An Analysis of Asyndeton in Jhumpa Lahiri's the Lowland and Its Dutch

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Annelies Leenknecht

An analysis of asyndeton in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Lowland and its Dutch translation

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ABSTRACT

Many works have been dedicated to the difficulty of translating literary style. Therefore, it seems useful to investigate the translation of a particular aspect of an author’s style. This paper analyses asyndeton, i.e. the ellipsis of coordinating conjunctions or connectors, as a feature of the literary style in Jhumpa Lahiri’s novel The Lowland and its Dutch translation Twee Broers by Ko Kooman. The first part of this paper discusses the different types of asyndeton that can be distinguished based on the semantic relation that is expressed and the variety of stylistic effects that can be produced through its use. The present study first observes the use of asyndeta in the English novel. Then, in a quantitative analysis, several instances of asyndeton are compared with their Dutch translation to see whether they are retained or not. It is found that the use of asyndeton in the novel can be categorised according to the content of the narration. The stylistic device is often used in descriptions, to introduce a digression, to list a series of actions or to express an enumeration. Overall, the translator tries to adopt the asyndeta to maintain Lahiri’s writing style. In cases where the device is not adopted, the asyndeton is often converted into a relative clause or the conjunction ‘en’ is added. Where the linguistic feature is not adopted, a shift in emphasis can be perceived between the source and target text.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to the following people without whom this paper could not have been accomplished.

First of all, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Lieve Jooken for the guidance and support she provided in the entire process of writing this paper and for her comments on the drafts of it.

I would also like to thank my parents for giving me the opportunity to study. A final word of thanks goes out to my sister for the advice she has given me and for her relentless support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 5

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 6

2 THE AUTHOR AND THE CORPUS ...... 7

2.1 The author ...... 7

2.2 The translator ...... 7

2.3 Synopsis of The Lowland ...... 8

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 9

3.1 Definition of asyndeton and related terms ...... 9

3.2 Types of asyndeton ...... 10

3.3 Stylistic functions of asyndeton ...... 13

3.4 Studies of asyndeton as a stylistic device and its translation ...... 16

3.5 Translating asyndeton ...... 20

4 RESEARCH ...... 23

4.1 Research questions and method ...... 23

4.2 Expected results ...... 24

4.3 Different uses of asyndeton in The Lowland ...... 25

4.3.1 The use of asyndeton according to content ...... 25

4.3.2 The use of asyndeton according to sentence structure, asyndeton type and voice 33

4.4 The translation of asyndeton in Twee Broers ...... 35

5 CONCLUSION ...... 44

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 46

APPENDIX ...... 49

1 INTRODUCTION

There’s not a single word in any of the languages I translate that can map perfectly onto a word in English. So it’s always interpretative, approximate, creative. Anything that is, itself, a ‘linguistic’ quality will by definition be anchored in a particular language — whether it’s idiom, ambiguity, or assonance. – Daniel Hahn

In an interview (October 15, 2014) with Ted Hodgkinson from the British Council, the director at the British Centre for Literary Translation, Daniel Hahn, claimed that translation is impossible and that linguistic features cannot be transmitted to another language, as they are rooted in a specific language. Furthermore, many works have been dedicated to the difficulty of style and translation. Transferring an author’s style may be one of the most challenging parts of a translator’s work. Therefore, it seems useful to take an interest in the issue of translating style. This paper aims to investigate whether, and if so, to what extent, the style of an author in literature can be rendered into another language. The paper focuses on a specific aspect of Jhumpa Lahiri’s writing style in the novel The Lowland, i.e. the stylistic feature of asyndeton. The translation of this stylistic device will be analysed by comparing the original novel with its Dutch translation by Ko Kooman.

First, this paper briefly provides some background about the author and the corpus. The next chapter deals with asyndeton as a rhetorical figure and a component of style. Different frameworks are compared and the numerous stylistic effects that can be perceived with this device are discussed. Additionally, some information will be given on the translation of this stylistic device in particular. In a quantitative analysis of the corpus, the use of asyndeton in the original novel was observed and the translation of this stylistic device in the Dutch version. The analysis and the findings are discussed in chapter four.

2 THE AUTHOR AND THE CORPUS

2.1 The author

Jhumpa Lahiri is an Indian-American author, who was born as Nilanjana Sudheshna Lahiri in London on July 11, 1967. She moved to the United States when she was two and lived in Rhode Island, where most of the novel The Lowland is set. After completing a bachelor’s degree in English Literature at Barnard College in New York, she read at Boston University and obtained three master’s degrees in literature. Jhumpa Lahiri also completed a doctorate in Renaissance studies. Her debut Interpreter for Maladies, for which she was awarded among other prizes the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, the PEN/Hemingway Foundation Award and the New Yorker Debut of the Year in 2000, was published in 1999. It is a collection of short stories and some of them had already been published in The New Yorker. From a comparison with Lahiri’s other novels, viz. The Namesake, Interpreter of Maladies and Unaccustomed Earth, it appeared that Lahiri often creates long sentences and connects information by means of a comma. However, asyndeton features as a stylistic device only in The Lowland. Lahiri, an immigrant herself, often treats the subject of immigration to the United States and her novels contain Indian characters. The Lowland was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize and the National Book Award in 2013.

2.2 The translator

Ko kooman, the translator of The Lowland, is a Dutch translator who has translated earlier novels written by Jhumpa Lahiri into Dutch as well, namely Unaccustomed Earth and The Namesake. He also translated several novels of Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy and Kurt Vonnegut . In 2010, he provided a new Dutch translation of To Kill a Mockingbird.

2.3 Synopsis of The Lowland

Since several extracts of the novel are discussed in this paper, it might be interesting to possess some background knowledge about the story line as this might make the reasoning easier to comprehend. Therefore, the paragraph below offers a synopsis of The Lowland.

The novel tells the story of two young brothers, Udayan and Subhash, growing up in a changing India in the 1960’s. One of the brothers, Udayan, becomes engaged in the communist Naxalite movement while the other, Subhash, leaves for the United States to obtain a doctorate. Udayan secretly marries an Indian girl, Gauri, and is murdered by the police for his involvement in various illegal activities related to the communist movement. Thereupon, Subhash shortly returns to India only to find his family torn by grieve. He learns that his unaccepted sister-in-law is pregnant and wanting to save her from losing her child and being banned by her in-laws, marries her. Gauri follows Subhash to Rhode Island, but is incapable of connecting with him or her later daughter Bela. The couple raises the girl as if Subhash were the biological father. While the young Bela and her father visit India a few years later, Gauri secretly moves to the other side of the United States. She then lives a solitary life and never hears anything from Bela or Subhash. Meanwhile Bela grows up and, after overcoming severe psychological damage owing to her mother’s flight, becomes a nomad. Later, she is drawn back to her father, when she gets pregnant. Subhash then confesses the truth about her father, but this does not change the relation he has with her. On the contrary, she decides to stay with him nevertheless and meets Drew a few years later, with whom she establishes a steady relationship. When Subhash is in his seventies, he asks Gauri for a divorce to be able to marry one of Bela’s old teachers, Elise. Then one day Bela encounters Gauri, who has traveled back to Rhode Island to arrange the paperwork for the divorce. Bela reacts badly to this and Gauri travels to India to commit suicide, but she cannot do it. She then moves back to California, where she receives a letter from Bela telling her that maybe in the future, when she is ready, she might want to see Gauri again.

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Definition of asyndeton and related terms

An asyndeton is a stylistic device which implies an ellipsis that consists of “coordinated clauses or phrases without explicit conjunctions or connectives.” (Wales, 2001, p. 33). The name asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndetos, which means unbound or unconnected. Furthermore, it is considered a rhetorical device and a stylistic figure. The most famous example of asyndeton stems from Caesar: Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). Another famous example was given by President Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address when he proclaimed that “government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” The opposite of asyndeton is polysyndeton, a rhetorical term referring to the repetition of a particular conjunction used for linking sentences or clauses. When the linking concerns two or more verbs or verb phrases which are combined without a coordinating conjunction, linguists often speak of serial verb constructions.

The frequency in which this type of construction is used, strongly depends on the language. In English, for instance, asyndeton would be rather an uncommon structure (Rossette, 2009). According to a study of clause linkage in contemporary English, the use of asyndeta would mainly be restricted to the genre of literature and it would not appear in press or academic texts (Rossette, 2003). In French, the stylistic device would be used more frequently in literature compared to English (Rossette, 2009). Serial verb constructions, on the other hand, are fairly common in the so-called language isolates, which comprise many languages from Asia, Africa and Papua New Guinea (Lord, 1991; Aikhenval & Dixon, 2005). Some language isolates are, for instance, the Chinese languages, Thai, Khmer or Vietnamese. No information could be found about the frequency of asyndeton in Dutch. Moreover, little research has been conducted with regard to asyndeton in general, and even less concerning the use of asyndeton in Dutch. The stylistic figure is mostly examined in biblical texts or in ancient rhetoric, such as reflections from Plato or Aristotle.

Researchers and linguists have taken different views in distinguishing asyndeton and coordinated structures. Rossette (2009), for example, states that asyndeton is synonymous with juxtaposition and (asyndetic) parataxis. According to grammar expert and emeritus professor Richard Nordquist, the single term parataxis would as well be used as a synonym 10 for asyndeton, although he defines it as a rhetorical term referring to a coordinate structure in general, as opposed to a subordinate structure. Moreover, Lanham (2003) points out that sentences can contain both parataxis and polysyndeton at the same time. Thus, parataxis should not be regarded as synonymous with asyndeton. Additionally, Van Gorp, Ghesquière and Delabastita (1993) and Dupriez & Halsall (1991) explain in their dictionaries of literary terms that syntactic juxtaposition in general is curtailed to asyndeton and that it can as well be called brachylogia. What is more, the Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Baldick, 2008) states that the term brachylogia is mostly used to refer to structures where a conjunction is excluded. However, the Oxford Companion to English Literature (Birch, 2009) claims that brachylogia only refers to omitted conjunctions between nouns. Therefore, the use of the term brachylogia as an equivalent for asyndeton will not be considered appropriate. Furthermore, Dupriez et al. (1991, p. 74) advise not to use the name juxtaposition either, as it would have a “specific, quite distinctive meaning”, but Nordquist, asserts that juxtaposition can be seen as a kind of parataxis. All this considered, for the sake of clarity, only the terms asyndeton or asyndetic coordination will be used in this paper to refer to the stylistic figure that is examined, as only these terms distinctly cover its meaning.

3.2 Types of asyndeton

Different types of asyndeton can be distinguished, according to the semantic relation that is expressed in the ellipsis. Robert Plath argues in the online version of the New Pauly (2006), an encyclopaedia with references concerning the classical antiquity, that the functions of asyndeton are the following: adversative, enumerative, summative, consecutive, explicative and causal. However, they are not further explained in this reference work, nor are there any examples given. In addition, Van Gorp et al. (1993) speak in their dictionary of literary terms of an adversative and a causal asyndeton, but also of a copulative asyndeton. They mention that asyndeta can express other relations as well, although they do not list them, nor do they explain them or give examples. Furthermore, linguist and rhetorician Heinrich Lausberg distinguished as well a set of asyndeton types according to their semantic function. The latter were used in an analysis of the epic poem Paradise Lost. This chapter will elaborate on the functions mentioned by Van Gorp et al. (1993) and the New Pauly as they are, apart from Lausberg’s handbook, the only reference works that could be found distinguishing between several types of asyndeton. Nevertheless, none of the works elaborate on possible stylistic 11 effects. Since Hebron’s complete study will be discussed in this paper, his interpretation of Lausberg’s taxonomy is explained in chapter 3.4.

Firstly, an adversative asyndeton occurs when a contrast is conveyed, i.e. when conjunctions such as ‘but’, ‘nor’, ‘whereas’, or ‘yet’ have been omitted. In an adversative asyndeton, the second part of the utterance expresses something that runs counter to the first part. The missing conjunction may add strength to the opposition and make it more prominent. What is conveyed may linger longer in the mind and be more strongly imprinted, as the adversative relation is not explicitly mentioned. As a result, this type of asyndeton could make a contrast more notable or give it more weight. Moreover, the missing connector could also make an adversative relation more abrupt, since it is not explicitly mentioned, but may nevertheless be inferred by the reader and, thus, be more striking.

Secondly, a causal asyndeton concerns a causal relation, such as a result or a consequence. In these asyndeta, illative conjunctions, such as ‘thus’ or ‘hence’, which announce an inference, or causal conjunctions, for instance ‘because’, which express a cause or reason, are dropped. This type may intensify emotions or make an utterance more memorable, for the same reason as was suggested concerning the adversative asyndeta. That is, the lacking connector emphasises the inexplicit relation and attracts the reader’s attention. Moreover, similarly as with adversative asyndeta, omitting a conjunction could make the causal relation striking because it is not made explicit.

An explicative asyndeton, on the other hand, is an asyndeton in which an explanation or restatement of a referent is given. Thus, the conjunctions that could be inserted are, among others, ‘that is’, ‘because’, ‘for’, ‘since’ or ‘as’. It may be argued that this type resembles a causal asyndeton, as in both types the same conjunctions could be inserted. Nevertheless, they each introduce a different type of reasoning. In a causal asyndeton, the first part of the utterance results in what is expressed in the second part, whereas the nature of an explicative asyndeton is that it provides further information.

An asyndeton enumerating different elements, is called an enumerative asyndeton. In this type, additive conjunctions, for instance, ‘and’, ‘both … and’ or ‘as well’ are omitted. In the online New Pauly, the concept “enumerative” is further refined into functions that are: “additive, climax or anticlimax [sic]” (Plath, 2006). Furthermore, in linguistics, an additive relation is a relation between propositions which are “closely related or built on one another” (Anderson, Day, Jordan, Loos & Wingate, 2003). In sum, it can be inferred that asyndeta 12 provide close connections between the elements they consist of, in some cases leading to a climax or anti-climax and therefore to an increase in the tension conveyed by a passage.

Additionally, Van Gorp et al. (1993) also discern a copulative asyndeton, which is an asyndeton linking elements that may be considered equivalent. In this type of asyndeton, the conjunctions that are omitted are cumulative conjunctions, such as ‘and’, ‘also’ or ‘as well’. The inexplicit link may emphasise the interrelation between the combined elements or, on the contrary, make it less prominent. A copulative asyndeton, as well as an enumerative asyndeton, as stated above, can engender a climax or generate an acceleration. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (2008), entry “asyndeton”, this type is the most frequently used type of asyndeton.

The borderline between an enumerative asyndeton and a copulative asyndeton might not always be very distinct, since in both types the same conjunctions could be inserted. As a result, their meanings could sometimes be interchangeable and it might be difficult to distinguish whether the asyndeton is enumerative or copulative. To provide a clear distinction, this study will use the term copulative asyndeton only for structures linking only two elements, be it phrases, constituents or clauses, as opposed to an enumerative asyndeton, which would consist of more than two elements.

Furthermore, a consecutive asyndeton is an asyndeton in which adverbs that indicate the chronological or logical order of the content expressed, such as ‘first’ or ‘then’ are omitted. Different actions or events are described that are consecutively completed or spontaneously follow upon each other. This type could improve the fluency of the narration and convey the impression of activity.

Lastly, another type of asyndeton according to the New Pauly classification, is the summative asyndeton, i.e. the omission of a summative coordinator. Summative coordinators are summative adverbs or adverbials, which announce a summary, such as, ‘all in all’. These asyndeta provide some kind of conclusion or summary.

It needs to be noted that it is not necessary that the examples of connectors which are mentioned in the explanations above can be inserted to be able to speak of a specific type of asyndeton. That is, there should not need to be a place in the sentence where they could be inserted. The definition of an asyndeton states that an ellipsis of a connecting element is involved, but it does not speak of the necessity that a connecting word can be added. Thus, 13 when an instance of asyndeton can be applied to one of the types above, it should be classified as such, even though the sentence structure does not lend itself to adding a connector. Consequently, the conjunctions are not a distinctive characteristic for a specific kind of asyndeton and the denomination should rather take place based on the inexplicit relation expressed by the linguistic feature. Since the types of asyndeton that were described in this chapter are rather interpretations, they will not systematically be used to classify the asyndeta found in the novel. Nevertheless, some instances of the stylistic device might be considered as one of the types mentioned above or there might be references to them.

3.3 Stylistic functions of asyndeton

Numerous reference works of stylistics and dictionaries of literary terms devote sections to asyndeton and the stylistic function it performs in texts. As a result, a fairly comprehensive list of stylistic functions that are produced by this rhetorical device can be determined. This chapter will provide a synthesis of the views expressed in a number of older and recent studies in the field of literary analysis. The stylistic effects mentioned in this chapter all originate from overviews of linguistic terms or analyses of literary texts. Since a plethora of works have been written on style in literature, the following list is non-exhaustive. Furthermore, Hebron (2003) asserts that asyndeton appears so frequently in rhetoric that it is impossible to speak of general effects. Indeed, the stylistic characteristics produced by asyndeton seem to be largely dependent on the context in which the stylistic device appears. Moreover, the sources consulted often introduce the stylistic effects which can be produced by asyndeta without any further explanation or illustration. Thus, it is often unclear whether the effects are related to form or content.

Firstly, according to A Dictionary of Literary Devices, asyndeton can express, “disorder” (Dupriez & Halsall, 1991, p.73). Since a structuring element has been left out, the asyndeton could give the impression of a deficient or disarranged sentence or evoke the interpretation that something is wrong. This could be either related to a character’s feelings, or to the circumstances in a specific situation. Moreover, Cuddon (1982, p. 64) adds in his dictionary of literary terms that an asyntactic construction is rather an unusual structure. Thus, the stylistic device could evoke the impression that the state of affairs is not orderly or as it should be. 14

Other possible effects of asyndeta, presented in Shakespeare’s Use of the Arts of Language, an overview of rhetorical terms illustrated with examples from Shakespeare, are “compactness”, “swiftness of movement” and “emphasis” (Joseph, 1949, p.289). The missing conjunction might generate the feeling that something has been overlooked or that special attention should be paid. There might seem to be an unexpressed link that has to be read between the lines. This signalling could give the sentence emphasis. The compactness, on the other hand, could stem from the fact that the number of words in the sentence are reduced as only a minimal of essential words are used to convey the message the sentence bears.

Furthermore, the stylistic device produces an emphasis to the “balance in periodic structures”. (Joseph, 1949, p. 289 ). A periodic structure in literature is a type of sentence structure in which the main clause or the predicate are placed at the end of the sentence. As a result, periodic sentences are often long sentences. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Baldick, 2008) they produce a kind of tension, since they only disclose important information at the very end of the sentence. Periodic sentences can often be complicated and may ask a lot of concentration from the reader. Therefore, when conjunctions are discarded, there is less information that has to be retained by the reader, which may make the sentence less confusing. As the reader could automatically evoke the link that was not explicitly mentioned by a connector, no information goes lost. The sentence, on the other hand, becomes clearer and more balanced. According to Joseph (1949), asyndeta also have an influence on the rhythm of prose. This might be related to the fluency that the stylistic device lends to a text due to the rapid succession of information when linking words are dropped.

Moreover, Van Gorp et al. (1993) state that a copulative asyndeton often expresses “speed” or indicates a “climax” (Van Gorp et al., 1993 p. 44). The feeling of “speed” is created by the economy of expression. That is, when a conjunction is dropped, only the most necessary and important information is given. Consequently, the text may be read faster and this creates the effect that the writing style is perceived as fluent. The omission of connectors to produce the effect of “speed” may also be related to events reported by characters in the narrative.

Van Gorp (2005, p. 50) adds that asyndeton can produce intensity in the emotive portrayal of characters and that it can reinforce emotions. This results from the fact that an utterance is made to stand out when a conjunction is omitted, since the attention is moved away from the form in which something is presented to the message that is expressed. Additionally, according to Van Gorp (2005, p. 50), the stylistic device could also give the impression of an 15

“overwhelming activity” or a “strong dramatic tension”. This occurs when the omission of a conjunction raises the suspense and accelerates the narration. Asyndeta can contribute to the expression of agitated activity and consequently evoke the perception of an overwhelming rush of action. In his description of the term asyndeton Van Gorp (2005) also refers to parataxis (2005, p.353), where he indicates that this structure can render a “movement of thoughts” more “clearly”, or the “expression of a feeling” more “lively”, in order to make them more “familiar”, or on the contrary, more “precious”. The familiarity may be generated by the mode of oral discourse that is mimicked by this type of structure. Although this might seem rather contradictory, when a link is not explicitly mentioned, this might make a passage more readable and comprehensible in that respect.

Moreover, Cuddon (1982, p. 64) states in his A Dictionary of Literary Terms that the figure of asyndeton is used to create “speed and economy” and that parataxis in the sense of “coordination of clauses without conjunctions” (p. 680) results in “terseness and compression”. The effect of speed could be partially connected to the idea of economy and related to the earlier mentioned observation that asyndeton can affect the rhythm of a text and its fluency. The latter effects, on the other hand, are in line with Joseph’s (1949) “compactness”. Additionally, Murfin & Ray (2009, p.32) confirm in The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms as well that asyndeton creates “a concise, terse and often memorable statement.”

Furthermore, a paratactic style may also produce “abruptness” (Baldick, 2008, p.247-248), probably because the void created by the omitted connector strikes the reader. Other effects that can be perceived are the reader’s experience that something is lacking, that there is a “conspicuous absence”, or an elevated degree of spontaneity (Rossette, 2005, p.102). This effect may stem from the fact that dropping conjunctions in writing is not the most evident choice, while in speech it occurs frequently. As Rossette (2009) mentions, in English, the use of asyndeton is rather rare and restricted to certain kinds of text types and genres. Therefore, dropping linking words may seem rather an unconventional feature, which may draw the reader’s attention to the fact that something is not right or missing. As conjunctions are less frequently used in speech, asyndeton invests the qualities of spoken language in narrative passages, which makes them sound more familiar and closer to the reader. This omission of linking words may also establish a tone which gives the impression that the messages has been shaped in the speaker’s mind at the very moment of speaking, as opposed to an utterance 16 the speaker has prepared or reflected upon. This is in agreement with the statement that asyndeton would also be able to render a text more oral or add drama to it (Rossette, 2009).

In addition, Elbow (2000, p.309) claims in his book on essay writing that “there is more energy in unconnected sentences, more drama. They tend to be an enactment of something going on rather than a record of a past event that is conceptually finished,” and that asyndeton gives the impression of a complex situation, a universe in which “everything is not so simple.” The omission of conjunctions may indeed give sentences a disorderly structure, which could reflect a restless state of mind or events. This could explain why asyndetic constructions are more dramatic than other grammatical structures. As less attention goes to expressing a structured relationship between the coordinated elements, there is more emphasis on the immediacy of the content. Therefore, an asyndetic coordination may seem more lively and also reflect an irregular situation.

In summary, an asyndeton can produce numerous stylistic effects. Based on the sources that have been considered above, it can be concluded that the most frequently produced effects are compactness, speed, a reflection of speech and disarrangement. Furthermore, asyndeta seem to sometimes produce contrary effects. On the one hand, the technique can produce swiftness, or balance. However, the stylistic device can also result in abruptness and disorder. This observation seems to be rather contradictory, yet the effects cannot be produced in the same utterance. Furthermore, Rossette (2009) states that the effect an asyndeton generates may depend on the context. In the analysis of this study, it will therefore be vital to consider contextual elements to determine the stylistic effects that are realised by the use of the technique.

3.4 Studies of asyndeton as a stylistic device and its translation

Since few researchers have studied the translation of asyndeton in literature, or in other text genres for that matter, there is a lacuna with regard to the study of this stylistic figure. However, there have been several studies examining the translation of coordination in general across languages. In the following paragraphs, two studies will be discussed which examined the translation of asyndeton in literary texts and one which studied asyndeton in John Milton’s epic poem Paradise Lost. No account will be given of the studies considering coordination in general, as they are not considered relevant for this paper. 17

Mason (2001) examined the translation of junction, i.e. cohesive linking words, in literary texts from French into English. He states that research in the ‘80s and ‘90s established a principle according to which English prefers explicit coordination, as opposed to French, in which there would be a tendency to drop conjunctions in juxtaposition. Mason doubts that such a principle would be valid as a general language norm, especially when applied to translator behaviour. Therefore, Mason analysed the English translation of junction in four works of Albert Camus, which were translated by three different authors. The paper concludes that researchers should be cautious when making generalisations about norms of language behaviour as translation is context-sensitive and would depend on genre, discourse and text. During the translation process, translators are bound to consider the skopos of both the source and target text. The paper also comments on the use of contrastive studies and quantitative research, in particular for examining translation. Since translations greatly depend on various factors, such as genre and the interaction of different textual elements, Mason questions statistical generalisations based on machine-readable corpora. Consequently, he advises to formulate trends only on a “vaguer” degree of comparison instead of the “most meaning meaningful” one. Qualitative studies would be more fruitful for analysing particular cases or specific elements.

Secondly, Hebron (2003) analysed John Milton’s epic poem Paradise Lost and classified the use of asyndeton in this work on the basis of the rhetorician Heinrich Lausberg’s taxonomy, which distinguishes between “nominal asyndeta” and “verbal asyndeta”. The former covers asyndeton between nouns, while the latter comprises asyndeton between phrases or clauses. Additionally, in his Handbook of Literary Rhetoric: A Foundation for Literary Study (1998), Lausberg also discerns three types of asyndeton according to the length of the elements that are connected, which are subsequently words, phrases or clauses. The author distinguishes seven types of asyndeton according to the semantic relation that is expressed by this stylistic device, which are quite similar to the ones that have been discussed in chapter 3.2. First, Hebron discusses the poem’s use of asyndeton based on the length of the instances. Then, he considers the different relations that can be conveyed through an asyndeton. Hebron specifies that this categorisation is not incontestable, but that it can be a useful instrument for analysing the stylistic effects produced by this rhetorical device. He concludes that other categories might be found as well and that asyndeton can produce a wide range of effects. This article discusses asyndeton rather as a rhetorical figure than as a stylistic device for literary texts. It is considered an instrument for expressing thoughts while at the same time being mindful of the 18 form of the language. The difference between rhetoric and prose could be that in rhetoric the manner in which something is presented might be of greater importance compared to prose. Rhetoric used to be considered a high-minded art in which the speaker needed to prove his ability to control and employ language. In what follows, the different categories that are mentioned in Hebron’s article will be discussed.

To begin with, Lausberg distinguishes an asyndeton additivum, which, according to Hebron, is used to list items. This type can be regarded as similar to the New Pauly’s enumerative asyndeton. Secondly, another type of asyndeton in Lausberg’s taxonomy is the asyndeton summativum, which summarises the elements the asyndeton has enumerated by mentioning a general term for them, before or afterwards. For this type, the New Pauly offers an equivalent as well, namely the summative asyndeton. Furthermore, Hebron also mentions a category of asyndeton distinctivum. This type contains a contradiction or paradox and should not be confused with the asyndeton adversativum, in which “thoughts are in antithesis” (Hebron, 2003, p. 31). Hebron explains that the difference between the distinctivum and adversativum lies in the fact that there is more cohesion in the latter and the linked elements would there be more dependent on each other as they are connected through the “antithesis”, whereas in an asyndeton distinctivum there is not necessarily a logical relation between the items. In other words, the elements in the asyndeton adversativum are antithetical, while those in an asyndeton distinctivum are merely contradictory or paradoxical. If we compare these terms again to the classification in the New Pauly, it appears that the asyndeton adversativum could be regarded as similar to the adversative asyndeton. Furthermore, Lausberg also discerns an asyndeton causale, the equivalent of the causative asyndeton in the New Pauly, which would give an explanation. Hebron asserts that in this type the conjunction ‘for’ is dropped, which would result in a more “intense and demanding” utterance. The asyndeton explicativum, on the other hand, is derived from the asyndeton causale and would first introduce a term or proposition before explaining it. This type corresponds to the explicative asyndeton that was mentioned in 3.2. However, in the interpretation of the terms that were listed in the New Pauly, no mention was made of the introduction of a term or proposition in an explicative asyndeton. The seventh and last asyndeton that is discussed in Hebron’s article, is the asyndeton conclusivum. Here, a stream of thoughts is concluded and emphasised by the asyndeton. The omitted conjunction in this type is ‘therefore’. 19

The interpretation of the terms in the New Pauly only slightly differs from what is described in the paragraph above. However, if the categories borrowed from this reference work are compared to Lausberg’s terms, it can be concluded that the adversative asyndeton could comprise both the asyndeton adversativum and distinctivum. There is also no equivalent for the consecutive asyndeton, whereas Lausberg discerns another type that is not mentioned in the New Pauly, namely the asyndeton conclusivum. What is more, the New Pauly lists six types, while Lausberg mentions seven types. Furthermore, none of the works refer to a copulative asyndeton. All the English terms from the New Pauly have a Latin equivalent, which in most cases resemble their English counterpart, apart from the asyndeton distinctivum, for which there is none. Moreover, both works base their terms on ancient rhetoric. Finally, it needs to be mentioned that Hebron’s interpretation can differ from the one of the New Pauly that is described in 3.2, as Hebron uses a taxonomy which is based on Latin, whereas the terms in the New Pauly seem to be more adapted to the English language. Consequently, there could be certain linguistic features that are not present in either one of the languages, thus, it might be difficult to equalise certain aspects of the categories.

Lastly, Rossette (2009) studied the translation of asyndeton in the English version of five French works from Marguerite Duras, which are compared to one work of Jean-Paul Sartre, one of Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio and one of Andreï Makine. The stylistic device is used in the largest part of Makine’s works, whereas this is not the case with the other two authors. It was found that asyndeta were present in all the works of Duras that were included in the study, although with a varying frequency. Nevertheless, Rossette states that when the author chooses to use asyndeton, the device is present throughout the whole novel. Furthermore, no regularities could be detected in regard to when asyndeton is adopted in the translation or not. There were no indications in the source text that could predict whether or not the stylistic device would be adopted in translation. However, there were some “trends” that could be discerned. For example, asyndeta are generally transmitted to the target language when they are composed of small and condensed clauses, whereas they are not when they link clauses in which the balance is irregular. Another trend that could be identified, is the fact that asyndeta connecting different tenses are less likely to be transmitted. Furthermore, the trends that were found are confirmed owing to the norms of the target language and the strategy of “simplification”. The latter refers to the statement that a translation is assumed to be easier to comprehend than its source text, which could be obtained, for instance, through explicitation (Baker, 1992). Rossette states that “isotopy”, i.e. the “concision and resemblance between 20 clauses”, plays an important role in the translation process as well. Finally, it is also claimed that asyndeta increase the markedness of an utterance, which would explain why the device is less generally adopted, since translations often tend to standardize idiosyncratic techniques. Rosette (2009) focuses more on the translation process itself and less on the stylistic effects that are produced. That is, she discusses the cases in which asyndeton is retained and what is added or what replaces them when they are not transferred, but she does not comment on the stylistic effects. Nevertheless, she does mention something about the effects the asyndeton produces in Duras’ works. The stylistic device would produce a “rather uncanny merging together”, which would significantly add drama to the narration and Duras’ style would “flow”, though it would demand great effort from the reader.

3.5 Translating asyndeton

Researchers have taken different views on defining translation choices for translating grammar. This chapter gives an overview of some relevant concepts for translating asyndeton in the field of translation studies. The researchers that will be discussed are Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), Catford (1965) and Chesterman (2004). New terms will also be introduced and defined, which will be used for analysing asyndeton in this paper, and some examples will be given of possible translation choices for the translation of asyndeton.

Firstly, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) distinguish between two kinds of “methods”, viz. “direct or literal translation” and “oblique translation”. The former would be used when the source and target language show parallelisms, while the latter would be used to translate when more complicated methods are necessary to produce the same message in the source text, because of a “gap” between the two languages. The direct procedures that could be applicable to the translation of asyndeton are “structural calque” and “literal translation”. A structural calque involves a literal translation of each “element” while using a structure that is new to the target language. Literal translation, on the other hand, means that the source text is translated “word for word” while producing a target text that is both grammatical and idiomatic. However, if the procedures that have just been mentioned prove to be insufficient, the translator could as well resort to the oblique translation method of “transposition”, which involves changing the word class of an element. The other direct and oblique translation methods that are mentioned by Vinay and Darbelnet are not relevant for this paper, as they involve a change in viewpoint or do not reproduce the same message. 21

According to Catford’s (1965) terms, the differences that are most likely to occur between source and target text during the translation of asyndeton, are “level shifts” and “structure shifts”. In order to achieve equivalence between the source and target text, level shifts, which imply the movement of an element of the source language to a different level in the target language, would appear quite regularly. These shifts occur between the levels of grammar and lexis. When, for instance, asyndeton is not retained in the target text, but a conjunction is added to replace the stylistic device, a level shift would be involved. Structure shifts, on the other hand, are changes in the structure between the source and target text and they would occur most often among all shifts. In the field of grammar, structure shifts are possible between sentences, clauses, groups, words and even morphemes. Structure shifts imply, for instance, another word order or adding new elements in the target sentence. As English grammars differs from Dutch grammar, structure shifts are likely to appear during the translation of asyndeton.

In addition, Chesterman (2004) distinguished between “syntactic”, “semantic” and “pragmatic strategies”. For the translation of asyndeton, syntactic and pragmatic strategies could be used. The syntactic strategies that could be implied in this paper are alterations in the structure of the clause or the sentence, a difference in cohesion, through a different use of an ellipse, pronouns, repetitions, etc., or a different use of a figure of speech. Changes in the use of a figure of speech could imply, for example, the omission of the figure of speech or a replacement by another one. A pragmatic strategy that could be implemented while translating asyndeta is a shift in the explicitness between the source and target text. This would occur when the asyndeton is not maintained in the target text and when a conjunction is added.

As the translation of asyndeton concerns translating a part of a sentence, or one or more sentences, instead of a single word or term, there are less translation strategies than can be implemented compared to the translation of, for instance, metaphors or cultural references. As a result, the translator can either decide to adopt the asyndeton or not. These will be considered the main translation strategies in this research and they will be called “adoption” and “non-adoption”. These terms were chosen, because the other existing terms concerning the translation of syntax which are discussed in this chapter were considered less easier to utilise. Cases that will be considered as adoption are sentence pairs in which the Dutch translation is constructed in exactly the same way. That is, the word order is as much as possible the same, as is the punctuation. Cases in which the stylistic device is not maintained due to grammatical constraints will be considered cases of non-adoption. However, cases of 22 non-adoption are not necessarily considered to generate a difference in style compared to the source text. In cases of non-adoption, there are several options the translator can choose between to express the same message. For instance, a coordinating conjunction can be inserted or the sentence structure can be altered completely. Translators could also decide among one of the following translation choices, as mentioned by Rossette (2009):

 Begin a new sentence;  Insert another punctuation mark instead of the comma;  Insert a present participle;  Use a relative pronoun;  Drop the repetition of the same verb;  Add a past participle;  Insert a nominal group;  Add an adverbial phrase;  Use a subordinating conjunction;  Use an infinitive.

It needs to be noted, however, that the translation choices above were utilised in a translation process from French into English. Since this paper analyses a translation from English into Dutch, not all the choices above might be applicable. Furthermore, other changes in sentence structure, which would be natural in or typical of Dutch grammar, might as well appear.

4 RESEARCH

4.1 Research questions and method

This paper focuses on the writing style of Jhumpa Lahiri in her second novel The Lowland, specifically on one linguistic characteristic of her writing style: asyndeton. Furthermore, this paper also examines the translation of this stylistic device from English into Dutch. Thus, the corpus that was studied consists of Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Lowland and its Dutch translation Twee broers by Ko Kooman. The original novel is divided into eight sections, which are marked with Roman numbers. They each are subdivided into different chapters, which are numbered with Arabic numerals. The general objective of this paper is looking for an answer to the question “How are the instances of asyndeton, which are a feature of the literary style of Jhumpa Lahiri’s novel The Lowland, translated into Dutch?” However, to be able to answer this question some other examinations needed to be carried out first. Therefore, this paper will also look for an answer to the following questions:

- What are the stylistic functions of asyndeton in the source text? - Which translation techniques are used? - What are the effects of the adopted translation techniques in the target language?

First, the stylistic functions of asyndeton in the source text were analysed, based on the stylistic effects that were formulated in the first part of this paper. To be able to formulate general observations on the use of asyndeton in the novel, the first section of the novel was carefully scrutinized. Then, the findings were compared to the rest of the novel to see whether they were valid for the other sections as well. Since the different types of asyndeton that were described in the first part of this paper are rather based on interpretations, they were not systematically used to classify the asyndeta that were found in the novel. Nevertheless, this does not exclude any possible reference or mention to a specific type of asyndeton.

Secondly, this paper examined the translation techniques that were used, which were linked to the stylistic effects they produced in the target language. In the present study, the concepts that are used to refer to the applied translation techniques are “adoption” and “non-adoption” , since they were considered to be the most useful and practical terms. 24

The translation pairs that are discussed in this paper were selected randomly throughout the whole novel.

4.2 Expected results

The asyndeta are expected to produce in the novel some of the stylistic effects that have been described in the first part of this paper. Nonetheless, as Hebron (2003) describes in his analysis of Milton’s Paradise Lost certain characteristics the stylistic device lends to the poem which were not included in the reference works that were consulted for this paper, it is possible that some additional stylistic effects will be found in the novel. This could either be a consequence of the fact that only a selection of reference works were consulted and, thus, the list that was provided is non-exhaustive, or from the wide range of effects asyndeta can provide, which results from its strong dependency on context. Furthermore, since style is an aspect of paramount importance in the literary genre, a literary translation would aim at transferring the style from the original work into the target text. Therefore, it is expected that within the grammatical constraints of the target language the stylistic figure will be adopted, as it forms a part of the author’s writing style.

4.3 Different uses of asyndeton in The Lowland

4.3.1 The use of asyndeton according to content

In the first part of this research, an overview is given of the use of asyndeton in the original novel and its stylistic effects. The corpus that will be analysed in this chapter in order to observe the use of the stylistic feature in the novel was selected from section I. This section is mostly formulated through a neutral narrator’s voice. The findings were then compared to the other sections to see if they were valid for the whole novel and other voices in the novel as well. The use of asyndeton in the novel’s different voices will be discussed in the next chapter. As regards the application of asyndeton it was found that sentences featuring this stylistic device can be categorised according to their content, i.e. the type of situation, event or interaction between characters that is narrated. Asyndeton is often used to list a series of actions, to express an enumeration, in descriptions or to introduce a digression. The descriptions predominantly cover places, nature and the surroundings. The categories that could be distinguished are discussed below. This typology is further linked to the stylistic effect produced by the use of asyndeton in the particular contexts.

Firstly, asyndeton is often used to portray a series of actions, as in (1), (2) and (3). In these sentences, the activities that are going on are rendered in a series of present participles.

These examples demonstrate that in sentences containing activities, asyndeton produces the stylistic effects of “speed” (Cuddon, 1982) and “swiftness of movement” (Joseph, 1949). On the one hand, the asyndeton emphasises the fluency of the movements that are described and their rapid succession. The actions seem to be completed without difficulty or petty obstacles. On the other hand, as the description of the series of events is not interrupted by a conjunction, the enumeration of actions in itself becomes more rapid, thereby increasing the fluency of the author’s writing style as well. This results in a passage that creates the 26 connotation of liveliness with the reader easily imagining a succession of actions. The –ing form of the verbs emphasises the incompleteness of the actions. They are a “going on” (Elbow, 2000) rather than an accomplished action situated in the past, which increases the vivid stylistic effect of the sentences. In the first two examples, the asyndeton could stress the playfulness of the actions as well. Additionally, in number (3), the stylistic device could emphasise the care that is put in the deeds. Therefore, it can be said that in general asyndeton gives more weight to the meaning of the verbs and to the importance of the actions that are carried out. This could result from the fact that less attention goes to the conjunct, since there is none, or from the fact that the asyndetic structure stimulates the reader to search for a relationship between the linked elements, whereupon more attention is paid to their meaning. In number (1), a slight feeling of panic emerges from the sentence as the mother is looking for her missing son. The lacking conjunction generates the image of hasty running from one thing to another, both by the mother and the child, as the language jumps as well from one clause to another. Furthermore, the length of the clauses varies owing to the insertion of the mother’s actions. This might increase the feeling of vividness and the disarray in the sentence caused by the omitted connector. Consequently, the asyndeton reinforces the mother’s worried and panicky emotions. Thus, it can be argued that in (1) the form of the language mirrors the content of the sentence. It is also interesting to note that in this example, the structure of the sentence is in a way interrupted by the time clause and the unexpected use of the conjunction ‘and’. Moreover, the series of –ing forms are alternated with a past participle and an infinitive. This provides a kind of balance to the sentence as well as a break from the stream of information. Furthermore, the sentence ends in a kind of result, or in other words, a climax, however small. The sentence describes a continuous succession of actions, which are eventually followed by what they cause, i.e. the mother stops what she was doing.

Another type of instance in which asyndetic coordination often occurs, is that of enumeration. The relation between the elements that are listed varies. The enumerations mainly contain elements which can be considered as equivalents or which share an equal status with regard to their importance, but other relations, such as hypernymy, can be found as well. The instances of enumeration mostly contain an enumerative asyndeton in which the conjunction ‘and’ is omitted, as in the examples below. 27

4) While Subhash stayed in clear view, Udayan was disappearing: even in their two- room house, when he was a boy, he hid compulsively, under the bed, behind the doors, in the crate where winter quilts were stored. (p. 11) 5) In high school the brothers studied optics and forces, the atomic numbers of the elements, the properties of light and sound. (p. 16) 6) They laid out the pieces: the chassis, the capacitors, the various resistors, the speaker. (p. 19) 7) News bulletins from Radio Moscow, Voice of America, Radio Peking, the BBC. (p.19)

In the sentences above, the asyndeton intensifies the flow of information and increases the density of the words. Rossette (2005) stated that asyndetic coordination can make an utterance more spontaneous and produce an “oral tone”. It could be argued that here the stylistic device calls up the association with an oral delivery of the text. The structure could as well hint at a stream of thoughts, more specifically a state of reflexion. The narrator could be reflecting on the listed elements. The mind develops thoughts faster than language can express. Moreover, in a stream of thoughts, relations and transitions seem logical and evident, whereas representing a flow of thoughts orally or in writing is more challenging. As a result, the omission of the linking words here might produce the impression of reflection. Furthermore, in examples (4) and (5) above, the asyndeton calls up the possibility of a list that is not exhaustive; other elements could have been added to continue the enumeration. Since there is no conjunction ending the enumeration, this might stress incompleteness and the feeling that something is lacking, not only in regard to the grammaticality of the sentence, but also concerning its content. For instance in (4), where various hiding places are enumerated. It is clear that more places are probably concerned, since a few are listed and it would be rather strange if these were the only hiding places. This is also the case in (5), as it seems unusual that these are the only things the boys studied. Presumably, only a selection of their knowledge is mentioned. Thus, the asyndeton contributes stylistically to the expression of one of the main themes of the novel, viz. the incapacity of language to express human experience or relationship in an exhaustive manner. Certain aspects are necessarily withheld an intentionally not mentioned. Note that in (4), just as in (1), a time clause interrupts the stream of the sentence. Additionally, in sentence (6) and (7) the omission of “and” provides a kind of neatly whole, which hints at some structure or arrangement. The elements of the enumeration all seem to be part of a bigger unit. For example, in (6) where the radio, which is composed of the pieces mentioned in this sentence, is the bigger part, or in (7), where the radio stations 28 seem to be part of a list which has been thought through or which is a fixed sequence they habitually try. Moreover, the impression of organisation and structure is emphasised by the fact that the instances (6) and (7) are short and simple sentences. Finally, while analysing the relation between the enumerated elements, it was found that the elements are mainly equivalent. Nevertheless, other relationships can be found as well. In (5), for instance, a hypernymic relationship is expressed. The atomic numbers of the elements and the properties of light and sound are a part of the domains of optics and forces. The elements that are enumerated in sentence (6), on the other hand, share a partitive relationship; they together compose an assembled entity.

The novel also contains sentences which incorporate a combination of the two categories that have just been discussed, viz. a series of actions and an enumeration. This is the case in (8), which mentions two places, which could be considered as parts of an enumeration, and combines them with two actions in the –ing form.

8) They put it together themselves, searching in New Market, in junk shops, finding parts from Indian Army surplus. (p. 19)

Joseph (1949) already mentioned that asyndetic coordinations have an influence on the rhythm in prose. However, she does not specify what this effect may be. In addition, Cuddon (1982) stated that the stylistic device can produce speed. In (8), the –ing forms are separated by the elements of the enumeration, which are inserted between the two –ing forms. It might be suggested that this alternation of clause structure affects the rhythm of the sentence. If (8) is compared to other instances which contain an enumeration, such as (6) or (7), it can be argued that the varying clause structure makes the sentence less repetitive, though not more complex. Moreover, the density of the words, caused by the omitted conjunction, results in a compressed utterance with a lot of information in one sentence. When such compact sentences are placed together, a fluent narrative passage can be created, as a lot of information is given in few words.

Another distinction that can be made in regard to the use of asyndeton is its functional use in descriptions. The four examples below reveal that asyndeton is a stylistic technique that allows the author to describe locations or sensory experiences and to highlight a succession of particular elements as they are seen or reflected upon by the narrator. 29

9) A Bengali medium school for boys from ordinary families, beyond the tram depot, past the Christian cemetery. (p. 14) 10) A land grant college still surrounded by greenhouses, orchards, fields of corn. (p. 41) 11) Mountains to the north, an ocean to the east, the majority of land to the south and west. (p. 41) 12) They had arrived in time to see the sun setting behind the lighthouse, the white foam of the waves pouring over the rocks, the flag and the choppy blue water gleaming. (p 49)

As the examples above illustrate, the instances of asyndeton in the novel are often used to describe places, nature or surroundings. In these instances, asyndeta might be utilised in order to emphasise certain aspects, as the irregularity in the sentence structure provided by the missing conjunction can attract the reader’s attention. Moreover, according to Murfin & Ray (2009) the stylistic device can make an utterance “memorable”. Rossette (2005) suggested that asyndeton is typical for “subjective passages”, such as narrations in the first person, or indirect speech, both free as well as quoted. This novel is nevertheless written in the third person, though mostly through a certain character’s point of view (for more information on voice and points of view in the novel, see 4.3.2). As a result, asyndetic constructions seem to allow the author to describe through the eyes of a specific person, since by means of the asyndetic structure specific elements can be emphasised. Although a linking ‘and’ can be found in between different parts of the descriptions in examples (11) and (12), the sentence still contains an example of asyndeton, which makes the description stand out. The asyndeta in the sentences above enhances the vitality of the passage as well. Furthermore, the first two sentences show the opposing nuances this stylistic device can create. In the description in (9), the narrator’s expression prevails as the way to school is portrayed by invoking routinely observed landmarks. The road is followed naturally as part of a habit. Example (10), on the other hand, evokes abundance and chaos. It seems as if there is more to be seen than can be absorbed. While the abundance is also present in (12), example (11) on the contrary, provides a feeling of organisation. As if the land is neatly divided and actual lines can be distinguished where boundaries extend between the different parts.

The last functional category that can be identified in this typology of the use of asyndeton in The Lowland is its relevance in expressing digressions. Via a comma extra information is added to the utterance, without introducing an apposition. According to English Grammar Today (Carter, MCCarthy, Mark, and O'Keeffe, 2011) an apposition is a noun phrase referring to an identical object or individual. The following examples cannot be considered appositions, 30 as no identical elements are involved. Moreover, an asyndeton can be distinguished from an apposition by the fact that in an asyndeton an ellipsis is involved in a coordinate structure.

13) Finding a book about telegraphy at a library, he wrote out two copies of the dots and dashes that corresponded to the letters of the alphabet, one for each of them to consult. (p. 17) 14) One day, coming home with a length of wire, Udayan set about installing a buzzer for the house, for the convenience of visitors. (p. 17) 15) In winter, when the trees were naked, the stiff ground covered with snow, a second letter came from Udayan, in an envelope this time. (p. 55)

In the first two examples, the information that is added clarifies the preceding noun phrase. In (14), the weight of the sentence lies in the announcement that a buzzer was installed, because the clause introducing this information is embedded in asyndeta. The preceding clause can be considered a build-up, while the last clause is a clarification. The most relevant information is introduced in between these clauses. In (15), however, the fact that the letter was delivered in an envelope, as opposed to how the letters were sent before, seems to be the sentence’s most important element. Here, the asyndeton increases the relevance of the announcement. This shows that asyndeton can on the one hand downplay the importance of an utterance, or, on the contrary, emphasise it. The device also makes the sentences clear and compact, as content is joined through a comma, instead of through a juxtaposed sentence. Furthermore, this “compactness” (Joseph, 1949) or “compression” (Cuddon, 1982) contributes to the fluency of Lahiri’s writing style, as the stylistic feature would be used “for the sake of speed and economy” (Cuddon, 1982). In (18), the asyndeton also indicates a climax. The form in which the letter is received is emphasised. This reveals that something significant will be mentioned. The sentence first describes a background, the setting of the event. The habitual characteristics of the season hint at normality. The feeling that everything is as it is supposed to be is accentuated by the description of nature, which is steady and almost never changes. The beginning of the sentence is in sharp contrast to what follows, i.e. the irregular delivery of the letter. This also generates a kind of abruptness, since a long tradition is suddenly interrupted with something different and new. The asyndeton linking “a second letter came from Udayan” and “in an envelope this time” emphasises the contrast and the sudden change. This is in line with the assertion that omitting connectors would produce “abruptness” (Baldick, 2008). 31

Rossette (2009) already observed that asyndeta often generate repetitions of different elements in a sentence, such as a pronoun or a verb. It is interesting to remark, however, that repetitions in the novel are in general intentional and form a part of the author’s style. Sentences which do not contain an asyndeton often include a repetition, and subsequent sentences are sometimes composed of the same structure. This is shown by the following examples.

16) This was when the sun’s photons weren’t breaking up molecules in the ionosphere. When positive and negative particles in the air quickly recombined. (p. 19) 17) A dash was three times as long as a dot. Each dot or dash was followed by silence. There were three dots between letters, seven dots between words. (p. 17) 18) The doctor mentioned to the family that the drug could take some time to work. That it needed to be taken consistently. That this disease could cause a person to be irritable, to be moody. (p. 38)

Excerpt (16) clearly intends to evoke images. Although an explanation is given in technical terms, the reader is led to imagine what is meant and produce a mental representation. The stylistic device of repetition converts the description into an element that is meaningful within the intended literary style. Moreover, it makes the description clearer by foregrounding relevant elements in it. Here, the narrator seems to show an incapacity of creating well- formulated sentences with a varying structure, as in sentences containing asyndeta, where elements that are considered meaningful to creating cohesive utterances are left out. In (17), information is provided in a rather short and rapid manner. Because there are no linking words, the narrator seems to reminisce about the past, not in a factual premeditated manner but in a series of associative moves. Bit by bit the narrator remembers different aspects of his childhood and reconstructs the bigger picture. On the other hand, the passage may also be taken to represent a series of clear past instructions that are repeated in the way they were received at the time. In that sense, the repetition makes the information easier to grasp for the reader. Consequently, the narrator can move more quickly to narrating the essence of the story. The repetition of the same words in (17) contributes to the flow of the narration. Note that this sample contains both a repetition and an asyndeton. The two style features seem to be perfectly compatible with each other, forming together a neat, completed unit with complementary information. Excerpt (18) contains as well a combination of repetition with an asyndeton at the end. The repetitiveness and fixed structure of the sentences establish the formality and impersonal quality of the register. The sentences perfectly reproduce the 32 doctor’s words and his voice is clearly present. Furthermore, the repetition increases the drama of the sentence. Linking words between the different sentences are omitted and only the most necessary information is provided. This neutrality is in sharp contrast to the family’s feelings that are implied. The neutral take on the events raises the gravity attached to the event, as in films where the camera zooms out and observes what is happening from a distance. Moreover, the absence of a conjunction represents the turmoil the event has caused and the startled family’s confused feelings. Though it is reported in quite a detached manner, the development is rather overwhelming and it is intimated that the event will have important consequences. Here, the repetition reinforces the drama in the sentence and makes it strike, which could be compared to the effect an asyndeton can have on the drama in a narration. From the excerpts above, it can be stated that, overall, the features of repetition and asyndeton are compatible, maybe even complementary and that they can produce similar effects. The transition between repetition and asyndeton is rather smooth and does not cause an interruption.

Thus, the functional types of asyndeton that could be found in the novel are the uses of asyndeta to list a series of actions, to introduce an enumeration, which mostly lists equivalent elements, to describe nature or surroundings or to introduce a digression. The series of actions are mainly expressed in –ing forms, which contributes to the stylistic effects created by the asyndeta, viz. the impression of lividness, activity and “going on” (Elbow, 2000), as opposed to an accomplished series of events. The asyndeta also gives more weight to the meaning of the verbs. Secondly, the use of asyndetic coordination in enumerations would lend the utterances an “oral tone” (Rossette, 2005) and evoke the idea of a narrator reflecting on the listed elements. The omission of conjunctions provides a kind of balance as well and generates the impression of organisation and structure. In descriptions, the stylistic feature allows the author to emphasise certain aspects, which creates a kind of partiality. The description is narrated as seen through a specific character’s viewpoint. The use of asyndeton in digressions also allows the narration to be clear and compact. Additionally, the dropping of connecting words could evoke the feeling of an abrupt event or sudden change. Overall, it can be stated that asyndeta often cause a repetition of articles, prepositions or adverbs in order for the sentence or passage to be grammatical. This was also observed by Rossette (2009). However, the repetitiveness often makes the utterances appear structured and organised as well. At the same time, asyndeta can add to the velocity and fluency of the sentences. From analysing the excerpts above, it can be concluded that creating the impression of an organised 33 utterance is another frequent effect produced by the omission of conjunctions, though this might sound contradictory as the link between sentences or clauses is not explicitly mentioned. The stylistic device often intensifies the feelings and increases the drama in the sentences as well. It is a powerful tool for expressing emotions and adding significance to an utterance. The asyndeta also frequently result in compressed sentences with a high density of information. In addition, asyndetic coordinations repeatedly render the enunciations more oral and more familiar to the reader. This might increase the reader’s absorption into the story. Furthermore, the strength of the asyndeton lies in the fact that the link is not explicitly mentioned, which gives the impression that what needs to be inferred is important. Another observation that could be made with regard to the asyndeta in the novel, is the link between the form of this stylistic feature and the content. As was stated before, the stylistic device can represent the inability of the characters to communicate with each other and clearly express their feelings and thoughts. Sometimes, the impression reigns that something more is going on, that something needs to be read between the lines, or that it is deliberately withheld. This is in line with the fact that elements which are often considered to be vital to coherent writing are omitted. Moreover, asyndeton is considered rather a marginal construction in English (Rossette, 2009). At the same time, the story contains some developments which are rather unusual for the everyday life. For example, Udayan choses himself a woman to marry, which runs counter to the traditions of India according to which a boy needs to be married off a girl chosen by his parents. Furthermore, it is quite unconventional to marry your sister-in-law and then raise her child as if it were your own, pretending to be her biological father. Lastly, it was found that asyndeton could produce contrastive effects, for example abundance and lividness in, for instance descriptions and a series of actions, as opposed to simplicity and conciseness in enumerations or digressions.

4.3.2 The use of asyndeton according to sentence structure, asyndeton type and voice

In a second phase of this study, different sections of the novel were examined to observe other uses of asyndeton apart from its functional use in specific types of content, which has been discussed in the previous chapter. Consequently, this chapter will provide some information on the asyndeta in the novel in regard to subsequently sentence structure, asyndeton type and the narrator’s voice. 34

First, no patterns could be discovered according to the length of the sentence in which the asyndeta occur. The stylistic device occurs as much in short sentences as it does in longer sentences. However, it could be observed that the stylistic device most often links clauses or sentences, and less often nominal groups. Asyndeta connecting nominal groups are most frequent in enumerations.

Secondly, the asyndeta were also analysed to see which type of asyndeton as discussed in 3.2 occurs most frequently. It was found that the enumerative asyndeta appear most often in the novel. The stylistic device regularly lists items that are in a certain way related. This is in line with the earlier finding that asyndeta in the novel often consist of an enumeration or a description, for the latter, too, are often a combining of different elements. Furthermore, the consecutive and causal asyndeta are the second most used types in the novel. The causal asyndeton can be linked to the observation that was made in the first part of this research, which suggested the functional use of asyndeton to introduce a digression. For a digression, which adds supplementary information, might provide an explanation or a reason. As regards the other types, i.e. the adversative, explicative, summative asyndeton and the asyndeton distinctivum, they could be found in the novel as well, though less often than the other types.

In addition, no differences could be perceived according to the voices of the different characters that are present in the novel. The book is narrated in the third person, though the narrator is not omniscient. In what follows, an overview will be given of the different voices that are present in each section and chapter and the presence of asyndeton within these subdivisions will be discussed. To begin with, section I treats the young lives of the two brothers, except for the last chapter, chapter six, which focuses on Subhash when he moves to the United States. Then, the second section starts with a chapter narrated from Gauri’s point of view. This section contains asyndetic coordinations as well. Thus, it can be claimed that asyndeton is a characteristic in Gauri’s voice as well. The third section continues the story from Subhash’s viewpoint, but in section IV, the narration alternates between Gauri’s and Subhash’s angle. A new character, which had been more at the background, is brought to the front in the first chapter of the next section, section V: the story zooms in on new developments in the life of Subhash’s mother. Throughout these sections, asyndeton remains a stylistic feature. Then, the next chapter again introduces a new viewpoint, viz. the one of the daughter, Bela. However, the stylistic device remains present. During the third chapter of this section, the narrating switches again from Bela to Subhash. The first chapter of the section VI is again rendered through the eyes of Gauri, and the other chapters alternate between 35

Subhash’s point of view or Bela’s. In section VII the accounts are switched between Gauri’s and Bela’s voice, and, lastly, section VIII, the ending of the novel, describes Gauri’s adventures.

Although the whole novel is composed in the third person, it seems that the character on which the story focuses at a specific point is narrating, since their thoughts are included in the narration. The whole novel contains asyndeta, regardless of whose viewpoint is taken. Therefore, it can be stated that asyndeton is a general stylistic device in the novel, which does not depend on the character whom is focused upon at a certain moment. Lastly, no differences could be found as well in the frequency of the asyndeta with regard to on which character the passage focuses. The stylistic feature does not occur more or less often when a specific character’s viewpoint is taken.

4.4 The translation of asyndeton in Twee Broers

This part of the study matches samples of asyndeton in the source text with their Dutch translation. The translated pairs are designated in terms of the translation technique that was used and the effects this produces on the target text are observed. In addition, source and target text are compared to investigate similarities and differences in style.

19) Two people trading one spouse for another, dividing in two, their connections at once severed and doubled, like cells. (p. 47) Twee mensen die een partner inruilden voor een andere, die zich in tweeën deelden, die hun connecties met anderen tegelijk verbraken en verdubbelden, zoals cellen. (p. 56)

In the example above, all three cases of asyndeton were transferred to the Dutch translation. Thus, according to the translation techniques that were selected for this study, (19) is an instance of adoption. However, there is still a slight difference in style between the original sentence and its translated version, since the latter contains a repetition of the relative pronoun ‘die’ in combination with a finite verb rather than a non-finite participle as in the source text. There is no repetition in the original version, but repetitions of, for instance, a pronoun are, as mentioned earlier in 4.3.1. and as was observed by Rossette (2009), not uncommon with asyndeta. The repeated pronoun in the Dutch sentence makes the stylistic device more prominent than in the original sentence and emphasises the subject of the sentence as there are 36 more references to it than in the English version. In the latter, the emphasis rather lies with the actions.

20) These days it was stagnant, lined with the settlements of Hindus who’d fled from Dhaka, from Rajshahi, from Chittagong. (p. 5) Tegenwoordig was het een stilstaand water en waren de oevers bebouwd met onderkomens van hindoes die waren gevlucht uit Dhaka, uit Rajshahi, uit Chittagong. (p. 14)

In the English sentence above there are three cases of asyndeton, each marked by a comma. In the Dutch translation, however, only two asyndeta are retained and the conjunction ‘en’ has been inserted to replace the first case of asyndeton with an explicit juxtaposition. The translation is, thus, a combination of adoption and non-adoption. In the source text, the reference to the subject is smaller than in the target text. The source text only mentions “it” and adds a past participle to include more information. There is a continuous flow in the description of the referent, whereas in the translation a new subject, “de oevers” is introduced, which constitutes a second reference to the subject of the sentence. Moreover, more words are needed in Dutch to cover the meaning of the predicate in the first clause, compared to the English version, which expresses it in one word: “stagnant”. The Dutch sentence also uses two verbal elements to translate the concept of “lined”. As the translation contains an explicit link which is absent in the source sentence and uses more words to express the subject and the predicate, it can be stated that in the translated sentence less attention goes to the act of fleeing, compared to the original one, where the verb “fled” is fronted. Overall, the English sentence describes more in a suggestive flow, while its Dutch version divides the sentence into finite clauses which contain separate instances of information, making the translation more explicit. Furthermore, the asyndeton connecting the place names might mirror the disorder and the drama related to the act of fleeing. Since there is nothing abnormal in the first part of the sentence, the asyndeton in the second part is even more striking, both in the source and target text.

21) Blending into the grass was a heron, close enough for Subhash to see the amber bead of its eye, its slate-colored body tinted with the late afternoon light. Its neck was settled into an S, the sharp length of the bill like the brass letter opener his parents had given him when he left India. (p. 54) 37

Er stond een reiger, amper zichtbaar in het gras, zo dichtbij dat Subhash zijn oranje kraalogen kon zien en zijn leikleurige verenkleed, warm getint door het late middaglicht. De hals was tot een S gevouwen; de lange scherpe snavel leek op de koperen briefopener die hij bij zijn vertrek uit India van zijn ouders had gekregen. (p. 63)

The Dutch translation of sample (21) again shows a combination of adoption and non- adoption. In the first sentence, the conjunction ‘en’ is inserted in the translation, but all the other asyndeta in this excerpt are adopted. The full stop between the two sentences is in the same place as it is in the English version. It strikes that the translator included a semicolon in the second sentence, whereas there is a comma in the original sentence. The Dutch version also contains more asyndeta compared to the English one. Whereas “blinding into the grass was a heron” consists of one clause, its translation is composed of two clauses. As a result, the English sentences are more fluent than their translations, in which the flow is interrupted twice, once by the insertion of “amper zichtbaar in het gras” and once by the interjected conjunction. The word order of the clause “Blending into the grass was a heron” is also rather unusual in English. The subject of the clause, i.e. the heron, is put in final position. As a result, it is emphasised as new information. This mirrors the narrator’s perception, which moves from the landscape to the partly hidden bird, which the narrator eventually perceives and recognises as a heron. Furthermore, the whole passage contains asyndeta, except for the last part of the last sentence, which treats a completely different kind of subject. Nevertheless, the transition from one subject, the heron, to the other, India, is quite smooth. Here, the asyndeta rather emphasise the last part of the second sentence as the sentence structure suddenly changes. It moves from a succession of asyndeta to a long clause without it. This passage also implicitly reveals Subhash’s homesickness. Something as small and insignificant as the beak of a bird makes him think of India while he is carefully observing the bird. This homesickness needs to be inferred by the reader, just as the inexplicit links between the elements that are linked by the asyndeta in the novel need to be inferred.

22) There was a geometric section, like a patterned carpet in shades of pink and green and tan. Composed of circular shapes in various sizes, close together, some slightly overlapping, some with a slice neatly missing. (p. 277) Er was een geometrisch ingedeelde streek die deed denken aan een tapijt met een patroon van cirkels van verschillende grootte, dicht bij elkaar, sommige iets 38

overlappend, sommige met een keurig ontbrekend segment, in de kleuren roze, groen en geelbruin. (p. 293)

The translation above consists of only one sentence, whereas the English version is composed of two sentences. As a result, the translation features more asyndeta than the source text and contains a longer flow of information, since the full stop in the original version introduces a kind of pause. Nevertheless, the unexpressed subject of the second sentence is the same as in the first one, which makes the interruption caused by the full stop slighter compared to a full stop between sentences with a different subject. The second sentence rather continues the flow of information and builds on the subject of the first one. In addition, the order in which the referents occur in the translation is completely different from the English text. In the translation, the colours are mentioned at the very end, whereas they figure almost in the beginning of the original sentence. Consequently, in the target text, the reader’s attention is more drawn on the colours of the landscape, whereas in the source text the attention is drawn on the missing slice. This could be interpreted as a reflection of the mother’s feelings. Although she has deliberately left her husband and daughter, she feels as if a part of her is missing. Note that in (22), as in (19), a relative clause is introduced in the translation. Furthermore, the use of asyndeton in this passage perfectly fits into one of the categories that were determined before, i.e. (22) is a clear example of a description of nature.

23) The moment he returned to them after Udayan’s death, the moment he stood before them, she’d only felt rage. Rage at Subhash for reminding her so strongly of Udayan, for sounding like him, for remaining a spare version of him. She’d overheard him talking with Gauri, paying attention to her, being kind. (p. 221) Op het moment dat hij bij hen was teruggekeerd na Udayans dood, op het moment dat hij voor hen stond, had ze alleen maar woede gevoeld. Woede jegens Subhash omdat hij haar zo sterk aan Udayan herinnerde, omdat zijn stem als de zijne klonk, omdat hij een reserve-exemplaar van hem bleef. Ze had hem met Gauri horen praten, aandacht aan haar horen schenken, aardig tegen haar horen zijn. (p. 236)

The translation in (23) is a clear example of adoption. All asyndeta are retained and all punctuation marks in the Dutch version are at exactly the same place as they are in the English sentences. The repetitions are preserved as well. In the first sentence, the translation of “the moment” is repeated as many times as it is present in the source sentence. This is also the case in the second sentence. The translation of “for”, viz. “omdat”, is put at exactly the 39 same place as where the “for” is. However, there is a slight difference between the source text and its translation, since the target text contains an additional repetition in the last sentence. Whereas the original sentence only mentions “to her” once, the translation repeats the pronoun in “aan haar” and “tegen haar”. Consequently, there is more emphasis on Gauri in the translation in comparison with the source sentence. Moreover, at first sight, the second sentence in the English version seems to contain a polysyndeton, as the “for” is repeated. However, “for” is used as a preposition here and not as a conjunction. The translation of the sentence, on the contrary, does contain a polysyndeton owing to the repetition of the conjunction “omdat”. In the English sentence, the verbs are fronted as well, whereas in the translation they appear each time at the end of the clause because of grammatical constraints. Another difference that can be perceived between the source and target text is the use of the pronoun ‘him’, or ‘hem’. In the original sentence it is repeated, while the translation contains only one ‘hem’. Although there are some differences between the excerpts in (23), they can be claimed to reproduce the same stylistic effects, apart from the shift in emphasis on Gauri. The asyndeta in the first sentence produces mental unrest and emphasises the rage. The stylistic device also reveals despair and intensifies the flood of emotions felt by the mother.

The two asyndeta in sample (24) above are not adopted in the translation. The first asyndeton, introducing a reduced relative clause, is replaced by a finite relative clause in Dutch, making the ellipsis of subject and auxiliary explicit, while in the second case the conjunction ‘en’ is included. Although they could have been adopted at exactly the same place in the Dutch translation, the comma’s that separate “in spite of its years” are not transferred either. Thus, this sentence is a clear case of non-adoption. The Dutch translation would possess no ungrammatical structure nor would the sentence become incomprehensible if the asyndeton had been kept, but the sentence might become rather awkward. The original sentence is typical of the novel. Not only because it contains asyndeta, but its flow also resembles that of 40 many other sentences. It describes something, i.e. a teapot, and links this description to a completely different subject, the woman’s body. This is equivalent to (21), where the elaborate description of the heron is suddenly linked to the thought of India. The translation, however, has rather an unusual structure. The sentence contains a relative clause with an additive conjunction followed by another relative clause. The added relative clause after the conjunction almost feels contrary to the natural reading experience. It breaks the sentence flow and is rather unfamiliar in Dutch, but it transfers the use of asyndeton in the original sentence to the target sentence. The added relative clause also partly maintains the elaborate character of the narration, as is often produced by the asyndeta in the novel.

25) Acquiring a set of tools, he figured out how to repair defective cords and switches, to knot wires, to file away the rust that compromised the contact points of the table fan. (p. 17) Hij schafte het nodige gereedschap aan en bekwaamde zich in het repareren van kapotte snoeren en schakelaars, het knopen van draden, het wegvijlen van roest op de contactpunten van de tafelventilator. (p. 26)

In the excerpt above, the first asyndeton is not adopted in translation as the clauses are linked through the conjunction ‘en’. The other two asyndeta in the English sentence, on the other hand, are maintained. Consequently, the translation is a combination of adoption and non- adoption, but leaning mostly towards adoption. Since only the first asyndeton is not transferred, whereas all the others are adopted, this does not really alter the way in which the translated sentence is perceived, compared to the original one. Moreover, the insertion of the conjunction ‘en’ sounds quite natural in Dutch. It is interesting to note that the first asyndeton in the English sentence in a way expresses a consequence or result. Owing to the set of tools, the boy learns how to work with electricity and practices his skills. However, this relation goes lost in the translation, which drops this causal connection. It would be almost impossible to preserve the asyndeton in the translated sentence here. The translator would have to use a present participle, which would make this Dutch sentence rather stodgy and archaic. Hence, the insertion of a conjunction. Another option would be to convert the clause “acquiring a set of tools” into a reduced clause in Dutch by adding the preposition ‘door’. Even though this would express the causal relation more clearly, the asyndeton could still not be retained, as a reduced clause in Dutch requires no comma and there would not be an ellipsis involved anymore. Apart from this deviation, the translated version is quite similar to the original one with regard to the stylistic effects which are evoked. The asyndeta express versatility in both 41 the source and target text: the boy develops a multitude of skills. At the same time, the asyndeta structure the sentences, making them convenient to easily absorb the information and the different activities, though the language is almost technical.

26) The waves were low, the water reddish where they broke. She removed her shoes, as Subhash did, stepping over hard stones, over seaweed. He told her the tide was coming in. He indicated the rocks, jutting out, that would be submerged in another hour’s time. (p. 161) De golven waren laag, het water was roodachtig waar ze braken. Ze trok haar schoenen uit, zoals ook Subhash had gedaan, en stapte over harde stenen, over zeewier heen. Hij vertelde haar dat het vloed werd. Hij wees haar de rotsen die uit het zand staken, maar over een uur onder water verdwenen zouden zijn. (p. 174)

The passage in (26) is a combination of a description of nature and actions. In the first sentence, the asyndeton is adopted. However, the Dutch translation is slightly different from the English sentence owing to a supplementary finite form in the second clause, though this form could as well be omitted. Furthermore, the second sentence contains the conjunction ‘en’, whereas there is none in the original version. The additional conjunction in the translated sentence highlights its action, i.e. the stepping over the rocks and the seaweed, while in the English version, the attention mainly lies with the shoe removal. Moreover, in the translation of the third sentence, the first asyndeton is replaced by a relative clause, which probably results from the fact that a different translation, without a relative construction, would make the sentence heavy and unidiomatic. At the same time, the conjunction ‘maar’ is inserted in the second part of the third sentence. Therefore, it can be stated that the Dutch translation of the third sentence is more explicit than its English version. Although the conjunction ‘en’ could as well have been inserted in this sentence, the conjunction ‘maar’ was added. Thus, the inexplicit relation of the English sentence was made explicit and adversative. There is also a slight difference regarding the focus in this sentence pair. In the Dutch one, more attention goes to the fact that the rocks will be submerged, whereas the emphasis in the English version lies more on the indication of the rocks. Should the translator have opted to maintain the asyndeton in the translation of the third sentence of (26), the second clause would need to be converted into a relative clause here as well and the relative pronoun ‘die’ would have to be repeated. This constitutes a proper equivalent, as other translations are composed of the same structure, viz. several relative clauses with a repeated pronoun. From this excerpt, it can be concluded that the insertion of a conjunction makes the focus point of the sentence shift from 42 the first part to the second. The first sentence constituted a case of adoption, whereas the second and third sentence were cases of non-adoption.

From the analysis of the passages above, it can be concluded that in most cases, the asyndeta are adopted. However, more cases of non-adoption could be determined than expected. These are found mainly with present and past participles. When there is an –ed form or –ing form in the source text, the implemented strategy is mostly non-adoption. This is probably due to the fact that these forms are less easy to translate and incorporate in a fluent Dutch sentence. Where the stylistic device is not maintained, the alterations that occur most, are the insertion of the copulative conjunction ‘en’ or the conversion of a clause into a relative clause. It was suggested that where the asyndeta were not preserved, the reason seemed not often an ungrammaticality, as expected. It follows that the stylistic device was possibly dropped in order to improve the sentence’s readability and fluency. As it happens, Dutch sentences with an asyndeton could easily demand more effort from the reader as compared their English counterpart. Furthermore, often a combination of adoption and non-adoption could be found in the same sentence. It must be added that more cases were found that perfectly fit into the strategy of adoption, but that they were less interesting to discuss. Hence, it can be stated that the translator on the whole tried to adopt the figure of speech to preserve the author’s style. This is in line with the expected results. In addition, no correlation could be detected between the category of the asyndeton, viz. description, enumeration, actions or digression, and the strategy that was used. There were not more or less adoptions when the asyndeta featured in one of the categories. Furthermore, no correlation could be found either between the transfer of the stylistic device and the voice in which it was expressed. There were as many adoptions in each voice. Lastly, considering the stylistic effects produced by the implemented strategy, it can be claimed that through a transfer of the asyndeta the translated sentences have as much as possible the same characteristics as the original sentences. In cases of non-adoption, a slight nuance in style can often be noted. This preponderantly concerns a shift in emphasis. The insertion of a conjunction in the Dutch sentence moves the emphasis towards another part of the sentence as compared to where it lies in the English sentence. This is the case in (20), where the division into finite clauses makes the translation more explicit than the original version. In (19), on the other hand, the subject is emphasised due to the repeated pronoun ‘die’. Sometimes a different word order produces this shift in emphasis as in (21), in which the perception of the bird is introduced as new information, whereas this is not the case in its translation, or in the translation of (22). The colours of the landscape are mentioned at the 43 very end of the utterance, whereas the source text focuses more on the fact that some elements in the landscape are incomplete. Additionally, sample (23) shows a difference in focus concerning the person to whom most importance is given owing to a different use of pronouns. Lastly, the translation of (26) is more explicit than its English version, because the conjunction ‘maar’ was inserted.

5 CONCLUSION

This paper examined to what extent the literary style of an author can be transferred into another language during translation by means of analysing a specific aspect of Jhumpa Lahiri’s literary style in the novel The Lowland, namely asyndeton, which involves the omission of coordinating connectives. In English, the use of asyndeton would be restricted to the genre of literature (Rossette, 2003). Different types of this stylistic device can be distinguished, based on the semantic relation that is implicitly expressed. Both Van Gorp et al. (1993) and the online version of the New Pauly list different types of asyndeton, however, only Hebron (2003) provides an explanation of the different types, by means of Lausberg’s taxonomy for classifying asyndeta. Moreover, none of the classifications is exhaustive or final and little research has yet been conducted with regard to asyndeton in general. Asyndeta can generate a wide variety of linguistic effects. Some of these characteristics are opposites, though they cannot appear both in the same sentence. The effect that is produced by the stylistic device strongly depends on the context, but the effects that are most commonly assigned to an asyndeton are “speed” (Cuddon 1982, Van Gorp et al. 1993) or “swiftness of movement” (Joseph, 1949), a reflection of speech and disarrangement. Studies investigating the literary translation of conjunctions from French into English state that the device occurs more frequently in French than in English (Mason 2001, Rossette 2009), but neither Mason (2001) nor Rossette (2009) comprehensively examine the stylistic effects that are produced by an asyndeton or its translation. In a quantitative analysis of the novel, it was found that the use of asyndeton in The Lowland can be categorised according to the content of the narration. The figure of speech regularly occurs in descriptions of nature or surroundings, or when different elements are listed. In most cases, the elements that are enumerated can be considered equivalents, though other relations, such as hypernymy, appear as well. Furthermore, the stylistic device is also commonly used to introduce a digression, or to describe a series of actions, which mostly occur in the –ing form. This accentuates the impression of activity and liveliness that is generated through an asyndetic coordination. By means of using asyndeta in the description of a series of actions, the content of the verbs is emphasised. Additionally, the linguistic feature gives the impression of an oral account or a reflection on past events and increases the drama of the narration. It can also be suggested that through the use of asyndeta the form of the language reflects the content. The stylistic device may mirror the incapacity of the novel’s characters to accurately communicate what they feel or think. From a comparison of randomly selected passages in the original novel with their Dutch translation, it was found 45 that most instances of asyndeton are adopted in translation. However, more cases of non- adoption could be observed than expected. Non-adoption often occurred when the source text contained an –ing or –ed from, probably because their literal translation is less easy to incorporate in a fluent and idiomatic Dutch sentence. When the linguistic feature was not adopted, the alterations that appeared most commonly are the introduction of the conjunction ‘en’ or the conversion of a part of the sentence into a relative clause. Overall, it could be suggested that the translator tried to adopt the stylistic device as much as possible in order to reproduce Lahiri’s style in the target text. The translation contained as much as possible the same characteristics as the original novel, though often shifts in emphasis could be observed, which was sometimes due to the fact that the asyndeta were not adopted. The emphasis shifts are related to the order in which the information is introduced and consequently to where the reader’s attention is led, as well as to the focus on specific characters or the importance that is attached to the meaning of the verbs in a particular utterance. Concerning Daniel Hahn’s statement that literary translation would be impossible, it can be concluded that it is indeed very difficult to create an exact reproduction of a literary text. Due to grammatical constraints, as well as other constraints related to language particularities, it is almost impossible to exactly render an author’s style into a translation. However, adopting particular characteristics of a literary style might contribute to the reproduction of a literary style. Since little research has been conducted with regard to the use of asyndeton in Dutch, further research might be useful to increase the knowledge of the characteristics of this stylistic device in Dutch.

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APPENDIX

1) He played this game without announcing it, spontaneously vanishing, sneaking into the back garden, climbing into a tree, forcing their mother, when she called and he did not answer, to stop what she was doing. (p. 11) 2) Avoiding puddles, stepping over mats of hyacinth leaves that remained in place. (p. 3) 3) Carefully he carried it home with him, placing it in a terra-cotta container from a sweet shop, covering it with twigs. (p. 8) 4) While Subhash stayed in clear view, Udayan was disappearing: even in their two-room house, when he was a boy, he hid compulsively, under the bed, behind the doors, in the crate where winter quilts were stored. (p. 11) 5) In high school the brothers studied optics and forces, the atomic numbers of the elements, the properties of light and sound. (p. 16) 6) They laid out the pieces: the chassis, the capacitors, the various resistors, the speaker. (p. 19) 7) News bulletins from Radio Moscow, Voice of America, Radio Peking, the BBC. (p.19) 8) They put it together themselves, searching in New Market, in junk shops, finding parts from Indian Army surplus. (p. 19) 9) A Bengali medium school for boys from ordinary families, beyond the tram depot, past the Christian cemetery. (p. 14) 10) A land grant college still surrounded by greenhouses, orchards, fields of corn. (p. 41) 11) Mountains to the north, an ocean to the east, the majority of land to the south and west. (p. 41) 12) They had arrived in time to see the sun setting behind the lighthouse, the white foam of the waves pouring over the rocks, the flag and the choppy blue water gleaming. (p 49) 13) Finding a book about telegraphy at a library, he wrote out two copies of the dots and dashes that corresponded to the letters of the alphabet, one for each of them to consult. (p. 17) 14) One day, coming home with a length of wire, Udayan set about installing a buzzer for the house, for the convenience of visitors. (p. 17) 50

15) In winter, when the trees were naked, the stiff ground covered with snow, a second letter came from Udayan, in an envelope this time. (p. 55) 16) This was when the sun’s photons weren’t breaking up molecules in the ionosphere. When positive and negative particles in the air quickly recombined. (p. 19) 17) A dash was three times as long as a dot. Each dot or dash was followed by silence. There were three dots between letters, seven dots between words. (p. 17) 18) The doctor mentioned to the family that the drug could take some time to work. That it needed to be taken consistently. That this disease could cause a person to be irritable, to be moody. (p. 38) 19) Two people trading one spouse for another, dividing in two, their connections at once severed and doubled, like cells. (p. 47) Twee mensen die een partner inruilden voor een andere, die zich in tweeën deelden, die hun connecties met anderen tegelijk verbraken en verdubbelden, zoals cellen. (p. 56) 20) These days it was stagnant, lined with the settlements of Hindus who’d fled from Dhaka, from Rajshahi, from Chittagong. (p. 5) Tegenwoordig was het een stilstaand water en waren de oevers bebouwd met onderkomens van hindoes die waren gevlucht uit Dhaka, uit Rajshahi, uit Chittagong. (p. 14) 21) Blending into the grass was a heron, close enough for Subhash to see the amber bead of its eye, its slate-colored body tinted with the late afternoon light. Its neck was settled into an S, the sharp length of the bill like the brass letter opener his parents had given him when he left India. (p. 54) Er stond een reiger, amper zichtbaar in het gras, zo dichtbij dat Subhash zijn oranje kraalogen kon zien en zijn leikleurige verenkleed, warm getint door het late middaglicht. De hals was tot een S gevouwen; de lange scherpe snavel leek op de koperen briefopener die hij bij zijn vertrek uit India van zijn ouders had gekregen. (p. 63) 22) There was a geometric section, like a patterned carpet in shades of pink and green and tan. Composed of circular shapes in various sizes, close together, some slightly overlapping, some with a slice neatly missing. (p. 277) Er was een geometrisch ingedeelde streek die deed denken aan een tapijt met een patroon van cirkels van verschillende grootte, dicht bij elkaar, sommige iets 51

overlappend, sommige met een keurig ontbrekend segment, in de kleuren roze, groen en geelbruin. (p. 293) 23) The moment he returned to them after Udayan’s death, the moment he stood before them, she’d only felt rage. Rage at Subhash for reminding her so strongly of Udayan, for sounding like him, for remaining a spare version of him. She’d overheard him talking with Gauri, paying attention to her, being kind. (p. 221) Op het moment dat hij bij hen was teruggekeerd na Udayans dood, op het moment dat hij voor hen stond, had ze alleen maar woede gevoeld. Woede jegens Subhash omdat hij haar zo sterk aan Udayan herinnerde, omdat zijn stem als de zijne klonk, omdat hij een reserve-exemplaar van hem bleef. Ze had hem met Gauri horen praten, aandacht aan haar horen schenken, aardig tegen haar horen zijn. (p. 236)

24) Her body, in spite of its years, was as stubbornly intact as the muddy green teapot, shaped vaguely like an Aladdin’s lamp, a wedge of cork in its lid, that she’d bought for a dollar at a yard sale in Rhode Island. (p. 288) Haar lichaam was ondanks haar leeftijd nog even hardnekkig intact als de moddergroene theepot, die vaag het model had van Aladdins lamp en waarvan het deksel met een wig van de kurk was dichtgestopt, die ze bij een rommelverkoop in Rhode Island voor een dollar op de kop had getikt. (p. 305) 25) Acquiring a set of tools, he figured out how to repair defective cords and switches, to knot wires, to file away the rust that compromised the contact points of the table fan. (p. 17) Hij schafte het nodige gereedschap aan en bekwaamde zich in het repareren van kapotte snoeren en schakelaars, het knopen van draden, het wegvijlen van roest op de contactpunten van de tafelventilator. (p. 26) 26) The waves were low, the water reddish where they broke. She removed her shoes, as Subhash did, stepping over hard stones, over seaweed. He told her the tide was coming in. He indicated the rocks, jutting out, that would be submerged in another hour’s time. (p. 161) De golven waren laag, het water was roodachtig waar ze braken. Ze trok haar schoenen uit, zoals ook Subhash had gedaan, en stapte over harde stenen, over zeewier heen. Hij vertelde haar dat het vloed werd. Hij wees haar de rotsen die uit het zand staken, maar over een uur onder water verdwenen zouden zijn. (p. 174)