The place of music in education
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Authors Colwell, Robert Eugene, 1910-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/553551 THE PLACE OF MUSIC IN EDUCATION
by Robert E. Colwell
A Thesis submitted to the;faculty of the
Department5 pf-Educ at ion
in partial fulfillment of ' : ■ y; ^ ■: / the r of
Masterof Arts
in the graduate College University of Arizona
1 9 4 1
Approved: i
s/ jf fl a a *1 6 £ 979/
/-K
t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s Chapter Page
I. THE PROBLEM...... 1 Purpose of the Study .... Statement of the Problem Definition and limitation Sources of D a t a ......
II. THE BACKGROUND OF MUSIC ... Prehistoric i^gypt.... Assyria ...
Hebrews ••• W 01 WCl -O tOtOMH Chinese...... 10 H i n d u ...... 11 G r e e k ...... 12 Rome ...... 16 Church ...... 17 Folk Music ...... 19 Art ...... 21 Summary...... 21
III. MUSIC IN PRESENT DAYAMERICA ...... 23
Introduction ...... 23 Music and Character Development ...... 23 Need for Character Education...... 24 Relation of Music and Education ...... 25 "Bill” ...... 26 "Joen ...... 27 "Frank" ...... 28 "Alice ...... 28 Music for Leisure ...... 29 Music as a Hobby ...... 30 Better Appreciation of Music for Leisure ...... 31 Federal Government Subsidisation ..... 32 Effect of Music in the Home ...... 33 Music in the Home ...... 34 v Cooperation with the School ...... 34 Effect of Music ...... 35
i 1 4 3 8 3 3 Chapter Page
Comparison of Americoa and European Parents ...... Ultimate A i m ...... Relation of Music to Citizenship ...... Cooperation ...... Fair Play ...... National L i f e ...... Understanding of Foreign People ...... Music and Industry ...... Manufacturing of Instruments ...... Symphonies ...... Opera ...... Colleges and Conservatories ...... Public Schools...... Guilds and Federations ...... Artists ...... Radio ...... Vocational Aspect ...... Music and Health ...... Physical Hygiene...... Mental Hygiene...... Music and Fundamental Subjects ...... Integration ...... Social Science...... Literature ...... Health and Physical Education...... Arithmetic ...... Summary ......
IV. THE RELATION OF MUSIC AND EDUCATION ...... Development of public School M u s i c .... . Music and the Church ...... Singing School ...... Introduction of Public school Music ... Early Experimental Period ...... 1860-1900 ...... Present Day S t a t u s ...... Phases, of Public School M u s i c ...... Sihging ...... Listening ......
Instrumental Music ...... SSSSSPSSSSS S Technical Study ...... 65 Summary ...... 66
11 Chapter Page
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 67 Reaim* ...... 67 Alma and Objeetlvee,...... 67 Neoeeslty for Planning...... 67 Music Compared with Other Subjects .... 68 Necessity for Cataloguing ...... 68 Presentation of Aims ...... 69 A Program for Music Education ...... 71a Primary Grades — I, II, III ...... 71a Intermediate Grades — IV, V, VI ..... 78 Junior High School Grades ill, Vlii, IX ...... 73 Music Activities ...... U* . 74 Individual Differences ...... 84 New Concept 84 Wide Variation...... 84 Testing ...... ___ _...... 88 Need for Testing ...... 85 Advantages of Testing ...... ;. 88 Equalization of Opportunity ...... 87 Leadership of the Cities ...... 87 Retardation of the Rural schools..... 87 future Outlook ...... 87 Music Festival ...... 88 Value of the Festival ...... 88 New Interpretation...... 86 Summary ...... 89 Curtailment of Public School Music .... 89 Recent Trend...... SO The Place of Music in Education...... 90
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 98
ill CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Purpose of the Study
The justification of any subject of study in public education depends upon its value to society as a whole.
This premise has been responsible for the various objec tives which tend to safe-guard our expanding curricula.
These objectives stress outcomes end results rather than
- .. . - . . learning for the sake of learning. The great duty of pub lic school education is the coneideration of the individual pupil and his needs and the extent to which society will be
benefited by hie education.
Much criticism, especially in rural areas, has been
offered against the inclusion of music as a required course
in the public schools, mainly through prejudice and mis
information. The purpose of this study is to show the de
sirability and the general usefulness of music in relation
to actual life-situations, and to deduce from these facts
the place of music in education.
Statement of the Problem:
The problem to be attacked in this study is to deter
mine whether or not music has sufficient educational value
to warrant a place as a required course in the public 2
eokools.
Definition and Limitation
"Music” in this study includes singing, instrumental playing, appreciation, creation, and technical study. In this study the field is limited to the elementary school and the junior high school.
. ■ v ■ / Sources. of Data... v\. v. - .. - - In attempting to solve the problem, use has been made of data from educational books, current periodicals, booh# of history, U.S. Office of Education bulletins, actual plans at work in schools, and personal observation. CHAPTER II
THE BACKGROUND OP MUSIS Since the early dawn of mankind some form of musical expression has been practiced. The art of music is old, but that does not necessarily qualify it as a need in our present complex life in America. Nevertheless, an inspec tion of the relationship of music to human needs of the past should serve as a foundation for an evaluation of the place of musie today, because basically the emotional equipment of all mankind is essentially the same.
Prehistoric
The history of the origin of music is one of specula tion. It is supported by archeological sources and the ex amination of the music habits of tribes of contemporary men, who have common attributes which the primitive men must also have possessed.
It is conceded that music in a very crude form dates baek to the earliest man. Music developed as a necessity and grew out of life situations. The early people did not understand natural happenings such as thunder, rain, the
sun, lightning, death, and the hunt, and the long list of
things we fully understand today. They believed Shat all natural things had good and bad gods in them. In order to 4
please these gods they danced, sang, and acted the things they wanted to happen*
The early attempts at singing were nothing more than grunts and yells, as undoubtedly the men of those far-off days must have sung oven before they had a language, in these cries of joy, sorrow, pain, rage, fear, or revenge, we find another very Important reason for the growth of amsie. These exclamations, however barbaric and rough, 2 were man's first attempt to express hia feeling. Man de veloped a musical language for the same purpose that he de- veloped a spoken language— in order to express his feelings . . . - 3 and hie wants.
The mueio of primitive peoples is aptly illustrated in our own country in the songs of the southern Negroes, and of the Indians. The emotional power of mueio among both
Negroes and Indians is immense; and one of its important functions is in connection with social institutions; reli gious ceremonies, war dances, serenades, feasts, healing, and others.
If we were to study in detail the music of many savage tribes of different periods from prehistoric times to the uncivilised people living today we should find certain points in common. They all have festival songs, songs for
1. Bauer, M. and Peyser, E. How Music Grow, p."%% 2. Ibid., p. 5. 3. Hits, Lulu. Musical Integration in the Junior High School, p. 37: 1
religious ceremonials, for games, work songs, war songs, hunting songs, and love songs. In fact it is a beautiful habit for primitive people to put into song everything they wish to remember, with them music has not been a frill or a luxury, but a daily need and a natural means of express-- ing themselves.
Egypt
Egypt, whose history goes back at least to 4000 1,6., is the oldest civilised country in the history of the world. On account of the dry climate, type of material , used for construction, and.care in the preservation of pa pyri, many records of the ancient Egyptians have been pre served and are available today. We thus have abundant data for reconstructing the actual life of the people.
It is evident that from early times the Egyptians were extremely fond of nusle, especially as a social diversion, as a courtly luxury, and in religious ceremony. It was united with poetry and with many sorts of dances. Profes sional singers, players, and dancers were common and care fully trained. Musicians were often among the prominent court officials, one of the chief function# of the priest hood was the cultivation of music.
The Egyptians were noted for their large orchestras and choruses. The temples of Egypt were so huge that the music had to be on a large scale. They thought nothing of 6
an oreheetra of six hundred players of harps, lyres, lutes, flutes, and sistrims (bell-rattlesJ, supported by an im- 4 manse chorus.
Apparently music had a prominent place in Egyptian
life. The utilitarian value was recognized from the begin- 5 ning and used because of common necessity.
Assyria
The histories of Babylonia, Assyria, and Egypt were 6 almost contemporary. Babylonia, which was assimilated
about 1300 B.0, by the Assyrian Empire, merged her culture with that of the Assyrians.
The little that is known eeneeming Assyrian musie wa# found in the record# unearthed from three mounds near the
River Tigres. These were the remains of the Assyrian cit
ies of Mimroud (Babylon), Khorsabad, and probably the fa
mous Bineveh, dating from 3000 to 1300 B.C. The connec
tion between music and the various functions of society was definitely emphasised.
As in Egypt, musie was intimately connected with reli
gion, being used in all religious ceremonies and under the
care of the priesthood. The appeal of music to religious
worship was thus further strengthened. :
4. Bauer, M. and Peyser,E. op. oit.. p. 5. Pitts, Lulu. op. oit., p . So. 6. De Roohemont, RuiS. Evolution of Art, p. 467. 7. Bauer, M. and Peyser,“IT bp. oit..“p . 24. t
The use of music as an aid to the tvar-like Assyrians was reflected In their instruments,>vfcielf though similar to those in Egypt, wore constructed;so that they might be
•trapped to the bedy, and thus carried in military procees- 8 lone. •Another military characteristic that we know about
•hows that the Assyrians were greater noise-makers than the
Egyptians, for,they not only had drums and trumpets# hit they also marked rhythm by stamping their feet instead of
slapping their hands• The Assyrians were so fond of music
that when their war-prisoners were musicians, they were not 9 put to death. \ - : , / ■ .
Hebrews
The ancient Hebrews, thou#i often forced into exile,
exerted much influence on the history of the world. The
contribution of music was a factor in this influence, not
in what it actually was, but in the striking influence that
the fact of its existence in connection with religion has ■ ' • ■ ' . - ■ ' . : • ■ ' 10 - - ■ exerted upon Christinn thought and customs.
Our knowledge of Hebrew music cones from the Old Test
ament and other ancient Hebrew records. The use of stone
monuments end wall pictures, on which the Egyptians and As syrians depleted singers and instruments, was eliminated
from Hebrew life by the Seeond Commandment: "Thou shalt not
8. Hamilton, C. G. Outlines of Music history, p. 16. 9. Bauer, M. and P e y s e r , E . op. cit. . p . 66. 10. Pratt, W. S. History of Music, p. 17. moke unto thyself any grave* image, nor the likeness ©f anything that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth." (Exodus XXI:4.)
The Hebrews closely linked music and religion and re garded music as a direct means of communication with God.
After the founding of the Monarchy, 1050 BiC.^ music was much used by the prophets, who regarded it as a necessity far inspiration, while uttering their words of wisdom So ' the sound of "eith&rs, harps, and timbrels". Samuel, the last and most respected of the judges, built a school of prophecy and music. It was at this school that David re
ceived his training and later created many of the psalms, the most beautiful religious verse in the world. The ser
vices in the temple included music, where it was performed by large choirs with instrumental accompaniment. Under
Solomon as many as four thousand musicians were used in a
single service. During the later eerviees in the second
Temple, built in 520 B.C., the Book of psalms was written, with some of it still being used today.
The Bible contains many direct references to music
concerning famous biblical characters. Referring to Jubal
it says in Genesis 17:21, "He was the father of all such as
■ ' - . - . ■ ■ ■ ’ : . handle the harp and pipe (organ)". He was considered to be the first singer of the Hebrews.
11. Hamilton, C. G. op. olt., p. 17. ' ' ' 9
When the Hebrews were in exile in Egypt, Moses was eommandei by the Lord to lead the Children of Israel to safety, and we read of the great song of triumph sung by
Moses:
"Then sang Moses and the Children of Israel: *1 will sing unto Jehovah, for He hath triumphed gloriously, the horse and his rider hath He thrown into the sea, Jehovah is my strength mad my song and He is become my salvation.1" (Exodus XV:1-2)
While Moses was still in Egypt, he received from Jeho vah the command: (Numbers X) "Make thee two trumpets of silver; of a whole piece shalt thou make them; that thou mayest use them for calling of the assembly, and for the Journeyings of the camp."
Trumpets were used in the daily life of the Hebrews in sailing the people to religious ceremonies; announcing fes tivals; declaring war; proclaiming the jubilee year; and • : 18 giving the warning of the anger of God.
In Joshua, chapter six, verse 20, it is stated that the walls of the enemy1s city fell at the sound of trumpet* blown by seven priests.
Musis was probably common in the social life of the
Hebrews, but the references are meager. However, the Song of Solomon, a beautiful poem of marriage, gives us a vivid pie tore of luxury and magnificence, as well as showing us that music was used for other than religious ceremonies.
' ■ ' ' _ ' S’/ j* 12. Bauer, M. and Peyser, IT. op. cit.. p. £7. 10
• ■ . . . OWLrne## .. The history of China, which dates back to antiquity.
Is indeed interesting. A high state of culture was once attained, but it has been allowed to decay and lie dormant to the present time. Music was early developed by the Chi nese and was an important aspect of their culture#
The science of music had a high place,in Chinese phil- 13 oeopby. This was evident from early times as indicated by the saying of the Emporor Tschun, about 8300 B.C.,
"Teaeh the children ot the great; thereby reached through thy care they will become mild and rea sonable, and the unmanageable ones able to re ceive dignities without arrogance or assumption. This teaching must thou embody in poems and sing them therewith to suitable melodies and with the ^ playing of instrumental accompaniment. The music must follow the sense of the words; if they are simple and natural then also must the music be easy, unforced and without pretension. Music is the expression of soul feeling. If now the soul of the musician be virtuous, so also will his music become noble and full of virtuous express ion, and will set the souls of non in union with those of the spirits in heaven." 14
Confucius, the chief Chinese philosopher, wrote about ancient music in 551 B.C., but unfortunately most of his writings on this subject were destroyed in 246 B.C., by or der of the Emperor then on the throne. Nevertheless, his interest in music has been clearly indicated by various
Chinese sources.
The Chinese have always shown a fondness for instltu-
13. Baltzeil. w. J. History of Music, p. sB, 14. Ibid#, p. 26. 11
ting likenesses between things in heaven and in earth, and 16 intellectual and material. The construction of the Chi nese scale is based on this theory. They called the vari ous degrees or steps of their scale Prime Minister, Loyal
Subjects, Affairs of State, Mirror of the World, add Leader and Mediator. The whole steps stood for perfect and inde- 16 pendent things such as earth, moon, and woman. The tech nical phase of music was probably more closely linked to life situations than in any other country. - '
...... - ■ . ' ' - Hindu
From antiquity to the present time India has had a rich but troubled history. During the course of this time, music has had a great influence on the lives of the Hindus.
The origin of the Hindu music is derived from legends much like those of the Greeks. They tell us that the gods gave music to the people and all through the musio there are signs to show their power and influence over material things. The legendary songs were called rags and were named after the gods of the rainy season, the cold season, the mild, the hot, etc. They brought music down from heav- 17 en to comfort man* A close connection was established between the scale and their religious ideas. Each single tone was under the protection of a nymph and the first
15. Baltzell, w. J. op. cii., p. 26. — — 16. Bauer; M. and Peyser, E. op. clt., p. 47. 17. Ibid., p. 64. 13
syllable of the names of the a p ^ b e were given to the 18 tones. ttes eusio was directly aligned with religion from the beginning and since religious feeling dominated . everything, music became interwoven with religious rites and observances. One of their holy books says: "Indra
(their chief god) rejects the offering made without music."
Music was not used eielueively for religious purposes, although it was under religious domination. It had a note worthy place in the secular life of the Hindus. All fes tivals made use of It, and the private and social life de manded it. It was used freely in the Hindu drama, in s @b -
Junotion with the dance, spoken and sung dialogue, and in strumental music and songs.
Greek
The Greeks strove for beauty and perfection in their find arts end correlated them with religion and the effect it had on conduct and character. This applied to music as well as the other arts, though the Greeks were novices in music es compared with their sculptoring and playwriting accomplishments. However, it was important to them and they used it constantly with poetry, dancing, and the drama.
The origin of the word, music, came from the Greek characters In mythology, tho nine muses, daughters of Jupi ter, who believed it led to the beautiful accord and harmony
13. Bauer, M- and Peyser, E. op. oit.. p. 32: 13
of the world. Each of the muses presided over some parti cular department of literature, art, or science. The
Greeks thus considered it to be an art which combined not only the playing of instruments, singing, and dancing, but also all the arts and silences, including mathematics and everything in the universe.
The ancient Greek myths and legends read like fairy stories, but to the Greeks they were what our Bible stories are to us. Their rich mythology furnishes many stories about tho beginnings of music. '
Pan, the god of woods and fields, and of flooks and
shepherds, is given the credit for inventing the shepherd's pipe or Pan's Pipes. Apollo, the god of music and of tho r
Sun, was famous for his playing of the lyre. One of the favorites of Greek mythology, Orpheus, became such a fine performer on all instruments, that he charmed all things animate and inanimate. On the cruise of the Argo in search; of the Golden Fleece, Orpheus not only succeeded in launch ing the boat with the aid of music when the strength of the heroes failed in the task, but when they were passing the
islands of the Sirens, ho sang so loudly and so sweetly that the Siren's songs could not be heard and the crew were saved.
When a people has legends about music, it is logical to consider that they have a deep interest and regard for it. Suck was the case of the Greeks. Their daily life was 14
Intimately connected with music. The Greek thought, "Let me moke the country's song, he may write its laws who will," definitely applies to the Greek way of life.
The Greeks had folk songs which had to do with the deeds of ordinary life, such a» farming and wine-making, grape-picking, and the effect and beauty of the seasons of the year. The harvest songs in Greece, called Lytiersis, wore very popular and their harvest festivals later led to others in Brittany, France, North Germany, and England.
The sorrows and joys of the people were expressed in their simple music and poetry.
The drama was an exceedingly important aspect of Gre cian life. The social prominence of it is attested by the remains of splendid theaters in every part of the old '
Greco-Roman world. Among the taxes, or liturgies, that the
Greeks had to pay, was the obligation for certain rich citi zens to supply the Greek tragedies with the chorus.
Music was an important feature in those presentations, especially in connection with the chorus, usually composed of a group of masked actors, Who appeared between acts and intoned or chanted the meaning of the play and subsequent events. Likewise the dialogue may have been musically in toned, because poetry was felt to require delivery in song for its complete expression, while music had little impor- 19 tance except to embody poetry, le. Pratt, w. 3 . op. clt., g.SI. 15
Another institution which the Greeks fostered was "the game festival, which has been continued to the present time a# the Olympic Games. The old festivals included not only
oompetition in physical prowess, but equally strenuous ri valries in literary and mudieal art. They were B e M regu larly at various places, such as the Olympian in .Slis, the
Pythian at Delphi, the lien®an in Argolls and the Isthmian
at Corinth. The fane of these festivals spread and even
tually many foreign entries contested for honors. The sti mulation offered by these festivals for the people was es pecially noteworthy.
Music instruction was a vital aspect in Greek schools.
Most pupils participated in singing and in learning to play
the lyre, the Greek national instrument. Technical virtu
osity was a secondary consideration; the ethic influence of zb the art was the guiding principle.
Many of the famous Greek philosophers, including Plato,
Aristotle, and Aristoxenuo exalted the aesthetic importance 21 of music and proclaimed its moral influence over youth.
Plato looked to music as a possible leaven which would sub
limate both strength and reason, endowing both with grace,
beauty, and gentleness. The Greeks also had a keen appre
ciation of the potent effects of music on the ethos or mood, . ' - ' - : . ■; '■ *8 ■ ■ '■ and through this on character.
'go/fluhX. I.' K. life of the Greoks ana Romans, p. aouJ 21. Hamilton, G. G. o p . c i t . , p. 22: 22. Groves Dictionary, p. 40. 16
The Greeks were explicit as to the particular moods evoked by particular kinds of music. Diatonic music was held to be manly and severe! chromatic, sweet and plain tive; enharmonic, stirring and pleasing; high pitched m a l e was felt to be passionate and expressive of violent grief; and low pitched music was understood to be sentimental and 83 licentious.
Rome
Rome as a nation was more interested in conquering than in developing art peculiar to her own environment.
Romans found it much easier to borrow from other people.
They were influenced by Greek ideals and Greek methods; thus they learned mueie, oratory, architecture, and sculfc- 24 ture from Greek teachers.
The utilitarian phase of music in Roman life was largely copied from the Greeks; but the natural love and the rich legends which so vitally linked music with the
Greeks could not be transferred to Rome.
While the Romans continued to grow in site and power through conquest, luxury increased and large numbers of mu sicians were attracted to Rome am entertainers. The prices paid to some of the flute players were higher than the 85. amounts received by our opera singers. Music for enter-
23. Groves Dictionary, p. 4l. 24. Bauer, M. and Peyser, E. op. olt.. p. 45. 25. Baltzell, . J"•, op. cit., p • 62. 17
talneent beeeua^ very popular in R o m .
Musio was also a favorite distraction in the high ranks of Roman society, and men known to history were skill ful players or singers— Sylla, Flaocue, Calpurnius, Plso, ■ ■ - • ■ ■ 86 Titus, Caligula, Hadrian, and best known of all, Nero. As in other ancient countries, Rome effectively uti lised music in her armies. They used trumpets and bugles to form their military bands. Among the many duties per formed were signals for attack and retreat, the starting of the army to march and the marching-tunes, relieving sen tries, and announcing special.ceremonies.
The Romans performed for music a service similar to that which they did for other arts; namely, the dissemina tion of musical ideas which were the results of individual 37 systems. This indirectly led to the development of our modern system of music.
Church luring the period of Roman domination, Christ was born, and the birth of a new feeling took place which re sulted in the formation of the Christian religion. The followers of Christ were severely persecuted by the Romans and were forced to meet secretly. Though the Christians were pursued, hunted like beasts; and martyrised, they
116. flaifzeil, V«. J1. op. cit., p. 7o. 27. Ibid., p. 62. clung to their faith with ita simple rites of worship, in which the singing of songs was a marked feature.
The Christians were persistently personated until 335
A. D., when Emperor Constantine made Christianity the na tional religion of Rome. The Church was now able to devote more attention to singing, which formerly had to be subdued because of the necessity for quiet during their secretive meetings. Also the ecclesiastical authorities began to eliminate any traces of paganism in their music by estab lishing a system of song for the use of the Church.
After the fall of Rome during the fifth century to the
German barbarians, a gloom settled over Europe, called the
Dark Ages. Learning was suppressed everywhere except in the monasteries, where the monks carefully retained the knowledge of the past. Here the art of musie was thorough ly cultivated. A thorough knowledge of and an adept ability to preform the chant were required of the monks snd: the in numerable missionaries who were carrying the Christian doc- 29 trines into the forests of Europe. Thtttechnloal aspects of music, which exerted tremendous influence on the devel opment of music, were developed by St. Ambrose and Pope
Gregory. The chant developed by Pope Gregory became a dom inant factor in church anisic during that time and is still sung today in the Roman Catholic Churches.
SB!$EGSe&E' to, p. 45. 29. Ibid», p . A3. 1#
In England, the Venerable Bede, Inspired by the Gre gorian chant, did much to spread the use of music. His love for music was indicated by his writing:
’’Music is the most worthy, edu*##***, and lovely of all knowledge; it makes a man gentle manly in his demeanor, pleasant, courteous, joy ous, lovely, for it acts upon his feelings. Musis encourages us to bear the heaviest afflictions, administers consolation in every difficulty, re freshes the broken spirit, removes headache and ? cures crossness and melancholy.” 30
After the death of Bede, Alcuin, a monk and musician, continued his work. Charlemagne, Emperor of France, ap pointed him to teach music in the schools of Germany and trance and to spread the use of the Gregorian chant.
The sponsorship of music by the church was continued in all parts of Europe, and during the Rennsieanoe period it received added impetus. The value that it added to the services was never underestimated.
Folk Music
the origin of folk music is as old as music itself.
It is an expression of the people, by the people, and for the people, this simple music was merely a way of talking, of enjoying life, and of passing on to others deeds and doings of the time. Concerning folk music, H. E. Krenbill said, "They are the heart-beats of the fold and in them are 31 preserved feelings, beliefs, and habits of vast antiquity."
5b. kauer. M. and Fevaer. E. op. olt.. p. W I 81. quoted in Bauer, M. and Peyser, E. op. olt.. p. 106. 80
The development of folk music in every race has been
virtually the same. In tracing the growth of any habits and
actions of people— in government, religion, amusements,
art, customs, music, and language, we find the same customs 58 repeated among the different races. She general feeling
of expressing actual life situations in song has been the
basis of all folk songs in all races. Among the many types 35 of songs common to all nations are:
1. Songs of childhood, games, and cradle songs. 2. Songs for religious ceremonies, festivals, : holidays, and Christmas carols. 5, Love songs and songs for marriage fetes, and weddings. 4. War songs, patriotic songs, and army songs. 5. Songs of work and labor and trades. 6. Drinking songs, comical, political, and sati rical songs. 7. Songs for dancing, rounds, etc. 8. Funeral songs and songs for mourning. 9. Narratives, ballads, and legends.
After the break up of the Roman Baplre, the gradual
development of independent countries in Europe commenced.
During this time a professional class of musicians became
organized in all parts of Europe with different names in
different places. % e y were called bards in Britain and
Ireland, minstrels in Merrie England, skalds in the Norse
lands, troubadours from the south of France, trouveres from
northern France, and minnesingers and aeistersingera in 34 Germany.
M. Bauer, M. and Peyser, !, op. olt.. p. loa. These musicians traveled widely and were welcomed to every court, cemtle, or festival. Their repertoire was ehiefly folk music material which appealed to all and was easily understood and appreciated. The work done by these musicians, in conjunction with the music sponsored by the ohureh, directly paved the way to our m o d e m system of music.
Art
The real beginning of modern music dates back to the
Renaissance period. Included in the general awakening of thought after the Dark Ages was the demand for investiga tion of the various aspects of music. This led to the de velopment of Italian opera, the cantata, the oratorio, nu merous music schools, modern instruments, the divorce of instrumental music from vocal muele, and the reform of church tirueic by Palestrina by order of the Council of Trent
With this impetus it was inevitable that a new phase of music would be the outcome. The many masterpieces toy the great composers of the 17th and 18th centuries demon strated this fact. Music, because of its appeal to all people, finally reached its place in the world of art com parable with that of painting, architecture, and sculpture.
In this chapter dealing with the background of music, the development of music and how music affected mankind in 28
various countries during the history of nan has been brief ly presented, a similarity is to be noted in the general feeling toward music by al}. peoples, whose hopes, ideals, and aspirations have been set forth in musical expression and have been closely and inseparably interwoven with life. CHAPTER III
MOSIC IN PRESENT DAY AMERICA
IntPOdUOtlOB
Music is aa institution which has had a very definite
effect on people of all times. This is also true of the present time in commercial America, the focal point of the
greatest scientific and industrial age of history. The
emotional, psychological, end utilitarian factors of music
form a very important part of the complex lives of average
Amerieane. In the following pages of this chapter we shall
point out some of the ways music meets the daily needs in
American life. An effort will be madeto correlate public
school music with the general field of music in the United
States. Also the various educational phases involved are
to be considered as an integral part of our way of life.
Music and Character Development
Character education is a process through which the
child learns to make wholesome social adjustments to his
many perplexing life situations. Perplexing life situa
tions are all those occasions In daily life which vox, disr
turb, and annoy because there is a conflict between what one
impulsively wishes to do and what one is obliged to do. Btoleeoae social adjustments are those happy and successful ways and habits of responding which are beneficial both to ' 35 one’s self and to others. Need for Character Education: There is a need for a more thorough program of character education. W e n one- fifth of the total number of criminals in the united States have not reached voting age, certainly something should be 36 corrected. In commenting on this situation, J Edgar
Hoover says:
"There is no excuse for the fact that 700,000 American boys and girls were enlisted in the army of crime prior to reaching voting age. There is no suitable explanation which the fathers and mothers of America can make for this outrageous situation. They have allowed the reins to slip from their hands; they have allow ed their own personal pleasures to become upper most; they have allowed the spirit of family discipline to become weakened; and they have al lowed youth to malinger along roads of life which lead all too often to disillusionment. Parents have become too concerned in enjoying the flesh- pots of the age to give proper attention to their offspring...We are in dire need of a spiritual awakening. We must piece rejuvenation of nation al morality above mundane ambitions...The time has come when proper respect for law should be a z prime element of all education, in the church, in the home, in the school, in the college, and in our daily life." 37 All institutions connected with the welfare of the h&lld should be thoroughly aroused to such serious condi
tions and a well-planned program of character education
36. Germane, c. E. and Germane, E. G. Character Education? p. x. 36. Douglas, Aubrey A. Modern Secondary Education, p. 262. 37. Quoted in Douglas, Aubrey A. Modern Secondary Education p. 263. 25 /
instituted. - - :. / ■ ^
Relation of Music and Character Education: Among the Various aspects of character education, music has much to offer far its part in the formulation of a well-rounded program designed for the welfare of the child, it probably could be exploited further than some of the other phases of character education because of its appealing nature, a " acted criminologist said, "If a boy learns how to blow a horn, he will think less of blowing safes."j^Good music, because it gives a balanced and completely satisfying out let for the emotional urges, affects character development^}
With the richness of rhythm, melodic risings and fallings, dynamic shading, tone color, and: harmonies* the stimula tions of good music are arranged in effective balance in such a way that the effect upon the recipient is a balanced, beautiful, and exalted general toning up of the whole of the feeling and emotional life. It is a molder of charac ter because of its powerful influence upon the very inner most resources of ou* subjective life, and because of its wonderful stimulation effect upon our physical, mental, and 58 spiritual nature*
The availability of music in caring for the extra en ergy of youth is a very important factor to consider. Many boys, for the want of some hobby or interest, are apt to engage in activities detrimental to their beat interests.
W . Crermane, c . E . and Germane, a. G. op. oit.. p. 317. 26
Playing in a band or an orchestra and having to practice at home in order to ketep np with the group, would open up a new world of experience for such boys. Their attitudes would be changed and a development of better feeling would be the outcome.
One of. the serious problems in America is the amount of class prejudice among the people. This is particularly evident in the schools. An effort on the part of the schools to eliminate this menace would prepare our country for a more stable future.^An improvement in group morale and comrade-ship is often noticed among children who become mem bers of a musical organlzatlonTj Their better feeling of good fellow-ship is attributed to their willing adherence to teamwork, for an orchestra, in order to gain success, must "click" like a good football team.
"K By developing a better taste fer music and by being expertly exposed to finer types of music, the children will without a doubt develop a keener sense of appreciation of the finer things of life and thus greatly enrich their per
sonalities. The creation of a feeling for something fine will create a better feeling toward their fellowman, and a definite step toward the elimination of class prejudice is
thus facilitated. Bill: Bill was a boy who disliked school very much.
Hie teachers found him inattentive and his schoolmates
thought he was a poor sport. He liked to hang around the pool halls talking to the men who frequented suoh places end was rapidly developing many bad habits.
One day the school band leader noticed Bill drumming on his desk with a couple of pencils. He stopped, watched the boy a minute and told him he was a natural born drum mer, He told him to report to the band instruction class that afternoon. Bill, out of curiosity, did so. He quick ly learned the techniques of drumming. From that time on he became quite interested in drumming. He organized a drum corps, played in the band, and led a pep rally group at all athletic games. Pool halls were forgotten in the fun he was having in creating something worthwhile.
-: Joe; ■ Joe had a real talent for music. He had learned to play a clarinet by ear and took a groat interest in jazz music, and jazz only, for he thought all other music was
"iissy*.. . • \ • -
His father owned a saloon and thought that someday Joe might become the leader of a small orchestra to play in his place for the entertainment of the customers. So, instead of discouraging the jazz playing he encouraged it.
One day a famous orchestra leader, who Joe greatly ad mired, and who also played a clarinet, came to town to play in one of.the big hotels. Joe managed to get in and listen ed for hours. The classical pieces the orchestra played during the dinner hour strangely affected Joe. He began to think perhaps there was another kind of m$sio besMes jazz 28
that was worth playing. Mot long after that experience the orchestra teacher, who had long been wanting Joe in her orchestra, asked Joe to become the leader of a quartet of reed instruments. She gave Joe several pieces of music that were not jazz but gay melodies that he immediately loved. With the responsibility as a leader on his shoulders, Joe worked hard and made his
quartet the finest in the school, a s he began to discover more and more music outside the realm of jazz, he developed a great love for beautiful music.
Frank; The talented and Interested music student is
always a joy. Frank was such a one. He loved music and
could play several different instruments equally well. He
was well versed in the history of music, knew and loved the
great composers, and greatly enjoyed good music.
His development would certainly bring him fame and for
tune. Sucfc a child should have every advantage and oppor
tunity to go forward and not have his talents curbed. Any
curbing or narrowing of his great talent might do much harm
to his character. The world needs such leaders as this boy
in its cultural and artistic advancement.
Alice: Alice had all the advantages and privileges of
a rich, pampered child. She had had private lessens from an outstanding,artist and had become an excellent pianist♦
However, due to her environment and the flattery received
from her adoring parents, she had developed a very superior and anti-social attitude. The other children thought she was a "show-off* and did not care to have much to do with her. The music teacher, noticing her superior attitude, insisted that she play in the school orchestra. It wasn't long before this co-operation with the others and the feel ing that she was helping to create something, began to change her attitude, she was realizing that it was not each Individual part but the thing as a whole that counted.
The other boys and girls soon noticed the change and made friends with her.
Music for Leisure
Mien the Seven Cardinal Principles of secondary Educa tion were announced by the committee on re-organization ap pointed by the National Education Association, the worthy use of leisure time was last on the list, but changes in the industrial life of the American people have given it a place higher in importance than it was first accorded. So ciologists and psychiatrists and some of the greatest minds of the country have expressed concern over the possible
dangers of the sudden acquisition of leisure with little proper preparation. It is a question the public schools will have to help solve.
Music occupies an important position among the leisure
time activities and it has much to offer that Is advanta-
geous. The consumer, as well as the producer, can spend m
much tlae with some aspect of music. Age Is no disadvantage as It Is In some leisure time activities. The radio made music available to the masses. Many opportunities for par ticipation are offered the producers, in the community, school, church, lodge, home, and the Federal Government or ganizations; and the consumers will benefit by appreciating the efforts of the producers. It is a hobby that can be used under varied conditions.
Music as a Hobby: With the possible exception of reading, probably more people in the United states find de light in music as a hobby than in any other way of employing leisure. Unlike many hobbies, music has limitless variety and is not merely a repetition of relatively similar mental operation*.
Many famous people have found music to be a pleasurable recuperative aid. Coleen Moore says,
"I am finding my music to ba a refreshing tonic. After a hard, gruelling day there at the film studio, I find I can sit at the piano and gain new strength through expression at the keyboard. The tension of work disappears and in its place I find serenity and joy." # Tolstoi, the famous Russian writer comments, "I was returning from a walk feeling depressed, and on nearing my home heard loud singing of a . choir of peasant women. In this singing there was such a definite feeling of joy, cheerfulness, and energy that I at once got into a better mood and reached my home smiling and in good spirits."40
quoted in Kane, Mate. D. '‘Plano study As A Hobby.” Musician. 38:2. 40. quoted in Blanchard, Clarence 0. Musician, 31:5. 31
Plato looked to music as a possible leaven which would sub limate both strength and reason, and endow both with grace, beauty, and gentleness. Franz Liszt often said, "My piano is to me what a boat is to seamen." one of Teddy Roosevelt’s greatest regrets was that he couldn't play a musical instru ment.
An outstanding cultural feature of radio is a non-eoa- 41 mercialized program, "Music is My Hobby". This program encourages people to see that the real thrill of music lies, not in turning on the radio, but learning to play some in strument and to enjoy musio-making as an avocation. Henriek tfillem van Loon broadcast a violin recital and he explained that he plays regularly because he likes to and because a playing acquaintance with master works enables him to climb into the souls of great men. Einstein demonstrated his ability on the violin and confided that he played the piano when engrossed in mathematical problems. Four Tale men — a lawyer, a jeweler, an editor, and an advertising man — sang as a quartet on the program. "Music is My Hobby" has proved that the United States is alive with talent used for culture and pleasure.
Better_APPreolation_ofMusic for Leisure: The ways of developing the innate powers of appreciation are the pro blems of the music educators. The great number of free
41. Ferguson, C. W. "Music is My Hobby." Headers’ Digest. ’ 28:103-10®. ; — a — 38
radio concerts are a boon and a source of joy to some people, but they have hardly begun to be what they might be for millions of people who are incapable of appreciation due to insufficient information of music. There is a need for leadership in appreciation, or appreciative listening, as in all other phases of musical activity.
"Every recreation center should have a music guide, as every park should have a nature guide, whose love and understanding of music and of people have taught him how to guide small ex ploring parties into the happiest but often hid den groves, meadows, hillsides, and mountain tops of music." 48
Federal Government Subsidization: The Federal Govern ment for the last several years has been sponsoring music throughout the country, one of its objectives has been to attempt to help solve the leisure-time problem. Many pro ducers were given an opportunity to perform and thousands of consumers appreciated their efforts.
During the few years in which the United States Gov ernment has been subsidizing music, it has become the greatest patron of music in history. A wide range in the music field has been cultivated, included among the va- rious projects are symphonies, orchestras, concert and sym phony bands, danse and novelty orchestras, opera organiza tions, choral groups, soloists, string quartets and other ensembles, teachers and their large classes, song writers,
42. Zanzig, H. D. "Ways to Musical Good Fortune." Recrea tion. 29:283-88. ------3 3
•opyists, arrangers, and librarians. The general aid to all branches of music was thus guaranteed by the versatili ty of the program.
In its concert and educational activities this project of the Works Progress Administration has taken music into areas that have been ignored by "live* musical organiza tions. Millions have listened to their symphonies and operas, the great choral works, the literature of chamber and salon groups, madrigals, ballads, and the folk songs of other centuries, and the new and sometimes vital works of eontempory American composers. For multitudes these "in the flesh" performances were heard for the first time. Fed erally sponsored music has touched every stratum of our so ciety.
Effect of Music in the Home
Due to our highly industrialized conditions, with many interests drawing people from the homo, the family unit is definitely losing its potentiality as a stabilizing in fluence in our country. This is more evident in the urban centers, but even the people in the rural districts, with their fast automobiles and good roads, are becoming more and more Interested in outside things. The home with its /
■ - - ' - -■ - , - ■ . " - ■ ■ / great educative and moral influences must be maintained.'^
Worthy home membership is still the forgotten objec tive in secondary education in many, if not most, parts of 34
the United States. The crises of the World War and the re cent depression have accentuated the need for a better un derstanding of personality and human relationship in the family. It is the claim of music that it con help in main taining this institution.
Music in the Hornet The place of music in the home is net new. It has influenced the home since primitive man and undoubtedly will continue to influence the home in the fu ture. The lullaby has been used by all people and is the first direct contact with musle for the child. The old folk songs have largely been outcomes of family feelings toward their environment. Here in America, especially pre vious to the time of the phonograph, the automobile, and the radio, people gathered together in the homes and ###oyed singing or instrumental playing. Much of the social life centered around the song life of the average family group.
This socializing experience has meant much in developing the 43 good citizen of the church, the school, and the state#
Co-operation with the School: The ability of the school to motivate music in the home through an effective music program is quite evident. Such a program in the school can very easily interest most children. The variety of music that can be offered, such as band, orchestra; pi ano, vocal groups, rhythm bands, drum and bugle corps, -fret-
43. McCauley, C. J. A Professionalized study of Public School Music, p. 46. V ' ted instrmettts, music appreciation, and creating would un
doubtedly serve the needs of the group. As children have ;
definite likes and dislikes for certain types of music, a
choice would do much to create more enthusiasm. The example
of little Johnny revolting from his violin lesson when he really wanted to play a horn is noteworthy. Once a child
becomes music-minded, he will most certainly carry his new
found pleasures home and with parental encouragement, a very
pleasant and new relationship in the family would be noted.
^ Effect of Husio: It has been said that music is the
companion of all people. This applies very accurately in
uniting the members of a family as better companions through
some form of music. Many pleasant hours can he spent by
the family group either singing, playing instruments, or
even composing songs. A better relationship and a spirit
of good fellowship is certain to he the outcome. The young
people will be more satisfied to stay home evenings instead
of going to the usual show or dance. Friends and neighbors
would be found calling more often and a better spirit would
be forthcoming. A fuller life and many pleasant memories
would naturally result.
Comparison of American and European Parents: A defi
nite problem for those interested in music to solve is the
education of the American parents to be more music-minded
and really to enjoy music. In Europe, parents unquestion
ably have a more wholesome attitude toward the art. The 36
child Is made to see that the joys of music come through sacrifice and work, and no child would think of trumping up 44 a silly excuse to get out of practice and music lessons.
It is hoped that America will learn this good trait from Europe. ■■■.■. ' ■ ■ ■ '
Some parents for many reasons have a prejudice against misio. They not only fail to provide the opportunity for their children to learn music, but actually discourage in terest in music in every way. Another hindering-factor has been poverty, which has prevented many from taking music lessons. This is one of the reasons why the opportunity to learn music has been made democratically available in the public schools.
Ultimate Aim: A more musical nation will ultimately result in the future due to the rapid strides of music edu cation. Nevertheless the parents should be continually propagandized in order to hurry the day when the love for music springs up spontaneously in all the homes. The ul timate aim of all endeavor is to increase human happiness.
Music educators are blessed with a wonderful opportunity to
serve mankind. At the same time they are charged with the great responsibility of bringing music into the lives of 45 all people.
44. Van Loon, Hendrick wlllem, "Getting tfoy oui of Music.” Relation of Music to Citizenship
Education for citizenship in the state has been uni 46 versal in time and plaee. The ways and methods used to better e%uip the state with useful citizens have been great ly varied. The school is particularly helpful as it has oontaet with the youth of a nation when ideals and concep tions are more easily molded. Music lends itself very ef fectively to the school citizenship program.
Cooperation; The lesson of cooperation is well taught by music. It is essential for members of a musical organi zation to direct their efforts toward a pleasing effect of their unit, rather than for an unbalanced performance by a group of would-be soloists, each of whom is trying to out do the other. This objective of music is stressed contin ually in such a way that the pupils learn what whole-heart ed cooperation means with their musical unit, and it is likely that this lesson may carry over into some other ac tive life situation.
Cooperation, self-control, and subordination of self in considering others are positive virtues that go into making a good citizen. Only that nation that can maintain the most loyal citizenship, the best institutions, and the largest spirit of self-sacrifice in its members can hope to 47 survive
46. Douglas, Audrey A. r Education, y. 5527 47. Ellwood, Charles A coders Social Prob lems. p. 46 38
Fair Play: The spirit of fair play often enters into a musio situation and forms many valuable attitudes and ideals which become a part of the personality of the child. In the competition for the select places of an organization, ability is always recognized, and the children are content to let that factor decide the case regardless of other cir cumstances. In music festivals and contests fair play is one of the desired objectives; and it is practiced in most cases, even though under highly competitive conditions.
The spirit of fair play is often forgotten by some in our society, and consequently our democracy suffers.
‘ National life: Musio has a definite place in sustain ing our national life. It has the power to unify a group, large or small, to an extent seldom reached by other ave nues of expression. Popular songs express thoughts common to groups or individuals; community singing produces a com mon frame of mind; and marching songs direct the emotions of men going to war. Nations bent upon unifying their in- 48 habitants depend upon music.
During times of war the playing of music has a very de cided effect in improving the morale of both the non-com batants and those in service. This aspect of music is not desired, but in case of a national crisis it would be price less because in present day wars the civilians are made to
#. bougies. Aubrey A. op. oit.. p. 665. 39
suffer in order to attempt to break their morale. The use of music through our many out-lets will be invaluable if this ooentry should ever face the tragedies of present-day
Europe. Even today music is an effective agency in the na tional defease plans. Much music is released, especially by radio, for the purpose of buoying national spirit.
In World War I, the Waited States carried on its great recruiting work to the strains of music. During the train ing period much money was given to furnish music for that phase of the war preparation. The songs about the men "over
There" spurred prospects on to duty. Later behind the lines, in the hospitals, in Y. M. C. A. tents, and everywhere the soldier paused for rest, there was music. It represented a great fundamental ministration of aid for the soldier during - ■ 49 the period of stress and strain.
Understanding of Foreign People: Music, as expressed through folk songs, is an aid in understanding a cultural group of the present or the past. The folk songs help ex press the aspirations and modes of thought of social groups, because the songs have been offered direct from the emotions and thoughts of the people.
It is necessary in our country to understand the ideals,
standards, and traditions of foreign peoples and of Ameri
cans of foreign birth, expectally with the war in Europe and
49. McCauley, 6. J. op.cit., p. 47. ' " m
the prolific "Fifth Column" activities in the Western Hem isphere.
The disappointing results of attempting to bring about
International peace by diplomacy may eventually give way to a friendly exchange of the products of the peaceful arts, among the foremost of which is music, likewise, race hatred may find its strongest antidote in the harmony of music.
For who can hate a people that produces a Verdi or a Bach?
Music in Industry
The music industry is one of the important financial projects in the United States, expends and earns billions
of dollars, supports hundreds of thousands, entertains mil lions, and ranks in sixth or seventh place among the coun try's great industries.
The music industry is divided into many different phases such;as symphonies, operas, concert artists, bands, radio, dance orchestras, motion pictures, private music
teachers, public school music teachers, conservatories,
college music departments, unions, instrument manufacturers, ; . 7 ' . : ■ ' " - ■■■■'.■■ . . - - ■ r:, :. ■■ . music stores, supplies, phonographs, records, etc. Many of
these separate units are billion-dollar industries in them
selves, with thousands of employees.
In a newspaper article. Dr. ▲. 0. Anderson of the University of Arizona, revealed many of the following facts
^0. Arizona Daily star,December fe. 1935. n. 4. 41
Seseeralug the music industry.
Manufacturing of Instruments: The manufacturing of instruments in this country alone amounts yearly to over a billion dollars. This does not include the salaries of salesmen and the cost of distribution. The business of mu sic surely must be stupendous in order to absorb that much equipment each year.
Symphonies; In the United States there are seventeen major symphonies of eighty to one hundred men each, who average §60 a week for a season of thirty weeks, making a total of $2,628,000. Each of the conductors of these large orchestras receives from §10,000 to §75,000 a year. Even these figures do not include other music costs such as ren tals for halls, salaries of business managers and librar
ians, cost of sheet music, or of special soloists, over head expenses in heat, light, box and business office em ployees, and transportation. Nor does the figure take in
the 150 smaller symphony orchestras, which piles the figures up into a still higher pyramid of dollars.
Opera: In the operatic world, most opulent spenders
of the industry, there are thirty-four professional compan
ies in the United States. TTe cannot begin to go into the
financial details of these opera groups; but when we read
that a company closed a successful season with a deficit of
only §600,000, we can ponder upon the actual running costs
of a grand opera company. Stars in opera are paid §500 to $5,000 a performance and each production costs between
$13,000 and $20,000. The financial output of the Metropo litan Opera Company would be extremely high with its average of 102 performances in New York and 48 on road tours.
Colleges and Conservatories: The music conservatories
and university and college music departments comprise a very important phase of She industry. The annual cost
would probably be #10,000,000 with an average operating ex
pense of $15,000 a year for several hundred schools. Many
of the large ones such as the Julliard Foundation, Columbia,
Yale, and Harvard Universities, Curtist Institute, American
Conservatory of Music, and Chicago Musical College have
costs mounting to $100,000 a year. These schools support
symphonies, bands, choirs, and large staffs of instructors.
Public Schools: The cost of music to the public
schools is tremendous. Many schools furnish Instruments and
other expensive equipment which amount to thousands of dol
lars each year. All this is exclusive of the costs of pro
viding teachers, constructing special classrooms, furnishing
sheet music, and the many other necessities required in pub
lic school music.
Guilds and Federations: There must also be considered
the 125 guilds, federations, sororities, societies, and
associations, all with yearly dues. Also the American Fed eration of Musicians and other unions and guilds exact an
nual dues of $20 to $40 a year. With a total membership of 120,000 persons the total sum involved gets to be around
|3,600,000 annually. The unions do not take in the music teacher organizations of the country, -which have another stunning figure for dues and expenditures, including trans portation to and from conventions. Artists: m e n considering the earnings of great solo ists, music is also a big and good business. One vrorld- knoun tenor earns more than a million dollars a year just from phonograph recordings. Tibbet, McCormack, Elman,
Spaulding and other great artists get at least $3,000 for each radio broadcast.
Radio: Radio is another vital link in the music in dustry, Why mould a great businessman like Henry Ford spend millions each year for music if he did not realize its value? Is it to indulge in some whim or fancy? Mot at all; It is because he recognizes music as a business and an artistic medium for advertising purposes. Since advert tising is a very large and important factor in any big com mercial enterprise, Ford, as hundreds of other executives, has Chosen music for this purpose, even though coast to coast network programs average #30,000 an hour.
Vocational Aspect: While music Is fully Justified in many .respects as an art, many persons do not care to tbin& of it in light of pecuniary gains. It is, however, a big, going business, well organized in a solid substantial way and it employs hundreds of thousands of persons whose sole 44
existence depends upon it.
The trend towards a practical attitude concerning music and its worth as a vocation is seen in the following state ment :
"Music is valuable as a vocational subject. Music has great value as a high school subject from a vocational standpoint. An army of persons is engaged in the music profession in this coun try, and approximately six hundred million dol lars are spent annually for musical performances and in musical education. This money is going more and more to the native-born teachers and performers. The numbers of high school graduates who do more or less of vocational work in music is quite comparable to the number engaged in many other occupations. Yet, only meager pro vision, if any, is made for instruction in music, even instruction that might be considered pro vocations!. Music should be recognized as an im portant vocational subject, and reasonable pro vision for vocational training in it should be .made by high schools which have sufficient en rollment to justify the added expense." 51
vIt is not the purpose of the elementary grades or the
junior high school to train children specifically for occu
pations. Nevertheless a love for music developed in the
lower grades often in later life stimulates the individual
to direct his efforts toward a vocation or an avocation of
music. Statistics indicate that there are as many profes
sional musicians in the United States as lawyers and doc
tors. Also there are about five amateur or semi-profeeeion
al musicians, who use music as an avocation, to one pro
fessional musician. The importance of a music vocation or
5 1 . Virginia.Supplement No. 6, Course of Study, High Schools of Virginia, p . 5. 48
avocation has not been fully understood or appreciated by some school authorities.
Music and Health
The basic desire expressed by society is the urge of self-preservation. The attention by educational theorists, administrators, end others interested in the general wel fare of our country upon the health aim in education has not led to very gratifying results, our health program is 52 still relatively disorganized and ineffective. This sit- nation should be remedied if we expect the health standards to improve.
There is a necessity for a well integrated program of health in all schools. Most of the school subjects are
adaptable to this. Music, if properly presented, can be an
affective aid in this very important work.
Physical Hygiene: For many years doctors have offered
evidence of the connection between health and music. Thou
sands of years ago the priest-doctors of Egypt had a favor-
ite incantation in music which was supposed to have a fa- _ ■; 53 ' -" vorable influence on the fertility of women. The Hebrews
employed music in several recorded eases of physical and
mental illness. The Greeks also knew of the curative cual-
Itlas of musical sounds. The fierce temper of Aehllles Is ' ' - " . : •• :■ . : - ...... ' ' . ' ' iET Douglas, Aubrey S3. Podolsk},"5::JBa£ard°M7,"°~TEe 'pocto^escrltes ijuslo. said to have been allayed by music drawn from a lyre, an in strument' which has its modern counterpart in the harp.
The harp later became a popular instrument to moderate un reasonable temper, in the classics there are many accounts of how music was used to perform miraculous cures. Theo phrastus in his essay on Enthusiasm testifies that the bites of serpents and other venomous reptiles were rendered harmless by music, which quieted the pulse and heart-action.
Plutarch's works contain many relevant anecdotes. He tells us that Thelates, the Cretan; saved the Lacedaemonians from a dreadful pestilence by playing sweetly on his lyre. Dem
ocrat es, too, expressed the opinion that the sound of the
flute was a good remedy for plagues of all descriptions; and
plagues were as frequemt in the ancient world as wars. Ka
tinas assures us that he was very successful in reducing
fevers with songs, and that Aesculapius cured deafness by
the sound of the trumpet. Aulus Gellius asserted that a
case of sciatica was cured by gentle musical modulations,
and that the Phrygian pipe was generally recommended as good : ^ :; ■ 55 medicine for sciatica by many of the old Greek doctors.
It was only toward the end of the eighteenth century
that any serious effort to evaluate the precise effects of
music on the human body was made. Among the first investi
gators was Dr. Brooklesby, who conducted a series of eaper-
M.-^odolsk'y, fir p. s. 55. Ibid.. p. 4. 4?
iments on a child of two, born of musical parents. He found that he could produce joy or mirth by playing spright ly airs of music or sadness and grief by playing the graver 56 . ' . : ..... tunes. In 1893 Dr. Ewing Hunter, of Helonsburg, N. S.,
found that soft music successfully reduced high temperature ■ " . ' :Sf; ■ - . • ■ ■ • in several cases of fever.
The healing influences of music are not appreciated
exclusively by the so-called civilized races. The Indian medicine men have been singing and beating on drums for
centuries while administering their iwhs. The Papago in-
d i m s of Arizona believe that healing songs are obtained
from birds and animals. - : 58 ' : • ■■ ...... , ... In a recent article, Dr. Edward Podolsky drew up his
conclusions as to the influence of music on the human body. They are as follows:
1. It increases metabolism, as shown by the work of Tarohanoff and Dutton. 2. It Increases or decreases muscular energy, ac cording to the experiments of Fere, Tarohanoff and scripture. 3. It accelerated respiration and decreases its regularity, as demonstrated by Blnet, Wood, and Guilbaud. 4. It produces a marked but variable effect on volume, pulse and blood-pressure. 5. It lowers the threshold for sensory stimuli of different modes. 6. It affords the physiological basis for the genesis of emotions, according to the James- Langettheory, and consequently influences the
5t). Podolsky, f>r. Edward M. op. cit.. p. lo. — — - • Ibid., p. 11. 58. Podolsky, Dr. Edward M. "How Musie Affects the Human Body." Musician. 43:124. internal secretions, according to the research of Cannon.
The therapeutic value of music as a benefit to singers and instrumentalists is a matter of definite proof, correct posture is one of the requisites for good singing and in strumental work. To get the full benefit of volume neces sary in singing, ereotneso of the body must be established.
Music teachers continually stress the necessity of good posture to instrumentalists in order to develop more lung power and also for general appearance and ease.
Singing promotes proper breathing. This aids diges
tion and improves the circulation. The increased and deep-
er breathing stimulates all bodily processes. The oxygen
supply of the body is increased. The blood becomes purer
and more chemically active. Cellular activity is stimulated
and the sum total is an increased sense of well-being.
Mental Hygiene: Hygiene is concerned not only with
physical development but with healthful and efficient men
tal work on the part of all. with an. estimated five per
cent of the school children neurotic, the problem of mental
hygiene is apparent. The emotional stimulus provided by mu
sic is a valuable ally to the health program in its work in
reducing and preventing neurotic ailments.
Physicians, whose sole task is oaring for mental cases,
have long realized that music is one of the best medicines
for the mind. Several years ago. Dr. Egbert Guernsey said: "If every hospital or asylum included in its med ical staff a musical director, and If every phys ician and trained musician understood tbe nature and action of music, there is no telling the good that might be accomplished, the lives brightened, and the tangled brains brought back to harmony." 59
M. Frouesort of Sorbonne states, : . ' ' ' ■ L'.r, ... , : : "Music has a distinct therapeutic value as a creative factor in stimulating certain specific reactions; that nervous ailments such as insomnia and derangements of heart, lungs and stomach, can be cured by listening to good mpsic." 60 „
Major Frederick W. Mott, British Army surgeon with the
Fourth General War Hospital, is quoted as saying,
"Music is a stimulator of the emotions, the associative memory, and a certain feeling of strength, and the most powerful agent we have available for the restoration of shell-shocked soldiers."61 ‘ - / .. \-r ... , The high turn-over of one hundred beds a month at the Third Groeral Hospital of London during the first World War was attributed by Sir Bruoe-porter to the mental diversion af- forded by phonographs and concerts. Florence Nightingale,
God's gift to war-torn humanity during the Crimean struggle, sent out a heart-touching appeal for music in the hospitals.
Since her tine doctors of repute have been won over'in in creasingly large numbers to the treatment of nervous and mental disorders by establishing carefully arranged programs
in their hospitals. A chair of music-therapy has been
founded at Columbia University; and about ten years ago the
59. Podolsky, Dr. Edward M. opY'oit.. p. 22. 60. p. 53. 61. p . • so
national Association for Music in Hospitals was founded and has done inestimable eervios. Some time ago the Superinten
dent for the State Hospital at Middletown, Connecticut, or ganized an oroheatra in that institution which provided mu
sic for patients at meal time. He said:
"The effect of that orchestral music on the thir teen hundred patients assembled during meals in the dining-room, afflicted with every grade of mental derangement, is satisfactory to the high est degree." 62
For the treatment of the mentally deranged there are
drugs known as tonics to take care of those who may be de
pressed and must be aroused, and sedatives to sooth the over
excited. Among the music tonics which have been found of
value In mental depressions are:
March Movement; from Symphonic pathetique.., Tschaikovsky. . Egmont Overture. Beethoven. .. Pilgrim's Chorus from,Tannhauser. , Wagner. Prelude, Op. 28. No. 1 Chopin. March of the Sirdars. Ippolitiv-lvanov. The Military Marches of Sousa.
Among sedative# in music the following are in frequent
demand: ■■■ - ; . •; : - . ' ♦ i '■ ■■ . - Berceuse from Jocelyn. Oodard. . Intermezzo from Cavalleria Busticane. .. Mascagni. Ave Maria. Schubert. The Swan. Salnt-Seetts. Lullaby. Brahms. Pastoral Symphony, 2nd Movement. Beethoven. On Wings of Song. Mendelssohn. Du Bist die Ruh'. Schubert. Nocturne in G Minor, Op. 37. No. 1. Chopin
' ' " ' " "' ' ' T \ : L ' ..' ' " : ' " - 62. Podolsky, Dr. Edward M. op. oit.. p. 23. All of these musical compositions have definite effects on the circulation of the blood in the brain as well as on the circulation in other parts of the body. The lively tunes accelerate the heart action; the slow tunes retard it. Add ed to this is the emotional content of most music, intangi ble and unmeasurable, but of proven value to restore us as
65 sedatives leave no ill after-effect.
In a newspaper article, Dr. Louis Saxe, former super intendent of the Arizona State Hospital, sent out an appeal to the people of the state to give used musical instruments to the institution to be used in a "music-therapy" project.
"Music is a starting point to other normal inter ests. If we can get a patient Interested in music, other interests will be revived later and in all probability the personality that has retired with in itself again will leave its shell. W i l e there is music, the most violent patients are calm." 64
Masio has emerged as one of the most pleasant of all curative agents, and physicians throughout the world are be ginning to realize that music is of definite value in keep ing the mind and body healthy. Today, with the radio and perfected phonograph recordings we can have the benefits of music in our home at almost any time, at very little cost.
Music should become as much a daily factor in building and 65 maintaining health as proper diet and sleep.
65. Music, at a first glance, appears to be a subject which has little or no relation to the so-called stable ar ticles of our educational diet. To the layman it might ap pear that music is entirely foreign from such subjects as
the social sciences, literature, health and physical educa
tion, and arithmetic. But nevertheless, a definite connec
tion with several subjects can be detected, which can be
utilized by the entire curriculum and be made to contribute
mutually to the advantage of the child.
Integration; The trend in recent years has been to
ward the inter-meshing or the integrating of the various
subjects. Integration is the short hand word used to des
cribe the process involved in the continuous intelligent
adjusting of one's activities in terms of education. This
means planning with a unified or whole experience In mind 66 rather than by piece-mealed, subject-centered experiences.
^Because of its socializing and emotional values, which vi
tally affect life situations, music has proved to be an im
portant part of the integrated program. " "
As the methods of integration are further explored and
developed, and competent teachers employed to care for the
increased teaching problems demanded by the newer system of
education, it is safe to say that ausio will be quite indis- pensable in an effective integrated program involving the entire ewrleulw.
Sooiai soienoe: In presenting history to elementary and junior high school pupils, it is necessary to present events which stand out and. appear as real as possible.
Through the correlation of music many favorable illustra tions can be effectively presented. It is a fact that every movement in history has been accompanied by music.
In Egypt the Pyramids arose to the sGuild of music. The glories of Greece and Rome included music. During the
Dark Ages the monks in their monasteries fostered and main tained music. The great marching song, the Marseillaise, was a dominant factor in the French Revolution, in analyz ing our national history, the popular song, Yankee Doodle, will give something of the background of the Revolutionary
War; the Star Spangled Banner will clarify the spirit of the War of 1813; the Battle Hymn of the Republic will tes tify the fierceness of the Oivil War; America the Beautiful will proclaim the period of peace and prosperity which en dowed America after the Civil War; the swash-buckling per iod of the Spanish-Ameriean War was exemplified by There's a got Time in the Old Town Tonight; the W o r M War songs such as Over There, Goodbye Ma, Goodbye Pa. Goodbye Broad way. Hello France, and numerous others which kept spirit and will alive during that titanic struggle; and lately during our present orisis, the patriotic song, God Bless 54
America which so greatly describes our feeling of national patriotism. - . . * . • " ^ • y ' ; >t;
In oon|na@tlon with historical pageants, music cor relates exceptionally well.. The music department is inval uable in the research effort to find suitable music for the various periods being dramatized.
It is necessary in the study of geography, history, and political science to understand the ideals of people; the folk songs of different countries are a definite aid in this. T/hat a chance is given us here to delve into tee very heart of English and Irish life in studying tho folk songs
of England and Ireland. How different arc the songs of
Italy from those of Russia, and how significant la this dif
ference. How true a picture of primitive slave life is painted in the various negro spirituals that we all know.
The many references of music to the varying customs, dress,
mood, scenery, climate, politics, and many other conditions
of the world weld together music and the social sciences. 1-
Literature: Literature and music form one of the most
common correlations. They have common attributes such as
appeal to the ear and bring about their combination in song.
Sometimes a poem makes one feel like inventing a melody to
go with it; and frequently a musical composition impels one
to express one’s mood in words. They are so closely allied y: that it would seem merely good common sense to correlate the two as much as possible.
' : -
______practiced in reading ms i e . It is as necessary to grasp groups of notes as to grasp groups of words.
Health and Physical Education: Music and the health program of the school should be thoroughly correlated and emphasized from the earliest grades, such types of dances as Folk, Indian, and Interpretative definitely combine phy sical and rhythm training and further such general aims of physical education as the development of grace, poise, and self-confidence.
In a previous section of this chapter, the relation ship of health and music has been offered. *< ■ Arithmetic: For all general purposes music does not have much connection with arithmetic. Nevertheless, every musical exercise presents a study in mental arithmetic, with problems in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and the student who succeeds in music must neces sarily succeed in solving these problems. All music is di vided into sections or measures and each measure contains a certain number of beats or counts. Groups of notes and possibly rests must add up to the requisite number of counts required for each measure. This requirement is the basis for the relationship of music and arithmetic.
The purpose of this chapter has been to show ways in which music is being utilized in our present industrial and 58
militarily disturbed democracy in connection with character development, worthy use of leisure time, worthy home mem bership, development of good citizenship, industry, health, and the fundamental processes. There have been illustrated ways in which music supports the cardinal objectives of ed- ucation and life. ' , : L .. . , ; "
' ' ' v-T. r / l- .
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' /' - - ' - - ' .
V CHAPTER IV V" THE RELATION OF MUSIC AND EDUCATION
Development of Public School Music
Having traced the background of music from antiquity to its present position in contemporary America, we now be gin an analysis of music and its relation to education.
The purpose is to show the part music has played in the ev- elution of American education, its pr< t status, and the expectations for the future.
Music and the Church: The cradle of music education in this country was in the church. This institution direct ly and indirectly sponsored singing, though until well into the eighteenth century singing in the church was in a crude and barbarous state. How bad it was we may gather from the words of one writer, who says, , ^
* , "Of all the dismal accompaniment of public wor- ; the most confused used r.;e S e ™ »ret™ g " rltoe 111 »hl6h ■ , : f However, toward the close of the seventeenth century a desire for improvement began to be felt in — — — f :l '' Aw- 7~ir-ET 68. Earl, Alice Morse * : « p. 12. 58
The need for reading music was spiritedly agitated by re formers, though they met with considerable opposition at first. The lack of songs was partially taken care of by . the publishing of new song books which furthered the gen
eral Interest. Because of the new interest, the best sing
ers began to sit together in a group; out of this grew the
idea of a choir, and finally the choir was given formal 69 recognition and seated in a gallery.
Singing-School: Because of this condition of affairs
and the urgent need of instruction in the rudiments of mu
sic, the singing-school was organized. During the middle
of the eighteenth oontury the progressive churches felt the
need for the instruction of its members in music reading
and organized classes to oare for the situation. The idea
spread rapidly and the singing-schools, with part-time
teachers, became a popular institution throughout the col
onies. Among the most noted of the exponents of the sing- " 70 ing-school was Lowell Mason. He was interested in raising
the standard of singing-school teaching and improving the
quality of church music and of choir singing. The singing-
school can be considered as the driving force which pre
pared the way for the introduction of public school music.
Its great influence was immeasurable during the installation
of public school music, so much in fact that it can be
WCW, 69. BirgeTE.-B. 70. Ibid., p. 20. considered a vital link in the history of public school music. Introduction of Public school Music: Shortly after the beginning of the nineteenth century, a definite agita tion began for the inclusion of music in the curriculum of the public schools. Music had become strongly interwoven in community life and its value was generally accepted.
a talented few possessed a musical ear. It was the mission of Lowell Mason to break down the doctrine of the talented 71 few, and to show that its foundations were largely mythical.
Lowell Mason is recognized as the father of public school music in the United States. He had for years been teaching in the singing-schools and enjoyed an enviable reputation for his work. Also he was a recognized leader of
the music conventions which were started in 1829 by Henry
E. Moore with emphasis directed toward the pedagogical field
of music. He became interested in initiating music educa
tion, and with this in mind, he organized his "Juvenile
Choir" in Boston, which helped to explode the old idea of
"only here and there a musical ear."
in 1832 Mason organized the Boston Academy of Music,
*1." Mr g e , B. B. Q P . c i t .. » 72. Ibid., p. 39. 60
and through His leadership It became known as the national sponsor for music education. The work which was accomplish ed in this school with unselected material was so outstand ing that the Boston School Board could no longer ignore the challenge.
In 1837, Mason started the first public school music class in Boston. The first instruction was limited on a trial basis to only one school, and Mason and his co-work ers from the Boston Academy of Music, with their aims based on the Pestalozzian principles, did such a successful job that the following year, 1838, the school board put music in as a regular branch of study. The work was so success ful that the idea spread rapidly to other cities. By I860 music had been tried after a fashion in most of the larger 75 cities. ■ r . ' .
Early Experimental Period: During this early experi mental period, which culminated in 1860, many problems con
fronted the advancement of music education. Music was gen
erally thought to be for the "talented few" and not for the
masses. Consequently there was lack of the support of pub
lic opinion. During this time the idea of teaching musle
by the Pestalozzian method, of which the chief principle
was to teach sound before sign, was ridiculed in many
places. Also, the majority of tax-payers opposed the teach
ing of music because of their fear of extra expenses. This ' - - . . ■ 73. Mohavec, H. B. Normal Music Method, p. 3. 61
fear subsided when it was shown that music could be conduc ted rather economically. Ihe district school system was the prevailing type of school control throughout the coun try, and in order to install public school music, it had to secure the approval of the voters, not at the polls however, but at the bar of public opinion. This' often took consid erable time and effort. In the East a part of the puritan ical idea still prevailed which held music to be from the devil because of its joy and pleasure-giving elements.
However, after music had been established, especially in
She middle-western cities, where much more was done than in the East after the movement once was started, the East changed its attitude and developed its public school music.
1800 to 1900: In a certain sense the real beginning of public school music came after the Civil War. During the experimental period only the larger cities tried out music. As late as 1886, Gen. John Eaton, U. S. Commission er of Education, reported that less than two hundred and fifty school systems were regularly teaching music. Agi tation for public school music, nevertheless, was continued and was helped by the rapid development of the general field of music throughout the country. This included the rise of the private music teacher to a recognized profes
sion; a wide-spread choral activity distinguished by high
94. Elson, L. C. The History of American Music, p. 33. 75. Dirge, E. B. op:.bliT,.p. 62. 76. Ibid., p. 82. 62
artistic aims; the formation of symphony orchestras; and ■ - ’ ' . ; ;; ; 1 the rapid development of music in colleges, and the estate- - ' 'V -/ \ : : . ._ z,- - ^ liahment of music conservatories.
Present Day Status: Public school music has made a tremendous gain since these developmental periods. In the .sJ:' ... \ expanded elementary curriculum of 1900, vocal music had a ' . . . . 77 . - recognized place with other subjects. Today, music, in " : '-T- - = -- : - . - : r'. ' : varied forms, is required in most schools. The great char- ' - - ' • ■ ' ■ , . acteristic of the growth in the twentieth century is the
' " ...... - - t -'i. " _ ' . consideration which is given to so many forms of music edu- cation. While the one great purpose of public school music is its vocal aspect, yet now, the term public school music ' ' - - : - - / :'L: r- - - does not include singing alone; the whole field of music is included in the great term "musical appreciation", for
some groups of children this may be best had through sing- ' ' ' ■ . . . ' - - . . ; • ing; others may play instruments; others may best appreciate
through listening; and there may emerge those who write mu-
' ' ' . '' " - . .. sic. The individual needs of children are thus accounted
' ■ ' ' ■ ' - ' ■ , ' : ; _ for in the wider program.
- Phases of Public School Kusic
Contemporary public school music is concerned with
several phases in obtaining the educational objectives of
music study. The various phases or divisions, singing^
77. Smith, vf. "n. lology, p. 547. 63
contribute their own peculiar aspects and are so closely inter-related that each involves all of the others to some extent. The success of public school music depends upon the effective presentation and integration of these four phases.
Singing: Vocal music ia the prime interest of public school music. It includes all vocal expression from the first songs of the pre-school or kindergarten to the in tricate part singing of the high school. Many problems pertaining to vocal instruction.must be successfully attack- ed and solved, ouch as the selection of songs in accordance with the developing interests and powers of the children; the consideration of the permanence of the material selec- f. ted,.part of it to be temporary, part of it to be used for a feu years, and some intended to form a permanent reper toire for use throughout life; giving thought to the mater ial for use not only in the school, but in the home, the church, end the community at large; and the care and devel opment of the child voice from the light treble of the low- 78 er grades to the changing or changed voice. Practically all children are expected with such training .to be good
singers, with voices true to pitch and pleasant in quality,
Listening: Training in listening Includes purposeful
hearing of every kind of music. The training begins in the
"IH »§! ■public-school Administrators p. 16 "59 kindergarten, where objects are recognized from the sounds they produce when struck, to appreciation of the great sym phonies. The entire school course would include discrimin ation between good and poor tones in singing and playing; become familiar with some of the vocal and instrumental masterpieces; consideration of the relative values and bal ance of parts necessary for correct performance; and the integration with other school subjects and various life situations. ' - - ' - 1« -
Every child should be exposed to beautiful music and be taught to appreciate and understand the many values of fered. In oil of this listening there is as much need for selection and guidance as there is in reading and painting 79 and rules of conduct. ^ .
Instrumental Music: playing upon instruments includes all attempts to produce music other than by the voice. The wide variation of instrumental music used in the school in cludes the simple rhythmic instruments used by the small child to the standard band and orchestra instruments. Drum and bugle corps, guitar and banjo clubs, harmonica bands, toy orchestras, creative instrumental classes, and others have a definite place in instrumental music along with the highly developed bands and orchestras. Educational value is
obtained by giving the individual some means of wholesome :
W . iJykema, Peter W. op. clt.. p. 16. Instrumental expression. ? ^"r- ^ ■ •
m e most rapid development in public school music since the turn of the century has been in instrumental mu sic. Very little -was done in this field prior to 1900. To day, practically every city school and many rural schools have some type of instrumental unit.
Technical Study: The technical study of music includes all attempts to obtain command of the theory and practice of musio, The study begins with the little child choosing be
tween high and low and soft and loud tones, and ranges through the problems of reading and writing music, record
ing original music, and terminates with the gifted student
who can read difficult compositions at sight with voice or
Instrument, or write in exact detail tonal patterns, either original or otherwise.
If the three other types of music arc properly used,
the need for and desirability of technical study will be
come apparent to the child and be welcomed. The study must
therefore be introduced after the child sees a need for it.
Technical study should not be emphasised until the third
grade and by the end of the sixth grade, the child should
have obtained a considerable command of rending and writing
music so that thereafter his gain in skills will come from
using his technical equipment in acquiring greater facility in singing, listening, and playing.
fit). Dykema, Peter W. op. olt. . a. 19. 66
If the pupil has had contact with music instruction
. that includes singing, appreciation of good music, actual technical study of music, and playing of musical instru ments, there is little doubt but that some of this know ledge will be retained and become a valuable addition to his cultural background.
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' -'5
t .- ' vlv v • CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS Aim RECOICJEUDATIONS ’ * s 1 - ,
In the preceding pages the general background of music has been presented in relation to mankind from the past to the present with emphasis on music and life situations in present-day America. Also included was the history of pub- ' . ■ ■ ...... lie school music and the present status of music in Ameri- \ ' ' ' : oen education. if ! A vast amount of inf tion is available this gen-
eral subject of the place of in education, yet only
the most pertinent data were used. It is understandable . : . ■ ' . • v ■ .. - ; ■ ' . ■„ - c- •. ■ :> t- : that much could be written to amplify all the various phases . - r1 , . considered in this paper and an intensive study would be
proper for many of these phases. It was, however, the in-
tention to present a well-rounded argument in support of
public school music and to show the various benefits which
music offers to a child in his present type of life and to
indicate to what extent music would affect and improve his - . . . - ' . ' .' - , :. ... . ■ . - ■ ;!■; adult life.
/dms and Objectives .
- . " ■ : ; . Necessity for planning:; It >'»» '
fact in educational theory that before one can plan satis- 68
factorUy for either a single lesson, course, or curriculum,
it is necessary to formulate aims and objectives. A defin
ite goal must be set up which can be reached only by care ful planning. No lesson can be called successful unless it
is an integral part of a
line for the general improvement of the child's welfare
ing taught in the elementary and junior high schools have
been thoroughly analysed, and definite aims, objectives,
and methods set up. Generally these aims and objectives have not been disregarded end have lent much to the stand-
ardization of the general subject matter taught in this
\ ''it country. '-if ' j;"'1 • : . - ^ _ if, The average does
ure up to the
, •' • 1 ■ of the activity in music shows little evidence of having a
definite aim. General musical activity is good, and must
not be sneered at; but pointed, directed, purposeful musi
cal activity is a great deal better. 1 The teachers and
. ' ■ ' - supervisors of music have been slow to recognize the place
of educational principles, educational alms, and scientific
..thoas, ana hence have been aerelict in their application^
Necessity for Cataloguing: Before music education can
" ' - . .. - '
______-______■ ? - ■ - - 81. Geiirkens, K. W. Music in the Junior High School, p. 10. 82. Course of Study for Elementary schools of Arizona, Bul- letin Noi 2s Music, 1933, p. 0. ’ V v: n . .. 69 5 'S
nized courses and become a vital link In the general educa-
: ' - ' ■■ ■ '■ and objectives and crystallize them into a definite program for general use. Only by realizing their importance and weighing the results of their use can a dependable, pro-
' Dr. David Snedden, probably the world's most versatile educational sociologist, has the following to say concern--
' ■ . r ing music education:
'' . ■ ' . • "A musical education for all children— that is the ambition of many enthusiasts, for several decades steadily increasing attention has been given to the promotion of music in American pub lic schools. But the objectives of this have not been well defined, and results have been far from satisfactory, until more clear-cut purposes shall have been agreed upon, a large part of the money and energy expended on musical training in schools will almost inevitably be wasted." 83
Presentation of Alma: Many aims and objectives relat-
■ ’ : ■ ■ - ing to music have been offered in various courses of study, ' - educational books, and pamphlets. The following general
and specific aims have been selected because of their thor-
oughaess and well-rounded adaptability in formulating a
basis for a practical and worthwhile philosophy of music edu
cation. ' : : : . : - ' ■ " General Aim: The general or humanistic of music instruction is to contribute to the aoter of the individual and society and to give
83. SneMen, iooToI'ogy. pp. 70
vation end purification of feeling and the psy chic health dependent upon abundant but orderly expression of emotion that coses from apprecia tive contact with and the endeavor to create and recreate the beautiful in music. 84 Specific Alma:
1. *
a. To develop a love for and appreciation of the best in music.
+ / c. To ability to play musical instruments d. To develop ability e. To give pleasure f. To stimulate id# g. ToE cultivateE S K artistic H r Interpretation. H E k. To cultivate discriminative judgment ile. l. To esthetloize life through music. 8. Practical, as to music.
a. W
5: % 8 5 3 8
8: T=ea=vlieop aMl6l?ynfo react to ne. music at
h. To develop ability to know by sight what they
S- • praetleal- a. To to participate in group mu- ' : 71
=: to j s s i s - ' i s d. To provide music for special occasions.
f! To m ^ e epossibleSbetterrmusic in homes.
h! To devolopbatbetterCsocialfspirit. i. To develop a discriminative choice of good music for t he radio and phonograph. 4. Cultural. ',o .v ' '■ i , /«>:• , '
a. To develop the singing and speaking voioe. b. To acquaint trith a wide range of musical mater- ■ ials.- . . ' c. To build a large repertoire of beautiful songs. d. To acquaint with music masters and masterpieces. e. To provide foundation for future study. f. To inspire talented pupils to continue their study in music. ■ . '• , 5. Avocational.
' " . ' . ' a. To train to spend well one’s leisure time or to train the mass of children to be consumers of the best music. 6. Differential. / ■ ■ ■■ a. To differentiate in course of study materials and in methods of teaching in order to adapt in the instruction to the degree of musical talent, as revealed by prognosis tests, and to musical accomplishment, as revealed by achievement tests. b. To minister to talented children. o. To encourage creative ability. d. To provide properly for the changing voice. e. To provide in other ways for individual differ ences.
: ” :
- r: ^6*:%t. * a,': „ r
o. life. a.
f. Wholesome attitudes. g. Physical improvement. h. spirit of cooperation. i. Better citizenship. j. Better life. k. l.
A Program f«r Mueic Eiucation
The field of public school muelo ha. been rather elu sive and ill-defined. Most courses of study vary consider ably, both in what should be stressed in music, and when it should be introduced. The trend toward a general unifica tion of ideas and practices, which would be invaluable to all concerned, is the trend of today. Recently the music educators of the country presented the following outline of a program for music education:
85. McCauley, C. J1. op. oil., p. 252. 72
* Provision for inaividtel differenoes.
4 Correlation and Integration.
5. Evidences of growth and attainment.
; ' ; ' • ' ‘ ■ - , • 6. Problems of administration. ; v - -
Intermediate Grades IV, 7, VI. 1. Areas of Instruction.
a. Listening.. 1) Enjoyment. 2) Learning by rote. 3} Specific ear-training. 4) Concert preparation. b. Singing. 1) Voice training. 2) Son| study.
4) Assembly singing, o. Motion to music. 1) Eurythales. 2.) Dancing. 3) Dramatization. d. Playing an instrument 1} Instrumental classes. 2) Ensembles. 3) ■ Orchestras. ■ . • a . n--». e. Creative activity.
1) Composition f. Music Reading.
2. The radio in music education.
• . ■ ...... ■ ■ ■ x ' -XX 3. Provision for individual differences. - - • . ' ' - x V X- - - x 4. Correlation and integration.
5. Evidences of growth and attainment.
6. Problems of administration.
a. Organization of schedules. b. Text books, supplies, and equipment.
- - ; 1 . :
' ■.'■■■ - - ■ ‘
" • ' 1T 73
Introductory statementj
,. ; . ■ • •: ■ . •. .. • a. Junior High School characteristics. 1) Age for acquiring skills. 8} Desire of the individual for successful ex perience,
4) Emotional and romantic tendencies. b. o. Developing self-direction of pupils,
1. Areas of instruction.
a. General course in music, (required) b. Vocal music. 1) Choral 2) Ensembles. 3) Class e. Instrumental music. • 1) Orchestra. ' • - ■ . * 2) Band. 3) Ensemble. V 4) Class instrumental instruction. d. Listening course in the 3 e. Uheoretioal studies in music. 8. Provision for individual differences. a. Discovery, exploration, and guidance. b. Various types and levels of music courses. c. Individual adjustments within the class unit.
.. - ' . . '. .. ' . . 3.
a. Understanding nations and people through b. Vitalizing other school activities. , / I 4. r-y ' . ' "
# b. The group.
" . : ;
a. Assembly music programs. 1) Singing by entire student body. 2) Appearance of school musical organizations.
b. R.oital^an^concerts^by .tudent 74
o. Educational concerts.
. 6. Radio, sound pictures, and visual aids. a. Modern Inventions In the sohool-i b. Utilizing outside sources. . ' - . . i 7. The use of the library by music
8. Credits for outside
■- - ' 9. Problems of administration. ' ,:V- ’ ’ a. Organization, guidance, schedules, and credits. b. Textbooks, supplies, housing, and equipment. 8i
... ■ . ~ v- 1>; .3. *
Public school music is segregated into many activities
.. .. * i o h children me, learn in publie sehoola. In eonjunetlon with the previous outline of a program for music, the fol- .... . - -. - . - ■ lowing list of activities, though not entirely exhaustive, is presented: .
1. Singing activities.
' ^ . Singing opening tone of song, (all) Listening to teacher sing. Singing a phrase or line like teacher. Singinglist song like teacher.
lightly. Individ , singing. » singing, " Rote singing. -U'iC. keyr, taelr
./?: /or#*
. 86. MU8io~l 75
llSIiSi isnop ^ ° n -
■SSSSI S & S baritone. Singing tone drills. Memorizing a song (whole method) Singing major scale ascending, (syllables) Singing major scale descending. (syllables) Recognizing each of designated tone groups. Singing the syllables of a phrase. Singing the syllables of a line. Singing the syllables of a whole song. Singing^"do” in different keys, (thirteen activi- inereasing loudness of voice. Decreasing loudness of voice. Phrasing correctly. Singing rounds. Singing songs.
ass asrasK^.
KSSS Singing oral groups ofHones dictated?8 *
Sight-reading a phrase. Sight-reading a line.
putting one’s self in the mood of the song. SoloEiiES-L. singing in public programs. -
m :.A Cl I f i i r - • idling ho“ tonm d ‘the keys and their % s: ss1:? w. correctly. 76
Singing lightly. ■U antiphons
2. Writing and drawing activities.
s ; o cier? r ^ i r es
■ a flat on staff. Pla g one flat and designating kef. two flats and designating key.
Placing four^lot^an^designatlng5koy^*
riaclne ::: :::: n v . six sharps and designating key. ting key when there are no sharps or flats. Lting the 2/4 time signature. SIB E i E EE ; Writing the 5/8 time signature. Writing the 6/8 time signature. Writing the 9/8 time signature. Writing the 12/8 time signature. Drawing the single bars. Drawing the double bar. Drawing the repeat bar. Writing major scale notes ascending on each separate key. (seven activitiesJ Writing major scale notes descending on each sepa- (seven activities)
m t i ^ « r a « u v 1iiictrendine on eaoh 8epcrate key' Writing minor scales descending on eaoh separate key. (seven activities) Writing chromatic scales, (fourteen activities) Writing dictated tones (sung), designated combina tions. notes. note, s s s s : , : ; note. 77
Making quarter note. Making eighth note. Making sixteenth note. Making 5/2 note. Making 3/4 note. Making 3/8 note. Making 3/16 note. Writing two notes on one stem. Placing an accidental, (sharp) Placing an accidental, (flat) Placing an accidental, (natural or cancel) Drawing a brace. Drawing a tie. Drawing a slur. Drawing a "hold". Making end placing repeat sign D. C. Making and placing repeat sign D. 3. Making and placing time. Writing the pitch letters on staff, straight ahead. Writing the pitch letters on staff when dictated out of order. Using stem and flag or flags correctly when required. Indicating tho degrees on staff by numbering them. Making copy of a song. Drawing a sharp.
Writing tonic chord in every key. (thirteen aotivi-
Writing each rest, (six activities) Writing each with dot. (six activities) Drawing stem right way. Drawing flag right way. Drawing rests (six activities) Writing all major keys with names (thirteen activl-
irteen 78
Writing "staccato” on staff. ; Writing "riton staff. : " Writing ”accel.” on staff. - to indicate effect de sired or instructed...... - 3. warning, telling, or recognizing activities.
Naming the number of lines of staff. Naming the lines of the staff. Naming the number of spaces on staff. Naming the spaces on the staff. Knowing how song should be sung, (as soft, loud, slow, fast) Tolling each note value, (six.activities) Telling value of each dotted note.(five activities) Telling value of each rest, (six activities) Telling value of each dotted rest, (five activities) Telling which way stems of notes are turned. Telling which way flags are turned. Telling the major key signatures, (fifteen activi- r ties) ; Naming the natural minor key signatures, (fifteen activities) Giving names of chromatics. (ten activities) Telling tempos of songs.(each tempo one activity) Showing sign used for repeating measure. Recognizing tone groups, (each group one.activity) Finding highest note in a song. Finding lowest note in a song. Naming the accidentals, (five activities) Giving pitch names. (seven activities) Noting change of key in a song, getting right key in both cases, (two activities) Recognizing the leger lines, (each one activity) Memorizing a song. Recognizing accidentals in a song* Recognizing the octave. Recognizing or explaining musical terms or other features. Placing "do” in major key C. !} Placing "do" in major key G, 1 sharp. Placing "do" in major key D, 2 sharps. Placing "do" in major key A, 3 sharps. Placing "do" in major key E, 4 sharps. Placing "do" in major Key B, 5 sharps. Placing "do" in major key F sharp, 6 sharps. Placing "do" in major key C sharp, 7 sharps. Placing "do" in major key t, 1 flat. Placing "do" in major key B flat, 2 flats. Placing "do" in major key E flat, 3 flats. Plading "do" in major key A flat, 4 flats. 79
Placing "do" in major key D flat, 5 flats. Placing "do" in major key G flat, 6 flats. Placing "do" in major key C flat, 7 flats. Placing "la" in key of A minor. Placing "la" in key of E minor. Placing "la" in key of B minor.' Placing "la" in key of F sharp, minor. Placing "la” in key of c sharp, minor. Placing "la" in key of G sharp, minor. Placing "la" in key of D sharp, minor. Placing "la" in key of A sharp, minor. Placing "la" in key of D minor. Placing "la" In key of G minor. Placing "la" in key of C minor. Placing "la" in key of F minor. Placing "la" in key of B flat, minor. Placing "la" in key of E flat, minor. Placing "la" in key of a flat, minor. Knowing the meaning of a cadence. Knowing the term harmony. Knowing the term ensemble. Knowing the difference in band and orchestra upon
*
Knowing the meaning of neutral syllables. Knowing the meaning of musical eeore. Knowing the meaning of scansion. Knowing the meaning of refrain. Knowing the meaning of melody. Knowing the various choirs of orchestra when
Recognizing titles of composition, {each one eetlv i*; ty) Recognizing characteristic rhythms. (each onei acti-
Recognizing a folk song, when heard. Recognizing an art song, when heard. Recognizing a ballad, when heard. Recognizing a reoitive, when heard. Recognizing an aria, when heard.
Recognizing a Recognizing a glee, when heard.
Recognizing an anthem, when heard. Recognizing a cantata, when heard. Recognizing an oratorio, when heard. Recognizing an oratorio, when heard. Recognizing a nocturne, when heard. Recognizing an etude, when heard. Recognizing a lullaby, when heard. Recognizing an impromptu, when hear#. Recognizing a barcarolle, when heard. Recognizing a rhapsody, when heard. . Recognizing the waltz, when heard. Recognizing the polka, when heard. Recognizing the minuetV when heard. Recognizing the polonaise, when heard. Recognizing the mazurka, when heard. Recognizing the gavotte, when heard. Recognizing an overture, when heard. Recognizing a prelude, when heard. Recognizing ah intermezzo, when heard. Recognizing a fuge, when heard. Recognizing a sonata, when heard. Recognizing a symphony, when heard. Recognizing a suite, when heard. Recognizing a hymn, when heard. Recognizing a serenade, when heard. Recognizing forte (f). Recognizing Da Capo (D. C.). Recognizing Dal Segno (D. S.). Recognizing degree of loudness, (each one activity) Recognizing rate of speed, (each one activity) Recognizing 2/4 time.. Recognizing 8/2 time. Recognizing 3/2 time. Recognizing 3/4 time. Recognizing 3/8 time. Recognizing 4/4 time. Recognizing 4/8 time. Recognizing 6/8 time. Recognizing 9/8 time. Recognizing 12/8 time. Recognizing the slur. Recognizing the tie. Recognizing the oreso. Recognizing the decresc. Recognizing the allegro. Recognizing the dim. Recognizing the lento. Recognizing the staccato! Recognizing legato. Recognizing the mezzo forte. Recognizing the forte. Recognizing the fortissimo. Recognizing piano. , Recognizing pianissimo.
# Recognizing simplies. Recognizing maestoso. Recognizing a capella. Recognizing vivace. Recognizing con moto. Recognizing moderate. Recognizing molto. Recognizing spirito. Recognizing poco.
4. Defining and explaining activities.
Defining a capella. Defining vivace. Defining con moto. Defining moderate. Defining molto. Defining spirito. Defining poco. Defining slur. Defining eresc. Defining decresc. Defining allegro. Defining dim. Defining lento. Defining legato. Defining staccato. Defining interval. Explaining canon. Explaining a degree. Explaining the tie. Explaining the baton. Defining andante. Defining mezzo forte. Defining fortissimo. Defining piano. Defining pianissimo. Defining forte. Defining animate.
Explaining time groups, (ten activities) Explaining leger above and below the staff.
sSiSpo?sS..r: Explaingin meaning of harmony. Explaining an opera. 82
Explaining a noc tu m e . Explaining an etude. Explaining a baracarolle. Explaining the lullaby. Explaining an impromptu. asKaj-ssr*-
Explaining the mazurka. Explaining the gavotte. Explaining an overture. Explaining a prelude. Explaining an Intermezzo. Explaining a fugue. Explaining a sonato.
Sana-: sxs: Explaining a suite. Explaining a hymn.. Explaining a serenade. Explaining Da Capo. (D. C.)
Explaining meaning of symphony. Explaining meaning of rote.
Explaining meaning of must cal score. Explaining meaning of scansion. Explaining meaning of refrain.
gfflss s g j rtSjr1- ■ ■ Explaining a recitative. II < - Explaining all rests, (six activities) Explaining the accidentals, (five activities) V v;.:- . ' 6. Appreoiatory activities.
Listening to music. Expressing preference for certain types of music. Expressing like or dislike for music. Recognizing the various qualities of voices - so prano, contralto, tenor, bass, baritone. Quiet listening - for instruments. : p : - ^y for tone quality. for rhythm. ? - ; :: •« , ■ Recognizing the selection. Naming the mood. « Naming any characteristic of a piece heard. Recognizing any nationalistic feature of music heard. ' ' ' . " '-f'' " ' . T'':# 0a). ...r'-,.: v-._ - ; / , . 6. Rhythmical activities.
Performing in toy orchestra. Stepping high as horses. Marching. ''Tapping. '' : Skating. Tapping each time, (nine activities) Counting each kind of time, (nine activities) Clapping hands to each time signature, (six activi ties) Clapping hands to degrees of loud-soft, (two acti
vity) Marking^time with feet. (each time a separate acti- Copying a scale on board rhythmically. Making staff on board rhytliically. Making G clef rhythmically. Making quarter notes to rhythm. Performing the diriaed beat. _ ^ Executing time groups, (each a separate activity) Executing notes according to their indicated value. (each a separate activity) Executing rest value indicated, (each rest a sepa rate activity) Recognizing music from notation. t writing scale numbers to given notes. Plaelng bar. In proper places as Indioated by meter signatures. Skipping. Galloping.
Jumping. ' .
• - Stepping, Folk Daleroze Eurhythmioe. t.
Hew Concept: In recent years education has taken cog nizance of the individual needs of each child. Formerly education was based on a mythical creature referred to as the "average child". The children were classified as su perior, average, and dull, and no real effort was made to investigate the status of each individual. The newer edu cation considers that each child is an individual; like other children in some respects, but different from them in
******* ***** ********* ** AfA&JgWLWmLL different
# In order to administer the most benefit, the t t know the needs, tastes, and capacities of each individual
. ■ ' : :: .... , ■ . child. ' • y . ^ ; . : - ' ; , ;• , r ■ v Wide Variation: Of all the various subjects, the children in music classes demonstrate the widest variation • - - : v y ... ] .. ' ■ • .. " „ ' of individual differeinces. Some children, through various conditions; have exceptional music ability; others are not : v • y .. , > - e -
: ■ ' ' ■ - ' ' ______6%. Mcdauley. 0. J. op. cit.,.i?p. 61-65. 88. Qierkins, K. W. SusTcITnm the Grade Schools, p. 801. 85
quite so fortunate; still others, though they have natural ability, do not care for music. These and many other fac- tore of individual differences create problems which the music teacher must solve in order to develop a love and un- derstanding of music by all the children. ' - - ■ , . ■ ■ . ■' . ■ ; - ■ ' . - V " - Testing ' ' ■ . . : ; . ■ ■ - - V - ; ; ; ■ ■“ . ■ Need for Testing: The need for testing pupils in mu sic classes for both aptitude and achievement is considered highly desirable today. The necessity of testing is as 1m- portant in music as in other subjects. It is necessary to classify the pupils as to their ability In order properly to dispense musical Information which the pupils are equip ped to digest.
Advantages of Testing: If the pupils have been meas ured correctly, the following advantages can accrue:
• - • . 1. Tests may give us considerable help in decid ing as to the innate musical ability of the in dividual pupil, or at least they may help us to decide upon the extent to which he posesses certain abilities, such as a keen sense of rel ative pitch, a developed feeling for tonality, and so forth, that seem important constituents in musical ability.
2. Tests may help us to foretell the probable mu sical development of a child better than we could without them.
3. Tests may help us to select from a large group of pupils those who are very musical, and those who are relatively unmusical, a test may do this in far less time than would be possible in any other way. No doubt an exper ienced teacher, after perhaps a semester’s 86
•oataot with such a group, will have formed a pretty reliable judgment. But a good test may
time.' -■ ; ■_ ■ - - : . ri i::; ^
4. Tests often discover ability. Frequently the most experienced teacher will fail to recog nize the presence of outstanding ability in some shy or stubborn child. If we can dis cover this by a good test, it may be the basis of helping the child to a better orientation to school end to life by capitalizing the abil ity he is shown to possess.
5. Tests may help us to diagnose the secret of certain weaknesses or defects which appear in the child's musical development. For instance, we may have a child in a violin class who seems incapable of playing a tune. If by a test we show that his sense of relative pitch is de fective, we make one sort of decision. If on the other hand our tdst shows that his sense of pitch is excellent, we make quite a different decision. In the first case we transfer him to a piano class. In the second, we look for the Bouroo or trouble in M s mechanic*. 6. Tests may help us to evaluate certain methods of teaching, by giving us an exact account of the results these methods achieve, which we can somewhat confidently compare with the re- . suits of other methods.
7. Certain kinds of tests may be used for motiva tion. This is possible with the tests of a- ohievement, but never with tests of innate ability. For instance, we m l # t give pupils a sequence of sight-singing tests which would show them their own progress in an interesting - " way.. .89 . : .' ' .
pil to develop to the fullest extent the powers for music within himself. : , . 4 ..
•StiTTS . .... ______of Musio* 87
Equalization of Opportunity
Leadership of the flltlas: In the past the practice has been for cities and large urban centers to assume the edu cational leadership and thus benefit accordingly with su perior teachers, supervision, extra subject matter, modern plants, extra equipment, and better conditions in all res pects compared with the rural schools end especially those located in isolated areas.
In regard to this, we have seen in our history of mu- sic education the lead played by the large cities in the fight to initiate public school music. The effort by these cities in the pioneering of public school music had much to do with its later success. ' - ■' . : ' ' ' : I- 1 'i - , ■ ■ :*■- - Retardation of the Rural Schools: Many years passed before the rural schools instituted regular music instruo-
Even today in the average rural area, music instruction is not comparable with that offered by a majority of the cit ies. The opportunity for the rural child to participate in the many diversified musical organizations, such as city schools sponsor, has been quite negligible.
sore for most rural schools, three counties have rural in- ■ ■ ' - ■ ' " strumental supervisors with a wall-organized program in progress, ■ . and ere »■ 1
1 Gaily to enjoy the benefit of mass performance. The con curring social benefit for tho children is well worth the effort and expense expended. It is hoped that this prao-
instrumental music.
Music Festival One of the outstanding events now being conducted all over the country is the school music festival. It consists of a series of concerts by bands, orchestras, glee clubs, ensembles, soloists, and usually a finale with several hun dred combining in a great display of voices and instruments.
Value of the Festival: The value of the music festival
lies in bringing to the children in school and to the citi
zens of the community a vision of music as a large and im
portant activity. In other words, it la designed to make a community music-conscious.
Hew Interpretation: An improved character interpreta
tion for the music festival has been recently adopted with
the elimination of the "winner group". Now, in most places,
awards are given according to the ability of the contestants
with several possibly being awarded the same rating. With
the competitive attitude eliminated, a much better spirit of
comradeship has been noted. ■ 1 ' - Summary . ,■ r: ■3
1 Curtailment of Public sohool l!uslc: In the analysis and presentation of data in favor of a formidable place for music In our present-day curricula of the elementary and
junior high school grades, it would eeerc that music should
he utilized to the fullest degree possible in all schools.
This has not, however, been the practice in all places.
There has been a tendency on the part of some school author
ities to limit the use of music in schools, mainly through
their lack of understanding the many values that music of
fers* This was especially noticeable during the depression,
when financial difficulties furthered the curtailment of
music. In many places the full program of music has not
been restored since conditions have improved. Also in some rural areas the interest and the ability to offer much in
music is a definite drawback in developing a stable music
program throughout the nation.
Those school authorities, who permit music to be cur
tailed, have many reasons to offer for their action. Brief
ly their chief arguments are: music is too expensive because
of extra teachers and equipment required; it takes too much
time from the fundamentals; one of the fads and frills; let
those interested in music get their training from private
teachdrs; majority of American people prefer jazz and hill billy music which:are easy to understand and therefore do
not require school time for studying; use too much room, 1-I3S9S especially under a diversified program of music; the masses la the past enjoyed their music without special training; too noisy and interferes with the regular program.
Space will not be taken to refute directly any of the above charges, except to state that the majority of schools, if at all possible, are offering a fairly adequate program of music with the standards of music education improving each year. The previous statements concerning the advan tages of music to the school and the community should be
sufficient to check efficiently any counter proposals against music education.
Recent Trend: The trend to enlarge the scope of pub
lic school music has been an outstanding factor in Amer
ican education during the past twenty-five years. This ex
pansion was the answer to the demand for a more diversified
program of music with the confident hope iof exposing the
child to the form of music which might be appealing and thus develop his interest and appreciation of the art.
The Place of Music in Education: Education must con
tinually bring pupils into life situations as they are now,
and must try to equip the pupils with such habits, know
ledges, skills, ana ideals as will help them live a happy,
socially satisfying life. In so far as fcny subject meets
these demands, its value and place in the public schools are
' • ■- - warranted, when the criteria of modern education are ap
plied to music, it measures up in a marked way as an effect- t l
Ive socializing force in all the worthwhile institutions 90 of a democracy..
Every school subject is valued in proportion to its contribution to desirable ends* Because of the powerful influence of music upon our subjective lives, because of its stimulating effect upon our physical, mental, and spir itual natures, because of its well-nigh universality of ap peal, and because of its integrating power in the school,
It contributes directly to the purposes of edu- 91 : r - cation. • . .
- every child, and every child for music, * is well worth the consideration of all. ' ^ ""'-i: -; .
■■ ■ ' , ■ : ^ \
^ :\:T am - .. \ . . -t'-T ..a ^ ,, . : ' . . A,
.t f r-
% : *:
It p - 1. Baltzell, W. J. story o: _4 - idore Presser Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1905. 2. Bauer, hi. and Peyser, B. How Music Grew. G. P. Putnam and Sons, New York, 1925.
3. Birge, E. B. History of Public Music, Oliver Ditson Co,, on, 1928. 4. Do Rochemont, Ruth relation of i le Macmillan , New York, 1929. - 5. Douglas, Aubrey A. Modern Secondary Ed - Houghton Mifflin ton, 1938. 6. Dykema, Peter W. Music for Public School Administration. Teachers College, Columbia University, New fork, 1931. 7. Earle, Alice Morse The Sabbath in Scribners, New
8. Ellwood, Charles A. Sociology and Modern social Pr American Book Co., New York, 19
9. Elson, L. C. The Hist The Macmillan Co., New York, 1907
10. Erskine, A Musical Companion. Alfred A. Knopf,Publisher, Now York, 1935.
11. Finney, T. M. A History of Music. Hareourt, Brace and Co., New York, 1935. 93
12. Gherkins, K. W.
1934,
13- — o. C.
' , Ke, York, 1939. 15. Groves . The li'acmi 16. Guhl, E. K. Life of t l).' Applet... 17. Htmllton, C. a. Outlines of Music : OH? ton, 1908% 18. McCauley, 0. J". ilic School Music.
19. Mursell, James _ Values '
20. Mursell, James
New York, 1931. 21. Nohavoc, H. B.
22. Perham, Beatrice
a . : J77 Chicago. 1937. ' ' 23. Pitts, L. B. Music ition in the Junior Hieh school. or c. Son, li
24. Podolsky, Dr. Edward M. Co., Wew York, 1939, 25. Sam. in sky, Lazar e Muaio of Our Day. Thomas V. Crowell Co.^ Hew York, 193?.
26. Seashore, Carl E. * Psychology of Music. McGraw-HillBook Co., New York, 1938.
27. SmithV W. R. Principles of Educational Sociology. HdngWon Mifflin Co., Boston, 1930.
28. Snedden, David Educational Sociology. Century Co., New York, 1929.
29. Spaeth, Sigmund
McGr^-Hiir^oo'^Co. TUIeW* York, 1933. 30. Surette, Thomas Whitney Music and Life. Houghton Mifflin and Co., Boston, 1917.
B. Periodicals 31. Dykema, P. W. "Evaluating Music". Teacher CollegeRecord; 29:181-93, (December, 1927.> . • 32. Ferguson, C. W. "Music is My Hobby." Readers' Digest; 28:105-08, (February, 1936.)
33. Fluecklger, Samuel L, "Some Trends in Music Education.* Music Educators Journal; 25:18-19. (March, 1939.) 34. Harrington, A. H. "Music as a Therapeutic Aid in a Hospital for Mental Diseases." Mental Hygiene; 23:601-19, (October, 1937.) 35. Kane, Hat. D. "Piano Is My Hobby." Musician; 38:2, (December, 1933.) 36. Podolsky, Dr. Edward M. "How Music Affects the Human Body." The Musician: 43:124, (June, 1938.) *#
37. Stoll, Barbara "Awakening for Music". The Musician; 36:21, (October, 1931.)
38. Van Loon, Hendrick Willem
39. Zanzig, A. D. "Ways to Musical Good Fortune." Recreation; 29:283-88, (June, 1935.)
C. Year Books 40. Maddy, Joseph 2. Music Educators Year Book; 27:56, 1936.
41. Report of the Music Committee in the Fourth Year Book, Department of Superintendence, 1926. ■ ' : ■ ' r . ' 42. Shuck, Lenel Music Educators Year. Book: 29:368, 1938.
43. Course of Study ools of Arizona.
a 44. Course Yi y ^ h Virginia ' sj £ 9 7 9 / / f V /
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