DOCSLIB.ORG

From British Colonial Police Act of 1861 to Free India's

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
From British Colonial Police Act of 1861 to Free India's FROM BRITISH COLONIAL POLICE ACT OF 1861 TO FREE INDIA’S POLICE LEGISLATION THE EXPECTATIONS OF MODERN CIVIL SOCIETY OF INDIA Nityanand Joshi1 INTRODUCTION India is a democratic Country. The importance of police is felt on every step here. The poor and middle class public expects from police the help to lead them to the doors of justice. The establishment of police force was done by the British Rulers in India. The police act came into force in 1861. Its main aim was to suppress the Indian public’s independence movement. In independent India, in 1947, the police got the shelter of politicians. The police which was expected to help the general public of India started helping the activities of well to do people hence no change came in the activities of the police force. The politicians use the police as a tool to control their political opponents. The reacton is nexalities, public anger & criminal attacks. The advertisement of police force is done by painting their image as fair & transparent agency but the fact is that generally the public is afraid of going out to the police station for registering an First information report. The political influence is required to register an First information report. It is not sure that after registering the First information report the people will get justice or not. The police is a pillar of the society but unfortunately it is serious to think about the grave situation Ipso facto. There is a big shortage in the number of police force hence it is difficult to deal with the law & order in our thickly populated country. 1 Research Scholar, Jaipur National University, Jaipur Life Member, Indore High Court Bar Association, Indore (M.P.) 1 | P a g e Journal On Contemporary Issues of Law (JCIL) Vol. 2 Issue 9 It is very much complicated administration system that is working in modern India in which nobody can be easily and directly held responsible and accountable. The training is given to the people inside the police force but not to the actually front line workers. The work load on the police force is more than normal which becomes a reason of their non-capabilities and carelessness. It leads them away from liking their duties & work but under disciplinary bindings they cannot oppose it. There is wide explanation about giving the facilities to them but actually these are not available to them. This situation is even worst in the backward states of India. The police force is an organization and if it is a strong organization, only then it can become helpful to the public expectations. ORIGIN OF POLICE The word polis from Unani & Polita from Latin adopted the word POLICE in English. General meaning is to maintain peace & order. Police is a state organization to maintain peace in society. The modern society’s development caused the police & court to come into existence. The police is the FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE. The police force is increased as the development of society is in progress. Police is given training for discipline & establishing peaceful atmosphere in society. In the rule of law, police prohibits the criminal activities, arrest the offenders investigate the crimes, put up challan before the court and reforms after the release from prisons’ or on probation or on completion of term of punishment & train the society for legal behavior in peaceful period. In the modern development of industries & urban development, the crime rate also has gone high, illegal weapons are readily available to criminals, organized criminals are increasing under political protection, traffic in cities is increasing, and hence the role of police has increased. In case of Prakash Singh V/S Union the Supreme Court directed the state to accept the Sorabji Committee’s recommendation repeatedly twice after a lapse of 5 years. 2 | P a g e Journal On Contemporary Issues of Law (JCIL) Vol. 2 Issue 9 It is widely accepted that the police act of 1861 drafted by British Colonial Authorities close on the heels of First War of independence 1857 must be revised. STEPS TOWARDS REVISION OF POLICE ACT The National Police Commission’s report of 1981 submitted New Police Bill for India. The ministry of Home affairs constituted Police act drafting Committee in 2005. After Supreme Court’s judgment Model Police bill 2006 was submitted. The bill was circulated to all the states but no police act has been passed. Eleven states have enacted fresh police acts, two have amended old act. The Union territory of Chandigarh has adopted Punjab Police act. Other states are in process of Drafting. Delhi put up draft for Delhi Police Bill in 2010. Communities are the main beneficiaries of good policing and main victim of bad policing. Hence Community & Civil Societies participation is essential in this process. The state Government need to ensure that the legislation reflects the needs of the people in relation of the expected police service. The Government set up National Police Commission in 1977 headed by Shri Dhamvira for review the working of police system in India which gave 8 reports & made several recommendation for police reforms but all were discarded by the Government. Its recommendation were – - Chief of Police of state to be assured of a fix tenure. - No external interference in police work. - Security Commission for each state. - Selection of Chief of the Police by separate committee. - Police act of 1861 should be replaced by new legislation. - Pakistan has instituted new ordinance and India is left behind in this matter. - In 1997 Central Government wrote letter to all Chief Ministers about too much external interference of police system having no public relations provisions. - As the police supports the leaders at election time the vested interests did not follow the recommendation of the commission. 3 | P a g e Journal On Contemporary Issues of Law (JCIL) Vol. 2 Issue 9 - Some states have started drafting new legislation but these lack of accountability, transparency & people’s participation e.g. the police bill in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, and Punjab. - Judicial front in this matter is active SC has issued several directions. - D.K. Basu has given 10 points guideline for right of citizen when they come in police contact. - Rebero Committee was formed for finding out problems in implementation of recommendation of the committee. - In 2000 Padmanabhaiah Committee was constituted which recommended “Community Policing” to be adopted as a philosophy within the police organization. DUTIES OF POLICE COMPLIANCE & FAILURE The Police force has many branches in action in form of Border Security force, Indo T’bet Border Police, Central Reserve Police, Special Armed Forece, Railway Protection Force, Industrial Police Force, and Fire Brigade where Police is deployed, riots Police etc. Police looks after law & enforcement, deals with criminals, juveniles criminals, women domestic violence & crimes against the society. However the police is unable to control the organized crimes, white collar crimes & criminalization of the police, itself. The political activities are supported by criminal elements. Black Money is floated in elections which encourages both capturing, bogus voting, purchasing votes by distribution of liquor, Television sets, Motor Cycles, Sarees, Cash during election. The police is silent onlooker. The political agents carry voters in private vehicles. All these activities are done before the eyes of police. Police officers of choice are posted for this in the area. Police also sometimes get involve in custodial rape, corruption, custodial death, organize fake encounters etc. Police have to be cleaned of these evils. The Police rules in India in different states are not homogeneous where local rules & traditions apply, states make rule as per their convenience & First Information Report is not possible to be lodged against police. 4 | P a g e Journal On Contemporary Issues of Law (JCIL) Vol. 2 Issue 9 ABOUT FEW POWERS OF POLICE Under Evidence act 1872 u/s 145 the police cannot used the statement taken by them u/s 161 as a support of evidence. This statement cannot be taken as chief statement of the witness. The names of witness are fixed by the prosecution before submitting the challan u/s 173 & list of witness is attached to it. It is not allowed to depend upon the case diary under the rules. Any person can approach a magistrate with his complaint u/s 201(1) if the police officer is shielding an offender. Investigation must be completed without unnecessary delay. Magistrate is not authorized to interfere the investigation & cannot direct how to conduct it. Investigation in albescence of an offence can be quashed under art 226 of constitution or u/s 482 of criminal procedure code. The First Information report in a cognizable case should be entered in writing by the police & copy must be given to the accused u/s 154 (1) (2), its summary must be entered in station dairy u/s 44 of police act 1861. The police cannot refuse to register a complaint. If the police officer refuses to register a complaint then it must be given to Superintendent of police in writing. The First Information report is recorded before starting the investigation. The first informer must sign on it. It is not a substantive evidence of the facts mentioned in it. It can be used against an accused under evidence act u/s 21 & 58. In cases which are non-cognizable, the magistrate can send the report to the police u/s 156(3) without taking its cognizance. The investigation for cognizable offence begins only on the reason to suspect the Commission of a cognizable offence on the basis of first information report u/s 154.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Locating the Survivor in the Indian Criminal Justice System: Decoding the Law I
    Locating the Survivor in the Indian Criminal Justice System: Decoding the Law i Locating the Survivorin the Indian Criminal Justice System: Decoding the Law LAWYERS COLLECTIVE WOMEN’S RIGHTS INITIATIVE Contents Contents v Foreword ix Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations xiii Introduction I. Kinds of Offences and Cases 2 1. Bailable Offence 2 2. Non Bailable Offence 2 3. Cognisable Offences 2 4. Non Cognisable Offences 2 5. Cognisable Offences and Police Responsibility 3 6. Procedure for Trial of Cases 3 II. First Information Report 4 1. Process of Recording Complaint 4 2. Mandatory Reporting under Section 19 of the POCSO Act 4 3. Special Procedure for Children 5 4. Woman Officer to Record Information in Specified Offences 5 5. Special Process for Differently-abled Complainant 6 6. Non Registration of FIR 6 7. Registration of FIR and Territorial Jurisdiction 8 III. Magisterial Response 9 1. Remedy against Police Inaction 10 IV. Investigation 11 1. Steps in Investigation 12 2. Preliminary, Pre-FIR Inquiry by the Police 12 Locating the Survivor in the Indian Criminal Justice System: Decoding the Law v 3. Process of Investigation 13 4. Fair Police Investigation 14 5. Statement and Confessions 14 (i) Examination and statements of witnesses 14 (ii) Confessions to the magistrate 16 (iii) Recording the confession 16 (iv) Statements to the magistrate 16 (v) Statement of woman survivor 17 (vi) Statement of differently abled survivor 17 6. Medical Examination of the Survivor 17 (i) Examination only by consent 17 (ii) Medical examination of a child 17 (iii) Medical examination report 18 (iv) Medical treatment of a survivor 18 7.
    [Show full text]
  • Downloaded from Elgar Online at 09/25/2021 05:39:10PM Via Free Access
    JOBNAME: Ross PAGE: 1 SESS: 2 OUTPUT: Fri May 27 10:11:14 2016 Index acquittals 81, 88, 162, 245, 376, 442 conditions 137 directed verdict 75, 109, 373, 375 final orders 136, 137 double jeopardy and appeals of 37–8, First Information Report (FIR) 135 56 historical background 123 Japan 85, 86, 404, 406, 407, 410, 414 developments since 1973 129–34 judge as investigator 89 Independence to section 438 126–9 judgment reasons 96–9 Indian PoliceAct 1861 to acquittals overturned: inadequacy Independence in 1947 123–6 of 101–4 interim orders 136–7 jury 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, key features of s 438(1) 137 88, 373–4, 378, 439 knowledge of imminent arrest 135–6 Spain 86, 377, 380 lawyers’fees 137 pre-trial detention 192 text of s 438 136, 159–60 relative disappearance of 85–6 appeals 78, 79, 85, 371, 521 transcripts of trial testimony: acquittals 89, 442 overturn 91 double jeopardy and 37–8, 56 adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy 4, Japan’s lay judge system 404 13, 16, 35, 36, 58–9, 245 jury verdicts 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, appeals of acquittals 37–8 82, 373–4, 377, 378, 439 re-prosecution 39 ‘cassation’and ‘appeal’90–91, 440 endurance of 519–33 cassational courts, efficacy of 90–93 strengths 523–6 Japan 404, 410, 414 tradition 520–523 jury verdicts 38, 54, 56, 57, 58, 80, weaknesses 526–32 81, 82, 373–4, 377–8, 423–4, exclusionary rules 13, 18–19, 39–41, 438–42 44, 244 reasons on appeal 427–8 history 80–83 negotiated verdicts 47, 51 ‘innocence-weighted’approach 36–7 non-prosecution decision 225, 241–2 juries 14, 55–6 Spain 85, 92, 375–6,
    [Show full text]
  • Death-Penalty-Pakistan
    Report Mission of Investigation Slow march to the gallows Death penalty in Pakistan Executive Summary. 5 Foreword: Why mobilise against the death penalty . 8 Introduction and Background . 16 I. The legal framework . 21 II. A deeply flawed and discriminatory process, from arrest to trial to execution. 44 Conclusion and recommendations . 60 Annex: List of persons met by the delegation . 62 n° 464/2 - January 2007 Slow march to the gallows. Death penalty in Pakistan Table of contents Executive Summary. 5 Foreword: Why mobilise against the death penalty . 8 1. The absence of deterrence . 8 2. Arguments founded on human dignity and liberty. 8 3. Arguments from international human rights law . 10 Introduction and Background . 16 1. Introduction . 16 2. Overview of death penalty in Pakistan: expanding its scope, reducing the safeguards. 16 3. A widespread public support of death penalty . 19 I. The legal framework . 21 1. The international legal framework. 21 2. Crimes carrying the death penalty in Pakistan . 21 3. Facts and figures on death penalty in Pakistan. 26 3.1. Figures on executions . 26 3.2. Figures on condemned prisoners . 27 3.2.1. Punjab . 27 3.2.2. NWFP. 27 3.2.3. Balochistan . 28 3.2.4. Sindh . 29 4. The Pakistani legal system and procedure. 30 4.1. The intermingling of common law and Islamic Law . 30 4.2. A defendant's itinerary through the courts . 31 4.2.1. The trial . 31 4.2.2. Appeals . 31 4.2.3. Mercy petition . 31 4.2.4. Stays of execution . 33 4.3. The case law: gradually expanding the scope of death penalty .
    [Show full text]
  • FIR an FIR Or First Information Report Is a Written Document That Is Filed By
    FIR An FIR or First Information Report is a written document that is filed by the police. It is different from a police complaint. An FIR is filled if a cognizable offence has occurred, i.e. an offence for which police can take action without prior court approval (a warrant). A police complaint can be filled both in the case of a cognizable as well as a non-cognizable offence (offence where police cannot arrest without a warrant). In the Section 154 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 ('CrPC') defines what amounts to first information. The need to file an FIR arises in the case of loss or theft of important documents like Educational Certificates, Birth Certificate, PAN Card, Election Card (Voter ID), Driving Licence, Passport, Property sale-purchase papers etc. Loss of mobile phone is another common occurrence when one needs to file an FIR. In order to get a duplicate of any lost documents one has to attach a copy of the F.I.R along with the application. In addition any unauthorized person can misuse your lost original documents. Hence it is important to lodge a F.I.R for the lost documents with the local Police station and get a copy of the same which will serve as an evidential proof for you. Three or more copies of the application should be made. Namely one for police station record, another copy for duplicate Document Application and finally a copy for one’s own record. The report should be duly signed by the Police Officer In-charge with his name and designation, Police station Address Stamp.
    [Show full text]
  • Functions, Roles and Duties of Police in General
    Chapter 1 Functions, Roles and Duties of Police in General Introduction 1. Police are one of the most ubiquitous organisations of the society. The policemen, therefore, happen to be the most visible representatives of the government. In an hour of need, danger, crisis and difficulty, when a citizen does not know, what to do and whom to approach, the police station and a policeman happen to be the most appropriate and approachable unit and person for him. The police are expected to be the most accessible, interactive and dynamic organisation of any society. Their roles, functions and duties in the society are natural to be varied, and multifarious on the one hand; and complicated, knotty and complex on the other. Broadly speaking the twin roles, which the police are expected to play in a society are maintenance of law and maintenance of order. However, the ramifications of these two duties are numerous, which result in making a large inventory of duties, functions, powers, roles and responsibilities of the police organisation. Role, Functions and Duties of the Police in General 2. The role and functions of the police in general are: (a) to uphold and enforce the law impartially, and to protect life, liberty, property, human rights, and dignity of the members of the public; (b) to promote and preserve public order; (c) to protect internal security, to prevent and control terrorist activities, breaches of communal harmony, militant activities and other situations affecting Internal Security; (d) to protect public properties including roads,
    [Show full text]
  • Self- Incrimination–Reviewing the Constitutional Protection
    Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-10, 2016 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in Self- Incrimination–Reviewing the Constitutional Protection Anant Faujdar Student, LLM, Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Abstract: As a general rule under the law against shall be clear in the minds of every advocate, every self-incrimination, an accused person cannot be researcher and every scholar while studying this compelled to be a witness against himself. This constitutional protection that it has to be evenly would mean that a person who is involved with or balanced in the interests of justice because it tends is about to be involved with criminal proceedings to curb any arbitrariness or compulsion in any form in any court, falls within this protection. At the at its very source. Let us now discuss the same time it also restricts the agencies of the constitutional provision which is the very basis of government fighting against crime in society. The this protection against self-incrimination: Article right not to incriminate oneself presupposes that 20(3). the prosecution in a criminal case seeks to prove their accused without resort to evidence obtained 2. Interpretation of Article 20(3) Of through methods of coercion in defiance of the will Constitution of India of the accused. In this sense the right against self- incrimination is based on presumption of In order to understand the concept of self- innocence. The right not to incriminate oneself is incrimination we must understand the language of concerned, however, with respecting the will of an Article 20(3) of the Constitution of India.
    [Show full text]
  • Questioning the Truth. Ideals of Justice and Trial Techniques in India Daniela Berti, Gilles Tarabout
    Questioning the Truth. Ideals of Justice and Trial Techniques in India Daniela Berti, Gilles Tarabout To cite this version: Daniela Berti, Gilles Tarabout. Questioning the Truth. Ideals of Justice and Trial Techniques in India. Ben Hounet, Yazid; Puccio-Den, Deborah. Truth, Intentionality and Evidence. Anthropological Approaches to Crime, Routledge, 2017, 978-1-138-64609-4. hal-01612781 HAL Id: hal-01612781 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01612781 Submitted on 8 Oct 2017 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial - NoDerivatives| 4.0 International License Questioning the Truth. Ideals of Justice and Trial Techniques in India Daniela Berti (CNRS, Centre d’Etudes Himalayennes) and Gilles Tarabout (CNRS, Laboratoire d’Ethnologie et de Sociologie Comparative) [in Yazid Ben Hounet & Deborah Puccio-Den (eds), Truth, Intentionality and Evidence. Anthropological Approaches to Crime, pp.10-27. London & New York: Routledge.] /p. 10/ ‘Justice resides in truth alone, and there is no happiness apart from justice’ (E. Zola, Truth, 1903 [transl. E.A. Vizetelly]) This paper is about the discourses on the notion of truth that are held in the context of criminal cases in India.
    [Show full text]
  • Frequently Asked Questions, of the Functioning and of the Administration of the Department
    FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS, OF THE FUNCTIONING AND OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE DEPARTMENT What does the police do on receiving a complaint? Generally there are two types of offences, namely cognizable and non-cognizable Offences. Cognizable cases are cases in which police can directly register cases and in non-cognizable cases police cannot directly register case but require permission of the court to do so. If the complaint relates to cognizable offences, police will register as case and investigate and for the non-cognizable offences the informant will be directed to the court of police will send the complaint to the concerned court with a request for sanction to register cases. Is it lawful to summon women to police stations? No it is not legal to summon women to police station. Police officer should go to the women where they reside to take their depositions. What is FIR (First Information Report)? The substance of the complaint will be reduced to writing by the police officer to whom it is given which is called first information statement and a police form (FIR form) will be filled, got signed by the informer and sent to the court without any delay. The substance of the complaint can be either be written on the FIR form itself, if the complaint is given at police stations, or separately on white paper if the informer is somewhere else other than the police station. (This is envisaged in Sec. 164 Cr.PC). What is meant by saying case is registered? Case is registeredmeans First Information Report (FIR) has been registered on the basis of the complaint given either orally or written by the informer.
    [Show full text]
  • Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary Or Arbitrary Executions, Christof Heyns
    United Nations A/HRC/29/37/Add.3 General Assembly Distr.: General 6 May 2015 Original: English Human Rights Council Twenty-ninth session Agenda item 3 Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development Report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Christof Heyns Addendum Follow-up to country recommendations: India* Summary In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions analyses the steps taken by India to implement the recommendations contained in the report made following his visit to the country from 19 to 30 March 2012. During that visit, the Special Rapporteur documented extrajudicial killings by security officers, the State Police, Armed Forces and armed groups. He also reported killings related to communal violence and practices affecting women’s right to life as a serious problem in some areas of the country. In addition, he noted a number of challenges at various stages of the accountability process leading to impunity in many instances. Since the visit, the Government has taken some steps to address human rights violations committed against women and in support of victims of terrorist-related activities. However, vulnerable groups remain at risk of violent and often lethal attacks. Impunity remains a serious challenge, as does the implementation of existing guidelines and directives issued by the courts and national human rights institution. The Special Rapporteur urges the Government to implement the recommendations contained in the visit report insofar as this has not been done. * The summary of the present report is circulated in all official languages.
    [Show full text]
  • Registration of Second FIR (First Information Report) in Sughran Bibi
    Review of Education, Administration and Law (REAL) Vol. 3, (1) 2020, 113-122 Registration of Second FIR (First Information Report) in Sughran Bibi Case: A Landmark Judgement of the Supreme Court of Pakistan a b c d Rais Nouman Ahmad, Faiz Bakhsh, M. Danyal Khan, Sidra Kanwal a Assistant Professor, University Gillani Law College, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan b Assistant Professor, University Gillani Law College, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan E-mail: [email protected] c PhD Scholar Brunel University, London, UK. E-mail: [email protected] d LLM Scholar, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE DETAILS ABSTRACT History: The registration of First Information Report (FIR) has remained a Accepted 12 May 2020 challenging area for the judicial system of Pakistan; the multiplicity of the Available Online 30 June 2020 FIRs means separate investigation and separate police report. Precedents were available far and against the second FIR which had been creating Keywords: perplexity and nuisance for law enforcement agencies. First Information First Information Report (FIR), Report is contaminated by the inclusion of exaggerated facts by the Sughran Bibi Case, Supreme aggrieved parties. Moreover, there are several allegations on the working Court, Judgment of police in Pakistan for drafting the FIR arbitrarily. Although FIR is a mere document to report the incident, however, it has gained a significant JEL Classification: role in deciding the fate of a criminal trial in Pakistan. Therefore, it is L86, L89 imperative to examine the status of FIR in criminal-trail framework of Pakistan. To do this, Sughran Bibi Case is very significant in interpreting DOI: 10.47067/real.v3i1.26 the status of multiplicity of FIRs in the criminal trail framework.
    [Show full text]
  • First Information Report) Is a Report Which Comes Under Criminal Procedure Code (C.R.Pc) Section 154 in 1973
    FIR (First Information Report) is a report which comes under criminal procedure code (C.r.pc) section 154 in 1973. An FIR can be registered only for cognizable offenses. Cognizable offenses are those offenses in which the officer-in-charge of a police station can arrest a person without a warrant. It is recorded in the manner under section 154 of c.r.pc. Every police station has a jurisdictional area for which they can take up the investigation if offense commission of cognizable offense comes under there area of jurisdiction. First Information Report Contents of First Information Report FIR includes the date, time, place, incident details, and a description of the person involved. Ingredients of First Information Report Some essential ingredients of First Information Report which come under section 154 of CrPC: Information There should be offense information. Cognizable offense The offense must be related to the cognizable offenses Oral or written The information was given either orally or written form. If it is given oral than officer-in-charge of the police station, shall be reduced to writing by him or under his direction and be read to the informant. Entering of substance in the book The information shall be entered in a book to be kept by such police officer in such form as the state government may prescribe on this behalf. Signature of informant The information given by the person to the police officer shall be signed by the informer. If the statement is given under 154 of CrPC is oral then there should be a sign of informant who gave the oral statement.
    [Show full text]
  • Capital Punishment in South Asia (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh): a Legal Analysis
    Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Alam, Muhammad Qadeer (2017) Capital punishment in South Asia (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh): a legal analysis. PhD thesis, Middlesex University. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/21990/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. Works, including theses and research projects, may not be reproduced in any format or medium, or extensive quotations taken from them, or their content changed in any way, without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). They may not be sold or exploited commercially in any format or medium without the prior written permission of the copyright holder(s). Full bibliographic details must be given when referring to, or quoting from full items including the author’s name, the title of the work, publication details where relevant (place, publisher, date), pag- ination, and for theses or dissertations the awarding institution, the degree type awarded, and the date of the award. If you believe that any material held in the repository infringes copyright law, please contact the Repository Team at Middlesex University via the following email address: [email protected] The item will be removed from the repository while any claim is being investigated.
    [Show full text]