Azuka Ijomah O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

UZOCHUKWU ANGELA N PG/MSc/11/60859

BIOREMEDIATION OF OIL SPILL POLLUTED SOIL USING OYESTA MUSHROOMS (FUNGI) IN ELEME, RIVERS STATE

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL (CEMAC)

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DN : CN = Webmaster’s name

Azuka Ijomah O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL (CEMAC)

TOPIC BIOREMEDIATION OF OIL SPILL POLLUTED SOIL USING OYESTA MUSHROOMS (FUNGI) IN ELEME, RIVERS STATE

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE COURSE: EMC 651 (PROJECT)

BY UZOCHUKWU ANGELA N PG/MSc/11/60859

SUPERVISOR: DR K.C. OGBOI

MAY,2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Background of Study 1.3 Statement of Problem 1.4 Aim and Objective 1.5 Research Question 1.6 Research hypothesis 1.7 Scope of Study 1.8 Limitations 1.9 Study Justification/Significance Chapter Two 2.1 Conceptual Framework 2.2 Bioremediation (everything) 2.3 Definition of Parameters like oyesta mushroom, biored, oil sp microbes, P H, conductivities,

Nitrogen etc K.PO 4 Nitrogen, Particle Size, Potassium, Total hydrocarbon, particle size Chapter Three 3.1 Review of Related literature 3.2 Theoretical framework 3.3 Empirical Framework Chapter Four Study area History people and culture Location Geographical Area Weather Climate Ecological Problems Vegetation etc

ABSTRACT

Bioremediation potential of oyster mushroom on crude oil impacted soil , in Eleme, Port- Hacourt Rivers State was studied following laboratory analysis of the soil sample for nutrient composition (N,K,PO4), total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH), and soil textural composition, prior to , and after treatment with the oyster mushroom . Reference sample soil was analyzed for the same parameters. Soil samples were collected from the oil impacted soil every 4th day for 28 days of the bioremediation excercise . The crude oil impacted soil recorded a pH of 7.26 , electrical conductivity of 102.58us/cm , Nitrogen content of 0.28%, Phosphate content of 1.08ppm and Potassium content of 4.86ppm. The total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) was 284.65mg/kg. Post treatment analysis of the soil sample showed significant improvement in the nutrient compositions (N,0.98%, K,10.99ppm, PO4,3.08ppm) , reduction of the electrical conductivity and TPH(con,30.22, TPH, 20.42mg/kg). There were also improvements in the soil textural compositions. When the post treatment analytical values were compared with those of the reference soil , result showed significant closeness of the two values. The research proved that the oyster mushroom is a good bioremediating agent that should be explored and exploited in the management of oil polluted site.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Bioremediation refers to the use of microorganisms to degrade contaminants that pose environmental and especially human risks. Due to its safety and convenience, it has become an accepted remedy for cleaning of soil and water pollutants.

Bioremediation processes typically involve many different microbe acting in parallel or sequence to complete the degradation process. The ability of microbe to degrade a vast array of pollutants makes bioremediation a technology that can be applied in different soil conditions.

A widely used approach to bioremediation involves stimulating a group of organisms in order to shift the microbial ecology toward the desired process. This is termed. “Biostimulation.” Biostimulation can be achieved through change in pH, moisture, aeration, or nutrient additions. The other widely used approach is termed “Bioaugmentation” where organisms selected for high degradation abilities are used to inoculate the contaminated site. These two approaches are not mutually exclusive- they can be used simultaneously.

Eleme is a community in River State, one of the oil producing and agro-ecological areas in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria, a region with abundant natural resources including good weather and fertile land for agriculture. Although the level of agriculture production in that region is very low given the abundant resources endowment, it is the largest oil producing zone in the country. It is the base of Nigerian oil and gas industry, generating over 90% of the nation’s economy (Odjuvwlederhie et al, 2006). Oil exploration and activities have been concentrated in this Niger- Delta region which has over 1000 production oil-wells and over 47,000km of oil and gas flow lines (Ngobiri et al., 2007).

The negative impacts of these oil activities include destruction of wild life, loss of fertile soil, pollution of air and water and damage to the ecosystem of the host communities (Aghlino, 2000). The ecological problems observed as a result of oil spill include a brownish vegetation and soil erosion, diminishing resources of the natural ecosystem, fertile land turned barren and adverse effect on the life, health and economy of the people (Roberts, 1997).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

Oil spill is an unintentional release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment as a result of human activities. They are usually mostly caused by accidents involving oil tankers, barges, refineries, pipelines and oil storage facilities. These accidents can be caused by human mistakes or carelessness, deliberate acts by terrorist, militants or vandals and sometimes by natural disasters such as earthquakes.

In Nigeria, the major cause of oil spill is lack of regular maintenance of the principles and storage tanks. Most pipelines from the flow station are absolutely being more than 20 years old making them subject to corrosion and leakage. Some of these pipes are laid above ground level without adequate surveillance, exposing them to wear and tear and other dangers (Oyem, 2001). Another major cause of oil spill here is sabotage which involves bunkering by some unpatriotic Nigerians. They damage pipelines in the attempt to steal oil from them.

According to the annual report of the Department of Petroleum Resources, Abuja (1997), over 60000 spills have occurred in Nigeria during her 40 years of oil exploration. Between 1979 and 1996, the spill of 2.4x10 barrels of crude oil occurred from 647 incidents. Only 54706038 barrels were of oil recovered while 182040666 barrels were lost to the ecosystem.

The growth of oil industry combined with population explosion and a lack of environmental regulations have caused substantial damage to the environment of the Niger Delta. After several years of ignoring or giving little or no attention to the adverse effect of oil spill, the Federal Government of Nigeria along with the oil companies operating in the Niger Delta have began to take steps to mitigate the damages. The role of the environmental agency in checking and documenting oil-spills is getting stronger as the new wave of combating oil spill through phytoremediation in dramatically unfolding in the remediation industry.

In Rivers State several incidents of oil spillage have occurred in the last few decades. One of the major oil producing communities that has suffered the incidence of oil spill is Eleme. The spill incidents that have occurred in Eleme include the following:

1. Oil spill in Ogale due to pipeline vandalism that occurred in 2009. The resultant water pollution has deprived the residents of the community their sources of livelihood as their sources of potable water and farmlands were highly polluted.

2. Oil spill from the Okogbe tank truck explosion on 12 July 2012 which claims the life of 92 peoples who were scooping up spilled petrol, when the tanker caught fire.

3. The several incidents of oil spill in Ogali and Agbonchia that drastically contaminated the soil in the communities.

In response the remedial actions that have been carried out to mitigate or clean up oil spill in soil and rivers of Eleme community are:-

1. The use of skimmers to adsorb spilled oil accumulated on the river surface. There were polyethylene mop like pads which were placed on water surface of the affected rivers.

2. In-situ burns of spilled oil (slicks) on water surface – this was done in controlled delineated areas by fire resistant booms.

3. Spray of chemical dispersants from planes into the oil slicks on top of the river water – in order to break down the oil into small droplets which are more susceptible to natural degradation.

4. Scrapping of the top soil to remove contaminated areas.

Meanwhile the gaps and inadequacies that that arose from the application of the measures stated above are as follows:

1. The clean up method above affects air quality through the smoke and residuals

2. Some heavy crude oil compounds are left behind (they do not burn well) such as sticky asphaltenes from which road tars are made.

3. It has indicated that applying dispersants has toxic effects on coral reefs and other marine life.

4. Also scrapping of the stop of soil degrades the soil by removing the nutrients for plant growth and removes the fertility of the soil and renders it unsuitable for agriculture.

5. Introduction of contaminant to the soil

This therefore, requires that more suitable and environment friendly methods should be developed and applied in the Niger Delta. This study examines the application of bioremediation as an alternative for oil spill clean up in the region.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to examine the effectiveness of bioremediation in the oil spill contaminated soil using Oyesta Mushrooms (fungi) in Eleme Community in the Niger Delta. sss In order to achieve the aim , the specific objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To determine the nature and extent of damage caused by oil spill on the quality of the soil in Eleme community

2. To demonstrate the treatment of contaminated soil using Oyesta Mushrooms (fungi)

3. To recommend further ways to improve the application of the bioremediation in the treatment of oil spill contaminated soil in the study area.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following questions are raised in order to carry out the study:

1. What is the nature and extent of oil spilled contamination on the soil in Eleme community?

2. What is the extent of the damages caused by oil spill on the quality of the soil in Eleme community?

3. What are the parameters that measure the pollutants in the oil spilled soil in Eleme?

4. How can the treatment of contaminated soil using bio-remediation mechanism be carried out?

5. In what ways can the application of the bioremediation in the treatment of oil spill contaminated soil in the study area be improved?

1.5 HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis formulated to guide the investigation in this study includes:

1. There is no significant change after the treatment of oil spilled polluted soil.

2. There is no significant change in bioremediation of oil spill soil in Eleme Community.

3. There is no significant improvement in the bioremediation of oil polluted soil in Eleme.

1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study is restricted to bioremediation and its role as strategy for oil spill clean up. This was conducted in Eleme community in River state of the Niger-Delta. The research entails an analysis of oil spill in Eleme and the application of remediation of oil spill. It also considered the conventional techniques used for bio-remediation, factors that affect duration of bioremediation and the microorganisms used as bio-remediator. It also assessed the parameters for measuring soil quality. Based on the results recommendations was made.

1.7 LIMITATIONS

Some of the limitations that encountered in the course of the study include:

The unavailability of proper records of up-to-date oil spills in the study area. However, the data in the Department of Petroleum Resources Annual Report (1997) on oil spill was used.

The resident made it difficult for researcher to elicit information due to certain secrets they would not want to disclose. This is informed by the long standing hostility between the oil host communities and the oil companies. Psychological problems, poor retrieval of existing information and obsolescence of materials are other constraints. The researcher was forced to

9 contend with the non-chalant attitude of staff in certain oil companies and related agency in providing the researcher with the necessary materials.

1.8 STUDY JUSTIFICATION / SIGNIFICANCE

This research without doubt has a lot of significances, which will be of great benefit to oil producing communities, professionals, academics, industrialist, the government, businessmen and the general public who are interested in the bioremediation of oil polluted soil using oyster mushroom fungi and the economic value of the mitigated soil.

The study unveils practices of bioremediation and the famers who cultivate and sell mushroom. The researcher exposed various methods used to mitigate farmland that was polluted by oil spill and recover the land that has marked off due to pollution into fertile agricultural farmland. The study there for exposed the various ways one can make himself economical stable through bioremediation . The environmental protection that bioremediation render to the environ will arouse the interest of anybody who is environmentally friendly and this study reveals such responsibilities of those people or companies engaged on bioremediation taken upon themselves. This study will of course serves as an eye opener to the governments and oil companies who may never have considered the activities of bioremediation important and will there for guide policy making in the area of environmental cleanup. Moreover the use of oyster mushroom as remediator as oil spill cleanup has a lower or no environmental impact to compare to other means of oil spill cleanup like use of chemicals.

Finally, the study will be beneficial to undergraduates and postgraduate students who are intending to carry out further research on bioremediation of oil spill pollution. international organizations interested in alleviation poverty and improving environmental condition of the developing countries will find this study very useful.

CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

For proper understanding of this study, different definition and meaning of bioremediation and other related or relevant topics as they relate to bioremediation was explored. Meanwhile the researcher used oyster mushroom (fungi) to decontaminate or remediate oil spill polluted soil in

Eleme community because the mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are organic compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, structurally similar to many organic pollutants (Walanabe, 2001; Bartha and Bossert, 1984). Furthermore, mycelia absorb nutrients from their surroundings by feeding on the pollutants (oil spill). The oyster mushroom mycelia exude enzymes and acids that turn pollutants into biological accessible minerals and unravel the long-chain molecules of organic matter into digestible form. Fungal mycelia hold soil together helps it retain water and make its nutrients available to vegetation by so doing it remediates the contaminated soil.

Bioremediation:- Is the process of using microorganisms or its enzymes to degrade or mitigate contaminants that oppose environment and especially human health.

Furthermore, it define as the act of using living organisms, or its enzymes, primarily microorganisms fungi or plants to remediate or degrade the environmental contaminants hazardous to human and/or the environment into less toxic forms. Meanwhile, the microorganisms may be indigenous to a contaminated area or they may be isolated from elsewhere and brought to the contaminated site. Contaminant compounds are transformed by living organisms through reactions that take place as a part of their metabolic processes (Bolter and Grusin, 1999).

In addition bioremediation simple means the use of biological processes to degrade, breakdown, transform, and/or essentially remove contaminants or impairments of quality from soil and water.

Bioremediation is a natural process which relies on bacteria, fungi and plants to alter contaminants as these organisms carry out their normal life functions. Metabolic process of these organisms are capable of using chemical contaminants as an energy, source, rendering the contaminants harmless or less toxic products in most cases (Dana L. Donlon and J.W Bauder,

2006).

In continuation bioremediation is a waste management techniques that involves the use of organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. (Mann, D.K, Twait and

G. Wacher 1996).

According to the EPA, bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to breakdown hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances.

Bioremediation processes typically involve many different microbes acting in parallel or sequence to complete the degradation process. The ability of microbes to degrade a vast array of pollutants makes bioremediation a technology that can applied in different soil condition.

The widely used approach of bioremediation involves bioaugmentation and biostimulation, bioaugmentation involves the use of organisms with high degradation abilities to mitigate the contaminated site while biostimulation involves the modification of the environment to stimulate existing bacteria capable of bioremediation. This can be done by addition of various forms of rate limiting nutrients and election acceptors, such as phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen or carbon

(e.g in the form of molasses). (Battelle Press 2001).

BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES OR TECHNOLOGIES

The bioremediation technologies can be generally classified as in situ bioremediation and ex-situ bioremediation which are employed depending on the degree of saturation and aeration of an area.

In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated soil at the site with minimal disturbance. These techniques are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and fewer disturbances since they provides the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. While Ex-situ bioremediation involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are: phytoremedating, bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor, composting and rhizofiltration (EPA).

Bioremediation may occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic bioremediation) or may only effectively occur through the addition of fertilizers, oxygen etc that help encourage the growth of the pollution-eating microbes within the medium. For example, the US Army corps of

Engineers demonstrated that windrowing and aeration of petroleum-contaminated soils enhanced bioremediation using the techniques of landfarming. Depleted soil nitrogen status may encourage biodegradation of some nitrogenous organic chemicals, and soil materials with a high capacity to adsorb pollutants may slow down biodegradation owing to limited bioavailability of the chemicals to microbes. Recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident microbe population’s ability to break down contaminants. Meanwhile microorganisms used to perform the function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators (Battelle, 2000).

OYSTER MUSHROOMS

The oyster mushroom (Pleurotus Ostreatus) is a common edible mushroom. It was first cultivated in Germany as a subsistence measure during World War I and is now grown commercially around the world for food of all mushrooms commonly consumed, oyster mushrooms in the genus pleurotus stand out as exceptional allies for improving human and environmental health, it contains statins such as lovastation that reduces cholesterol. These mushrooms enjoy a terrific reputation as the easiest to cultivate, richly nutritious and medicinally supportive. Oyster mushrooms are also renowned for their ability to degrade environmental toxins, particularly hydrocarbon (Kummer, P. 1871). Der Fuhrer in die Pilzkunde (1 st ed) based contaminants. Their role as guardians of the biosphere becomes clear as new research into their complex biochemistry proves their potential to combat hunger, improve immunity and clean up polluted lands.

Oyster mushroom is one of the more commonly sought wild mushrooms, though it can also be cultivated on straw and other media. It often has the scent of anise due to the presence of benzaldehyde which smells more like almonds (Gunde-Cimerman N, Cimerman A. Mar 1995).

DESCRIPTION/DETAILS OF THE GILL STRUCTURE

The mushroom has a broad, fan or oyster-shaped cap spanning 5-25cm, natural specimens range from white to gray or tan to dark-brown, the margin is in rolled when young, and is smooth and often somewhat lobed or wavy. The flesh is white, firm and varies in thickness due to stipe arrangement. The gills of the mushroom are white to cream, and descend on the stalk if present.

If so, the stipe is off-center with a lateral attachment to wood. The spore print of the mushroom is

14 white to lilac-gray, and best viewed on dark background. The mushroom’s stip is often absent, when present, it is short and thick.

The oyster mushroom is widespread in many temperate and subtropical forests throughout the world, it is a saprotroph that acts as a primary decomposer of wood, especially deciduous trees and beech trees in particular. It is a white-rot wood-decay fungus. The oyster mushroom is one of the few known carnivorous mushrooms. Its mycelia can kill and digest nematodes which is believed to be a way in which the mushroom obtains nitrogen. The standard oyster mushroom can grown in many places, but some other related species, such as the branches oyster mushroom, grow only on trees. While this mushroom often seen growing on dying hardwood trees, it only appears to be acting parasitically. As the tree dies of other causes, oyster grows on the rapidly increases mass of dead and dying wood. They actually benefit the forest by decomposing the dead wood, returning vital elements and minerals to the ecosystem in a form usable to other plants and organisms. Moreover oyster mushroom are used to absorb and digest oil spills and other petroleum products. (Eger, G., Eden, G. and Wissig, E. 1976). Pleurotus ostreatus-breading potential of a new cultivated mushroom. Theoretic and applied genetics

47:155-163.

HOW TO GROW OYSTER MUSHROOM

Oyster mushroom, like other mushroom are grown in mushroom houses, but they required a bit more humidity and fresh air than the white variety. They grow well on a range of agricultural and wood waste products, including hardwood, chips, chopped cereal straws, or corn cobs. After the growing medium is pasteurized and cooled, it is inoculated, that is, mixed with spawn and packed into long, tubular shaped plastic bags. Holes are punched in the bags to allow the

15 mycelium to breathe and the bags are hang up or set on racks in the growing rooms. After about

14 days, the mushrooms pop out through the holes and can be harvested (Heather Rhoades,

2012).

OIL SPILL

PH-VALUE

PH: is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions with a P H less than 7

are said to be acidic and solutions with a P H greater than 7 are basic or alkaline.

The P H scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose P H is established by international agreement. Primary P H standard values are determined using a concentration cell with

transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard

electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. Measurement of P H for aqueous solutions can be done with a glass electrode and a P H meter, or using indicators. (Covington, A.K; Bates, R.G;

Durst, R.A 1985).

According to Donald Bickelhaupt, and Robert Schmedicke. Soil P H or soil reaction is an

indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is defined as the negative logarithm of the

hydrogen ion concentration.

The P H scale goes from 0 to 14 with P H 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in

the soil increase the soil P H decrease thus becoming more acidic. From P H 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from P H 7 to 14 soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic,

meanwhile the soil P H can be determine by P H meter. Also P H a good indicator of the balance of

available nutrients in the soil.

CONDUCTIVITY (ELECTROLYTIC)

The conductivity (or specific conductance) of an electrolyte solution is a measure of its ability to

conduct electricity. The SI unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter (s/m).

Conductivity measurements are used routinely in many industrial and environmental applications

as a fast inexpensive and reliable way of measuring the ionic content in a solution.

Electrical conductivity is a very quick, simple and inexpensive method that farmers and home

gardeners can use to check the health of their soil. Electrical conductive can be viewed as the

quantity of available nutrients in soil.

In the soil, the electrical conductivity (EC) reading shows the level of ability the soil water has to

carry an electrical current. The electrical conductivity (EC) level of the soil water is a good

indication of the amount of nutrients available for crops to absorb, also the electrical

conductivity can be measured by using EC meter. The probe or sensor consists of two metal

electrodes and a constant voltage is applied across the electrodes and a constant voltage is

applied across the electrodes resulting in an electrical current flowing through the sample (Gray,

James R. 2004).

TOTAL PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON

Total petroleum hydrocarbon is a term used for any mixture of hydrocarbons that are found in crude oil, crude oil is used to make petroleum products which can contaminate the environment.

Because there are so many different chemicals in crude oil and in other petroleum products, it is not practical to measure each one separately. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of total petroleum hydrocarbon at a site (Clayden, J., Greeves, N., et al 2011).

Chemicals that occur in TPH include: hexane, benzene toluene, xylenes, naphthalene and fluorene, other constituents of gasoline, of jet fuels of mineral oils, and of other petroleum products.

Total petroleum hydrocarbon is the sum of volatile petroleum hydrocarbons (VPH) also known as petrol range organics (PRO) they includes hydrocarbons from C2-C5 and extractable petroleum hydrocarbons (ESP) also known as Diesel range organics (DRO) they includes hydrocarbons from C6-C40 (Agency for toxic substances and disease registry; CDC last modified on 7 th April, 2014).

NITROGEN

Nitrogen is a common normally colourless, odourless, tasteless and mostly diatomic non-metal gas. It has five electrons in its outer shell, so it is trivalent in most compounds. The greatest single commercial use of nitrogen is as a component in the manufacture of ammonia, subsequently used as fertilizer and to produce nitric acid. Liquid nitrogen (often referred to as

LN 2) is used as a refrigerant for freezing and transporting food produce for the preservation of

bodies and reproductive cells (Sperm and eggs), and for stable storage of biological samples.

Nitric and salts include some important compounds. Nitric acid salts include some important

18 compounds, for example potassium nitrate, nitric acid and ammonium nitrate. Nitrated organic compounds, such as nitro-glycerine and trinitrotoluene are often explosives.

Nitrogen in the environment:- nitrogen constitutes 78 percent of Earth’s atmosphere and is a constituent of all living tissues. Nitrogen is an essential element for life because it is a constituent of DNA and, as such, is part of the genetic code.

Nitrogen molecules occur mainly in air, in water and soils, nitrogen can be found in nitrates and nitrites. All of these substances are part of the nitrogen cycle, and there are all interconnected.

Nitrogen is emitted extensively by industrial companies increasing the nitrate and nitrite supplies in soil as a consequence of reactions that take place in the nitrogen cycle. (Lenntech B.V 1998-

2014).

THE EFFECT OF NITROGEN IN THE SOIL

Nitrogen is essential for plants (producers) because it’s one of the building blocks of proteins and nucleic acids. In temperate areas, soil nitrogen is scarce, it acts as a limiting factor on the growth of plants (and therefore limits the flow of matter and energy through the ecosystem). Therefore, an excess of nitrogen input will at first cause over-stimulation of plant growth, which may lead to a collapse of the ecosystem later on.

Excess of nitrogen also upsets the balance between organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds, ultimately leading to greater release of ammonium which is deposited in the soil. This in turn leads to soil acidification due to nitrification processes, and loss of minerals. So the indirect effects of nitrogen can also affect the life of all the soil organisms. The most useful forms of nitrogen are nitrate (NO3-) nitrites (NO2-) and ammonium (NH3) which the plants can absorb.

(Calimecita, 2009).

Potassium

According to (Haynes, William M. ed. 2011) potassium is a chemical element with symbol k and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction and burning with a lilac flame.

Potassium accumulates in plant cells, and fresh fruits and vegetables are a good dietary source of it. This resulted in potassium first being isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, giving the element its name. for the same reason, heavy crop production rapidly depletes soils of potassium, and agricultural fertilizers consume 95% of global potassium chemical production.

Functions of potassium in the soil are as follows

It also plays role in sugar and carbohydrate production, transport and storage.

It also important, in conjunction with Ca and B, in the proper development of cell walls.

Controls plant cell Turgot and through this the opening and closing of leaf stoma. This in

turn controls the plants ability to effectively respond to drought stress.

Improves a plant ability to combat disease, and to a lesser extent insect damage.

Lastly potassium affects various quality factors of fruit and vegetables, such as taste and

color.

CHAPTER THREE

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

One of the major environment problems today is oil spill hydrocarbon contamination resulting from the activities related to the petrochemical industry. Accidental releases of petroleum product are of particular concern in the environment. Hydrocarbon components have been known to belong to the family of carcinogens and neurotoxin organic pollutants. Currently accepted disposal methods of the incineration or burial insecure landfills can become prohabitatively expensive when amounts of contaminants are large. Mechanical and chemical methods generally used to remove hydrocarbon from contaminated sites have limited effectiveness and can be expensive (Oyem, 2002).

Bioremediation is the promising technology for the treatment of these contaminated sites since it is cost-effective and will leads to complete mineralization. Bioremediation function basically on biodegradation, which may refer to complete mineralization of organic contaminants into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds and cell protein or transformation of complete organic contaminants to other simpler organic compounds by biological agents like microorganisms.

Many indigenous microorganisms in water and soil are capable of degrading hydrocarbon contaminates (Tenee and Albert, 2011).

During the early stages of development in the Niger Delta oil spill was not an issue of concern because the communities in the region were based on agriculture and marine activities for source of livelihood until the discovery of oil in the region. The region is endowed with abundant natural resources including good water and fertile land for agriculture. Meanwhile, the level of

21 agriculture production in the region has over the years declined given the abundant oil resource endowment.

The region is today the base of the Nigeria oil and gas industry, generating over 90% of the nation’s economy. According to Odjuvwuederhia et al (2006) and Ngobiri et al, (2007) oil exploration and activities have been concentrated in the Niger Delta region which has over 100 production oil wells and over 47,000km of oil and gas flow lines.

Petroleum: based products are the major source of energy for industries and daily life of human society. In the Nigeria’s oil industry several report of oil spills exist (Crisis Group, 2005). Leaks and accidental spills occur regular during the exploration, production, refining, transport and storage of petroleum and petroleum products (World Bank, 2005). The amount of natural crude oil sewage was estimated to be 600,000 metric tons per year with a range of uncertainty of

200,000 metric tons per year (Abii and Nwosu 2009). The release of hydrocarbons into the environment whether accidentally or due to human activities is a main cause of soil pollution.

Soil contaminated with oil spill causes extensive damage of the ecosystem since accumulation of pollutants in animals and plant tissue may cause death or mutations (Niger Delta Environmental

Survey, 2007). The technology commonly used for the soil remediation includes mechanical, evaporation, dispersion and washing, however, these technologies are expensive and can lead to incomplete decomposition of contaminants (United Nation Environmental programme, 2007).

The process of bioremediation, defined as the use of microorganisms to detoxify or remove pollutants owing to their diverse metabolic capacities is an evolving method for the removal and degradation of many environmental pollutants including the products of petroleum industry

(Tanee and Albert, 2011). In addition, bioremediation technology is believed to be non invasive and relatively cost-effective.

Bioremediation by natural population of microorganisms represents one of the primary mechanisms by which petroleum and other hydrocarbon pollutants can be removed from the environment and is cheaper than other remediation technologies (Tanee and Albert, 2011).

The success of oil spill bioremediation depends on one’s ability to establish and maintain conditions that favour, enhanced oil biodegradation rates in the contaminated environment.

Numerous scientific review articles have covered various factors that influence the rate of oil biodegradation. According to Tanee and Albert, (2011) there are two main approaches to oil spill bioremediation. They are as follows:

1. Bioaugumentation, which involves the use of organisms with high degradation abilities to

mitigate the contaminated site.

2. Biostimulation, in which the growth of indigenous oil degraders are stimulated by the

addition of nutrient.

One important requirement in bioremediation is deriving the appropriate metabolic capacities. If

the microorganisms are present, then optimal rates of growth and hydrocarbon biodegradation

can be sustained by ensuring that adequate concentrations of nutrients and oxygen are present

and the P H is between 6 and 9. The physical and chemical characteristics of the soil surface area are also important determinants of bioremediation success..

Most existing studies have concentrated on evaluating the factors affecting oil bioremediation or testing favored products and methods through laboratory studies. Only limited numbers of pilot scale and field trials have provided the most convincing demonstration of this technology. The

23 success of bioremediation efforts in the cleanup of the oil tanker Exxon valdez oil spill of 1989 in Prince William sand and the Gulf of Alaska created tremendous interest in the potential of biodegradation and bioremediation technology.

The scope of current understanding or oil bioremediation is also limited because the emphasis of most of these field studies and reviews has been given on the evaluation of bioremediation technology for dealing with large-scale soil spills on marine shoreline which are the basis on which survey was carried out (Nilanjana and Chandran 2007).

However, bioremediation is still considered the most environmental friendly method for oil spill treatment in cases where various methods were considered bioremediation was highly rated for its efficacy (Battelle, 2000). For example in the Exxon valdez oil spill of Alaska of March 24 th

1989, the use of bioremediation was highly successful. An oil tanker called Exxon valdez crashed into a reef in the Prince William sand in Alaska, spilled 11,000,000 gallons of oil that devastated the highly populated ecosystem. Attempts to clean rescued animals and scrub oily rocks were of little help and actually killed some organisms. Bioremediation was more successful. Ten weeks after the spill, researchers from the U.S Environmental Protection Agency applied phosphorous and nitrogen fertilizers to 750 oil-soaked sites. The fertilizer stimulated the growth of natural populations of bacteria that metabolize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are organic toxins that were present in the spilled oil. Over the next few years, ecologists monitored and compared the areas that the bacteria had colonized to areas where they did not grow, and found out that the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons fell five times faster in the bioremediated areas. (Skinner 1989).

Step were taken to mediate the effects of the spill quickly after the impact occurred. Booms were completely deployed around the ship 35 hours after the grounding occurred. On 25 th March

and 26 th Exxon conducted successful burn and dispersant tests. However, a large storm arose, with the consequence of converting much of the oil into mouse. As neither burning nor dispersants are effective on oil the form of mouse the use of both methods was discontinued. As it become clear that the spill was not containable, more booms were deployed to protect fish hatcheries and salmon streams, which were identified as having the highest priority for protection other methods of oil reclamation and cleaning included skimmers and sorbents. But both these mechanical methods were accompanied by costs in the forms of manpower and high amounts of waste produced, and so neither was entirely effective. The main methods used in the cleanup. While all of these have their prices, the high pressure water treatments arguably may cost more than they provide. Bioremediation has been considered to generally be both more effective and less harmful than high pressure water treatment. Bioremediation is the degradation of petroleum products by microorganisms, to encourage the growth of these naturally occurring organisms, fertilizers were added to many oiled shorelines with promising results, and bioremediation was generally pronounced a success beaches oil spill cleanup.

Furthermore, of the technologies and methods that have been investigated for the cleanup oil contaminated soils, bioremediation has appeared as the most desirable approach due to its low cost and ability to hinder the accumulation of contaminant (Bonnier et al, 1980, El-Nawawy et al, 1987). Shortly, soil bioremediation is the process in which most of the organic pollutants are decomposed by soil microorganisms and converted to harmless and end products such as carbon dioxide, methane and water (Walter et al, 1997).

In this study the researcher reviewed how growing mushroom at vehicle storage center helped to degrade and break down heavy oil pollutant. The soil was blackened with oil and reeked of aromatic hydrocarbons. The experimenter inoculated one berm of soil approximately 8 feet x 30 feet x 3 feet high with mushroom spawn while other technicians employed a variety of methods ranging from bacteria to chemical agents. After four weeks, the traps were pulled back, from each test pile. The first piles employing the other techniques were unremarkable. Then the trap was pulled from the mushroom experimenters pile, and gasps of astonishment and laughter welled up from the observers. The hydrocarbon-laden pile was bursting with mushrooms oyster mushrooms up to 12 inches in diameter had formed across the pile.

Analysis showed that more than 95% of many of the PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon) were destroyed, reduced to non-toxic components and the mushrooms were also free of any petroleum products.

After 8 weeks, the mushrooms had rotted away, and then came another starting revelation. As the mushrooms rotted, flies were attracted, (Sciarid, Phorid and other “fungus gnats” seek out mushrooms, engorged themselves with spores, and spread the spores to another habitats). The flies became a magnet for other insects, which in turn brought in seeds. Soon ours was an oasis, the only pile teeming with life. The experimenter assumed they have found what is called “a keystone” organism, one that facilitates cascade of other biological processes that contribute to habitat remediation; meanwhile mushrooms opened the door for this natural sequencing. (Terran zone 10/sunset 20 March 5 th 2007).

To move on (Margesin R. and Schinner 2001) theorized and investigated the feasibility of bioremediation as a treatment option for a chronically diesel-oil-polluted soil in an alpine glacier

26 area at an attitude of 2,875m above sea level. To examine the efficiencies of natural attenuation and biostimulation, they used filed-incubated lysimeters (Mesocosms) with unfertilized and fertilized (N-P-K-) soil. For three summer seasons (July 1997 to September 1999), they monitored changes in hydrocarbon concentrations in soil and soil leachate and the accompanying changes in soil microbial counts and activity. A significant reduction in the diesel oil level could be achieved. At the end of the third summer season (after 780 days), the initial level of contamination (2,612 ± 70 ug of hydrocarbons g (dry weight) of soil was reduced by 50 ± 4)% and (70 ± 2)% in the unfertilized and fertilized soil respectively. Nonetheless, the residual levels of contamination (1,296 ± 110 and 774 ± 52Ng of hydrocarbons) (dry weight) of soil in the unfertilized and fertilized soil, respectively) were still high. Most of the hydrocarbon loss occurred during the first summer season (42 ± 6)% loss) in the unfertilized soil. The fertilized soil, all biological parameters (microbial numbers, soil respiration, catalase and lipase activities) were significantly enhanced and correlated significantly with each other, as well as with the residual hydrocarbon concentration, pointing to the importance of biodegradation. The effect of biostimulation of the indigenous soil microorganism declined with time. The microbial activities in the unfertilized soil fluctuated around background levels during the whole study.

In continuation the researchers reviewed that bioremediation of hydrocarbon – contaminated soils, which exploits the ability of microorganisms to degrade and/or detoxify organic contamination, has been established as an efficient, economic, versatile and environmentally sound treatment (Norris R.D. 1994).

On-site-of-site and in situ system may be used. Decontamination of polluted sites in cold climates has received increasing interest recently.

Considerable oil bioremediation potential has been reported for a variety of terrestrial and marine cold ecosystems, including arctic, alpine and Antarctic soils. Alaskan ground water: and

Antarctic seawater and sea ice (Atlas R.M 1987). Field temperatures play a significant role in controlling the native and extent of hydrocarbon metabolism, temperature affects the rate of biodegradation as well as the physical native and chemical composition of hydrocarbons (Atlas

R.M, Bartha R. 1992).

Monitored natural attenuation (intrinsic bioremediation) is becoming the accepted option for low-risk oil contaminated sites and is a cost-effective remediation alternative (Hinchee R.E.

1998). As it has few costs other than monitoring costs and the time required for natural processes to proceed, bioremediation is most often the primary mechanisms for contaminant destruction, however physical and chemical processes, such as dispersion, dilution, sorption, volatilization and abiotic transformations are also important. (US Environmental Protection Agency 1999).

The most widely used bioremediation procedure is biostimulation of the indigenous microorganisms by addition of nutrients as input of large quantities of carbon sources (i.e contamination) tends to result in rapid depletion of the available pools of major inorganic nutrients, such as N and P (Morgan P. Watkinson R.J, 1989). Several studies of the effects of biostimulation with mainly N:P.K or olephilic fertilizers have reported positive effects on oil decontamination in cold ecosystems. (R. Margesin and F Schinner 1999).

Meanwhile, the objective of their study was to determine the feasibility of bioremediation as a treatment option for a chronically diesel-oil-polluted soil in an alpine glacier area at an attitude of 2,875m above sea level. Oil pollutant in ski resorts is caused by the use of motor vehicles for preparation of ski runs and also by leaks and storage tank ruptures. To examine the efficiencies of natural attenuation and biostimulation, they used field-incubated lysimeters (mesocosms) with

28 undertilized and fertilized soil. For three summer seasons (July 1997 to September 1999), they monitored charges in hydrocarbon concentrations in soil and soil leachate and the accompanying changes in soil microbial counts and activity. Lastly the result showed the effect of treatment on the time cousrse of hydrocarbon disappearance.

CHAPTER FOUR

3.0 THE STUDY AREA

This chapter presents the basic characteristics of the study areas. These include the history, people and culture, location, geographical features; weather/climate, wind, drainage, vegetation, soil, ecological problems, economic activities, and the oil industry. They are discussed as follows

3.01 HISTORY

Eleme Local government Area is an administrative subdivision of Rivers State, Nigeria, located east of Port Harcourt. it covers an area of 138km2 and at the 2006 census had a population of

190,884. its capital was changed from Nchia to Ogale by the legislative council during the chairmanship of Honourable Olaka Nwogu now of the National Assembly. [kwamikagami

2013].

The Eleme language, of the Ogonoid group of the Cross-River branch of the large Niger- Congo language family, is the main spoken language. Eleme has two of Nigerias four, as of 2005, petroleum refineries and one of the Nigerias busiest sea port and largest sea port in west Africa located at one of his famous town call O Nnne with multiple international industries and companies.

Christianity is the widely practical religion of the people with fewer who falls in the ancestral believe of their deitys , the Eleme people are talented people with diversity of culture practice and festivals that is enrich with colorful masquerrade display and dance.

Eleme has two groups of towns Odido and Nchia , each with their own dialect. Odido and Nchia can be easily understood by speakers of the opposing dialect. The Nchia dialect is spoken in the

30 western areas of the Eleme territory and the Odido dialect is spoken in the east and southeast regions . The towns of Eleme are ; Nchia Agbonchia , Akpajo , Ales , Aleto , Alode and Ogale.

Odido Ebubu , Ekporo , Eteo and Onne.

3.02 PEOPLE AND CULTURE

The Eleme people are of the various group of indigenous peoples that inhabit the Niger Delta region of southeast Nigeria. Eleme people are Eleme main ethnic group, with ten main towns ruled by a king as His Majesty The Oneh Eh Eleme [ chief of Eleme] with his current king as His

Majesty Chief Oluka Ejire who serve as a regent after the death his long ruled king Late Ngei O.

Ngei who rule for 30 years as king [ Elassint 2014].

Eleme is a kingdom and the head of this kingdom is known as The Oneh-Eh-Eleme [ The

Majesty of Eleme ]. Beneath him are the paramount rulers of the two major groups of of towns

Oneh Eh Nchia [ Chief of Nchia] and Oneh Eh Odido [ Chief of Odido], Each Nchia and Odido consist of towns which are further divided into areas of the community. The traditional ruler of each town is known as Oneh Eh Eta [ Town Chief].

The Eleme are an enthusiastic God fearing and aspiring group of people. Despite the influx of multinational chemical industries and their workforce into Eleme , a strong sense of society is retained by the Eleme people.

Eleme society is rich with its own culture and traditions , from superstitious and traditional religion to the frenzied spectacular that celebrates an Eleme wedding.

Traditionally, marriage ceremonies in Eleme could only occur in June , buth with the introduction of the proliferation of christianity , this practice was first extended to christmas

31 period and then beyond . Now weddings occur at any time of the year, although more conservation families may still favour the traditional period for wedlock.

Several stages are involved in the marriage proposal process . The first stage involves the initial inquiry made by the groom to the father of the bride. drinks typically palm wine , are given to the father at this point. The process of drink-giving may occur several times before moving on the next stage. Drinks are normally accompanied by money. The most serious negotiation involved in the marriage process is that of the bride price .The bride price is a large sum of money paid to the family of the bride , accompanied by yams , rice, palm wine , a large goat and other gifts.

The negotiation may involve the number of important figures from the community. The negotiated amount is highly valuable and generally reflects the estimated wealth of proposed inlaw.

The wedding ceremony itself is a procession from the house of the bride to the town square, accompanied by the sounds of drummers and singing. The bride is dressed in ceremonial beads and traditional headgear .Heavy metal bracelets sprial from her ankle to knees. Around her waist, wrappers are tightly tied in concentric circles by her female relatives. The brides body may be extensively decorated in elaborate designs with natural dyes. Important guests thanked and presented with drinks. The ceremony concluded with various dances and gifts are given to the new couple, including money and clothes.

3.03 LOCATION

Eleme as a community is made up of 10 clans. These communities make Eleme Local

Government Area of Rivers state. The area is located at about 20km east of Port-Harcourt. The total territory occupied by Eleme is approximately 139 square kilometers.

Eleme is an urban community located in Rivers State. Rivers State is one of the 36 states of

Nigeria. Its capital is Port-Harcourt. River state is located in South-South geopolitical zone of

Nigeria, The state is bounded on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the North by Imo, Abia and

Anambra states, on the East by Akwa Ibom state and on the West by Bayelsa and Delta state.

The state covers a total of 11,077km land area traversed by rivers in the Niger Delta and the distributaries of the River Niger.

River state is home to diverse ethnic groups. Some of the ethnic groups include Ikwerre, Ijaw and Ogoni. The state is located at latitude 4.75 0N, 6.833 0E and Longitude 445N 6 050E.

Eleme is located in Eleme Local Government Area. Figure 1 shows the location of Rivers State in Nigeria.

The state is divided into twenty three local government areas which include Abua/Odual,

Ahoada-East, Ahoada-West, Akuku-Tori, Andoni, Asari-Toru, Bonny, Degema, Eleme, Enuoha,

Etche, Gonaka, Ikwerre, Khana, Obia/Akpor, Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni, Ogu/Bolo, Okirika, Omuma,

Opobo/Nkoro, Oyigbo, Port-Harcourt and Tai.

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Rivers State.

Source: The Nation Paper (2012)

Fig.2: Map of Rivers State showing Eleme, the study area

Source: The Nation Paper (2012)

3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

3.3 WEATHER/CLIMATE

Rainfall in Eleme is seasonal, variable and heavy. Generally south of latitude 05 0N rain occurs,

on the average, every month of the year, but with varying duration. The area is characterized by

high rainfall. In Rivers State the total annual rainfall decreases from about 4,700mm on the coast

to about 1,700mm in extreme north of the state. It is 4,698mm at Bonny along the coast and

1,862mm at Degema. In Eleme, the rainy days are about 182 with mean maximum monthly

temperatures that range from 28 0c to 33 0c, while the mean minimum monthly temperatures are in the range of 17 0c to 24 0c. The mean monthly temperature in the area is in the range of 25 0c to

28 0c. The hottest months are February to May. The difference between the dry season and wet

season temperatures is only about 2 0C. Relative humidity is high in the area throughout the year and decrease slightly in the dry season (Salawu 1993)

3.3 VEGETATION

Eleme belongs to the “Upland” area of Rivers State which is originally characterized by rainforest. The vegetation has been drastically modified by human activities. In most places, economic trees, particularly oil palm, have been preserved and thus the sobriquets for this vegetation as “oil palm bush”. The area has a peculiar feature where the rainforest vegetation is mixed with the vegetation associated with the river line area which is divisible into three main hydro-vegetation zones namely, the beach-ridge zone, the salt water zone and the freshwater zone.

The beach-ridge zone is vegetated mainly by fresh water swamp trees, palms and shrubs on the sandy ridges and mangroves in the intervening valleys or tidal flats. The saltwater zone is the

36 tidal flat or swamps vegetated by the red stilt rooted mangrove (flhizophora racemosa) and two other species or mangrove.

The areas of raised alluvial ground or coastal plain terrace within the swamps are vegetated by fall forest tree species and oil palm. The freshwater zone is mainly the upper and lower Delta flood plains of the Niger, having fresh water forest trees which are the edaphic variants of the rainforest. The Abura tree, oil palm, raffia palm, shrubs, lianas, ferns and floating grasses and reeds are the typical vegetation. . Figure 2 presents the map of Nigeria showing the vegetation zones

Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing the Vegetation Zones

Source:

Bayode et al (2011)

3.4 SOILS

There are three major soil groups in River state, namely: a. The marine and fluvial marine sediments

b. The mangrove swamp alluvial soils

c. Freshwater brown loams and sandy loams

The marine and fluvial marine sediments are found in the wet coastal region. The soils are

organic in nature and essentially sandy in texture. Some consist of mud mixed with decayed

organic matter. The mangrove swamp alluvial soils are found in northern part of the coastal

sediments zone. They are brownish on the surface, sometimes with an unpleasant and offensive

odour. The soils of the swamps are rich in organic matter in the top layer, but contain too much

salt especially in the dry season.

The third soil group, the brown loams and sandy loams are found in the fresh water zone of the

delta. The levees which form the common land forms of this zone are made up of rich loams at

their crests, changing to more acidic and more clayed soils along their slopes.

3.5 DRAINAGE

Drainage is poor, being low-lying, with much surface water and a high rainfall, of between

3,420mm and 7,300mm thus, almost all river line local government areas are under water at one

time of the year or another, again some areas of the state are tidally flooded, while others are

seasonally, thus limiting agricultural practices and undated urban settlement development that

would have enhanced social welfare facility provision. The state is drained by two main river

38 systems, that is freshwater systems wholly within the coastal lowlands and tidal systems confirmed largely to the lower half of the state.

Drainage densities of rivers within the state have typical value of 1.5km and 5 invasity ratios are in excess of 1.9 indicating that the meandering channels are tortuous. These systems have a general downstream increase in width and velocity, especially in the freshwater zones. The state is drained by the Bonny - New Calabar River Systems and by a maze of effluent creeks and streams. River bank levees are prominent and valley side slopes are very gentle and experience a great deal of erosion and accretion. All the rivers enter into the sea through wide estuaries.

3.6 RAINFALL

The Eleme is characterized by high rainfall, which decreases from south to north. Total annual rainfall decreases from about 4,700mm on the coast to about 1,700mm in extreme north of the state. It is 4,698mm at Bonny along the coast and 1,862mm at Degema.

Rainfall is adequate for all year round crop production in Eleme. The duration of the wet season is not less than 330 days, of which a great number is rainy days (days with 250mm or more of rain). For Port-Harcourt, the rainy days are about 182. Mean maximum monthly temperatures range from 28A 0c to 33a 0c, while the mean minimum temperature are in the range of 17 0c to

24 0c.

The mean monthly temperature is in the range of 25 0c to 28 0c. the mean annual temperature for

the area is 26 0c. The hottest months are February to May. The difference between the dry season

and wet season temperatures is only about 2 0c relative humidity is high in Eleme throughout the

year and decreases slightly in the dry season (Salawu 1993).

Figure 4: Map of Nigeria showing total annual rainfall in Eleme, River State

Source: Bayode et al (2011)

3.7 WIND

Two major air masses (wind) that determine the climate conditions of the country have much influence in the area. The first is the tropical Maritime Air Mass or the south-wet trade wind which originated from the Atlantic Ocean and carries much moisture thereby results in much precipitation in the southern part of country between March and October. (see figure 6i) the second is the tropical continental Air mass or the North-east trade wind that originates from the

Sahara Desert. This is dusty, hazy and carries no moisture and therefore dries. It affects mostly the northern part of the country and it is between November and March. Micro winds are occasionally generated by local air currents (see figure 6ii)

3.13 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

During the pre-colonial era, economic activities of the indigenes of the Eleme community entailed mainly export of salt and fish to the hinterland. In the 18 th century, when the slave trade was at its peak, the region was West Africa’s largest slave exporting area, and this was enhanced by its proximity to the sea. Slave trades, however, diverted to palm oil trade in the 19 th century when the slave trade declined.

The major traditional occupation includes: farming and fishing, while secondary occupation include industries like gin distillation, textile weaving and boat carving. Tertiary occupation includes trade and commercial and transportation. Since 1968, when oil exploitation become the major production activities in the area, both the Nigeria government and the oil companies have been dodging their responsibility of industry have led to the Niger Delta becoming the most underdeveloped region in Nigeria.

In addition Eleme has one of Nigeria’s four petroleum refineries and one of the Nigeria’s busiest sea Port and the largest sea port in West Africa. It is located at one of the famous towns in the area called Onne with number of multi-national oil companies and related industries.

The traditional economic activities o the people include farming, fishing, trading, distilling of gin, craft making, hunting and boat and canoe building. With the increasing urbanization in the area modern economic activities are being introduced

3.16 ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Deforestation is among the ecological problems confronting the Eleme, as mass deforestation of both mangrove and rain forest is extensive. In fact, in some parts of the state, derived savannah

41 exists. Eleme is a community of physical difficulties, such as low-lying terrain riddled with an intricate system of natural water channels, too much surface water and a high rainfall; unin habitable mangrove swamps and some parts of the state suffer from inaccessibility.

The character of Rivers state relief, drainage and geology poses much problem to resources exploitation and economic development. Other ecological problems include severe beach erosion associated with sea level rise due to global climatic change; annual inundation by river floods, salty soils fertility due to excessive rainfall, and susceptibility of settlement sites along the creeks to creek erosion.

Oil spills and gas flares with associated thermal, air, water surface and aquifer pollution, caused by oil exploration and production, are taking a toil on the agricultural output of the land, fisheries, vegetation and wildlife.

Other consequences of this include negative impacts on the fertility and life span of inhabitants in such a manner that life expectancy is falling and the birth of abnormal babies and plants have increased. Malnutrition is a major problem especially among children. Water related disease arising from waste disposal/practices constitute serious problems throughout the area. Studies of the six major causes of death in Nigeria (measles, malaria, pneumonia, tetanus, dysentery and tuberculosis) indicate that the coastal area constitutes a zone of disproportionately high mentality proneness to these diseases. The prevalence of these diseases is relatively high in Eleme.

CHAPTER FIVE

METHODOLOGY

5.0 TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA

In this study two main sources of data collection was used . These are primary and secondary sources as discussed below:

5.1 SECONDARY DATA

These are information /data which are available and was used by the researcher . The data was collected from published and unpublished materials. The data collected are as follows:

1. Data was collected from the text books, Journals, other published and unpublished

materials, editorials, seminar papers ,conference papers , Government documentation and

gazette in the University of Port-Harcourt main library River State University of Science

and Technology.

2. Information was collected from the internet in the areas that deals with bioremediation of

oil spill.

3. Researches and records from the web-site of the guardian (London).

4. Oil spill incidence volume spilled and volume recovered from the Department of

Petroleum Resources Annual Report, Abuja ( 1997).

5.2 PRIMARY DATA

This is the method of collecting data directly from the field survey and direct observation of

events . The major instrument to be used in primary data collection are the use of physical

observations, experimentation method of the oil polluted soil and use of oyster mushroom for

mitigation of oil polluted site. Primary data including field survey was used to assess the general

43 aspect of bioremediation as effective means of oil spill cleanup in Eleme community of River

State.

5.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

MATERIALS:

The materials and its sources used by the researcher for the effective of this study are as follows:

Spawns of Oyster Mushroom Dept. of Botany, UNN

Soil Augar Engineering Laboratory Equipments (ELE), England

Hot Air Oven Gallenkamp, size II Sieve shaker Endocort, England Pallet Knife Gallenkamp Kjedhal Equipment Gallenkamp Laboratory Blender Master Chef Volumetric apparatus unbranded Top-loading Digital Balance Ohaus, Pc, 400 Ultrasonic bath Gallenkamp UV-visible Spectrophotometer Pye Unicam, SP600 Rotary Evaporator Gallenkamp Round bottom flask Pyrex Sulphuric acid A/R M&B N-Hexane A/R Reidnedehein Toluene A/R M&B Boric acid A/R BDH Hydrochloric acid A/R BDH Phenolphthalein M&B

5.4 METHODS

The research involved field and laboratory studies. The field study was conducted in a plot of soil contaminated with diesel oil in Ekpao of Eleme community. A portion of the plot of land measuring 12×12 meter was marked off with pegs and bamboo woods to form a fence. A caveat emptor was placed on the gate of the fence to warn off intruders from intervening with the experimentation.

The portion of land so marked-off, here-in-after referred to as the site, was tilled with a digger and beds were made. Owing to degenerate heterotrophic nature of mushrooms, compost was prepared to enhance cultivation of the mushroom.

Prior to the tilling of the soil, the site was divided into quadrant, and soil samples collected from each quadrant, bulked and thoroughly mixed to form a representative raw sample. It was properly labeled and stored at a temperature of 4°C until analyzed for its physic-chemical profile.

5.5 PREPARATION OF COMPOST

Compost was formulated to serve as nutritive medium for the mushrooms. The raw material for composting consisted of straw, corn cobs, plant leaves, cocoa seed hulls and hardwood saw dust.

They were pulverized into a coarse form using Laboratory hammer mill, sprinkled with water, and covered with perforated wood sheet to prevent rodent infestation. The compost was allowed to stay for 21 days (i.e. three weeks), after which it was pasteurized and spread on the beds in the site.

The spreading of the compost in the bed marked the beginning of mushroom cultivation and was marked as Day 1; during which spawns were inoculated into the compost adulterated site beds, covered with a layer of hardwood sawdust and sprinkled with sufficient water periodically, using a lawn sprinkler. This was necessary as it ensured optimal humidity, heat and temperature required for oyster cultivation. This lasted for 28 days. At the end of the 28 th day, the bed became

filled with the root structure of the mushrooms – a network of lacy-white filamentous structure

called the mycelia, followed by the formation of white protrusions on the mycelia which pushed

through the dust. This process is called pinning and the pins eventually grew up to 12inches in

diameter to become the mushroom cap (the fruit of the mushroom). From the 28 th day of spawns’ inoculation, samples of the soil were collected from each grid, bulked to form a representative sample, labeled and taken to the laboratory for proper preservation until used. Soil sample collection was done every four days for another twenty-eight days (4weeks), when flies and other fungus gnats were observed engorged with spores. The flies and gnats attracted other carnivorous animals, resulting in the proliferation of micro- and macro- flora and fauna, an indication of a redeemed soil.

LABORATORY ACTIVITIES

The pretreated and post-treated soil samples collected were analyzed for the following

physic-chemical parameters using standard methods.

— Particle size distribution by sieve analysis — Conductivity by Direct Reading Engineering Method (DREM), using Hanna multimeter. — PH by Direct Reading Engineering Method (DREM), using Hanna multimeter. — Nitrogen by Kjedhal method — Phosphorous by spectrophotometric method

— Potassium by flame photometric method — Total hydrocarbon using solvent extraction/gravimetric method.

Bioremediation was considered effective when the visual observation of micro- and macro- lives tallied with improved soil physic-chemical parameters.

Soil sample was collected from a reference point, 1km from the site within the same geographical location, and its physic-chemical properties compared with those of the treated samples

Soil sample Collection and Treatment

A hand soil augar (Nickel-plated carbon steel, 3’’ diameter) was used to collect the soil by taking

8 auger borings at random grid to a depth of 0-15cm, representing the top soil.

Samples were collected into ziplock black plastic bags and stored in a wide mouth amber-colored

5L sample bottles, then conveyed to AB Jones Global Ventures Laboratory, 20 Oregbun

Crescent, GRA, Phase II, Port-Harcourt, where they were preserved in a fridge at 4c, until used.

Determination of Total Hydrocarbon in the Hydrocarbon-mixture Contaminated Soil. This was done as outlined in Wang et al 2011, with slight modifications. 1kg of the soil sample was used.

The total hydrocarbon was determined as hydrocarbon Mixture Standard Sample (MSS).

100g of the contaminated soil was weighed into a 250ml glass flask and 200ml of the N-Hexane added, placed in ultrasonic bath for 1hr, to obtain an organic suspension which was then incubated at room temperature for 24hrs. The supernatant was transferred to another evaporation flask, ultra-sonicated for 1hr and incubated for 24hrs at room temperature. This separation was repeated twice and then evaporated in a rotary evaporator and its weight determined gravimetrically by difference. The above procedures were repeated 10 times to exhaust the 1kg sample. This was necessary both for accuracy and convenience as 1kg soil sample would be difficult to handle in the available rotary evaporator glass-wares.

The total hydrocarbon was determined in the soil prior to the commencement of the bioremediation and subsequently once every four days for the one month, during the bioremediation exercise.

Determination of Particle Size Distribution

100g of the soil sample was subjected to sieve analysis using Endocort® sieve shaker. The mesh size of the sieve was used to characterize the particles as coarse sand (> 0.2mm), fine sand (0.02-

0.2mm), silt sand (0.002-0.02mm) and clay sand (<0.002mm).

Determination of P H

A suspension of the soil sample was made in water by adding 100g of the soil sample in 250ml of distilled water, thoroughly mixed with stirring rod and allowed to settle. The probe of the pre- calibrated P H meter was dipped into the soil in water suspension and the P H mode called up. The value displayed at the LCD panel was taken as the true value.

Determination of the Conductivity

This was also determined as above, except the soil in water suspension was done with distilled de-ionized water. The probe was inserted into the suspension and the conductivity mode called up. The value displayed in µs/m, was taken as the true value.

Determination of Nitrogen

10 gram of the soil sample was digested in 50ml sulphuric acid, catalyzed by selenium tablet in the presence of anti-bumping granules, to convert the nitrogen into ammonium sulphate. The ammonium sulphate was distilled into 25ml of boric acid solution to form ammonium borate, in the presence of 0.1N of NaOH. The alkaline ammonium borate was titrated with 0.1N HCL, using phenophthaleine indicator to pink end point.

Determination of Potassium

A suspension of 10g of the soil sample was made with 100ml of de-ionized water with proper stirring. 1ml of the suspension was aspirated into the flame photometer, nebulized and aerosolized with fine air-jet in the presence of potassium filter

The hypothesis formulated in this research work was tested using simple T test and ANOVA.

Hypothesis 1 and 2 formulated at the beginning of this research was tested using T. test while hypothesis 3 was tested using ANOVA. Using α = 0.05 or 5% to check.

A T-test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a student's t-

distribution if the null hypothesis is supported. it can be used to determine if two sets of data are

significantly different from each other, is most commonly applied when the test statistics would

follow a normal distribution if the value of a scaling term in the test statistics were known.

When the scaling term is unknown and is replaced by an estimate based on the data, the test

statistics (under certain conditions) follows a student's t-distribution.

Formula for T test

T = χ - µ S/ √ n χ means – sample means

U means – population mean

S means – sample standard deviation

Analysis of variance is one of the statistical tools for investigating differences between means. it allows multivariate comparison of means and calculates the significances of the association for more than one predictor variable at a time. (Kerlinger and Lee, 2004) observed that ANOVA is one of the advanced tools, which apply sophisticated experimental designs thus could handle complex statistical situations . ANOVA employs variances entirely instead of actual differences and standard error . The two variances are marched against each other. one is said to be presumable due to the experimental variance ( independent variances) and the other presumably

51 due to error or randomness. ANOVA employs data being measured in interval scale for the group variable while the predicting independent variables are measured in nominal scale. There for testing the hypothesis ( Ho) that the sample means are the same, equals as presented as follows:

Ho: M 1 = M 2 = M 3.

Meanwhile the researcher used this technique in this analysis and presentation because of its simplicity and conciseness.

The F statistic was employed for the null hypothesis in an ANOVA problem statement that is to test significances in difference in means between and among groups. if variance is small and falls within chance level, it could be concluded that there is no significant difference between group means. The null hypothesis is thus accepted. however if the variance is large and above the critical level, it means that there is a significant difference between the oil spill polluted soil and the non-polluted soil that is studies as the null hypothesis will be however rejected. in this study, the null hypothesis is to determine whether significant differences exist in the oil spill polluted soil and the non-polluted soil in Eleme community.

The equation of the sample factor analysis of variance technique is given as:

Formula for ANOVA

--2 -- 2 SS TOTAL = Σyχ _ (Σyχ ) N

-2 - 2 SS TREATMENT = Σyχ - (Σyχ ) n N

SS ERROR = SS TOTAL - SS TREATMENT ANOVA TABLE

Source Degree SS Means square F – ratio

DF freedom Sum of squares

Treatment k – I SS TREATMENT SS TREATMENT MS TREATMENT

n - 1 MS ERROR

ERROR n – k SS ERROR SS ERROR

n - 1

Total n – I SS TOTAL

Source: Kerlinger and Lee (2004).

CHAPTER SIX

6.1 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, data collected in the field was duly analyzed . The proper interpretation of data

obtained from oil spill polluted site was made . Also the hypothesis formulated in chapter one

was tested. The significance of the hypothesis testing is to validate the stated hypothesis whereby

the null hypothesis will either be accepted or rejected. Effort was also made to avoid committing

type 1 or type 11 error that is in the acceptance or rejection of hypothesis.

RESULTS OF LABORATORY ANALYSIS

H 3- P Cond.µs/cm N% PO4 kppm TPH mg/kg Sand% Silt% Clay ppm %

OPS 7.26 102.58 0.28 1.08 4.86 284.65 26.0 27.3 41.1

RFS 4.84 25.60 1.09 3.40 11.33 19.0 37.02 48.5

Day 1 7.10 102.44 0.28 4.88 282.90 43.55 28.12 28.45 08/08/13

Day 2 6.45 98.22 0.34 1.08 5.10 256.15 39.7 31.80 32.9 12/08/13

Day 3 6.20 70.15 0.66 1.65 6.22 220.18 34.5 33.10 34.5 16/08/13

Day 4 5.50 48.54 0.84 1.99 8.14 202.26 30.28 33.74 35.10 20/08/13

Day 5 5.20 40.10 0.92 2.45 9.98 180.01 28.90 34.11 37.66 24/08/13

Day 6 5.05 36.18 0.96 2.07 10.12 72.18 27.11 35.99 39.91 28/08/13

Day 7 5.00 30.22 0.98 3.08 10.99 20.42 26.0 36.90 46.01 01/09/13

LEGEND

Con – Electrical Conductivity

PO 4 – Phosphorous as phosphate

K – Potassiumy

PD - Particle Distribution

OPS – Oil Polluted Soil

RFS – Reference Soil

Day n – Sample Collection days

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

Graph 1: show the concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPHmg/kg)

284.65 282.9 256.15

220.18 202.26 180.01

72.18

20.42 0

TPH mg/kg

Graph 1 shows the concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPHmg/kg) in the polluted site. It also shows that as the day of treatment increases the total concentration of petroleum hydrocarbon decreases.

Graph 2: shows the concentration of Nitrogen (N%)

1.09 0.98 0. 92 0.96 0.84

0.66

0.34 0.28 0.28

N% Graph 2 shows the concentration of nitrogen (N%) in the site, it indicate that as the day fo treatment increases, the concentration of nitrogen increases.

Graph 3: shows the concentration of Potassium (Kppm)

11.33 10.99 9.98 10.12 8.14

6.22 4.86 4.88 5.10

Kppm

Graph 3 shows the concentration of the potassium in the polluted site, it also indicates that as the day of treatment increases, the potassium contents in the soil increases too.

Graph 4: shows the total conductivity of the soil cond.us/cm

102.58 102.44 98.22

70.15

48.54 40.1 36.18 30.22 25.6

Cond. µs/cm

Graph 4 shows the total conductivity (cond.us/cm) of the soil. This entails that as the day of treatment increases the conductivity of the soil decreases.

6.2 THE HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The hypothesis formulated at the beginning of this research was tested using simple T test and

ANOVA.

A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decision using data, whether from a control experiment or an observational study (not controlled) in statistics. The critical region of

57 hypothesis testing is the set of all out comes which causes the null hypothesis to be rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis.

The critical region is usually denoted by later c or z.

HO: state there is no significant different, that is the oil spill in Eleme community in Rivers State

have no effect on their soil.

HI: States that there is statistical. Significant different between the oil spill on soil of Eleme in

Rivers State, that is to say that oil spill in Rivers State has statistical effect in the soil of Rivers

State Nigeria.

From this research work, the researcher is trying to know if there is relationship between oil spill and bioremediation that is if bioremediation can remediate the effect of oil spill in the soil of

Eleme of Rivers State.

Hypothesis 1

Ho: There is no significant change after the treatment of oil spilled polluted soil.

Hi: There is a significant relationship/change after the treatment of total petroleum hydrocarbon

oil spill in the soil.

The researcher used the total petroleum hydrocarbon concentration to test the first hypothesis as follows.

T = x - µ S/ √ X = 176.3

µ = 284.65

58 n = 7

S = √Σ(Xi – x-2 n – 1

= S √ (282.90 – 176.3) 2 +…….+ (20.42 – 176.3) 2 7 – 1 = 96.2

t = 176.3 – 284.65 - 108.35 96.2/ √7 = 36.36 = 2.98

Decision Rule : If /t/ cal < t tab we therefore accept the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a

significant relationship. While t tab = 1.90 using α 0.05 or 5% to check since /t/ cal = 2.98 > t tab =

1.90, we therefore reject H o and conclude that there is a significant change after the treatment of total petroleum hydrocarbon in the soil.

Hypothesis 2 testing:

Ho: There is no significant change in bioremediation of soil oil spill soil in Eleme community.

Hi: There is a significant change in bioremediation of oil spill soil in Eleme community. The

researcher tested this hypothesis by testing the Nitrogen percent/content in the

bioremediated soil.

X = 0.71 µ = 0.28 N = 7 S = 0.29 t = 0.71 – 0.28 0.29/ √7 = 0.43 0.11 = 3.91

/t/ = 3.91 > t tab = 1.9, thus we reject Ho and conclude that there is a significant change – treatment of oil spilled soil brought about change and increase in N% content of the soil which aid the growth of living things.

Hypothesis 3

Ho: There is no significant improvement in the bioremediation of oil polluted soil in Eleme.

Hi: There is a significant improvement in the bioremediation of oil polluted soil in Eleme.

The researcher tested hypothesis 3 by testing the concentration of the following Nitrogen (N%),

H- 3- P value, phosphorous as phosphate (PO 4 ), potassium (k).

TREATMENT

H 3- N% P PO 4 K Total

2/0.34 6.45 1.08 5.10 12.97

4/0.84 5.50 1.99 8.14 16.47

7/0.98 5.00 3.08 10.99 20.05

Total Soil 2.16 16.95 6.15 24.23 49.49

2 2 2 2 SS TOTAL = 0.34 + 6.45 +…..+ 10.99 – (49.49) 12

= 326.29 – (49.49) 2 12

= 326.29 – 204.11

= 122.18

2 2 SS TREATMENT = 2.16 +……+ 24.23 – 204.11 3 = 916.88 - 204.11

= 305.63 – 204.11

= 101.52

SS ERROR SS TOTAL - SS TREATMENT

= 122.18 – 101.52 = 20.66

ANOVA TABLE Source of variation DF SS MS F – ratio Treatment 4-1=3 101.52 101.52 33.84 3 = 33.84 2.58 = 13.12

Error 12-4 = 8 20.66 20.66 8 = 2.58 Total 12-1 = 11 122.18

Decision Rule : Reject Ho if F cal > F α, k-1, n-k otherwise accept Ho checking with α 0.05.

F0.05, 3, 8 = 4.07

Decision

Since Fcal = 13.12 > F0.05, 3, 8 = 4.07, we therefore reject the Ho and conclude that there is a

significant improvement after the soil has been treated.

6.3 DISCOVERING

Since 0.8 is approximately one (+1) we could conclude that Bioremediation has perfect

relationship with oil spill in general.

Since Bioremediation has perfect relationship with oil spill,

1. We can conclude that bioremediation can be use to control the adverse reaction of oil

spill occurred in the soil

2. Bioremediation is used to boost the soil fertility

3. It can also be used to control the ecosystem if well cultured.

4. It can also be used to boost the economy of oil producing states like Eleme in Rivers

state.

5. It can also help to create job opportunity for the teaming youths.

The result from the hypothesis testing revealed that there is a statistical significant relationship

between oil spill and bioremediation in oil producing area in River State (Eleme community).

Oil spill if not proper managed can also result to the death of wild life and aquatic animals

(biodiversity) as well as loss of future cultivable land and low fertility in the soil leading to low

production.

HO: No statistical significant different

HI: Significant different

Since there is relationship between bioremediation and oil spill.

HO: That is null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternative hypothesis.

CHAPTER SEVEN

7.1 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMADATION

1. Bioremediation of the oil polluted soil using oyster mushroom was studied. Preliminary

analysis of the crude impacted soil revealed the following; a pH of 7.26, Conductivity of

102.58 us/cm, percentage Nitrogen of 0.285%, Phosphate content of 1.08ppm Potassium

content of 4.86ppm, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon of 284.65mg/kg. The fertility of soil is a

function of its physico - chemical and biological parameters. The values of Nitrogen,

Potassium and Phosphate of the polluted soil were significantly low if compared with the

reference standard from the same geographical location. The Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon

[TPH] content of 284.65 in the polluted site was significantly high when compared with the

control site Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon value of 18.10mg/kg.

The Bioremediation exercise lasted for 28 days with soil samples collected every

4days. The pH of the post treated sample ranged between 7.10 to 5.0. The aim of any

Bioremediation exercise is to redeem a negatively impacted soil to near originality. Since

the pH of the reference soil sample was 4.84, the pH of the remediated soil at the 28th day

was 5.00, a very close value to that of the reference soil, supporting the efficacy of the

oyster mushroom as a good bioremediation agent.

2. The pH showed an inverse relationship with the period of bioremediation. As the days

increased the pH decreased from the alkaline range towards the acidic range. The normal

flora and fauna began the normal symbiotic activities, bringing the pH to near the reference

pH . The total petroleum hydrocarbon [TPH] of the treated soil ranged from 282.92mg/kg in

day 1 to 20.42mg/kg in day 7. At the day 7, representing 28th day of the treatment, the total

petroleum hydrocarbon reduced significantly when compared with value prior to the

64 commencement of the bioremediation, a difference of 264.23, representing 92.83% reduction. The total petroleum hydrocarbon showed inverse relation with the period of treatment. As the period of treatment increased from day 1, the concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbon decreased, indicative of progress of bioremediation.

The soil nutrients, Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potassium showed direct relationship with the period of treatment, as they increased alongside with the period of treatment, and approached the value of the reference soil. The Nitrogen content increased from 0.28% in pretreatment analysis to 0.98% in post treatment analysis, a difference of 0.7, representing

71.42%. The value of Phosphate increased from 1.08ppm in pre treatment analysis to

3.08ppm at the 28th day of the treatment, a difference of 2.0, representing 185.2% increase.

The Potassium content increased from 4.86 in the pretreated sample to 10.99ppm at the

28day of bioremediation excercise, a difference of 6.13, representing 126.13% improvement

The soil textural composition improved as the treatment period increased from day 1 to day 7, with each value approaching that of the reference site. The improved post treatment values of the nutrients and total petroleum hydrocarbon were correlated with the observed life activities in the site. The swam of flies gnats, and birds increased as the treatment days increased, and at the 28th day, the little of the flies and gnats were seen as the green grass covered the soil surface in a matted form, indicating the redemptive efficacy of oyster mushroom.

CONCLUSION

Bioremediation of oil impacted soil using oyster mushroom was successful . The polluted soil was redeemed to near that of the control site as the physcio -chemical and textural compositions of the two showed very close values. some of the parameters analyzed after treatment recovered over 100% improvement, supportive of the successfulness of the remediation excercises . A plot of total petroleum hydrocarbon concentration showed an inverse relationship, explaining the fact that the oyster mushroom were using the crude petroleum as their source of energy for growth and development, so that as the period of treatment increases, the hydrocarbon content of the soil decreased.

RECOMMENDATION

The use of oyster mushroom for bioremediation of oil impacted agricultural farmland is an environmental friendly remediation excercise , cheap and does not require much skilled manpower. it is a positive action that should be explored and exploited in the remediation of crude oil impacted soil, especially in the mashy soil environment of the coastal areas of the Niger

Delter States.

Oil spill on Ogale Community soil Oil spill on Ogale Community soil

Oil spill on Ekporo Community

Source: field study May, 2014

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