Chinese Porcelain; Popular and Imperial by MARGARET MEDLEY Formerly Curator oj the Percival David Foundation of in the

Ever since the tenth century, at the notable improvements in quality, aesthetically satisfying. (Plate 1) At beginning of the Song dynasty in and by the time the Song dynasty this point it is necessary to stress 960 AD, two strands have run was securely established and their the fact that the distinctions through the development of tax system began to operate to the between popular and imperial Chinese porcelain, with injections satisfaction of the court, different wares at this time was one of of foreign influence to add to the levels of production became quality and not one of a unique changes that have taken place down distinguishable. kiln producing exclusively for the the centuries. At first distinctions court. However, even in the between popular and imperial types Once there is peace and economic Northern Song period this was to are not easily distinguished. This prosperity, the need to satisfy a occur, if only briefly early in the partly because ceramic wares of the range of different markets becomes 12th Century. Since the court was porcelain type as opposed to a necessity for survival, unless an established in the north, at earthenwares were still in their organisation is set up under a Kaifeng, just south of the Yellow infancy in early Song times and single wealthy patron. In this river, it was perhaps inevitable that partly because until about the end respect the Chinese potters knew with a large and educated of the 10th Century most kilns exactly what they were doing. For population alongside the court, as made a fairly wide variety of the upper end of the market most well as an even larger less educated wares. It was only during the 10th kilns were able to produce wares of servicing population, that the Century that some kilns began to the very finest quality from about production of the kilns enormously specialise in the manufacture of 1000 AD onward, while for increased and in response to the only one or two types. This is ordinary general use less good demand improved in quality. Thus particularly true of kilns of north wares were made which included a up to the year 1127, when the China, where not only the wide range of black and brown court had to flee south to sophisticated white porcelain first wares, stonewares of Jun and Hangzhou, it was the northern appeared, but where the main Cizhou types, as well as lower kilns that were most patronised. centre of patronage, at Kaifeng, quality Yaozhou celadons and Ding Not only this, it became evident was situated. wares. Rejects from the better kilns that the emperor and his court found a ready market among the acquired a strong interest in quality In late Tang times, in the 9th ordinary people, as indeed they still porcelain so that in about 1100 Century, the Xing kilns in Honan do, while in the south, at the AD, for the first time, a kiln was had attained a fine reputation for Longquan kilns in Zhejiang, the established to produce a specific high quality white ware, examples overseas and local domestic markets ware exclusively for the palace. of which have been found as far were well supplied. This was the famed , afield as Samarra, the old which ceased production abruptly Caliphate capital near Baghdad in There is an added element here. It in 1127. Until recently it was Iraq. In the following century the is that some taxes were paid by the believed to have been made at a main centre for fine porcelain kilns in the form of goods, that is kiln established within the precincts moved farther north into Hebei, to in their own products. Yaozhou, of the imperial palace at Kaifeng, the Ding kilns about 80 miles for instance, at the beginning of the but it has now been discovered in a south-east of Beijing, up in the 12th Century, sent in to court as remote valley in the western part of mountains. The kilns at Yaozhou, part of its tax, or tribute, 12,000 Honan. Thus for the first time we to the west in Shaanxi province pieces of top class celadon. The can observe a clear distinction which in Tang times had made Ding kilns were also suppliers of between imperial and popular earthenwares, stonewares and white fine ware to the court. But here the wares. wares, began to turn over directly situation was slightly different, to the production of a very because the white ware was greatly- The existence of such patronage in sophisticated ware known under the favoured. The emperor used to the north almost inevitably meant generic name of Northern Celadon. appoint a buying commission of that there would be technical and There were also other kilns, equally eunuchs to go and cream off the aesthetic refinements. Indeed the famous in history, which had made best Ding wares at regular improvements in all round quality . riety of types, such as the Jun intervals. Of all the wares of north in Chinese porcelains in the late kiln:: which now began to China the Ding was not only the 11th and early 12th Century were sped. \ With such a change in technically most sophisticated, but quite remarkable. It is however, manu. iring practice there came was also for many people the most characteristic of the period that

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1 Ding bowl with carved decoration. Song, early 12th Century. Diameter 20.7 cm (8 in) 2 Cizhou vase with painted decoration. Formerly Mrs A Clark Collection Song, 12th Century. Height 36.5 cm (14.3 in) Victoria & Albert Museum subdued colours and restrained, northern ware, but in the south the even subtle decoration were the very popular Jizhou wares were to Jingdezhen, which was only after predominant features of the more similarly available for the domestic the end of the Song to become the sophisticated wares. These and non-imperial market. These dominant centre. During the restraints were in some degree wares were extremely varied both Southern Song it was to be Guan imposed by the very materials in type and decoration, and were and Longquan celadon, both made themselves. Stoneware glazes are always much admired by ordinary in Zhejiang for the court, domestic mainly coloured with iron oxides folk (.Plate 3). By the end of the use and the overseas markets that producing all the subdued blues 14th Century, in fact, when the held the centre of the stage. Jizhou, greys and greens in a reducing kilns were no longer in operation, south of Jingdezhen, and the other atmosphere and browns and blacks the products were beginning to be smaller kilns in southern Zhejiang in an oxidizing atmosphere. looked on with a degree of favour and through Fujian and by the middle class connoisseurs. Guangdong, were almost While popular taste was no doubt completely ignored by the »urt reasonably content with this, there Even after the court moved to the and aristocratic taste. was also one stream within this that south, and with it the patronage of favoured decoration of a more the kilns, it was the monochromes At the same time as Song imperial obvious kind than subtle carving with the restraints and subtleties patronage continued to favour the and moulding, such as painting and that continued to be favoured. We Zhejiang kilns above all o« is, and sgraffito (Plate 2). This preference can thus affirm that the Song the quality went on ivnprc .g, the was catered for by the Cizhou type emperor and his court imposed a emperor was experiencing at kilns, which were numerous and character on ceramic production in political and economic pr< ins. widely distributed. These produced their time, both in the north, During the 13th Century Jin a great variety of sturdy wares before the Jin tartar invasion and dynasty holding the norili 1 lowed suitable for ordinary household use in the south when patronage was by the Mongols in 1235, i as well as for more ornamental moved to the Longquan celadon pressure on the Southern ng in purposes. This, of course, was a kilns and to a very limited degree both economic and milila vrms.

44 The potters changed the glaze recipe, making it more translucent and so less inhibiting to the decorators who now carved and moulded, and added reliefs to the body before glazing, or they floated unglazed decorative reliefs, that changed colour in the firing, on the surface of the unflred glaze on dishes, and on vases they painted areas of richly moulded decoration with a wax resist to produce the same effect, and even went so far as to add gilding in some instances. Some of the traditional utilitarian shapes continued with their restrained decorations for purely practical reasons, but the output as a whole seems to have been dominated by the need to satisfy the overseas customers in Southeast Asia, India and the Near East, and it was from the Near East that the greatest innovation came.

Jingdezhen, unlike Longquan, does not appear to have had a place of any great importance so far as the educated elite was concerned. Production was mainly for local 3 Jizhou bowl with blackish paper-cut dccoiation on a speckled buff ground. Southern Song. consumption and for the overseas 12th -13th Century. Diameter 12.3 cm (4.8 in) Japanese Collection trade. The pure white porcelain known variously as yingqing and This meant the emperor had to Mongols had little interest in qingbai carried on many of the find revenue to ward off the porcelain as such, but they had a traditions of the Ding in the north, potential invaders, either in bribes good deal of interest in the revenue with carved and moulded or by military force. In an attempt it brought them, so they continued decoration, and owed much to the to resolve the problems, he and his to encourage the trade. This meant northern kiln in its style of government set about encouraging that the merchants and the decoration. Despite its rather frail the overseas trade for sake of the ordinary people, together with the appearance it was in fact quite a revenue it yielded. The export of foreigners with their special strong ware. It became a great deal both silk goods and porcelain requirements no%v began to control stronger when the body recipe was provided a considerable revenue, as production. Not only this, but changed towards the end of the did the import duly on spices, many of the Longquan kilns began 13th Century. The pieces then exotics and aromatics, together an extraordinary period of became sturdier and often very with Islamic metalwork, glass and experimentation. much larger, and then suddenly in certain fine, quality textiles. the early 14th Century cobalt blue Concommittant with this increase The Longquan celadons had long pigment was introduced from in revenue was a natural increase been popular overseas; they were Persia for the decoration of this in the numbers and prosperity of after all finer and stronger than wonderful white ware. There the merchants, who were to play an anything produced outside China. followed a period when the potters important part in the following Now the kilns began to produce worked with enormous enthusiasm century. huge bowls and dishes, useless to and changed the whole direction of the Chinese, but very popular in Chinese ceramic history, away from The full impact of the the Islamic west and among many the subdued and refined Song encouragement of the foreign trade of the peoples of Indonesia. They tradition of monochrome towards •tlv became apparent alter 1273 also began to experiment with new rich decoration and colour. The wing the fall of the Southern techniques of decoration. Some best they made was for the overseas Si Suddenly it was no longer were successful, others less so, market, in some respects much tlu , i calling the tunc. The barely surviving the 14th Century. influenced by Islamic concepts of

45 design, but almost always using purely Chinese motifs (Plate 4). They also made a great deal for the new wealthy middle class merchants. For them were produced the large wine-jars and tall vases painted with scenes from the popular dramas, themes such as would not be acceptable in an Islamic culture.

This was popular taste showing itself on a large scale. Decoration from now on was to be an important element in the evalution of Chinese porcelain, and initially it was viewed by the more conservative members of the elite as “very vulgar”. This is hardly surprising in view of the sobriety of Song production; it must have seemed garish, even if to our eyes it appears rather splendid. Curiously enough the connoisseurs of the time seem to have thought Jizhou decorated wares quite acceptable, but of course the subdued browns and pale buffs to some degree prolonged the Song tradition while the decorated Cizhou from the north with its 4 Blue and white dish with fish. Yuan, J4lh Century. Diameter 45.5 cm (17.9 in) Freer overglaze enamel colours, was Gallery of Art classed by one critic as of no account and vulgar. It was forbade foreign trade except under beginning of the 15th Century probably the often brilliant mass of government auspices. So the potters luxuries could well be afforded. blue on white and the sometimes of Jingdezhen, now the chief The immense prestige of Yongle, complex decorations to which the manufacturing centre, denied the especially, justified a large older connoisseurs objected, but kind of freedom they had enjoyed expenditure on fine quality which the ordinary people, who during the Yuan period had to materials of all kinds, and it is always had an eye for colour and adjust to the restrictions of the apparent from the texts that there richness of pattern, delighted in. domestic market which now was a central design office making They were now the trendsetters. expanded in place of the overseas drawings available to the different market. This could probably not crafts. Most of the dra wings would By the end of the 14th Century the have been easily done had not the have come from the u -.rile drawing potters had become so enthralled court taken an interest in the offices and many of th m could by their new skills and inspiration production. easily be adapted by s',led in decoration that they were very craftsmen to the diffe media. In unlikely to abandon the direction in For the period covered by the reign pursuing the dragon ti!--uic through which they were now moving in of the first Ming emperor, the different media fr<- textiles favour of any return to more Hongwu, there is little evidence, through carved lacqui loisonne reserved artistic expression. There but there are indications that some enamel, metalwork ai luc and was no turning back. Nevertheless sort of control was exerted. By the white and monochrom porcelain the fall of the Mongols and the reigns of Yonglc and Xuande, from this can be clearly dci-istratcd. establishment of the new native 1402 to 1435, however it is clear The same dragons an ed in all. Ming dynasty in 1368 did involve a that imperial control and indeed They arc placed in tin a me re-assessment of what they were direction of production and design positions, and in man; iscs used doing. The main reason for this had become a very positive factor. facing one way on on« a pair of was the collapse of the overseas The first emperor had restored the pieces and exactly rev d on the trade, partly for economic reasons, wealth of the empire to an other, indicating that "inced but also because the emperor extraordinary degree, so that by the drawings were frcquei1 used to

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46 After the death of Xuande in 1435 production at Jingdezhen was steadily reduced in the following ten years, but during those ten years and in the succeeding decades until the accession of Chenghua in 1465, new ideas and styles began to make their appearance. Buddhist and Daoist themes can be identified, and a new type of dragon, not of imperial character occurs. The new dragon is in fact the makaras of Buddhist origin, having a long trunk-like snout, a fleshy body and a foliated tail, while from the mouth springs a flower spray. There were also ducks and fish in ponds with water weed, some of which looked back to the achievements of 14th Century blue and white. The reasons are not hard to find. During the interregnum between 1435 and 1465 imperial control had lapsed and it was only re-asserted under Chenghua after 1465. This meant that popular taste had an opportunity for expression, and this expression was strong enough to make an impact on the production 5 Blue and white dish with imperial dragon. Ming, Xuande period, 1426-35. Diameter 17.8 of the last quarter of the century, cm (7 in) Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art even though imperial control was to some extent re-imposed, and it continued to have an effect up to lay down the main lines of a level of control and artistic the death of Zhengde in 1521. design. The same treatments can direction continued into the reign be seen in underglaze blue of Xuande, during which vast The emperor Jiajing’s reign saw decoration or in incised decoration orders were placed with the kilns of the merging of imperial and on a plain white piece. Alongside Jingdezhen. One of these, for the popular taste, combined with a dragons were many designs that year 1433, informs us that the gradual weakening of control, not included highly symbolic fruits and court sent down an order for only of ceramic production but of flowers organised either as 433,500 pieces of porcelain, “some the whole economy. The quality continuous scrolls or as tastefully to be decorated with dragons and became rather variable and disposed detached sprays. The phoenix in accordance with although the best remained of a quality of design, materials and designs” taken down by an officer very high standard, there was far workmanship was of the very highest of the Board of Works. (Plate 5). more middle range material than standard, truly fit for kings and even fifty years earlier. The subject emperors, as indeed was intended. It is perhaps because of the very matter during the 16th Century strong control at this time that we showed a previously unknown The emperor Yongle’s diplomatic know relatively little of what was diversity. Formal designs of and trade relations with Shah Rukh produced for the general domestic dragons and phoenix inevitably at Herat, Ulug Beg at Samarkand market. The main difficulty is that continued, but the emperor’s and the princes of Isfahan more the porcelains were expendable. personal attachment to Daoism was ihan justified the expenditure on What does survive tends to be the bound to have an effect on the • :v* porcelains, textiles and best and such more general decorations in all media. This is ijuers, all of which found their material as has come down to us is seen in the introduction into the in Islamic lands by land and much the same as that made for decorative repertory of themes low else can the great the court, the dragons and phoenix relating to longevity and the Daoist i < inns of Ardebil and Topkapu excepted, but of poorer quality in immortals. (Plate 6) Cranes, deer, accounted for? The high all respects. pine trees, peaches, shou characters

47 (longlife), lingzhi (the fungus of Ming than to disturbances during longevity) and trees contorted into the change of dynasty. By 1651, shapes of auspicious characters however, there were indications of crowd the surfaces in a startlingly revival and the variety that different way from the exquisite appeared has made dating control of the early 15th Century. particularly difficult for the early Alongside these themes are Qing. One thing is clear. It is that numerous examples of landscapes. the late Ming “Transitional” style The sudden growth of a profitable had begun to crystallise into a export trade in the latter part of distinctive early Qing style, best the 16th century undoubtedly did seen in the early Kangxi material much to stimulate popular up to the last twenty years of the invention. Not only this, but 17th Century. Marvellously painted shapes began to change as much as landscapes became an important decoration. feature, as did also scenes from that most popular of dramas Under the emperor Wanli Xixiangji, “Romance of the Western (1573-1619), whose extravagance Chamber”. From about 1670 the was notorious, attempts were made, emperor Kangxi exerted a powerful to command material on a large influence on the kilns and some scale, but the demands were often fine quality material was made, so outrageous that the workmen some of it dated and apparently went on strike and then there were made specifically for the Jonghe also riots. Then in 1619, when Pavillion in the capital. On these Wanli died, all attempts to control pieces the Kangxi style has already production were given up and the matured. supervising officers were withdrawn. However the overseas There was then a brief hiatus as trade was thriving with the the Three Feudatories rebellion Japanese, Portuguese and the brought ruin to the kilns in 1675. Dutch and English being the best 6 Blue and white wall vase with Daoist The rebellion was finally brought customers. scene. Ming, Wanli period, 1573-1619. under control and peace restored in Height 25.4 cm (10 in) Formerly Mrs A 1680 and from then on imperial Clark Collection Once more foreign and popular control was restored. The emperor taste dominated, and the ordered a complete review of the “Transitional” period from 1619 to industry and it was restructured 1675 laid the foundations for the under his personally appointed early Qing style under the emperor superintendent. This ensured the Kangxi. The extraordinary variety 'v' '• ' future prosperity of the industry of shapes and decorations that r and also the dominance of imperial appeared during these years and ; taste well into the 18th Century. the manner in which they The emphasis v s now on technical developed are a subject on their perfection and a esult was to be a own. The old imperial kilns which quite unparallel- - virtuosity. (Plate ■ had produced the finest quality i *)■ life" * wares, turned to making high Hi quality wares for the upper end of The pattern of i; >erial and the domestic market and for the popular porceln has been one in Dutch. Decorations were often : which when the ntral government freely disposed over the surfaces in ;• ■yk.v- was strong, imp al taste a very painterly manner, using dominated, and icn it was weak, incidents from well-known dramas popular taste do. nated. But or history, sometimes with political n without the popi r taste to drive ' r.r.. __ _ ... overtones that offered criticism of i .-r— i developments for ird, the imperial the failing dynasty. (Plate 7) -iv;...... wares would qu «y have become 7 Blue and white brush pot with an sterile; they wei- jo dependent on After the end of the Ming in 1644, historical scene oj 'I'ai Gong in retirement, orders, often gi\ without an there was a decline in production fishing. Late Ming, circa 1630 -40. Height understanding e possibilities. due more to the economic 20.1 cm (7.9 in) Metropolitan Museum of depression in the last years of the Art

48 8 Dish painted in famille rose enamels, with anhua decoration round the sides. Qing, Yongzheng period, 1723-35. Diameter 26 cm (10.2 in) Formerly Sotheby’s, London

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