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Cranfield University Chigozie Emmanuel Amadi School of Applied Sciences the Niger Delta: Aspects of Human Health Risk Associate

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Cranfield University Chigozie Emmanuel Amadi School of Applied Sciences the Niger Delta: Aspects of Human Health Risk Associate CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY CHIGOZIE EMMANUEL AMADI SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES THE NIGER DELTA: ASPECTS OF HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSOCIATED WITH THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY M.Phil Academic Year: 2010- 2014 Supervisor: DR TERRY P. BROWN November, 2014 CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES Toxicology, Health and Environment M.Phil Academic Year 2010-2014 CHIGOZIE EMMANUEL AMADI The Niger Delta: Aspects of Human Health Risk Associated with the Petroleum Industry Supervisor: Terry P. Brown November 2014 © Cranfield University 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner. ABSTRACT The Niger Delta has been described as one of the most petroleum-polluted places in the world. The oil and gas industry located in this region is the economic mainstay of Nigeria and has contributed to key aspects of life in our modern society. However, the indigenous nationalities and residents of the Niger Delta have been exposed to appalling environmental conditions due to the operations of the upstream petroleum industry within their communities. Whereas much is known about the environmental consequences of the operations of the oil and gas industries, including the fallout of crude oil spillage incidences, comparatively, very little is known about the risks to human health due to exposures to these environmental conditions. This could be a source of fear and frustration. The knowledge about the human health repercussions of the upstream petroleum industry operations in the Niger Delta is nonexistent. This study investigated some aspects of risk to human health in the Niger Delta due to the operations of the petroleum industry, especially carcinogenic risk. The major risk drivers were identified as benzene and the other BTEX compounds, PAHs, heavy metals, and particulates. A combination of observational studies, focus group meetings, structured self-report questionnaire administration, and cross-sectional biomonitoring assays were used as methods in the study which was carried out in Bayelsa and Rivers State. Ethnographic inquisitions were undertaken to understand peculiarities and lifestyles that may underpin exposure characterisation. In the cross-sectional studies, Ogale-Eleme, which has been described as the poster child of the crude oil pollution in Niger Delta was sampled. The demographics, biometrics, self-reported health effects, full blood count parameters and micronucleus count in peripheral blood lymphocytes in 258 volunteers from the community were compared with the results obtained from 111 volunteers from Rumuche, Emohua, which was analysed as the reference community. Significantly lower counts were recorded for mean whole white blood cells (p< 0.001), and in the differential count, for the mixed middle cells ( basophil, eosinophil and monocytes) (p= 0.031), lymphocytes (p= 0.006), while that of neutrophils approached significance (p= 0.057) compared with referents. Using the haematology reference range for University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital (UPTH) as a standard, a significantly higher proportion of respondents from the exposed community recorded i WBC counts below normal compared with respondents from the reference area (p< 0.001). However, the difference in the red blood cell parameters between the exposed and reference respondents was not remarkable, although the respondents sampled from the exposed community were significantly younger in age (p< 0.001). The cytokinesis- block micronucleus assay in peripheral blood lymphocytes showed significantly higher mean count per 1000 binucleate cells in the exposed respondents (P< 0.001). A significantly higher prevalence rate of cough was self-reported among the exposed respondents. Although the prevalence of cold, catarrh and stuffy nose was only marginally higher among the exposed respondents, those that self-reported this respiratory symptom had significantly higher frequencies of it compared with those that self-reported from the reference community (P= 0.003). Despite the fact that the prevalence rate of wheeze was higher in the reference community, the respondents sampled from the exposed community had a much lowered age of first attack (p= 0.002). The prevalence of dizziness self-reported in the respondents from the exposed community compared with the reference community was also significantly higher (p=0.019). The impacts of the protracted oil spillages and environmental despoliation on the mental and psychological health of the residents and indigenous people of the Niger Delta have derived from the social, cultural and economic disruption attendant to these events, including post-traumatic stress disorders, anxiety, fear, loss of community cohesiveness, and a myriad other social effects. The consequent militarisation has resulted in frequent break-ins into oil pipelines, bunkering, artisanal refining, hostage-taking, particularly of expatriates workers, and frequent force majeure by the international oil companies. The results of this study show that there is plausible risk to health for residents of the Niger Delta associated with exposure to the widespread environmental pollution due to the operations of the oil and gas industry in the area. The risk is especially high for those living in proximity to the facilities of the industry, and those who are involved in activities related to oil spillages and remediation. Already, increased incidences of various cancers are reported in these geographical areas. These findings should serve as a sentinel for a more structured epidemiological research, especially a long-term study into the human health effects due to environmental exposures in the Niger Delta. Public ii health measures and safeguards aimed at the containment of these outcomes should be put in place in line with the precautionary principle. Keywords: Oil spillage; Pollutants; Gas flaring; Micronucleus; Crude oil. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Terry Brown. I have thoroughly enjoyed your supervision and tutelage from M.Sc through to this level. I know how deficient and lacking in skills I was coming to you. Thank you for your patience, guidance and instructions that has made me "orders of magnitude" better. Thanks to Dr Ruth Bevan for accepting me as a mother would her own. That made for great flourish. I remember how this research project was birthed. Dr Dave Aldred must be acknowledged for all he did in mentioning my interests to Dr Derrick Crump, who read my badly written manuscript, and suggested how I could turn it into a proper proposal. I am ever so grateful to Professor Joe Lunec, erstwhile Head, Cranfield Health for the scholarship and for finding the funds that saw this research efforts through. Professor Seamus Higson did an excellent work of chairing the internal examination of the various milestones of this research. Thanks to Dr Huijin Zhu for examining and pointing out quite early areas that I needed to apply myself for a good output in this research. I acknowledge the inputs and assistance of Dr Promise Emeka who also read the initial research proposal. Professor Charles Esimone and his lovely wife joined hands and knees with me in the spiritual birth of this research. Much thanks to Dr Igwebuike Onyiaorah for making the contacts, and for connecting me with his colleagues at UNIPORT. The comfort of your home and companion of your family was such warmth when it mattered most. I acknowledge the assistance, inputs and company of Professor Orisakwe and Dr Obiorah in travelling the length and breadth of the Niger Delta. I also acknowledge the use of the facilities and the help of the staff of Prof. Orish office, especially Ruth who handled the secretarial works, and Sekibo for coordinating the field sampling. The long and hard hours spent with Godwin Paschal and Ogochukwu Obunebo in the laboratory, and their willingness to go beyond the call of duty, is deeply appreciated. Pastor Eruke, Jude, and so many others that made my time in Port Harcourt are all appreciated. Above all, I return all praise and glory to God. What is man that You are mindful of him, and the son of man that You visit him? Psalm 8: 4. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... x 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Crude oil. ............................................................................................................ 2 1.2 The petroleum industry ........................................................................................ 4 1.2.1 Exploration ................................................................................................... 6 1.2.2 Field development. ....................................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Decommissioning, site abandonment and rehabilitation. ............................... 7 1.3 Sources of health issues in the petroleum industry ..............................................
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