigation is needed to determine the causes of declining the fish diversity. As this study was conducted over a short period of time, longitudinal study is needed to determine current seasonal diversity of fishes in the river. The present study documented an updated checklist of the fishes found in the Mahakali River of Nepal. The findings of this study will help in designing and implementing conservation strategies of fisheries resources in Mahakali River.

Acknowledgements We are most grateful to Mr. Govind Prasad Dhungana, Head, Department of General Science, Far western University, Mahendranagar, Nepal for providing Laboratory facilities. We thank Mrs. Laxmi Kumari Bhatt Joshi for helping data collection and Mr. Santosh Malla for photographing of collected fishes.

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