Biomechanical Analysis of a Prototype Sports Bra

Volume 4, Issue 3, Spring2005

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF A PROTOTYPE SPORTS BRA

Cathy Starr, Oklahoma State University, College of Human Environmental Sciences, Design, Housing, & Merchandising, 431 HES, Stillwater, OK 74078, (405)-744-5035, [email protected] Dr. Donna Branson, Oklahoma State University-CHES, DHM, 431 HES, Stillwater, OK Dr. Randa Shehab, University of Oklahoma, College of Engineering, Norman, OK Dr. Cheryl Farr, Oklahoma State University-CHES, DHM, 431 HES, Stillwater, OK Dr. Shiretta Ownbey, Oklahoma State University-CHES, DHM, 431 HES, Stillwater, OK Dr. Jane Swinney, Oklahoma State University – CHES, DHM, 431 HES, Stillwater, OK

ABSTRACT

A Latin Square Experimental Design was used to compare a prototype sports bra previously developed for large-busted women, with two other sports bras through a controlled laboratory wear study. Vertical breast displacement data were gathered by videotaping the first three running strides of six large busted active females recruited from local fitness centers. Multiple regression results found that the garment treatment significantly related to the breast displacement experienced by subjects during each test session [F (2,213) = 16.393; p< .0001]. Approximately 13% of the variability in breast displacement was predicted by garment, indicated by the Squared Multiple Correlation Coefficient. ANOVA results found significant subject, garment, and subject-by-garment effects. Subjects wearing garments A and B had a lower level of vertical breast displacement of .031” as compared to subjects wearing garment C with .045” of displacement.

Keywords: biomechanical research, sports bras, brassieres, vertical breast displacement, breast discomfort, female exercise, and human motion.

Introduction experience breast discomfort while exercising, causing some to avoid exercise Greater emphasis is being placed on all together. Physical activity causes the physical fitness, a positive self-image, breasts to bounce. As the activity increases, personal enjoyment, and weight loss. The so does the bounce and the la rger the Surgeon General asks the American people breasts, the greater the vulnerability. Breast to promote exercise and states that physical discomfort reported by physically active activity joins the front ranks of essential women is thought to be due to excessive health objectives, such as sound nutrition, breast displacement (Himmelsbach, J., use of seat belts, and prevention of adverse Valiant, G., Lawson, L., & Eden, K., 1992). health effects of tobacco use (U.S. Despite the increase of women athle tes and Department of Health and Human Services, the accelerated need to limit breast 1996). In a September 17, 1998 news movement, little scientific research has been release, the Americ an Council on Exercise conducted in the area of breast motion (Page (ACE) reported a majority of women & Steele, 1999). Better understanding of

Article Designation: Refereed 1 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 breast motion during exercise could be seen Through his work in the outpatient as a major contribution to the development department at the King Fahd Hospital of the of a supportive bra and a minor contribution University, Alkhobar, Kingdom of Saudi toward encouraging and promoting the Arabia, Dr. Maha Abdel Hadi found breast participation of women in physical activities pain to be a common complaint among his and ultimately to leading healthy lifestyles. female patients. Dr. Hadi designed a research study where a sample of 200 Literature Review women presented to the outpatient department with similar symptoms and Although the size and shape of female breast pain, were randomly divided into two breasts vary by person, most breasts are tear groups. The first group of subjects adhered shaped. Approximately two-thirds of the to a drug regimen commonly prescribed to breast is composed of breast tissue, while combat these symptoms, while the second the rest is made up of superficial fascia (fat) group wore sports bras for twelve weeks. tissue, which is what fluctuates as a woman All subjects received a survey instrument, gains or loses weight (Love, 2000). Due to designed to assess their response to the minimal intrinsic structural breast support, given treatment. The response was 100% as breast displacement associated with exercise all patients willingly followed their specific is difficult to reduce (Hadi, 2000). The only instructions. Fifty-eight percent of the muscle in the breast area lies under each group receiving the drug treatment reported glandular structure. Therefore, breast relief of symptoms, while 42% experienced support is dependent upon weak suspensory side effects from the drug. Eighty-five ligaments known as Cooper’s ligaments. percent of the group wearing sports bras Referring to these fibers as ligaments is reported relief of symptoms with no side misleading, as they are not ligaments that effects (Hadi, 2000, pp 407-409). attach muscles to bone or support joints, they are fascial planes that are primarily Existing research on breast motion intended to divide the glandular elements in and desirability of specially designed sports the breasts into lobules from which ducts bras confirmed the need for firm breast drain to the nipple during lactation support, particularly among large breasted (Haycock, 1978). Skin, a thin, flexible women (Boschma, et al, 1994; Eden, et al, elastic cover, provides the breast with a 1992; Gehlsen & Albohm, 1980; secondary support system (Page & Steele, Himmelsbach, et al, 1992; Lorentzen & 1999). Lawson, 1987; Mason et al, 1999). The consensus of these studies suggests that Women who wear an average ‘B’ cup different cup size groups may require carry 5 to 7 pounds in her breasts, while different support and design requirements women wearing an average ‘D’ cup carry 15 and that the current industry practice of to 23 pounds (Cohen, 2002). Breasts are not designing bras for various cup sizes in immune to the laws of gravity and without exactly the same way is unacceptable. This proper support, the ligaments and delicate poses a real design challenge for the sports breast tissue will begin to stretch and distend bra designer. allowing the breast tissue to elongate, developing a pendulous look. Middle age Ramifications from the inability to women living in primitive areas of the world locate a good, supportive bra can manifest where supportive breast garments are not itself in the refusal to exercise, breast worn, have flattened, pendulous breasts. discomfort, and the irreversible breakdown With advancing age, most women’s breasts of breast tissue. These problems are flatten and elongate, but this happens more exacerbated for larger busted women. Large quickly when a supportive garment is not breasted teenage girls have indicated that worn (Haycock, 1978). When gravity pulls they suffer from severe backache, are not the breasts down, it also pulls the throat and able to participate in sports, and experience face tissue (The Buststop, 2004). ridicule from classmates (Love, 2000). Article Designation: Refereed 2 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Large breasts can be an impediment for a In the past century, photographers female athlete, especially in long distance used still cameras in the study of human and running and in collision sports, such as animal movement by taking a series of shots soccer, ice hockey, etc (Haycock, 1978). in an attempt to capture the movement to be Women who compete in sports such as studied. The type of movement and the these, as well as enjoy physically active analysis requirements largely determine the lifestyles, require a good supportive bra. camera and analysis system of choice (Hall, “Women already have a multitude of 1991). Human motion analysis systems use reasons for not participating in regular marker sets, instrumented devices (such as physical activity,” said Sheryl Marks electrogoniometers), and imaging methods Brown, executive director for ACE (1998). ranging from television to video systems “Breast discomfort doesn’t have to be one of (Sampath, Abu-Faraj, Smith, & Harris, them.” 1998).

Sports underwear has gained more Three-dimensional motion visibility of late, both figuratively and characterization can be obtained using literally. The sports bra has been alleged to cameras and optoelectronic techniques, be “as important to the growth of women’s which incorporate markers positioned on sports as the passage of Title IX” (Peck, prominent anatomical landmarks of the 1999). “When Brandi Chastain scored the subjects (Sampath, Abu-Faraj, Smith, & winning shot in a tense, overtime shootout Harris, 1998). A quantitative film or video with China in the World Cup soccer final, analysis is usually performed with she did more than just shed her shirt to computer-linked equipment that enables the celebrate the team’s triumph, she fired the calculation of movement. Digitizing is a hopes of sports bra makers everywhere” traditional procedure for analyzing a film or (Segal, 1999). In that moment of video which involves the activation of a exuberance, Brandi revealed her black sports hand-held pen, cursor, or mouse over subject bra and brought instant attention and fame to joint centers or other points of interest, with a sturdy undergarment. The sports bra the x, y coordinates of each point became “the cloth symbol of Title IX’s subsequently stored in a computer data file success” (Gerhart, 1999). Annual bra sales (Hall, 1991). reported January 14, 2002, indicated that sports bra sales comprised 6.1% of the $4.5 Another approach to quantitative billion bra market (Dolbows, 2002). analysis of human movement eliminates the hand-digitizing process through the There are two basic design styles of attachment of tiny electric lights known as sports bras: compression and encapsulation. light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or highly The former flattens breasts to redistribute reflective markers over the body joint their mass evenly across the chest; the latter centers. Computer-linked cameras track supports each breast separately in its own these special lights or markers, enabling cup. The desig n engineering of bras must automatic calculation of the quantities of defy laws of gravity and bras are often interest (Hall, 1991). In his endeavor to compared to suspension bridges with propose a soft-computing framework for support coming from four directions: straps, human-machine system design, Zha band, circumference, and two intersecting describes another method to study the 180° arcs of the cups (Nanas, 1964). To biomechanics of human motion developed design a bra that accomplishes this by Peak Performance Technologies (2003). engineering feat and is comfortable to wear This system incorporates the use of passive requires a designer with expertise and a high reflective markers, along with a motion level of heuristic knowledge, with heuristic analyzer, a video recorder, video processor, knowledge being problem-solving and a desktop computer. Video data techniques that use self-educating obtained from exercise sessions is digitized techniq ues (Hardaker & Fozzard, 1997). using this motion analysis system containing Article Designation: Refereed 3 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 an analog-to-digital processor. In other performance of sports bras, users’ design words, the processor converts all reflections preferences, and insight into the complex obtained from the passive reflective markers engineering problem involved in designing to digital outputs, which are further performance sports bras. Design criteria and processed to determine postural coordinates materials specifications were developed and and angles. ranked. The resulting prototype sports bra was designed to resolve specific comfort, Purpose support, and aesthetic issues reported by large breasted women through fabrication This article compares breast support and design features. Bra fabrics were provided by a prototype sports bra with two selected based on results from four textile commercially available sports bras. The laboratory tests, specifically: dimensional prototype sports bra was designed to stability, pilling, abrasion resistance, and improve support using a combination of wicking tests (for more information see the design features and selected materials. Fabrication Table provided in Krenzer & Starr, in press). A 68% polyester/32% Methods Lycra CoolMax® fabric with 2-way stretc h, that performed better in dimensional Six physically active females between stability and pilling tests than the other the ages of 23 and 37 (mean age 34 years) candidate fabrics, was used as the outer were recruited from local gyms offering fabric. A brushed non-stretch, polyester and aerobic exercise programs. To assure the Hydrofil® nylon knit fabric with good accuracy of the self-reported breast size by wicking and dimensional stability results, each volunteer, the researcher took two was used for the interior fabric to form a different measurements: one under the stabilizing foundation. breast (around the ribs) and one over the full breast circumference (over both bust points The prototype combined an and around the rib cage). Each participating encapsulating inner bra with a compression subject met the following breast size criteria: styled outer bra in order to lift and support 32 DD, 34D/DD, or 36 C/D. With the the breast tissue. It was hypothesized that passing of the physical screening, each the inner bra would help minimize breast participant was assumed capable of displacement through its ability to separate performing physical output and was asked to and contain each individual breast. The sign an informed consent form. straps were lined with non-stretch Hydrofil® nylon/polyester knit fabric to prevent This study had one single independent stretching, a feature designed to increase variable defined as garment treatment that support. Other features designed to reduce consisted of three levels: garment A (see breast displacement included: racer-back Figure 1), the prototype sports bra with both styling for easy movement and wide, non- compression and encapsulation slip shoulder straps for better distribution of characteristics; garment B (see Figure 2), a weight; 1½” band of elastic around the ribs commercially available sports bra with for support and reduction of ride up; and compression and encapsulation adjustable shoulder straps and back band for characteristics, and garment C (see Figure improved fit and support. 3), a commercially available compression sports bra. Starr and Krenzer (2000) Garment B combined an developed the prototype sports bra using the encapsulating inner bra with a compression functional design process delineated in style outer bra in order to lift and support the Watkins (1995) incorporating, from the breast tissue (Figure 2). The inner bra was literature, characteristics that a good constructed of a non-stretch fabric of 56% supportive bra sports bra should possess. A cotton and 44% polyester and was survey instrument, designed by the research advertised as having a hidden support panel team, determined users’ perception of fit and that was purported to limit breast movement. Article Designation: Refereed 4 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 The outer fabric consisted of 43% cotton, racer-back styled sport bra was lined with 43% polyester, and 14% Lycra® spandex. 100% CoolMax® polyester and had 1?” An adjustable back closure and non-slip wide straps. straps with Velcro® strips were additional features.

Garment C was a pull-on compression style sport bra constructed of 95% cotton and 5% Lycra® spandex (Figure 3). The

Exterior Bra: Front View: Shoulder Strap Adjustment, 1½” Wide Band Back View Mesh Insert: Single Layer, Key-hole Opening, 1½” Wide Back Clasp

Inner Bra: Front View Non-stretch seamed Cups, Mesh Insert Back View Non-stretch Shoulder Straps, Wings: Double layer of self-fabric

Figure 1. Garment Treatment A

Exterior Bra: Front View: Band covered with self-fabric Back View Shoulder Strap Adjustment 13/8” Wide Back Clasp Hook & Loop Tape Shoulder Strap Inner Bra: Front View Non-stretch Molded Cups Front straps lined w/horizontal stretch fabric Back View Back straps lined w/lengthwise stretch fabric Wings: LycraÒ spandex-lined

Figure 2. Garment Treatment B

Article Designation: Refereed 5 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005

Exterior Bra: Front View: 1” Wide Band Back View Key-hole Opening

Inner Bra: Fully-lined Front & Back

Figure 3. Garment Treatment C

Physical characteristics that describe the garment A supported the breasts with an style and unique design features of all three- outer support bra that compressed the breast garment treatments are included in Table 1. tissue to the chest cavity and non-stretch, While design features were different for all racer-back style shoulder straps. Along with three, each incorporated a support the inner support bra, garment B supported mechanism of some fashion. The the breasts with an outer support bra that foundation of both garment A and B’s compressed the breast tissue to the chest support system is the full inner support bra cavity and stretchable, over-the-shoulder that encapsulated each breast individually, style bra straps. Garment C’s support the only difference being that Garment A’s system relied on racer-back style shoulder inner bra was constructed of non-stretch straps and compression styling. fabric. Along with the inner support bra,

Article Designation: Refereed 6 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Table 1. Garment Style and Fit Features

Garment A Garment B Garment C Garment Style Compression/ Encapsulation Compression/Encapsulation Compression

Moisture CoolMaxÔ polyester/ spandex rib CoolMaxÔ polyester/ spandex CoolMaxÔ polyester/ Management band, rib band, spandex rib band, Exterior of 68% CoolMaxÔ Exterior of 43% cotton/ 43% Exterior of 95% cotton/ polyester/32% spandex knit, polyester/14% spandex knit, 5% spandex knit, Interior of polyester & HydrofilÒ Interior of 56% cotton/ 44% Interior of CoolMax Ô nylon knit, CoolMaxÔ polyester knit polyester knit Back exterior mesh insert of 72% CoolMaxÔ polyester/28% spandex

Breast Full inner bra, non-stretch seamed Full inner bra, non-stretch Stretch inner lining Movement cups, molded cups, without cups, Management 1.625” non-stretch racer-back straps, 1” stretchable shoulder straps, 1.125” stretchable, racer- back straps, 1.5” band, 1.375” band, 1” band, Pull-over compression due to fabric Standard bra back opening Pull-over compression comb ination style w/compression due to due to fabric combination fabric combination

Adjustability 4 hook back clasp, 2 hook back clasp plus snaps, No adjustability Shoulder straps with front adjustable Back adjustable shoulder plastic hook device straps with hook and loop tape Breathability Fabrics noted above, Fabrics noted above Fabrics noted above, Back key-hole opening, Back key-hole opening Back mesh insert, Front mesh insert between seamed cups Comfort Cups and inner bra stitched with Inner bra and molded cups No seams to chafe, cover stitched seams, stitched with French seams, Plush-lined hardware, Plush-lined hardware, No hardware to chafe, Wide, racer-back (non-slip) shoulder Narrower shoulder straps, Narrower racer-back straps, (non-slip) shoulder straps, Wide bra band, Wide bra band, Narrower rib band, Inner bra – soft hand Inner bra – soft hand Inner lining – soft hand

Previous research projects videotaped subjects were asked to engage in the same subjects running on a treadmill in the nude type, duration, and intensity of exercise, (Haycock, Shierman, & Gillette, 1978; which would produce vertical body Lorentzen & Lawson, 1987; Lawson & movement, for the testing of all three- Lorentzen, 1990; and Mason et al, 1999). garment treatments. As such, vertical breast According to researcher LaJean Lawson, displacement was the only dependent high-speed film of the naked breast during variable, for motion analysis, investigated in running shows the breast stretches and this study. distends considerably with each foot strike (Walzer, 1990, p 66). Earlier studies While running, the body moves up support the findings that the greatest relative and down along with all appendages. To displacements are in the vertical directions. determine the amount of motion, for both Therefore, for purposes of this study, the body and each breast, reflective markers

Article Designation: Refereed 7 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 were taped on the following anatomical Reflective circular markers were placed on landmarks: Lateral points of Acromion anatomical landmarks using double -sided Processes, Sternal Angle, and both bust adhesive disks for subsequent digitizing and points. As the focus of this research was on data analysis. Appropriate placement of breast support and breast displacement, the reflective markers on the lateral points of the body’s motion was subtracted from the acromion processes and the sternal angle overall breast motion to determine any were identified by palpation of the excess breast displacement. Therefore, respective bony prominences. Bust points vertical breast displacement of the breast were determined and marked by each relative to the body during the first three subject, who then placed the reflective running steps of each test session was marker on the anatomical landmark. Once calculated for each garment treatment. instrumentation was completed, subjects were asked to stand on the treadmill in the A Repeated Measures Design with a location that they would normally use for Latin Square balancing scheme was used to running. A spotlight was adjusted to shine minimize potential bias resulting from the directly on the markers for optimal order in which garments were tested, since reflection and to reduce glare in the the study also obtained perceptual data from subjects’ eyes during videotaping. A super the subjects. All six subjects wore each of VHS video recorder was set up in the the test garments in three separate test Environmental Design Laboratory and lined sessions. A tri-pod for the video camera up directly with the sagittal plane of the and spotlight were set up directly in front of subject. a treadmill, along the transverse axis and perpendicular to the frontal plane of each Collection of vertical breast subject to record the breast displacement displacement began with the first running data from the best vantage point. The step of the exercise phase. Once the first treadmill was positioned inside an three running strides were taped, the video environmental chamber draped in black felt recorder and the spotlight were turned off. to reduce glare. Breast displacement was Motion and data were collected and recorded and analyzed, one frame at a time, analyzed in inches, frame-by-frame, using a during the first three running steps of each Peak Motus® Motion Measurement System. test session. Specified environmental All instrumentation was removed at the chamber conditions were maintained at: 75º conclusion of the test, and the subject was F ± 1º and 40% RH ± 5%, in order to obtain offered a sports drink and/or a bottle of thermal comfort and physiological data of water, after which, the subject and interest for a component not reported in this researcher left the environmental chamber. manuscript. The subject changed back into her street clothes and confirmed the scheduling of the Upon arrival for the first test session next session. at the Environmental Design Laboratory, each subject was given an introductory Discussion session to review the study protocol and all instruments. Reflective markers were The reflective markers placed on the shown to each subject, their placement sternal angle and both bust points identified demonstrated, the subject’s role, and testing body and breast reference points that protocol was described. Once the review provided data used to determine vertical was completed, each subject stepped into the breast displacement for each garment. It is assigned changing area and donned their important to realize that motion analysis is a standardized clothing ensemble, along with step-by-step process. First, breast and body the assigned garment treatment. motion must be recorded to determine the high and low elevations (the rise and fall) of Each subject entered the chamber and the body and breast during the exercise stood at ease while being instrumented. protocol. Article Designation: Refereed 8 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Figure 4 shows the average breast Tracking one stride includes both a motion for each garment treatment, broken left and a right heel strike. Therefore, out by breast (right and left breast), stride displacement was calculated for each leg on (right and left leg), and repetition (1, 2, 3). each stride. Three running strides were There appears to be a trend for subjects analyzed for this study yielding six wearing garment A to experience lower measurements of displacement for each levels of breast displacement over the subject, breast, and leg. The total amount of majority of the test, followed closely by vertical breast displacement for each subject subjects wearing garment B. Subjects and each garment was determined by finding wearing garment C appear to have the differences between the maximum and experienced higher levels of vertical breast minimum vertical breast positions found displacement over the majority of the test. over each of three running strides. Each As shown in Figure 4, the right and left step individual’s breast displacement was displacements are slightly different, as are averaged to provide data by garment. the right and left breast displacement themselves.

0.24

0.23

0.22 Garment A 0.21 Garment B 0.2 Garment C

0.19 Displacement (Inches) 0.18 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Right Leg Up Left Leg Up Right Leg Up Left Leg Up

Right Bust Left Bust Mean Right Bust Motion Mean Left Bust Motion

Figure 4. Average Bust Motion

Since it is not absolute breast motion that matters, but breast motion relative to ANOVA was used to determine trunk motion, it was necessary to calculate significant differences for these data. this difference. Trunk motion was ANOVA found a significant difference by calculated using the above process, repeated subject, garment, and subject-by-garment for the sternum. These values were interaction for relative breast displacement subtracted from the breast displacement (see Table 2). The significant difference by values to determine the relative breast subject (F= 55.47, p <.0001) was expected, displacement. The data show that subjects because each person possesses not only a wearing garment C experienced greater difference in breast mass for both breasts, breast displacement overall, as indicated in but also a difference in age, number of Figure 4. Subjects wearing garment C children, skin tissue, ligaments, and levels of experienced a mean displacement of .045 fitness. A significant difference by garment inches, a 68% higher level of displacement was predicted since garments A and B (both than the .031 inches experienced by subjects encapsulation and compression style sports wearing garments A and B. bras) were designed to provide support for Article Designation: Refereed 9 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 the breasts, and the data support this There was no significant displacement predic tion. Table 3 shows the displacement difference between garments A and B. interaction between garment treatments.

Table 2. ANOVA: Biomechanical Displacement Source DF Type I SS Mean Square F Value Pr > F Subject*** 5 0.02768554 0.00553711 55.47 <.0001 Leg 1 0.00007571 0.00007571 0.76 0.3851 Bust 1 0.00034561 0.00034561 3.46 0.0645 Garment*** 2 0.00950675 0.00475337 47.62 <.0001 Subject-x-leg 5 0.00054168 0.00010834 1.09 0.3703 Subject-x-bust 5 0.00024265 0.00004853 0.49 0.7863 Subject-x-garment*** 10 0.01544646 0.00154465 15.47 <.0001 Bust-x-garment 2 0.00003161 0.00001581 0.16 0.8537 Subject-bust-x-garment 10 0.00118221 0.00011822 1.18 0.3045 Error 172 0.01717050 0.00009983 *p < .05. **p = .001. ***p <.0001.

Table 3. Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD): Displacement Garment Difference Between Simultaneous 95% Confidence Garment C-A*** 0.013745 0.009780 0.017710 Garment C-B*** 0.014210 0.010273 0.018147 Garment A-C*** -0.013745 -0.017710 -0.009780 Garment A-B 0.000465 -0.003500 0.004430 Garment B-C*** -0.014210 -0.018147 -0.010273 Garment B-A -0.000465 -0.004430 0.003500 Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level are indicated by ***

Multiple regression, a statistical analysis garment treatment. In other words, garment using categorical predictors with orthogonal treatment accounted for approximately 13% coding and orthogonal contrasting scheme, of the total variance in breast movement. was run on the breast motion data. From Garment treatment was statistically this analysis, it was determined that significant for breast displacement [F (2, approximately 13% of the variability in 213) = 16.393; p< .0001)], see Tables 4 and breast displacement was predicted by 5.

Table 4. Categorical Predictors Model Summary (Orthogonal Coding & Orthogonal Contrasting Scheme) Mode R R Adjusted Std. Error of Change Statistics R Square the Estimate R Square F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change Change 1 .365a .133 .125 .017508 .133 16.393 2 213 .00001 a Predictors: (Constant), x2grmtabvsc, xlgrmtavsb d Dependent Variable: x6 displacement score

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics Mean Std. Deviation N x6 displ score .035701 .0187201 216 x1grmtavsb .00 .818 216 x2grmtabvsc .00 1.417 216 Article Designation: Refereed 10 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005

Conclusions, Implications, and expected, due to individual differences and Recommendations for Future Studies the differences in fabric/garment characteristics. Garments A and B are similar in that they both include encapsulation and Several key differences between the compression styling, whereas, garment C is three garments could have influenced the solely compression styling. The three bras results of the displacement data. The inner also differ in choice of fabric, closure bra and wide straps of garment A were methods, and strap and cup styling. Thus, constructed using non-stretch materials and differences in support and comfort between garments B and C used stretch materials. the three garments were anticipated to be Secondly, the width of the straps and bands due to design features and/or fabric could have influenced bra support. Garment combinations. Seam choices were designed A had wider shoulder straps than garments to reduce the potential of chafing and skin B and C. Garments A and B had wider irritation. The interior bra of garments A bands than garment C. Thirdly, garments A and B were stitched with a cover stitch and and B provided encapsulation plus French seams respectively. In addition, both compression styling as compared with garments A and B had plush-lined hardware. garment C that provided compression only. The racer-back shoulder straps of garments A and C were designed to provide comfort Lorentzen and Lawson found that bras and a non-slip advantage over the standard that scored highest in perceived support had shoulder strap style featured in garment B. the following design features and materials: Garment A features an inner bra of soft, high modulus knit fabrics with low brushed HydrofilÒ nylon and polyester knit, extensibility, straps stabilized with non- wide shoulder straps, and a wide rib band elastic materials to allow minimal stretch, for additional comfort. Garments A and B and a bra style that compressed the breasts provided sizing adjustability through the against the chest wall (1990). These results incorporation of adjustable back closures influenced the design of prototype A’s inner and straps. Garment C provided bra and wide racer-back shoulder strap adjustability via the stretch fabric only. A system. In contrast, garment B used stretch second component of the original study materials for an inner bra and narrower addressed thermal comfort and moisture shoulder straps. Both used a wide rib band management issues (Starr, 2002). and a combination of compression and encapsulation styling. Thus, the use of Figure 4 indicates a trend for subjects stretch versus non-stretch materials and wearing garment C to experience the highest width of the shoulder straps were major breast motion and subjects wearing garment differences in these two bras that could have A to experience the lowest breast motion. influenced breast support. The finding of no Subjects wearing garment C experienced the significant difference in relative breast highest amount of relative breast displacement between the two bras suggests displa cement with a mean of .045, but the that the use of stretch versus non-stretch differences of relative breast displacement materials is inconclusive as a mechanism to between subjects wearing garments A provide breast support. In contrast, garment (prototype) and B are small. ANOVA found C, which used stretch materials, narrower a significant difference for subject, garment, straps and bra band, and compression and the subject-by-garment interaction for styling, provided significantly hig her relative breast displacement. There were relative breast displacement data. significant differences between garments A Recognizing that the features of all three (prototype) and C, as well as between bras were not systematically controlled to be garments B and C. There was no significant able to definitively indicate which feature difference between garments A (prototype) influenced support the most, nevertheless, and B. Subject-by-garment differences were the data suggest that two design features, Article Designation: Refereed 11 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 band width, and style type, appear to be the References most influential features in providing breast support. Therefore, physically active American Council on Exercise, (1998). women who are large-busted should wear American council on exercise sports bras that have both compression and scrutinizes sports bras. Retrieved encapsulation styling and wide bands for September 15, 1999 from Ace greater support. Fitness.com: http://www.acefitness.com/newsreleas Fit was varied among the subject pool es/091798.html even with considerable care in pre-screening Bedard, P., Mazzetti, M., Walsh, K., to ensure a similar size-range and breast Streisand, B., & Newman, R. (2004). mass. Locating large-busted women who Sports bras, the latest in U. S. Army regularly jog or run for any length of time fashion. Brandweek, 136(4). was difficult, therefore the size criteria was Boschma, A. C., Smith, G. A., & Lawson, L. lowered somewhat. All participants wore (1994). Breast support for the active size D or DD, but were smaller around the woman: Relationship to 3D rib cage and wore a smaller band size than kinematics of running. Supplement to expected. Since bra band size is related to Medicine and Science in Sports and cup size, both must be considered when Exercise, 26(5). determining total breast mass. There were Buststop (2004). Retrieved August 4, 2004 extremes of life styles and experiences from The Buststop: represented within this group of women, http://www.buststop.com. who ranged between the ages of 22 and 37 Cohen, D. (2002, September 1). years. Data may have varied due to these Bizfeature—For women and bras, the individual differences. fit is it. Retrieved September 4, 2002 from Dow Jones Interactive: The results of this study support the http://ptg.djnr.com/ccroos/asp/publib/s findings of previous research studies tory_clean_cpy.asp?articles regarding the need for firm breast support, Dolbow, S. (2002). Champion sports bra: particularly for large-breasted women Not for jocks. Brandweek, 43(2), 9. (Boschma, et al, 1994; Eden, et al, 1992; Eden, K., Valiant, G., Lawson, L., & Gehlsen & Albohm, 1980; Haycock, Himmelsbach, J. (1992). Three- Shierman, & Gillette, 1978; Himmelsbach, dimensional kinematic evaluation of et al, 1992; Lawson & Lorentzen, 1990; sport bra design. Supplement to Lorentzen & Lawson, 1987; Mason et al, Medicine and Science in Sports and 1999). If, as these studies suggest, larger- Exercise, 24(5). busted women require different support and Gehlsen, G. & Albohm, M. (1980). design systems, the current industry practice Evaluation of sports bras. The of producing bras in all sizes with the same Physician and Sportsmedicine, 9(10), design features and fabrications should be 89-97. re-examined. Additional recommendations Gerhart, A. (1999, July 14). Cashing in on for further research include conducting: 1) a the world cups; when Brandi Chastain similar investigation with a larger subject bares her sports bra, she boosts population with breast size and body type women’s jock apparel market. The systematically varied, 2) field studies with Washington Post, C01. athletes participating in selected sports, 3) a Hadi, M. (2000). Sports brassiere: Is it a similar investigation with one garment solution for mastalgia? The Breast design and fabrication systematically varied, Journal, 6(6), 407-409. and 5) a study that tests the possible need for Hall, S. (1991). Basic Biomechanics. St. different bra materials and designs for Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book, Inc. different body types. Hardaker, C. M. & Fozzard, G. W. (1997). 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