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Index

acquittals 81, 88, 162, 245, 376, 442 conditions 137 directed verdict 75, 109, 373, 375 final orders 136, 137 double jeopardy and appeals of 37–8, First Information Report (FIR) 135 56 historical background 123 Japan 85, 86, 404, 406, 407, 410, 414 developments since 1973 129–34 judge as investigator 89 Independence to section 438 126–9 judgment reasons 96–9 Indian PoliceAct 1861 to acquittals overturned: inadequacy Independence in 1947 123–6 of 101–4 interim orders 136–7 jury 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, key features of s 438(1) 137 88, 373–4, 378, 439 knowledge of imminent arrest 135–6 Spain 86, 377, 380 lawyers’fees 137 pre-trial detention 192 text of s 438 136, 159–60 relative disappearance of 85–6 appeals 78, 79, 85, 371, 521 transcripts of trial testimony: acquittals 89, 442 overturn 91 double jeopardy and 37–8, 56 adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy 4, Japan’s lay judge system 404 13, 16, 35, 36, 58–9, 245 jury verdicts 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, appeals of acquittals 37–8 82, 373–4, 377, 378, 439 re-prosecution 39 ‘cassation’and ‘appeal’90–91, 440 endurance of 519–33 cassational courts, efficacy of 90–93 strengths 523–6 Japan 404, 410, 414 tradition 520–523 jury verdicts 38, 54, 56, 57, 58, 80, weaknesses 526–32 81, 82, 373–4, 377–8, 423–4, exclusionary rules 13, 18–19, 39–41, 438–42 44, 244 reasons on appeal 427–8 history 80–83 negotiated verdicts 47, 51 ‘innocence-weighted’approach 36–7 non-prosecution decision 225, 241–2 juries 14, 55–6 Spain 85, 92, 375–6, 377, 378, 380 normative assumptions 221 Taiwan 178 plea bargaining 13, 45, 47, 48–52, Argentina 220, 525 exclusionary rules 40, 292, 293 poverty and pre-trial practice 223 Armenia 453, 455, 456, 458, 460, 464, prosecutors and judges 234, 243–4 465, 466–7, 469 tango justice vs rumba justice 366–7, exclusionary rules 41 372, 522, 525 arrest 7, 191, 192–3, 209–10, 294 agency capture 234 EuropeanArrest Warrant 204, 263 Alford pleas 51 flagrancy 194, 210 American BarAssociation 222 continental Europe 200–204 American Civil Liberties Union human rights 193–4, 203 (ACLU) 485–6 probable cause 194, 210 anticipatory bail in India 7–8, 17, US 166, 197–200 119–50 reasonable suspicion 194, 210

537

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538 Comparative criminal procedure

continental Europe 203 exclusionary rules 40, 41, 43 ECHR 193–4 search and seizure 287, 290, 297 England and Wales 195–7, 210 juries 54, 56 ICC 194 plea bargaining 46 Ashcroft, John 488 wiretapping 465, 466 attorneys see counsel, right to charging decisions 7, 228 audio-recording of hearings 439–40 Germany 224–5, 228, 234, 235 Australia mandatory prosecution 86, 224–5, bail/pre-trial detention 207, 208 226–7, 251, 481 double jeopardy India 135 re-prosecution 39 Japan 400–401, 406–8, 409, 410, exclusionary rules 40, 43 412, 415 search and seizure 288 judges in inquisitorial systems 49 juries 53, 54 mandatory prosecution 86 question-list verdicts 95 Germany 86, 224–5, 226–7, 251, Azerbaijan 453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 481 460, 469 plea bargaining 46, 48–9, 230–231 US 228, 230–231, 232, 233, 234 bail see also prosecutorial charging human rights 204–5 decisions in US and Taiwan, India 135 screening anticipatory bail in see separate Chesterton, G.K. 414–15 entry Chicago Public Schools (CPS) 496–7 Japan 411, 413 China pre-trial preventative detention 207–9 acquittals 85 presumption in favour of release flagrancy 200 205–7 pre-trial detention 209 Belarus 453, 454, 455–6, 457, 461, 462, circumstantial evidence 79, 80, 81 467, 469 Germany: Carolina (1532) 81 Belgium 83 inadequacy of judgment reasons arrest 203 100–104 exclusionary rules mega-evaluation approach 102, 104 search and seizure 288, 289 negative formal rules of evidence 109 Juries 57, 76 cognitive biases 5, 20–21, 54, 367 question-list verdicts 95 Colombia 291 reasons 429, 434 computer fraud 482, 492 blood samples 314, 341 conditional dismissals 224 Brazil 291 confession bargaining 13, 25, 107 burden of proof 311 equilibrium point: plea bargaining instructions to juries 96 and 248–9 Taiwan 172, 173–4, 181 Germany 10, 11, 16, 77, 87, 108, 220, business records 315 226, 227–8, 242, 247, 248–9 see also plea bargaining Canada confessions 8, 9, 81, 369, 521 appeals 56 bargains see confession bargaining acquittals 38 exclusionary rule 9, 19, 40–41, 310, bail/pre-trial detention 206–7, 208, 469 209 France 329

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Index 539

Germany 331–2, 333–4 data mining 27–8, 494–5, 497, 498 UK 321–3 Germany: limitations on bulk data US 312–13, 315, 318, 333, 334 collection and 500–506 false 244, 308, 311, 318 link analysis 484 wrongful convictions 75, 107–8, ethnicity 488, 489, 490 230 FISA (Foreign Intelligence France 329, 330 SurveillanceAct of 1978) Ireland 291 482–4, 486–7, 494, 499 Japan 6, 412–13 intelligence operation bypass negative formal rules of evidence 109 491–3 retraction 107 FourthAmendment 477, 478, 480, sole basis for verdict prohibition 50 489, 507 Taiwan 181 foreign intelligence exception uncorroborated 79, 107 480–481, 484 US 107–8, 230, 252, 284, 312–13, PRISM 499 315, 318, 332 ‘special needs’operations 480, 500 video-taping 6, 413 Germany: limitations on bulk data wrongful convictions: false 75, collection and data mining 107–8, 230 500–506 confidentiality 272, 461 new surveillance paradigm 477, Japan 403, 404, 416 494–7, 507–9 juries 55 bulk metadata about phone calls mixed courts 96 495, 498, 499 confirmation bias 6, 8, 229–30 over-collection 477, 497–500, 509 conspiracy law 479 PRISM 496, 498–9 cooperation agreements 47 social media 496, 498–9, 502 corporations PatriotAct 481, 482, 483, 484–5, 486, US: self-incrimination 313 487–8, 495 corruption 120, 128, 132, 148, 150, 162, political organizations 488–9, 183, 372–3, 531 490–491 mandatory prosecution 165 predictive analysis 494, 496–7, 499 pre-trial detention 192 preventive policing and law counsel, right to 8, 15–16, 23, 258–9, enforcement 478–81 275–7, 369–70, 521, 522, 523–4, profiling 499, 503 525 religious groups 488–91 ECtHR 258, 259–60, 268, 275–6, social network analysis 495 327, 330, 345, 347 undercover agents 488–91 EU legislation and 264–5 warrant requirements avoided 477, Salduz v Turkey 261–3, 325–6 481–93, 507 police and suspects’rights 273–5, emails 482, 491, 496, 499, 502 316, 317, 319 financial data and records 484, 494, US 50, 229, 489 497 Miranda 316, 317 FISA (Foreign Intelligence preliminary hearing 167, 169, 183 SurveillanceAct of 1978) waiver 50, 274, 275, 317, 327 482–4, 486–7, 491–3, 494, counterterrorism surveillance by US 499 through German lenses 27–9, 31, hackers 482, 492 475–509 ‘lone wolf’483–4

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540 Comparative criminal procedure

national security letters 484–6, appeals of acquittals and 37–8, 56 492, 497 drug crimes 465, 476, 490 sneak and peak searches 487–8, ethnic discrimination 196 492 France 324, 325, 328 voicemails 482, 492 Germany 234, 236, 253 Croatia 465, 466 Japan 401, 408 Taiwan 181 damages 376 drugs and exclusionary rule 283, 290, searches, illegal 281, 298, 299–300, 294, 296, 341, 342, 346 302 drugs purchases: special investigative data mining 27–8, 494–5, 497, 498 techniques (SITs) 462, 463 Germany: limitations on bulk data collection and 500–506 economic crimes 226, 235, 236, 240 link analysis 484 Egypt 292, 293 databases 498 electronic surveillance/eavesdropping Chicago Public Schools (CPS) 289, 301, 462, 478, 480, 481–3, 496–7 486–7, 491–3 Germany 502–6 databases in Germany 503, 504, 505, street gangs 496, 508 506 death penalty 5, 75, 81, 83, 86, 93, emails 482, 491, 496, 499, 502 105–6, 400, 409–10 EU: bulk telecommunications data democracy 10, 438, 478, 522 501 Japan’s lay judge system 25, 397, PRISM 496, 498–9 414, 416, 523 XKeyScore 496, 502 juries and 10, 18, 53–4, 58, 80, 435 emails 482, 491, 496, 499, 502 reasoned court decisions and 425 England and Wales 268, 520, 527 Denmark 463 appeals of acquittals 38 detention 324 arrest 195–7, 210 pre-trial 24, 191, 192–3, 202–3, bail/custody 24, 205, 206, 207, 208 204–10, 369, 529–30 double jeopardy bail and presumption in favour of appeals of acquittals 38 release 205–7 re-prosecution 39 human rights 204–5, 208 exclusionary rules 13, 468 Japan 411, 413 confessions 321–3 preventive 207–9, 210 search and seizure 287–8, 289 Russia 468 juries 80, 81, 205, 320–321, 368, 422, disclosure/discovery 427 Japan 411–12 judge: comments and instructions plea bargaining 46, 48, 222–3 to 96, 106, 321, 346–7, 434 pre-plea 46, 222–3, 230, 232, 233 lawyer, right to 266–7, 268–9, United States 222–3, 231 270–272, 345, 523, 524 exculpatory evidence 46, 221, suspects’rights and police 266–7, 222–3, 230, 232, 233 273, 274, 275, 319–20, 321 preliminary hearing 168 plea bargaining 46 discrimination. privacy 468 ethnicity 192, 195–6 self-incrimination see UK under DNA testing 5, 39, 75, 106, 107 self-incrimination, privilege double jeopardy 36, 37–9, 58, 525 against

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Index 541

silence see UK under silence, right to reasonable suspicion 193–4, 203 time limits: detention 266 silence and self-incrimination 14–15, entrapment 301, 462–3 310, 323, 326, 327, 333, 335–6, ethics 352–3 US prosecutors 221, 222, 230 maturing approach 338–9 ethnicity origins 336–8 discrimination 192, 195–6 retreat to balancing 339–40, 341, surveillance 488, 489, 490 342 European Convention on Human Rights physical evidence reconsidered (ECHR) 3–4, 36–7, 202, 203, 351, 340–342 455 permissible incursions 343–4 appeals (Protocol 7,Art 2) 424, 435 adverse inferences 344–7 fair trial (Art 6) 13–14, 341, 349 entrapment 462–3 exclusion 348–50 instructions to jury 346–7 summary 350–351 legal counsel 258, 259–63, 268, waiver of right to silence 335 275–6, 345 European Union 17–18, 263–4 presumption of innocence 84, 338 data retention: bulk metadata 501 reasoned judgments 76, 425, 426 EuropeanArrest Warrant 204, 263 right to silence and privilege information, right to 264, 265 against self-incrimination interpretation and translation 264 310, 327, 335, 336, 338, lawyer, access to 15, 258–9, 263–5, 339–40, 352, 353 275–6 wiretapping 468 evidence 268, 369, 371 liberty (Art 5) 193, 194, 208 circumstantial evidence 79, 80, 81 privacy (Art 8) 458, 459, 460, 466, Germany: Carolina (1532) 81 468, 500 inadequacy of judgment reasons torture, inhuman or degrading 100–104 treatment (Art 3) 341, 342, mega-evaluation approach 102, 348–50 104 European Court of Human Rights negative formal rules of evidence (ECtHR) 3–4, 17–18, 330, 370, 109 455, 467 confessions see separate entry arrest 193–4, 203 disclosure/discovery see separate custodial legal advice 258, 259–63, entry 264–5, 268, 275–6, 325–6, 327, exclusionary rules see separate entry 330, 345, 347 eyewitnesses see separate entry entrapment 462–3 Germany 100, 243, 244, 245, 247, exclusionary rules 40, 41, 310, 251, 480 348–50, 468, 469 reasoned judgments or formal rules search and seizure 289 of see separate entry juries Taiwan verdicts 23, 57–8, 76, 95, 422, 423, pre-trial screening 176, 177–8, 424, 425, 426–8, 433, 434–5, 179, 181–2, 184 443 United States 222, 222–3, 230 pre-trial detention 204–5 grand jury review 171–2, 179 privacy 459, 460, 464, 466–7, 468, preliminary hearing 168, 169, 177, 469–70 179

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542 Comparative criminal procedure

exclusionary rules 7, 9, 10, 19, 35, 36, US: deterrence of police 39–45, 58, 231 misconduct model 42–3, adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy 281–6, 294–5 13, 18–19, 39–41, 44, 244 special investigative techniques balancing approach 40, 287–8, (SITs) 463, 468–9 333–4, 342 Taiwan 179 multiple goals 43–4 experts 88, 106, 375, 430 classification based on values forensic 75 promoted 40, 43 eyewitnesses 5, 100 deterrence approach 40, 42–3, historical background 281–6, 294–5, 329 Germany 81 integrity of judicial system 40, identification 91, 106–7 41–2, 43, 287–91, 299–302, wrongful conviction 75, 79, 106 329 negative formal rules of evidence 109 reliability approach 40–41 rights theory/remedial model 41, Facebook 496 291–3 fair trial confessions 9, 19, 40–41, 310, 469 ECHR (Art 6) 13–14, 341, 349 France 329 entrapment 462–3 Germany 331–2, 333–4 instructions to jury 346–7 UK 321–3 legal counsel 258, 259–63, 268, US 312–13, 315, 318, 333, 334 275–6, 345 counsel absent at interrogation 327 presumption of innocence 84, 338 ECtHR 40, 41, 289, 310, 348–50, reasoned judgments 76, 425, 426 468, 469 right to silence and privilege Germany 41, 244, 331–2, 333–4, 469 against self-incrimination search and seizure 288, 289, 298 310, 327, 335, 336, 338, input legitimacy 25 339–40, 352, 353 physical evidence 9, 41 wiretapping 468 ECtHR 340–342, 348–50, 468 pre-trial detention and 192 England and Wales 287–8, 289, feminism 105 468 Filangieri, Gaetano 81 Germany 288, 289, 298, 333, 469 fines 224, 236, 237 Italy 291, 292, 293, 468–9 flagrancy 194, 210 post-Soviet states 291, 469 continental Europe 200–204 Russia 291, 292, 469 Fortescue, John 520 Spain 291–2, 293, 298, 468, 469 France 45, 268, 370, 527 US 280, 281–6, 289, 290, 294–5, acquittals 89, 439, 442 297, 298–9, 300, 301, 302, appeals 56, 89, 92, 423–4, 438–42 314–15, 316, 469 cour d’assises 90–91, 424, 438–9 practical implementation 44–5 ‘arrest’ protective principle 41, 43 flagrancy 200, 201–2 search and seizure cases 9, 280–302 cour d’assises 90–91, 95, 423, 424, analysis of relevant factors 293–9 428–30, 432, 435–9 conclusion 299–302 audio-recording of hearings rights vindication model 291–3 439–40 systemic integrity model 287–91, cour de cassation 89, 91, 92, 327, 299–302 423–4, 429, 439, 440–442

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Index 543

exclusionary rules 40, 292, 293, 298, Georgia 453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 460, 302, 329 462, 469 lawyer absent at interrogation 327 Germany 10–11, 527 innocence, presumption of 84 acquittals 81, 86, 245 intime conviction 82, 83, 94, 422, 430 judgment reasons 96, 98–9, 101–2, reasons vs 430–433 104 judges 82, 88, 89, 94, 95–6, 267, 371, appeals 89, 92, 102 433 dynamics of deliberations 93 police 201 non-prosecution 225, 241–2 reason-giving: keeping judges in reversals of judgments 93 check 424, 434, 435–42 summary of trial evidence 92 juries 53, 56, 75, 76, 82, 83, 95, 434 arrest 331 French case for requiring juries to flagrancy 202–3 give reasons see separate bulk data collection and data mining entry 500–506 lawyer, right to 201, 262, 267, 269, charging decisions 224–5 270–271, 272, 329, 330 confession 108 suspects’rights and police 273, bargaining 10, 11, 16, 77, 87, 108, 274, 275, 324–8 220, 226, 227–8, 242, 247, nullity principle 292, 293, 298, 329 248–9 plea bargaining 330, 432 false 107 police and suspects’rights 273, 274, Constitituo Criminalis Carolina 275, 324–8 (1532) 81 pre-trial detention 207, 208–9 conviction raisonée 83 prosecutor and detention of suspects counsel 242, 252–3, 331, 333, 370 268 counterterrorism surveillance by US self-incrimination see France under through German lenses see self-incrimination, privilege separate entry against data retention: bulk metadata 501 silence see France under silence, databases 502–6 right to diversion 77, 236 tribunal correctionnel 423, 429 evidence, formal rules of 100 wiretapping 466 exclusionary rules 41, 244, 331–2, fraud cases 247, 373 333–4, 469 computer fraud 482, 492 search and seizure 288, 289, 298 freedom of association 488, 508 funding 225, 226–7, 228, 235, 237, freedom of speech 488, 508 251, 253 French juries and reason-giving 19–20, guilty pleas 51, 334 25, 422–43, 525–6, 530 guilty verdict 92 keeping judges in check 424, 434, judgment reasons: witness vs 435–42 witness 105 regimenting European courts 433–5 supporting evidentiary basis 91 Taxquet’s aftermath 423, 428 innocence, presumption of 84 new reason-giving requirement inquisitorial system 223–8, 251 428–30 intelligence agencies 501–2 reasons vs intime conviction databases 502–6 430–433 judges 81–3, 86, 87, 88, 228, 238, secret ballots 431, 432 242, 247, 371

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544 Comparative criminal procedure

appeals and personality of Greece reporting 93 arrest 203 collegial courts, reasons in 89–90 exclusionary rules 40, 292–3 confession agreement 248 nullity principle 292 free conviction 94 guilty pleas mandatory prosecution 86 adversarial systems: early 49 new investigative measures 89 disclosure of evidence 223 powers vis-à-vis prosecutors see judicial supervision 46, 47, 50–51 pre-trial procedure: in plea bargaining see separate entry Germany and US prosecutors and 243–4, 250–251 hackers 482, 492 reasons 89–90, 94 harassment, racial 199–200 juries 83 health 192 mixed court 83, 96, 101–2, 371 hearsay 24, 27, 80, 88, 168, 171, 179, penal orders 77, 237 293, 365 plea bargaining 49, 51–2 Hélie, Faustin 520, 521, 522 pre-trial detention 202–3, 207, 209 HIV 192 prosecutors 6–7, 10–11, 87, 88, 253 human dignity 338, 416, 453–4 as investigators 235–6 Germany 331, 332, 335, 340, 500 mandatory prosecution 86, 224–5, human rights 226–7, 251, 481 arrest 193–4, 203 performance evaluation 226, 238, association, freedom of 488, 508 251 ECHR see European Convention on powers vis-a-vis judiciary see Human Rights pre-trial procedure in ECtHR see European Court of Germany and US Human Rights seeking evidence for both sides 50, fair trial see separate entry 221, 223, 225, 234, 251 globalization, hazards of 351–4 serious economic crimes 226 ‘innocence-weighed’approach 36–7 training 238, 245 pre-trial detention 204–5, 208 security 225 privacy see separate entry self-incrimination see Germany special investigative techniques under self-incrimination, (SITs) 458–9, 468, 469–70 privilege against judicial authorization 459–64 silence see Germany under silence, judicial control of implementation right to 466–7 special investigative techniques less intrusive methods 465 (SITs) level of suspicion 465–6 judicial authorization 463 serious crimes 464–5 wiretapping 464–5, 466 time limits 466 global financial crisis 220 speech, freedom of 488, 508 globalization 399 markets and criminal enterprises in dubio pro reo (all doubts in favor of 226 defendant) 85 silence, self-incrimination and 15, inchoate offenses 479 308–10, 323, 351–4 India 45 Gonzales,Alberto R. 493 information Google 496 plea bargaining 46, 48

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Index 545

investigative file 50 acquittals 38 self-determination, informational exclusionary rules 41 500–501 search and seizure 288, 290–291, innocence, presumption of 11–12, 22, 297 76, 77, 78, 79, 86, 108, 109, 530 juries 56, 427 cassational courts: protection of question-list verdicts 95 90–93 pre-trial detention 208 instructions to juries 96 Israel judgment reasons for acquittals 97–8, exclusionary rules 40, 41, 43 99 search and seizure 288, 292 prosecutorial bias 85–90 Italy 81, 370, 371, 527 reasonable doubt standard and 84–5 appeals 90–91, 92, 378 self-incrimination, privilege against arrest 203 338 confessions 107 Taiwan 172, 178 exclusionary rules 40, 468–9 ‘innocence-weighted’approach 56 search and seizure 291, 292, 293 adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy innocence, presumption of 84, 85 36–7 judgment reasons 94–5 intelligence gathering 453–4, 467, acquittals overturned: inadequacy 475–6, 479–80 of 101–4 see also counterterrorism mandatory prosecution 86 surveillance by US through mixed court 83, 90–91, 96, 103, 104 German lenses pre-trial detention 207 Inter-American Court of Human Rights wiretapping 464, 466 194 International Covenant on Civil and Japan 57, 164 Political Rights 1976 455 acquittals 85, 86, 404, 406, 407, 410, arrest 193 414 innocence-weighed 36 appeals 404, 410, 414 pre-trial detention 204 flagrancy 200 privacy 458 lay judges see Japan’s lay judge International Criminal Court (ICC) 37, system 194 mixed court 53, 57, 86 arrest 194 Japan’s lay judge system 6, 7, 21, 22–3, exclusionary rules 42, 43 25, 26, 53, 57, 86, 396–416 plea bargaining 50, 51 consequences of reform 405 prosecutors: seeking evidence for change 410–415 both sides 50 continuity 406–10, 415 International Criminal Tribunal for the conviction rates 406–8, 412 formerYugoslavia (ICTY) 37 rationality, power and reform exclusionary rules 43 397–400 plea bargaining 49, 52 rules and reality 400 International Criminal Tribunal for cases 400–401 Rwanda (ICTR) composition 402 plea bargaining 52 decision rules 404–5 interpreters 264, 274 powers and duties 403 Ireland protections and penalties 403–4 appeals 56 selection 401–2

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546 Comparative criminal procedure

judiciary 225, 366–7, 368–9, 370, 371, truth discovery: juries and judges 521, 530, 531 compared 54–5 Belgium 95–6 US 375, 376, 438 charges juries 3, 10, 12–13, 14, 18, 19, 25–7, substitution of more serious 49 80–81, 83, 205, 521 France 82, 88, 89, 94, 95–6, 267, 371, acquittals 81, 85, 86, 99, 380 433 appeals of 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, police 201 82, 373–4, 377, 378, 439 reason-giving: keeping judges in adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy check 424, 434, 435–42 14, 55–6 Germany 81–3, 86, 87, 88, 228, 238, appeals 58, 427–8 242, 247, 371 acquittals 38, 54, 56, 57, 80, 81, 82, appeals and personality of 373–4, 377, 378, 439 reporting 93 cognitive biases 20–21, 54 confession agreement 248 complex cases 54–5 free conviction 94 convictions 56, 57, 75, 80, 373 powers vis-à-vis prosecutors see France 53, 56, 75, 76, 82, 83, 95, 434 pre-trial procedure in French case for requiring juries to Germany and US give reasons 422–43 prosecutors and judges 243–4, Germany 83 250–251 instructions from judge 95–6, 106, reasons in collegial courts 89–90 321, 346–7, 427, 434 guilty pleas 46, 47, 50–52 Japan 407 historical background 81–3 nullification 54, 57, 374, 377, 378 inquisitorial system 80, 81, 88–9 question-list verdicts 55, 82, 95, 97, instructions to jury 95–6 379–80 Japan reasoned verdicts 25–6, 76, 79, 95, Japan’s lay judge system see 99, 109 separate entry Belgium 429 professional judges 398, 401, 402, French case for requiring juries to 403, 404, 407, 409, 410, 412, give reasons see separate 414 entry mixed courts 53, 55, 57, 83, 86, 91, 95 inadequacy 100–101 Japan’s lay judge system see required 57 separate entry Spain 95, 96, 97–8, 100–101, power vis-à-vis prosecutors 377–80, 437 pre-trial procedure: in Germany Russia 57, 86, 95, 96, 99 and US see separate entry Spain 57, 83, 86, 372–3 prosecutorial bias American model see Spanish jury acquittals 85–6 trial and US model file-prejudiced judge 86–8 instructions to jury 96 judge as investigator 88–9 question-list verdicts 95, 97, 98, reasons in collegial courts 89–90 379–80 Russia 468 reasons 95, 96, 97–8, 100–101, Spain 87, 88, 90, 94, 374–5, 377, 377–80, 437 379–80 unreasoned and unreviewable Taiwan 173, 176–7, 178 verdicts 53–8

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Index 547

US 54, 75, 76, 80, 86, 221, 247, liberalism, English classic 368, 372, 373–4, 377, 378 522 circumstantial evidence 101 liberty death sentence 409 accumulated data stores 509 instructions 96 privacy as aspect of 500 Japan’s lay judge system and juries right to 193, 194, 208 in 404–5 judges: consider evidence before Maimonides 80 sending case to jury 109 margin of appreciation 259, 260, 276, moral certainty 85 427 media 77, 78, 100, 101, 242, 404, 438 reasons 422 medical records 484 unrepresentative 401 Mexico 292, 302 miscarriages of justice see wrongful Kazakhstan 453, 454, 455, 456, 458, convictions 461, 462, 469 Mittermaier, K.J.A. 520, 521, 522 mixed courts 57 Moldova 453, 455, 456, 458, 460–461, Kercher, Meredith 102–4 462, 464, 465, 466, 468, 469 Knox,Amanda 102–4 money laundering 465, 479 Koizumi Junichiro 399 Montesequieu 82 Kyrgyzstan 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, Mukasey, Michael 488 458, 460, 461, 462, 464, 465, 466, 469 national security 454, 455, 459, 463–4, 467 LatinAmerica 12, 531–3 counterterrorism surveillance by US Argentina 40, 292, 293 through German lenses see Brazil 291 separate entry Colombia 291 Netherlands Mexico 292, 302 arrest 203 lawyers see counsel, right to confessions, false 107 lay people 4, 5–6, 10, 35, 53 exclusionary rules cours d’assises 428, 429, 430 search and seizure 288, 289 facts and lay judges 90–91 judges 89 grand jury review lawyer, right to 261, 262–3, 267–8, United States 170 269, 270–271, 272 judgment reasons: lay assessors suspects’rights and police 273, outvote professional judge 90 274, 275 juries see separate entry mitigation: sentencing 299 mixed courts 53, 55, 57, 76, 83, 91, police and suspects’rights 273, 274 95, 109, 422 time limits: detention 268 Germany 83, 96, 101–2, 371 New Zealand Italy 83, 90–91, 96, 103, 104 appeals of acquittals 38 Japan see Japan’s lay judge system exclusionary rules 40, 43 legal advice/assistance see counsel, search and seizure 288 right to plea bargaining 46 legal aid 16, 269, 272, 275, 276, 317 pre-trial detention 207, 208 legality principle 86, 224–5, 226–7, 239 Nigeria 45 Levi, Edward 488 Norway 95

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548 Comparative criminal procedure

nullities 13, 40, 292–3, 329 England and Wales 195 Germany 202–3 Obama, Barack 497 US 198, 199–200 organized crime 29, 241, 324, 328, damages 463–4, 476, 490, 508 illegal searches: proposal for OSCE (Organization for Security and liquidated 299–300 Cooperation in Europe) 467 empirical study 269–70 exclusionary rule: search and seizure paternalism 224 cases 290, 296–7, 300–301 personal data collection see culpability of police 297–8 counterterrorism surveillance by deterrence 42–3, 280, 281–6, 287, US through German lenses 294–5, 300, 302 plea bargaining 3, 4, 10, 12–13, 18, 19, 35–6, 45–52, 58, 59, 77–8, 107 integrity of legal system 280 acquittal rates 86 France 201, 267, 268, 270 adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy suspects’rights and police 273, 13, 45, 47, 48–52, 220, 525 274, 275, 324–8 appeals 47, 51 Germany 331–2, 333–4 charging decisions 46, 48–9, arrests 202–3, 331 230–231 databases 502–6 cooperation agreements 47 intelligence gathering 475–6, definition 61 479–80, 481 disclosure 46, 48 legal controls 244 equilibrium point: confession prosecutors and 225, 226, 234, bargaining and 248–9 235, 236, 239, 240–241, 246 France 330, 432 searches 236 judicial supervision of guilty pleas India 132, 135–6, 137 46, 47, 50–52 Japan 398, 411, 413 problems 26, 48, 59 Netherlands 268 process legitimacy 25 suspects’rights and police 273, resources 47–8, 59 274, 275 suggested limitation on 79, 109 pre-trial detention 210 US 10, 13, 45, 46, 48, 77, 220, 247–8, stop and frisk in US 199–200, 295 330 suspects’rights 273–5, 276, 311, 335 disclosure 46 France 273, 274, 275, 324–8 equilibrium point 248–9 Germany 331–2, 333–4 investigative file 50 UK 266–7, 273, 274, 275, 319–20, over-charging 230–231 321 prosecutor: upper hand 222, 223, US 315–18, 333, 334 232, 252, 253 Taiwan 179 waive right to attorney 50 US 313, 333, 478, 479, 480–481, 483, see also confession bargaining 489 Poland 45 arrests 198, 199–200 arrest 203 investigation stage 229–30, 231, pre-trial detention 207 232, 244, 252 police 75, 107, 269, 348, 365, 528–9, Miranda 315–18, 334 532 NYPD: undercover agents 489–90 arrests 192–3, 194, 210 predictive analyses 496

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Index 549

see also special investigative prima facie case standard techniques (SITs) in post-Soviet Taiwan 181 states United States 169, 170, 247, 248 polygraphs 332 PRISM 496, 498–9 Portugal 83, 92, 371 privacy 31, 272, 477, 478, 508 poverty 411 arrest 194 pre-trial detention 192, 205, 206 databases in Germany 502–3 pre-trial practice 223, 229, 232, 252 ECHR and ECtHR 458, 459, 460, wrongful convictions 222 464, 465, 466–7, 468, 469–70, pre-trial detention 24, 191, 192–3, 500 202–3, 204–10, 369, 529–30 ECJ: bulk telecommunications data bail and presumption in favour of 501 release 205–7 ICCPR 458–9 human rights 204–5, 208 national security letters in US 485, Japan 411, 413 492 preventive 207–9, 210 over-collection of data 499–500 Russia 468 predictive analysis or profiling 499 pre-trial procedure in Germany and US PRISM 499 10–11, 16–17, 219–53, 524–5 search and seizure 280, 302 discretionary decision-making self-determination, informational from suspicion to judgment 246–9 500–501 structural considerations 249–53 silence and privilege against Germany: investigation 234–46 self-incrimination 252, 331 cutting short truth search 236–7 special investigative techniques documentation, logic of 238–41 (SITs) 453–4, 458–9, 461–2, efficiency and truth 241–2 468, 469–70 judges and prosecutors 243–5 exclusion 468–9 legal controls 244–6 proportionality 464 objectivity quest 234 undercover agents 489 organizational controls 237–8 wiretapping 459, 460, 464, 468–9 police and prosecutors 235 probable cause 109 prosecutors as investigators arrest 194, 210 235–6 US 166, 197–200 investigation practices 228 trial-sparing mechanisms 77, 78 Germany 234–46 United States 229, 232, 246 US 229–33 arrest 166, 197–200 normative assumptions 221–3, 247, grand jury review 170 253 meaning 169 Germany’s inquisitorial system over-charging 230–231 223–8 preliminary hearing 166, 167, 168, US: investigation 229, 237, 239, 243, 169 244 searches 236, 281, 295, 301, 480 resource constraints and case surveillance 480–481, 483, 484, screening 232–4 492, 499 summary 233 wiretap 465–6 unchecked power 231–2 profiling 499, 503 uneven playing field 229–31 proportionality 24, 302 predictive analysis 494, 496–7, 499 arrest 202, 203

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550 Comparative criminal procedure

pre-trial detention 205, 209 credibility: witness vs witness 104 wiretapping 464–5 eyewitness identification 107, 109 prosecution 75, 268, 365, 377, 531–2 ICC 194 acquittals, relative disappearance of innocence, presumption of 84–5 85–6 instructions to juries 96 charging decisions see separate entry Japan 407 ethics 221, 222 plea bargaining 77, 78, 79, 247 file-prejudiced judge 86–8 probable cause of guilt 77 inquisitorial systems: seeking Taiwan 172 evidence for both sides 50, 221, reasonable suspicion 223, 225, 234, 251, 267 arrest 194, 210 Japan 398, 400–401, 406–8, 409, continental Europe 203 410, 411, 412–13, 414, 415 ECHR 193–4 judge as investigator 88–9 England and Wales 195–7, 210 power vis-à-vis judiciary ICC 194 pre-trial procedure in Germany and US 199, 200 US see separate entry US 199, 200, 246, 492, 499 prosecutorial charging decisions in US ‘stop and frisk’procedure 199–200 and Taiwan, screening 21, 161–84 reasoned judgments or formal rules of Taiwan 11–12, 22, 161–2, 163–6, evidence 9–10, 75–110, 526 172–3, 183–4, 530–531 cassational courts counsel 181 ‘appeal’and ‘cassation’90–91 discovery 181–2 dynamics of deliberation 93 evidentiary rules 179 record available to 92–3 procedures 177–8 selective review procedures 91–2 prosecution, screening after 174–6 history 80–83 purpose of screening 173–4 innocence, presumption of 76, 77, 78, screener 176–7 79, 108, 109 thresholds 179–81 cassational courts: protection of United States 161–3, 165–6, 173, 90–93 175, 182–3, 184 judgment reasons for acquittals grand jury review 167, 169–72, 97–8, 99 176, 177, 182–3, 184 prosecutorial bias 85–90 preliminary hearing 166–9, 176, reasonable doubt standard and 177, 183, 184 84–5 judge with prosecutorial bias 85–90 racial harassment 199–200 acquittals 85–6 rape 77, 92, 108, 109, 235, 296, 408 file-prejudiced judge 86–8 credibility: witness vs witness 104–6, judge as investigator 88–9 109 reasons in collegial courts 89–90 identification by victim 106 judgment reasons victims: auxiliary prosecutors 87 acquittals 96–9 Rawls, J. 425 circumstantial evidence 100–104 reasonable doubt standard 37, 56, 75, confessions 107–8 76, 79, 109 credibility: witness vs witness circumstantial evidence 101, 109 104–6 mega-evaluation model 102, 104 eyewitness identification 94, confessions 109, 321 106–7

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Index 551

guilty verdicts 94–6 lawyer, access to 267, 268, 270–271, inadequacy of 100–108 272, 277 ‘negative’formal rules 81, 82, 109 suspects’rights and police 273–4, return to formal rules of evidence 79, 275 108–10 time limits: detention 267, 268 wrongful convictions 79, 80 search and seizure cases, exclusionary cassational courts: discovery of rule in 9, 280–302 90–93 analysis of relevant factors 293–4 judgment reasons: utility in culpability of police 297–8 preventing 94–108 deterrence 294–5 United States 75, 76–7, 87, 88 government’s interest 296–7 see also French case for requiring individual interest infringed juries to give reasons religious groups 488–91 298–9 risk assessment 494, 508 legitimacy of criminal justice risk management 4, 27 system 295–6 Roman law 200 conclusion 299–302 Russia other countries 280, 286–7 acquittals 86 rights vindication model 291–3 exclusion of evidence 292 systemic integrity model 287–91 judgment reasons 96–7 US 280, 289, 290, 297, 298–9, 300, appeals 301, 302 summary of trial evidence 92 deterrence of police confessions 107 misconduct model 42–3, exclusionary rules 40, 463, 469 281–6, 294–5 search and seizure 291, 292 searches 369 file-prejudiced judges 88 EU: house 265 juries 57, 86, 99 exclusionary rule see search and instructions to 96 seizure cases, exclusionary rule question-list verdicts 95 in plea bargaining 52 Germany 235–6 pre-trial detention 468 exclusionary rule 288, 289, 298 reasoned judgment 95 Italy 466 special investigative techniques post-Soviet states: house 461–2 (SITs) 453, 454, 469 Soviet Union 459 entrapment 463 US 24, 236, 295, 301, 460, 464, 478, human rights 458–9, 460, 463, 464, 480, 482, 507 466 exclusionary rule see US under judicial authorization 459, 460 search and seizure cases, post-Soviet legislation 455, 456, exclusionary rule in 457, 458, 466 sneak and peak searches 487–8, wiretaps 464 492 stop and frisk 199–200, 295 Savigny, Friedrich Carl von 82 self-determination, informational Scotland 500–501 appeals of acquittals 38 self-incrimination, privilege against 36, exclusionary rules 41 308–10 search and seizure 288, 289 common law origins 310–311

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552 Comparative criminal procedure

ECtHR see silence and pre-trial detention and 192 self-incrimination under suspended 237, 408–9 European Court of Human separation of powers 232 Rights Serbia 291, 293 France 309–10, 323–4, 327, 353 sexual offenses 181, 408 beyond garde à vue 329–30 assault 109 enhanced rights 326–8 rape see separate entry external pressures 325–6 silence, right to 37, 308–10 remedies 329 common law origins 310–311, 319 traditional practices and initial ECtHR see silence and reforms 324–5 self-incrimination under Germany 309, 331, 334–5, 353 European Court of Human beyond police interrogation 334 Rights constitutional grounding 332–3 France 201, 262, 268, 309–10, 325, exclusion and limits 41, 244, 327–8, 329, 330, 353 331–2, 333–4 mis en examen 329 globalization, hazards of 351–4 plea bargaining 330 UK 14, 15–16, 310–311, 319, 352 trial 330 CJPOA: diminished protections Germany 251, 309, 331, 334–5, 353 320–321 beyond police interrogation 334 exclusionary rule 321–3 constitutional grounding 332–3 PACE: codification of rights exclusion and limits 41, 244, 319–20 331–2, 333–4 US 309, 311, 312, 323, 333, 353 globalization, hazards of 351–4 exceptions and new limits 317–18 Scotland 272, 277 exclusionary rule 310, 312–13, UK 14, 15–16, 310–311, 319, 323, 315, 318, 333, 334 352 Miranda revolution 315–18 adverse implications 15, 260, 309, physical evidence 314, 316 320–321, 323, 344, 353 summary 318–19 caution 269, 321 testimonial communications exclusionary rule 321–3 314–15 US 229, 252, 309, 311, 314, 318, 320, text and doctrine 313–15 337, 353 voluntariness 312–13 exclusionary rule 310, 312–13, waiver 330 315, 318, 333, 334 values 311–12 Miranda 316, 318 sentencing waiver 317, 318, 330, 335 confessions 108 values 311–12 France 428–9 waiver Germany 224, 237 ECtHR 335 illegal search and seizure: mitigation US 317, 318, 330, 355 299 Skype 496 innocence 78 Slovenia 291 Japan 404, 408–10 Smith, William French 488 plea bargaining 46, 48, 49, 78, 222 Snowden, Edward 454, 495–6, 501–2 deterring unfounded prosecutions social media 496, 498–9, 502 and 182 social network analysis 495 high mandatory minimum 231, 253 Sollecito, Rafaele 102–4

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Index 553

SouthAfrica 12 emergence of adversarial style appeals of acquittals 38 368–9 exclusionary rules restructuring of non-adversary search and seizure 288, 292 style 369–72 plea bargaining 46 from ‘tango justice’to ‘rumba justice’ pre-trial detention 192 372–3 South Korea jury in Spanish trial 374–80 juries 57 jury in US trial 373–4 mixed courts 53, 57 reasoned verdict 377–8 Soviet republics, former 88, 291 verdict as ‘collective product’378–80 Russia see separate entry special investigative techniques (SITs) special investigative techniques in post-Soviet states 28, 29–30, (SITs) in post-Soviet states see 453–70 separate entry definition and classification 456–8 Soviet Union 83, 86 human rights 458–9 innocence, presumption of 84–5 judicial authorization 459–64, 467 inquisitorial duty 88–9 judicial control of implementation special investigative techniques 466–7 (SITs) 453, 454 level of suspicion needed 465–6 Spain 85 proportionality 464–5 acquittals 86, 88, 375, 376, 377, 380 time limits 466 judgment reasons 97–8, 99 post-Soviet legislation on 455–6 appeals 85, 92, 375–6, 377, 378, 380 standard of proof 23–5, 194 arrest 203 Germany 236, 243, 246 confessions 107 flagrancy 202–3 exclusionary rules 40, 374, 469 prima facie case 169, 170, 181, 247, search and seizure 291–2, 293, 298 248 eyewitness identification 106 probable cause see separate entry judges 87, 88, 94, 374–5, 377, reasonable doubt see separate entry 379–80 reasonable suspicion see separate reasons 90, 94, 380 entry juries 57, 83, 86, 372–3 special investigative techniques instructions to 96 (SITs) 465–6 question-list verdicts 95, 97, 98, Taiwan: charging and screening 379–80 thresholds 179–81 reasons 95, 96, 97–8, 100–101, surveillance 377–80, 437 counterterrorism surveillance by US pre-trial detention 209 through German lenses see reasonable doubt standard separate entry circumstantial evidence 101 electronic surveillance/ special investigative techniques eavesdropping 289, 301, 462, (SITs) 468 478, 480, 481–3, 486–7, 491–3 wiretapping 466 databases in Germany 503, 504, victims 87–8, 106, 370 505, 506 Spanish jury trial and US model 14, 17, emails 482, 491, 496, 499, 502 23, 26, 365–82 EU: bulk telecommunications data adversarial vs non-adversarial 501 models 366–7, 522, 525 PRISM 496, 498–9

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554 Comparative criminal procedure

XKeyScore 496, 502 Turkey special investigative techniques exclusionary rules 40 (SITs) in post-Soviet states see search and seizure 291 separate entry Turkmenistan 453, 455, 458, 461, 462, wiretapping see separate entry 469 suspicion punishments 78 Sweden 466 Ukraine 453, 455, 456, 460, 461, 462, 465, 466 Taiwan undercover agents 488–91 exclusionary rules 288 United Kingdom search and seizure 288 England and Wales see separate entry mandatory prosecution 165, 172–3, exclusionary rules 13, 468 178 confessions 321–3 screening charging decisions 11–12, 21, 22, 161–2, 163–6, 172–3, search and seizure 287–8, 289 183–4, 530–531 intelligence services 454 counsel 181 juries 80, 81, 96, 106, 205, 320–321, discovery 181–2 346–7, 368, 422, 427, 434 evidentiary rules 179 plea bargaining 46, 77 procedures 177–8 Scotland prosecution, screening after appeals of acquittals 38 174–6 exclusionary rules 41, 288, 289 purpose of screening 173–4 lawyer, access to 267, 268, screener 176–7 270–271, 272, 273–4, 275, thresholds 179–81 277 Tajikistan 453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 460, time limits: detention 267, 268 462 self-incrimination see UK under Takano, Takashi 408 self-incrimination, privilege tax cases 247, 284 against tax returns 315 silence see UK under silence, right to terrorism 339, 463–4 United Nations 467 counterterrorism surveillance by US Commission on Human Rights 192, through German lenses see 205 separate entry Human Rights Committee 37, 455, France 324, 325, 328 458 UK 319 pre-trial detention 204 Tice, Russell 494, 495, 497 United States 17, 79, 99, 413, 527 torture 80, 81, 293, 322, 323, 348, acquittals 80, 86, 378 467–8 appeals 78, 80, 91, 376, 377–8, 438 pre-trial detention 192 full transcript of trial 92, 109–10 training 50, 272, 276, 299 punitive culture in state 93 England and Wales 272 arrest 191, 294 France 433 probable cause 166, 197–200 Germany 238, 245 bail 206, 207–8 Soviet Union 454 confessions 107–8, 230, 252, 284, US 294, 353 312–13, 315, 318, 332 transnational crime 527–8 Constitution 162, 167, 488, 489, 509 tuberculosis 192 bail 205

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Index 555

domestic intelligence operations FBI 478, 479, 480, 481, 484, 486, 478 490, 497 due process 282–3, 312, 313 Guidelines 488–9 foreign intelligence operations FISA (Foreign Intelligence 477, 478, 480–481, 482, 484, SurveillanceAct of 1978) 500, 507 482–4, 486–7, 494, 499 grand jury review 169 intelligence operation bypass national security letters 485–6 491–3 PRISM 499 funding 222, 228, 232, 233, 253 probable cause 197–8 innocence, presumption of 84, 85 searches and seizures 281–4, judges 375, 376, 438 285–6, 294, 478 juries 54, 75, 76, 80, 86, 221, 247, self-incrimination 281–2, 309, 373–4, 377, 378 312–19, 333, 353 circumstantial evidence 101 silence, right to 252, 309, 353 death sentence 409 special investigative techniques instructions to 96 (SITs) 454, 461 Japan’s lay judge system and undercover agents 489 404–5 wiretapping 454 judges: consider evidence before counsel 50, 229, 231, 252, 316, 317, sending case to 109 489 moral certainty 85 preliminary hearing 167, 169, 183 reasons 422 counterterrorism surveillance by US unrepresentative 401 through German lenses see National SecurityAgency 454, 470, separate entry 480, 481, 491, 492, 493, 494–6, cross-examination 497, 498, 499 preliminary hearing 166, 167, 168, German agencies and 501–2 177, 178, 183 New Zealand death penalty 5, 75, 93, 105–6, 409 PatriotAct 481, 482, 483, 484–5, 486, DNA testing 75 487–8, 495 double jeopardy plea bargaining 10, 13, 45, 46, 48, 77, appeals of acquittals 37, 38 220, 247–8, 330 successive prosecutions 39 confession bargaining and 248–9 due process 224, 282–3, 301, 312, disclosure 46 313 investigative file 50 entrapment 301, 462 over-charging 230–231 exclusionary rules 13, 39, 41, 231, prosecutor: upper hand 222, 223, 280, 469 232, 252, 253 deterrence-oriented approach waive right to attorney 50 42–3, 281–6, 294–5, 329 pre-trial detention 24, 206, 207–8 integrity of judicial system 42 probable cause 229, 232, 246 searches and seizures 281–6, 289, arrest 166, 197–200 290, 294–5, 297, 298–9, 300, grand jury review 170 301, 302 meaning 169 silence and self-incrimination 310, over-charging 230–231 312–13, 315, 318, 333 preliminary hearing 166, 167, 168, eyewitness 169 identification 106 searches 236, 281, 295, 301, 480

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556 Comparative criminal procedure

surveillance 480–481, 483, 484, Japan 407, 410, 412 492, 499 Spain 87–8, 370 wiretap 465–6 US 198 prosecutors 162–3, 253 elections 252 waivers ethics 221, 222, 230 appeals 51 powers vis-à-vis judiciary see attorney, right to 50, 274, 275, 317, pre-trial procedure in 316, 327 Germany and US silence, right to 252, 316, 317, 318, screening charging decisions see 330, 335 below white-collar crime 224 public defenders 222–3, 232 wiretapping 293, 453, 454, 455, 456, rape 105–6 458, 458–9, 468–9 screening charging decisions 161–3, data mining 494, 495, 497 173, 175, 182–3, 184 ECtHR 459, 460, 464, 465, 466–7, grand jury review 167, 169–72, 468, 469–70 176, 177, 179, 182–3, 184 judicial authorization 460, 462, preliminary hearing 166–9, 176, 463–4 177, 178, 179, 183, 184 length of time allowed 466 searches 236, 281, 295, 301 proportionality 464–5 self-incrimination see US under prosecutor or investigator authorizes self-incrimination, privilege 461–2 against ‘roving wiretap’authority (US) silence see US under silence, right to 486–7 special investigative techniques witnesses 80 (SITs) 457, 461, 469, 470 credibility: witness vs witness 79, 91, entrapment 301, 462 104–6 wiretapping 454, 460, 464, 465–6, expert 75, 106, 375, 430 466, 468, 469, 486–7, 494, file-prejudiced judges 87 495, 497 France 262, 430, 439–40 stop and frisk 199–200, 295 Germany 242, 244, 245 wrongful convictions 5, 75, 76–7, 88, investigative officials 88 104, 106, 182, 232–3, 409 Ireland 291 confessions 75, 230 Spain 374–5 exculpatory evidence 222 Taiwan 179 poverty 222 United States 222, 285, 375 tunnel vision 87 grand jury review 171 Universal Declaration of Human Rights preliminary hearing 166, 168 193, 204 wrongful convictions 3, 6, 8–10, 19, 25, Uzbekistan 453, 455, 458, 461, 462 79, 80, 161 cassational courts: discovery of victims 87 90–93 acquittals and reasoned judgments 99 false confessions 75, 107–8, 230 England 198 Japan 407, 411 flagrancy 200 judgment reasons: utility in France 370, 430 preventing 94–108 Germany 87, 225 acquittals 96–9 Italy 370 circumstantial evidence 100–104

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Index 557

confessions 107–8 United States 5, 75, 76–7, 87, 88, 104, credibility: witness vs witness 106, 182, 232–3, 409 104–6 confessions 75, 230 eyewitness identification 106–7 exculpatory evidence 222 guilty verdicts 94–6 resources 222 inadequacy and need for formal rules 100–108 XKeyScore 496, 502 legitimacy of criminal process 174, 182 Yahoo! 496

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