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Biomechanical Assessment of Sports Bra Performance

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Biomechanical Assessment of Sports Bra Performance Biomechanical Assessment of Sports Bra Performance A doctoral thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University By Laura Whittingham September 2016 © Laura Whittingham Summary Biomechanical testing has been the cornerstone of sports bra research to date and the quantification of breast kinematics during exercise has received increasing interest. However, comparatively little research has been published regarding the development of biomechanical testing methodology and how this testing may inform the development of sports bra design. Thus, the overall research aim was the ‘Development and application of methods used in the biomechanical assessment of sports bra performance with the end goal of better biomechanical tools for use in the sports bra design process’. Breast kinematics are typically measured relative to the torso, therefore, it is necessary to track both torso and breast motion. The absence of a universally accepted torso tracking model, and information regarding the sensitivity of breast kinematics to the selected torso model were identified as limitations to the existing research. The seven marker torso tracking model presented is the first to be specifically developed for analysing relative breast motion during activities such as treadmill running and is recommended to be implemented in future sports bra research. The torso segment used to calculate relative breast kinematics is assumed to be rigid, however, breast movement resulting from respiration has been reported for a static condition. The effect of breathing on breast kinematics during treadmill running was investigated. Significant differences were observed in the breast kinematics between breathing and non-breathing conditions, notably in the superior-inferior direction; however, they could not definitively be directly linked to breathing since significant differences in running gait were also observed. The results do suggest that increasing the number of gait cycles analysed may reduce any effects of breathing on breast kinematics due to phase-locking, the synchronisation of breathing with running locomotion. Analysing breast kinematics over 30 gait cycles may help minimise any potential effects of phase-locking across all commonly used phase-locking ratios. Further understanding of breast motion and whether markers placed on the bra represent the underlying breast were identified as pertinent to advancing biomechanical assessment of sports bra performance. Motion between the breast and bra (either during ii an initial bedding in phase or steady state running) has yet to be explored within the existing literature and is assumed to be negligible for a correctly fitted bra. A settling in period of ~30 seconds between the breast and bra was found to occur during the initial phase of treadmill running. Whilst the study is recognised to be exploratory in nature, the findings suggest future breast kinematic study should consider the possibility of a settling in effect. Therefore, experimental protocols may benefit from including a short period of activity after the subject has changed into the bra to help eliminate any settling in effect prior to data capture or application of over bra markers. The results also suggest that motion occurs between the breast and bra irrespective of bra size and that over bra markers underestimate superior-inferior (S-I) breast displacement and anterior-posterior (A-P) displacement at the upper breast. Markers positioned over the bra were found to be less sensitive to variation in A-P and S-I displacement in different regions of the breast. However, use of under bra markers is limited by current motion capture technology and until advances in technology are made the use of over bra markers remains current best practice. Future studies are recommended to state whether breast markers were located over or under the bra and recognise that over bra markers represent bra motion. Bra strap stiffness was identified as a potentially important factor in sports bra performance. The effect was investigated using a modified bra with removable strap sections of three differing stiffness. Bra strap mechanical properties were characterised using a specifically developed tensile testing protocol. Sports bra performance during treadmill running was assessed using biomechanical and perceptual measures. Increasing bra strap stiffness was found to improve sports bra performance with respect to bra kinematics (primarily in the superior-interior direction) and subjective perception ratings (in particular the perception of support), suggesting strap stiffness may have an important role to play in bra design. iii Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Steph Forrester and Prof. Mike Caine for their advice and guidance during my PhD studies. I would particularly like to acknowledge Steph for her support, understanding and patience. To Karen Watts for her kind and sensible advice, even if I didn’t always listen! Thanks also to Progressive Sports Technologies for their support throughout my research. To the Sports Technology crew, for their technical advice, discussion, humour and tea breaks. Your company has made this process much more enjoyable experience. Finally, to Ross, my family and friends thank you for your continued support and encouragement. iv Publications FORRESTER, S., AND WHITTINGHAM, L., 2015, Effect of bra strap stiffness on breast kinematics and perceived bra performance during treadmill running, Proceedings of the XXV Congress of the International Society of Biomechanics, 12-16 July 2015 Glasgow. WHITTINGHAM, L., ROBERTS, B., WEIR, R., CAINE, M.P. AND FORRESTER S.E., 2012, Determination of a Suitable Torso Marker Set to Measure Breast Kinematics during Running, Proceedings of the Biomechanics Interest Group of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, 4 April 2012 University of Ulster, Belfast. WHITTINGHAM, L., ROBERTS, B., WEIR, R., CAINE, M.P. AND FORRESTER S.E., 2011, Effect of torso marker set on breast kinematics during running, Proceedings of the Biomechanics Interest Group of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, 20 April 2011 University of Chichester. WHITTINGHAM, L., CAINE, M.P. AND FORRESTER S.E., Does breathing affect breast kinematic measurements during treadmill running? In Preparation. WHITTINGHAM, L., CAINE, M.P. AND FORRESTER S.E., Development of a torso tracking model to measure relative breast kinematics. In Preparation. v Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Research Motivation 3 1.1.2 Sports Bra Design - A complex problem 3 1.1.3 Overview of Current Sports Bra Research 3 1.2 Research Aim 5 1.3 Research Design 6 1.4 Research Questions 8 1.5 Overview of Chapters 10 Chapter 2 - Literature Review 14 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Breast 16 2.2.1 Structure and Physical Properties 16 2.2.2 Mastalgia 21 2.2.3 Summary of Breast 21 2.3 Torso 22 2.3.1 Torso Overview 22 2.3.2 Respiration 22 2.3.3 Summary of Torso 23 2.4 Sports Bra 23 2.4.1 Design and Components 23 2.4.2 Sizing 24 2.4.3 Summary of Sports Bra 25 2.5 Sports Bra Research Driving Forces 25 2.5.1 Comfort 26 2.5.1.1 Garment Comfort 26 2.5.1.2 Sports Bra 27 vi 2.5.2 Injury 29 2.5.2.1 Damage to Breast Tissue due to Exercise 29 2.5.2.2 Role of Sports Bras in Injury 30 2.5.3 Performance 30 2.5.4 Summary of Sports Bra Research Driving Forces 31 2.6 Sports Bra Research 32 2.6.1 Human Studies 33 2.6.1.1 Biomechanical 33 2.6.1.2 Perception 48 2.6.1.3 Links between Biomechanical and Perception Studies 54 2.6.1.4 Summary of Human Studies 56 2.6.2 Mechanical Studies 58 2.6.2.1 Sports Bra 58 2.6.2.2 Links between Mechanical and Human Studies 59 2.6.2.3 Apparel 59 2.6.2.4 Summary of Mechanical Studies 59 2.6.3 Virtual Studies 60 2.6.3.1 Sports Bra 60 2.6.3.2 Breast 61 2.6.3.3 Summary of Virtual Studies 62 2.7 Summary 62 Chapter 3 - Human Testing Methods 65 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Data Collection 66 3.2.1 CODA Motion Analysis System 66 3.2.2 Experimental Set Up 67 3.2.3 Subject Preparation 68 3.2.4 Marker Locations 68 3.2.5 Test Movements 70 vii 3.2.5.1 Stationary 71 3.2.5.2 Treadmill Running 72 3.2.5.3 Drop Landing 72 3.2.6 Selection of Test Sports Bra 73 3.2.7 Sports Bra Fitting Protocol 74 3.2.8 Perception Data Collection 74 3.3 Data Processing 75 3.3.1 Torso Segment Definition 76 3.3.2 Filter Frequency Selection 77 3.3.3 Analysis of Running Trials 78 3.3.4 Analysis of Drop Landings Trials 79 3.3.5 Analysis of Stationary Trials 80 3.3.6 Statistical Analysis 81 3.4 Conclusion 81 Chapter 4 - Development of a torso tracking model to measure relative breast 82 kinematics 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Methods 84 4.2.1 Part A (Study 1) - Initial screening of markers for torso marker 85 development 4.2.1.1 Part A (Study 1) - Data collection 85 4.2.1.2 Part A (Study 1) - Data analysis 86 4.2.2 Part A (Study 2) - Secondary screening of torso tracking models for 87 torso marker development 4.2.2.1 Part A (Study 2) - Data collection 87 4.2.2.2 Part A (Study 2) - Data analysis 88 4.2.2.3 Part A (Study 2) - Statistical analysis 89 4.2.3 Part B - Torso tracking model evaluation 89 4.2.3.1 Part B - Data collection 90 4.2.3.2 Part B - Data processing 90 viii 4.2.3.3 Part B - Statistical analysis 90 4.3 Results 90 4.3.1 Part A - Development of the torso tracking model 90 4.3.2 Part B - Evaluation of torso tracking model 94 4.4 Discussion 96 4.5 Conclusion 99 Chapter 5 - Does breathing affect breast kinematic measurements during 100 treadmill
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