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Farewell to Manzanar

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Farewell to Manzanar Farewell to Manzanar Activity Inquiry Question How does Farewell to Manzanar reflect the experiences of Japanese Americans interned during World War II? Summarize the ways in which Farewell to Manzanar reflects the experiences of Japanese Americans interned during World War II. Clarifying Questions What is Japanese American internment? How did Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston portray Japanese American internment in her book Farewell to Manzanar? Vocabulary internment: the process of confining a group of people, usually prisoners of war or enemy alien residents, in a restricted area. Issei: a Japanese word used to describe the first generation of migrants from Japan to North America, most of whom left Japan between 1868 and 1924. Nisei: second-generation Japanese Americans, many of whom faced much prejudice and racism while living in the western United States in the mid-20th century. Nikkei: a person of Japanese descent living in the United States loyalty oath: in February 1943 the War Relocation Authority issued a loyalty oath, or questionnaire, that was required of all Japanese Americans over 17 years of age, that would help identify those who could be trusted for release to work, attend college, or serve in the military outside the internment camps. Background Information Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, Japanese Americans became targets of fear and discrimination by the U.S. public and government. The U.S. government feared that Japanese Americans would work as spies for the Japanese Empire. These fears came to a head in 1942 when President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the evacuation and relocation of Japanese Americans without due process. More than 100,000 Japanese Americans were forced to abandon their homes, livelihoods, and communities and relocate to 10 isolated internment camps that were built throughout the country. Surrounded by guards and barbed wire fences, Japanese Americans suffered from poor, crowded, and unhygienic living conditions in the camps. Internees—many of whom were Nisei, or Japanese Americans who were born and raised in the United States— had to struggle to reconcile their place in a society that labeled them as enemies based solely on their ethnicity. At seven years of age, author Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and her family were moved to the Manzanar Relocation Center located in California—today a National Historic Site. Reflecting upon the event as an adult, Wakatsuki Houston and her husband, James D. Houston, recounted her experiences in the 1973 memoir Farewell to Manzanar. Widely considered an essential book on this historical period, Wakatsuki Houston's account provides a personal perspective on the internal conflicts that many internees experienced, including the impact of internment on familial bonds; the question of loyalty to a nation that viewed them as enemies; and the generational gap between the Issei (first-generation Japanese immigrants) and Nisei. Source Reference Creator: ABC-CLIO Description: This article covers the Japanese American internment, including temporary detainment in assembly centers, removal to one of 10 internment camps, and the eventual closure of the internment camps in 1945. Context and Things to Consider Pay attention to the justification given by the FBI for the surveillance and roundup of Nikkei in the immediate aftermath of Pearl Harbor. Note the description of both the assembly centers and the internment camps and the way in which this would alter family units. How would living arrangements in barracks and mess hall dining facilities impact how people related to each other? Consider the options available to Japanese Americans such as enlisting in U.S. military forces. Note the aftermath of internment and how Japanese Americans had to rebuilt their lives and businesses after leaving internment camps. Japanese American Internment Following the December 7, 1941, Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S government relocated and detained anyone of Japanese ancestry (Nikkei) living on the West Coast of the United States. During the Japanese American internment, ordered under the pressure of wartime expediency, nearly 120,000 men, women, and children of Japanese descent were uprooted and exiled regardless of their citizenship status. Lead-Up to Internment Despite anti-Asian racism prevalent on the West Coast at the time, by the 1930s, Japanese immigrants (Issei), had established thriving communities in all of the major coastal cities from San Diego to Seattle, as well as in the major agricultural areas of inland California, Oregon, and Washington. However, as tensions mounted in the Pacific between the United States and Japan prior to World War II, some in the U.S. government and military saw West Coast Nikkei as a potential security risk. They feared that the Nikkei might supply sensitive information to the Japanese government or sabotage military or industrial centers on the West Coast. In 1939, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began compiling a "threat list" of prominent members of the Nikkei community. Meanwhile, the West Coast media fueled racial hostility with widespread characterizations of Nikkei as the "yellow peril." Within 24 hours of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the FBI had taken Nikkei thought to pose the highest risk into custody for questioning; they were later transferred to Justice Department holding facilities. For months, their families had no knowledge of their location or even if they were still alive. Additionally, those not in custody were faced with frozen bank accounts, foreclosed loans, seized property, and an 8:00 P.M. curfew enforced by the military. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which resulted in the forcible removal from their homes of all persons of Japanese descent on the West Coast and their relocation to holding facilities located throughout the western United States. While this order did not directly mention the removal of persons of Japanese descent, its broad language stating "any or all persons may be excluded" allowed the federal government to justify its wholesale internment of all persons of Japanese descent. Though Nikkei in Hawaii were included under the order, they made up a significant portion of the territory's population, and agriculture in the state was dependent on Nikkei labor. As a result, Hawaii's military governor refused to enforce the internment order on constitutional grounds, though martial law was imposed and civil rights were restricted. Removal and Relocation The government agency in charge of removing Nikkei from the West Coast was the War Relocation Authority (WRA). The internment took place in two phases: first, the Nikkei were transported to one of 18 quickly constructed assembly centers to be held until permanent facilities further inland were built; they were then transported to one of 10 new, permanent camps to be held for the remainder of the war with Japan. The assembly centers consisted of hastily converted fairgrounds and racetracks, and many families found themselves housed in horse stalls that had been made into living quarters. The permanent internment camps were built further inland under the direction of the U.S. Army. Like the assembly centers, the internment camps were surrounded by barbed wire fences and had armed guards at the gates and in the watchtowers. The barracks in the permanent camps were grouped together in blocks to serve as the physical and social focus for the interned Nikkei. Each block consisted of 14 barracks, lavatories and showers, a laundry room and ironing facility, one mess hall, and a recreation hall. The WRA tried to develop "self-government" programs as a way to run the camps more efficiently and win the support of the interned Nikkei. In each camp, a council of Nikkei internees were to advise the camp administration and help implement government policies in the camps. However, the self-government programs never really worked; camp administrations were fearful of giving the councils too much authority, and internees felt the councils were another arm of a government that had imprisoned them and stripped them of their rights. During the internment, many Nikkei fought to join the U.S. military; almost all of them felt that military service would be the best way to prove that they were loyal to America. In early 1942, Congress had designated all persons of Japanese descent, even American citizens, as "4C," or "aliens not subject for military service." After intense lobbying by the Japanese American Citizens League, Nikkei who were U.S. citizens were allowed to register for military service. Many Nisei—literally "second generation," Nikkei who were U.S. citizens by virtue of being born in the United States —promptly volunteered for service or registered for the draft. As the 442 Regimental Combat Team, internees were sent to Italy along with Hawaii's 100th Infantry Battalion, largely made up of Hawaiian-born Nikkei. The 442nd became one of the most decorated units in U.S. military history. Closure of the Camps In 1943, the WRA began a series of programs designed to close the camps and relocate the Nikkei to areas in the East and Midwest. However, many of the Nikkei were fearful of leaving the camps, worrying that they would simply be turned out without any means of supporting themselves. Others feared that outside the camps, they would be attacked by anti-Japanese mobs. Also of concern was the fact that, once outside the camps, the Nikkei may not have the traditional support structure of the community available to them. From 1943 to 1944, the WRA made the process of leaving the camps easier. By the end of May 1944, all that the Nikkei had to do was sign a statement saying that they were loyal to the United States and would register with the WRA field office wherever they resettled. By December 1945, only the Tule Lake camp remained open (it closed in 1946).
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