Foraminiferal Distribution Off the Southern Tip of India to Understand

Foraminiferal distribution off the southern tip of India to understand its response to cross basin water exchange and to reconstruct seasonal monsoon intensity during the Late Quaternary

Thesis submitted to the Goa University School of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy

by Dharmendra Pratap Singh Goa University

School of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Goa University (Micropaleontology Laboratory, Geological Oceanography Division CSIR- National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa)

April 2019

Declaration

As required under the university ordinance OA.19, I hereby state that the present thesis entitled “Foraminiferal distribution off the southern tip of India to understand its response to cross basin water exchange and to reconstruct seasonal monsoon intensity during the Late Quaternary” is my original contribution and the same has not been submitted on any pervious occasion. To the best of my knowledge, the present study is the first comprehensive work of its kind from the area mentioned. Literature related to the scientific objectives has been cited. Due acknowledgments have been made wherever facilities and suggestions have been availed of.

Dharmendra Pratap Singh

Certificate

As required under the university ordinance OA.19, I certify that the thesis entitled “Foraminiferal distribution off the southern tip of India to understand its response to cross basin water exchange and to reconstruct seasonal monsoon intensity during the Late Quaternary” submitted by Mr. Dharmendra Pratap Singh for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences is based on original work carried out by him under my supervision. The thesis, partially or completely, has not been previously submitted for any other degree or diploma in any university or institution.

(Rajeev Saraswat) Supervisor

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Preface

The northern tropical Indian Ocean and adjoining landmass are influenced by seasonal reversal of monsoon wind that has a profound impact on the socio-economic conditions of one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Monsoon in this region comprises of two distinct phases (summer and winter monsoon) with over 80% of the average precipitation in Indian subcontinent during summer monsoon. The north-eastern and south-eastern Indian states as well as Andaman-Nicobar region, receives substantial rainfall during winter monsoon. Two-phases of monsoon are the result of seasonally reversing winds and migration of intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The seasonally reversing winds and associated physical forces cause strong upwelling in the open ocean, off Somalia, Oman and the region off the southern tip of India. The seasonally reversing winds also generate coastal currents. The coastal currents transport warm saltier water from the Arabian Sea into Bay of Bengal during summer and cold relatively less saline water back from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea during the winter season. The cross basin exchange of water takes place through the region off southern tip of India. The seasonally reversing winds and currents cause significant physico-chemical changes in the region off south India. The fauna living in the region off the southern tip of India are affected by these seasonally changing physico-chemical conditions, especially by the seasonal phytodetritus pulse and high nutrient supply that affects both planktic and benthic fauna. This region also preserves the record of temporal changes in seasonally reversing conditions. The aim of my Ph.D. was to understand the effect of these seasonal changes on foraminifera and to reconstruct seasonal climatic conditions from this region. The work has been compiled in eight chapters. The summary of each chapter is given below. Chapter one comprises rational of the work including the general introduction of the scientific problem. This is followed by the detailed literature review from the region off the southern tip of India as well as adjacent regions. The detailed literature review helped to find out the knowledge gap. Limited information is available about the distribution of living benthic foraminifera and the factors affecting it, from the region off the southern tip of India. The paleoclimatic reconstruction is also limited to a few records

iv covering only a part of the Holocene. Based on the available information, the following objectives were set for the doctoral work. 1. To document modern foraminiferal distribution from the region off the southern tip of India. 2. To understand the effect of seasonal physico-chemical changes on the foraminiferal distribution to develop proxies to infer seasonal monsoon changes. 3. To reconstruct changes in relative strength of summer and winter monsoon intensity during the Late Quaternary. 4. To reconstruct changes in the Indo-Pacific warm pool during the Late Quaternary.

Chapter two provides details of the selected study area, i.e. the region off the southern tip of India. It also includes modern physico-chemical conditions during summer/winter monsoon as well as its annual variability. The details of sea surface temperature (SST), salinity, dissolved oxygen, primary productivity; rain fall, wind pattern and related changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation in the region off the southern tip of India are included in this chapter. The chapter also provides a glimpse of the modern spatial structure of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool. Chapter three includes details of the sediment samples and the analysis done to fulfill the objectives. A total 1219 samples (43 surface samples and 1176 subsurface samples) were used. The samples were collected during the 4th cruise of RV Sindhu Sadhana (SSD004) in October 2014, after the end of the summer monsoon. The surface samples were collected along the four transects by using a multi-corer. The multi-corer sediments were subsampled at 1 cm interval. The top two sections (0-1 and 1-2 cm sediment samples) were stained with rose-Bengal ethanol solution to identify the living benthic foraminifera. The samples were processed by following the standard freeze drying method and wet sieved by using a 63 µm sieve. The living benthic foraminifera were picked from the processed coarse fraction. All picked specimens were identified up to species level. The generic level identification was done by following the treatise (Leoblich and Tappan, 1988) and the species level identification was done by using previous publications and confirmed with Ellis and Messina catalogue of foraminifera (2007). Foraminifer’s images were captured by using Scanning Electron Microscope HITACHI TM3000 version .02-02. The foraminiferal micrographs were arranged in v plates by using Adobe Photoshop (Version 10.0.3). The statistical analysis was also performed to explore the relationship between ecological parameters and faunal abundance by using Plymouth Routines In Multivariate Ecological Research (PRIMER), MultiVariate Statistical Package (MVSP) and Statistica-8 software. The sub-surface samples were collected by using a gravity corer. Two gravity cores (SSD004 GC03 and SSD004 GC11) were used to reconstruct past hydrographic changes in the region. The core SSD004 GC03 (557 samples) was collected from 7.2254°N and 77.9458°E (water depth 1540 m). The chronology of core SSD004 GC03 was established from 9 accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) radiocarbon (14C) dates. The core covers the last 38 kyr and the sedimentation rate varies from 3.6 to 41.3 cm/kyr with an average of 18.0 cm/kyr. The average sample resolution was ~68 years. The second core SSD004 GC11 (584 samples) was collected from 6.0000°N and 78.9312°E (water depth 2901 m). The chronology of the upper section of the core was established from 3 AMS 14C dates. The older section of the core was dated by comparing the stable oxygen isotopic ratio of surface dwelling planktic foraminifera with global isostack (LR04 Benthic Isostack) (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). The core SSD004 GC11 covers the last 176 kyr with an average sedimentation rate of 4 cm/kyr. The coarse fraction of core samples was dry sieved and ≥150 µm fraction was used to pick planktic foraminifera. Globigerinoides ruber picked from 250-350 µm fraction were used to measure isotopic (δ18O and δ13C) and trace elements (Mg/Ca and Ba/Ca) ratio. The stable isotopic ratio was measured by using Thermo Fisher Scientific 253 plus gas isotope ratio mass spectrometer with Kiel IV automated carbonate preparation device. The trace element composition of foraminiferal tests was measured by using Agilent Technologies 700 Series Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer equipped with an auto-sampler (ASX-520), at MARUM, University of Bremen, Germany. The total, inorganic and organic carbon as well as nitrogen in core samples was measured to reconstruct past productivity conditions. A small amount (~5 gm) of sediment from unstained half was freeze-dried and powdered by using a clean agate mortar pestle. The total inorganic carbon (TIC) in the sediment was analyzed by using coulometer (model CM 5015 CO2), and the total carbon as well as nitrogen was analyzed by using elemental analyzer (Thermo Scientific model FLASH 2000). The organic carbon (%Corg) was calculated by subtracting TIC from total carbon. vi

The detailed taxonomy and photographic illustration of all identified foraminifera species is included in Chapter four. A total 355 species of foraminifera were identified. Out of 355 species, 330 belong to benthic and 25 species belong to planktic foraminifera. The identified species belong to 7 Suborder, 32 Superfamily, 69 Family, and 146 Genus. Rotalina was the most abundant suborder in the region comprising of ~50% species. Chapter five includes the details of ambient ecological parameters and its influence on benthic foraminiferal abundance. The genera with ≥3% abundance at two stations were considered for statistical analysis. Bulimina, Epistominella, Hoeglundina, Lagenammina, Melonis, Osangularia, Pullenia, Rotaliatinopsis, Rotorbinella and

Uvigerina are positively correlated with %Corg and %Corg/TN in the sediment. Fissurina, Fursenkoina, Cassidulina, Hopkinsina, Bolivina, and Trochammina are negatively correlated with bottom water dissolved oxygen. The presence of these genera in the core oxygen minimum zone (OMZ; 150-1500 m) suggests their potential to be used as a proxy to reconstruct past OMZ conditions in the region. The Cluster Analysis of benthic foraminiferal species from all the stations, segregates the area into four major groups based on similarity in foraminifera assemblage. The groups follow bathymetric preferences. Group I and II belong to shallow water stations. Group III belongs to deep water and group IV contains all the intermediate water stations. Bulimina aculeata, Fursenkoina spinosa, Epistominella exigua and Rotorbinella bikinensis mainly contributes to group IV. The details of the work done to identify a suitable site to collect cores for paleoclimatic reconstruction are included in Chapter six. Initially, an attempt was made to identify areas with high sedimentation rate along the western margin of India. For this, 58 radiocarbon dated cores that cover at least last 24 kyr, were compiled. The section covering the last 24 kyr was divided into four segments to calculate changes in the sedimentation rate. The four-time slices were (a) the last glacial maximum (24.0-19.0 kyr), (b) glacial-interglacial transition (19.0-11.2 kyr), (c) early Holocene (11.2-7.0 kyr) and (d) the Late Holocene (7.0 kyr to present). The estimation of spatio-temporal changes in the sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during the last glacial-interglacial interval reveals a uniform average sedimentation rate in the entire slope to the abyssal region of the eastern Arabian Sea. Based on the sedimentation rate during the four-time slices, it was possible to delineate four prominent zones with medium to high vii sedimentation rates. These high sedimentation rate zones are 1) the northeastern Arabian Sea, 2) the region off the Gulf of Khambhat, 3) the region off Goa and Mangalore, and 4) the southeastern Arabian Sea region off the southern tip of India. As the region off the southern tip of India was one of the regions with high sedimentation rate, gravity cores were collected from this region to reconstruct paleo-hydrographic conditions. The details of the work done on two gravity cores to fulfill the objective three and four of the doctoral work are included in Chapter seven. The first part of the chapter is focused on high resolution monsoon reconstruction by using gravity core SSD004 GC03. The later part of the chapter includes the details of spatial variability in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool during the Late Quaternary. The multi-decadal to sub-centennial data revealed that the last glacial termination began at ~20.1 kyr, significantly earlier than the rise in global atmospheric CO2. The deglacial warming was triggered by local summer insolation as well regional carbon dioxide out-gassing because of enhanced upwelling in the region. Beside this, Mg/Ca derived sea surface temperature data showed that the northern Indian Ocean was not affected by the north Atlantic cold intervals like Heinrich stadials (HS) and Younger Dryas (YD) as SST remains warm during these cold events. 18 The temporal changes in the stable oxygen isotopic ratio of seawater (δ Osw) along with Ba/Ca proxy reveals that 1) Indian monsoon broadly follows Indian summer monsoon index (ISMI, the difference in 30°N and 30°S July insolation), 2) HS1 was the driest period during the last 38 kyr, 3) YD and mid-Holocene were also weaker monsoon intervals, and 4) Indian monsoon continuously weakened during the Late Holocene. From the Mg/Ca seawater temperature in core SSD004 GC11, it is clear that the last interglacial (Marine Isotopic Stage, MIS5e) was >1°C warmer than present interglacial. When compared to other published records from IPWP region, it was observed that both the penultimate (MIS6) and last (MIS 2-4) glacial intervals were equally cooler. The central Pacific Ocean followed by the central Indian Ocean was warmer than the rest part of the IPWP during last glacial intervals because of lower heat exchange through Indonesian through flow (ITF) as a result of lower sea level. The inferences of the doctoral work and future scope are included in Chapter eight. This chapter is followed by the references cited in the text. As described in chapter four, the foraminiferal species illustration plates are placed after the references. The list

viii of all the species in alphabetical order is provided in Annexure- I; publications list and outreach activities are mentioned in Annexure- II.

Contents DECLARATION...... I CERTIFICATE ...... III PREFACE ...... IV CONTENTS...... X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... XIV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Rationale ...... 1 1.2 Previous Studies ...... 2 1.3 Objectives ...... 4 CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA: OFF THE SOUTHERN TIP OF INDIA...... 6 2.1 Modern Setting ...... 6 2.2 Bathymetry ...... 6 2.3 Seawater Temperature ...... 7 2.4 Seawater Salinity ...... 8 2.5 Nutrients ...... 9 2.6 Dissolved Oxygen ...... 10 2.7 Atmospheric Circulation and Wind Pattern ...... 11 2.8 Ocean Circulation and Water Masses...... 13 2.9 Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (IPWP) ...... 14 CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY ...... 16 3.1 Sediment Samples ...... 16 3.2 Stable Isotopic Analysis ...... 18 3.3 Trace Elements Analysis ...... 21

3.4 Organic Carbon (Corg), Inorganic Carbon (TIC) and Total Nitrogen (TN) ...... 25 3.5 Seawater Parameters ...... 25 3.6 Picking of Globigerina bulliodes...... 25 3.7 Foraminifera Identification ...... 26 3.8 Statistical Analysis ...... 26 3.9 Chronology ...... 27 CHAPTER 4: SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF FORAMINIFERA ...... 30 4.1 Introduction ...... 30 4.2 Foraminiferal Diversity ...... 31 4.3 Systematic Taxonomy ...... 37 CHAPTER 5: ECOLOGICAL PREFERENCES OF FORAMINIFERA ...... 151 5.1 Introduction ...... 151 x

5.2 Results ...... 152 5.2.1 Sediment Characteristics ...... 152 5.2.1.1 Coarse Fraction (%CF) ...... 152

5.2.1.2 Calcium Carbonate (%CaCO3) ...... 153

5.2.1.3 Organic Carbon (%Corg) ...... 153

5.2.1.4 %Corg/TN ...... 154 5.2.2 Living (rose-Bengal stained) Benthic Foraminiferal Abundance ...... 154 5.3 Biodiversity Indices ...... 157 5.4 Ecology of Benthic Foraminiferal Genera ...... 158

5.4.1 Genera having positive relationship with %Corg and %Corg/TN ...... 159 5.4.2 Genera having positive relationship with dissolved oxygen and water depth ...... 161 5.4.3 Genera having positive relationship with bottom water salinity ...... 163 5.4.4 Genera having positive relationship with bottom water temperature ...... 164 5.5 Ecology of Benthic Foraminiferal Species ...... 165 5.5.1 Species Affected by Temperature ...... 171 5.5.2 Species Affected by Salinity ...... 171 5.5.3 Species Affected by Dissolved Oxygen ...... 172 5.5.4 Species Affected by Organic Carbon in the Sediment ...... 173

5.5.5 Species Affected by %Corg/TN ...... 174 5.5.6 Species Affected by Water Depth ...... 175 5.7 Benthic Foraminifera in the Oxygen Deficient Zone ...... 176 5.7 Cluster Analysis ...... 178 5.8 Inferences ...... 182 CHAPTER 6: SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATE IN THE EASTERN ARABIAN SEA ...... 184 6.1 Introduction ...... 184 6.2 Study Area ...... 187 6.3 Methodology ...... 189 6.4 Results ...... 190 6.5 Discussion ...... 192 6.5.1 Last Glacial Maximum ...... 193 6.5.2 Glacial-interglacial Transition ...... 194 6.5.3 Holocene ...... 196 6.5.4 Spatial Changes ...... 197 6.6 Inferences ...... 200 CHAPTER 7: PAST TEMPERATURE, MONSOON, PRODUCTIVITY CHANGES .... 202 7.1 Introduction ...... 202

7.2 Surface/modern Condition ...... 204 7.3 Sub-centennial Temperature Variation During the Last 38 kyr ...... 204 7.3.1 Results and Discussion ...... 205 7.4 Sub-centennial Monsoon Changes During the Last 38 kyr ...... 210 7.4.1 Results and Discussion ...... 210 7.5 Sub-centennial Paleoproductivity Changes During the Last 38 kyr ...... 213 7.5.1 Results and Discussion ...... 215 7.6 Indo-Pacific Warm Pool During the Glacial-Interglacial Intervals ...... 219 7.6.1 Results ...... 220 7.6.2 Discussion ...... 221 7.6.2.1 The Penultimate Glacial Interval (MIS6) ...... 221 7.6.2.2 The Last Interglacial (MIS5) ...... 224 7.6.2.3 The Last Glacial Iinterval (MIS2-4) ...... 225 7.6.2.4 Present Interglacial (MIS1) ...... 226 7.6.2.5 Implications for Future Warming...... 227 7.7 Inferences ...... 227 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE ...... 229 8.1 Inferences ...... 229 8.1.1 Foraminiferal Taxonomy ...... 229 8.1.2 Benthic Foraminifera and their Ecological Preferences ...... 229 8.1.3 Identification of Potential Region for Paleoclimatic Studies...... 230 8.1.4 Sea Surface Temperature, Productivity and Monsoon Changes ...... 231 8.2 Future Scope of the Study ...... 232 REFERENCES: ...... 233 PLATE-1 ...... 255 PLATE-2 ...... 256 PLATE-3 ...... 257 PLATE-4 ...... 258 PLATE-5 ...... 259 PLATE-6 ...... 261 PLATE-7 ...... 262 PLATE-8 ...... 263 PLATE-9 ...... 264 PLATE-10 ...... 265 PLATE-11 ...... 266

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PLATE-12 ...... 267 PLATE-13 ...... 268 PLATE-14 ...... 269 PLATE-15 ...... 270 PLATE-16 ...... 271 PLATE-17 ...... 272 PLATE-18 ...... 273 ANNEXURE-I ...... 274 ANNEXURE-II ...... 283

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Acknowledgements

In my comparatively long journey of doctoral research, many people have come out and helped me towards fulfilling my objectives. First of all, I thank Dr. Rajeev Saraswat (Principal Scientist, NIO-Goa) for accepting me as a Ph.D. student. Under his guidance, I have learnt the fundamentals of the field of Oceanography with special reference to micropaleontology. I also thank him for correcting my research articles and reviewing my thesis. He always asked me to push my limits and I am grateful to work under him. I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Rajiv Nigam for his support during my research period. His expert eyes helped me in foraminifera identification which was much needed to fulfill my research objectives. The time spent with him during the course of identification was a lesson to learning life. Besides this, he also made sure that I should grow in every aspect of research field including a good orator during scientific presentations. His critical comments were blessing for me. Dr. Nigam was also a member of my Department Research Committee and I appreciate for critically reviewing my progress report along with Prof. G.N. Nayak for his constructive comments in order to keep tight check on my work. I take this opportunity to thank the Director (Dr. S.W.A. Naqvi and Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh) of the National Institute of Oceanography for allowing me to use research infrastructure for my research work. I am also thankful to Dr. B. Nagender Nath for providing me wages to carry out research work under the project GEOSINKS. I also acknowledge Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for providing me the Senior Research Fellowship. I am grateful to Dr. Mahyar Mohtadi who supervised me during my research stay at the MARUM- Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen Germany. He was challenging, but also encouraged me to trust myself, and whenever I need, supported. He enlightened me with a critical and process-oriented way of thinking. Under his guidance, I learnt trace elements measurements and data analysis. Mahyar, I am grateful to you for everything especially the morning sessions of the manuscript correction. Beside this, I am also thankful to Dr. Heather Johnstone, Post Doctoral xiv

Researcher at Faculty of Geosciences, University of Bremen, for her assistance during robot cleaning of the foraminifera shells. My sincere gratitude also to Dr. Henning Kuhnert for the oxygen and carbon isotopes measurements in foraminifera shells. I also thank Silvana Pape for assisting me during ICP-OES measurements. I had a great time in Bremen and thank my friends and co-workers who has helped and accommodated me. For all this, I sincerely acknowledge German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for providing the fellowship for fourteen months to carryout part of my doctoral research work in Germany. Many thanks are owed to all my co-authors, Rajeev Saraswat, Rajiv Nigam, Mahyar Mohtadi, Sujata R. Kurtarkar, Dinesh Kumar Naik, Amrata Kaithwar, Barnita Banerjee and Rishav Mallick. I am more than thankful to your constructive criticism and discussion to make our research publications significant for scientific community. I am looking forward to publish many more with you all. For laboratory support and instrumentation, I acknowledge Dr. V. Ramaswamy and Dr.

C. Prakash Babu for assistance during CO2 Coulometer and C, N analyzer for elemental analysis. In addition, I also thank Supratim Dey, Ketan Bhisekar and Shripad Bandodkar for sample preparation. I also thank Dr. Maria Brenda Luzia Mascarenhas, Mr. Areef Sardar and Jayesh Patil for providing Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) photography facility and assistance. I sincerely acknowledge Dr. Satya Rajan Sahu and Mr. Mithun Raj M. for their support in finding reprints from the NIO library. I also thank Mr. Askhay Hegde for his help with Live Access Server for hydrographic data. Along with the members of the ship crew, many thanks to Mr. Shashikant Velip and Mahesh Korgaokar for helping me during the sample collection on the cruise ORV Sindhu Sadhana (SSD004). I also acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Sanitha Sivadas for her assistance related to statistical analysis. Any journey looks more beautiful when you have a bunch of positive people around you. Dr. Sujata R. Kurtarkar contributed significantly during the entire period. Her helpful and understanding nature was much needed till the end. I also extend my sincere gratitude towards Dr. Kurtarkar for proof reading my thesis and giving a helping hand whenever needed. I was fortunate enough to have wonderful people like Dinesh, Manasa, Thejasino, Saalim, Rupal and Sudhira in the lab. Dinesh and Manasa were my seniors and the perfect example for me to follow the footprints. Thejasino and Saalim were xv always helpful and ready to share the knowledge. Thank lads for giving many memorable moments of my Ph.D. days. In addition, my friends, namely Ravi, Abhijit, Mithilesh, Sambhaji, Kalyan, Jacky, Awkash, Pankaj, Azraz, and Govind are amazing guys and have supported me in many ways during the last few years. I also thank the anonymous reviewers for their careful and meticulous reading. Their comments were helpful to finalize the thesis. My deepest thank goes to my family, Mummy and Papa, thanks for always being there. Papa, I shall be always in debts for your sacrifice and putting your all efforts to well educate your children. Mummy, your love is unconditional. Akhand and Pallavi, you both can help me a bit more by spending less than my savings ;-). Finally, perusing a Ph.D. degree, thousands of miles away from your home is not easy task. I would like to thank people of Goa for their accepting and vibrant culture. It was a great time in Goa! I’m thankful to the Vice-Chancellor, Goa University, Dean, School of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences and the staff of the Marine Science Department, Goa University for all the help and administrative support.

Dharmendra Pratap Singh

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Rationale The northern tropical Indian Ocean and adjoining landmasses are influenced by seasonal reversal of monsoon wind. The seasonally reversing winds profoundly affect the socio- economic conditions of one of the most densely populated regions of the world (Saha et al., 1979; Mooley et al., 1981; Gadgil et al., 1999; Mall et al., 2006). Monsoon in this region comprises of two distinct phases, viz. summer and winter monsoon, with over 80% of the average precipitation in the Indian subcontinent during summer monsoon (Gadgil, 2006). The north-eastern and south-eastern Indian states as well as Andaman- Nicobar region, receive substantial rainfall during winter monsoon. The two-phases of monsoon are the result of seasonally reversing winds and migration of intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) (Charney, 1969; Webster et al., 1998; Gadgil, 2003). The seasonally reversing winds and associated physical forces result in strong upwelling in the open ocean, off Somalia (Schott, 1983; Bauer et al., 1991), Oman (Currie et al., 1973; Bauer et al., 1991) and the southwest coast of India (Wyrtki, 1973; Shetye et al., 1991; Pankajakshan et al., 1997; Krishna, 2009; Paul et al., 2009). The upwelling of cold, nutrient rich deep water to the surface increases surface productivity (Banse, 1987; Prasanna Kumar et al., 2002; Smitha et al., 2008; Jyothibabu et al., 2008). Upwelling begins in the region off the southern tip of India during May-June and subsequently propagates northwards (Thomas et al., 2013). The upwelling induced episodic injection of nutrients, stimulates rapid biological production in the eastern Arabian Sea during the later phase of the summer monsoon (Rejomon et al., 2013). The organic matter so produced is degraded by the microbes by using available oxygen, thus lowering the dissolved oxygen content of the seawater to drastically low levels. This phenomenon results in both the perennial intermediate depth oxygen minimum zone and seasonal shallow water anoxia along the western Indian continental shelf (Naqvi et al., 2009).

The seasonally reversing winds also generate coastal currents (Shankar et al., 2002). The coastal currents transport warm saltier water from the Arabian Sea into the Bay of Bengal during summer and cold relatively less saline water back from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea during the winter season (Schott and McCreary, 2001; Wijesekera et al., 2015). The exchange of water between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal depends on wind intensity and precipitation excess. This cross basin exchange of low salinity water from the Bay of Bengal, under the influence of prevailing winds and higher sea level in the bay (Shankar and Shetye, 2001) into the Arabian Sea and high salinity water from the Arabian Sea into the Bay of Bengal takes place through the region off southern tip of India. The seasonally reversing winds and currents cause significant physico-chemical changes in the region off south India, including sea water temperature (Luis and Kawamura, 2001, 2002; Rao and Sivakumar, 2003; Rao et al., 2006a, 2006b, 2008, 2011) salinity, mixed layer depth, barrier layer and productivity (Rao et al., 1989; Rao and Sivakumar, 1999; Durand et al., 2007; Gopalakrishna et al., 2010). The fauna living in the region off the southern tip of India are affected by these seasonally changing physico-chemical conditions, especially by the seasonal phytodetritus pulse and high nutrient supply that affects both planktic and benthic fauna. This region also preserves the record of temporal changes in seasonally reversing conditions. Therefore, it is proposed to understand the effect of these seasonal changes on foraminifera and to reconstruct seasonal climatic conditions from this region.

1.2 Previous Studies Foraminiferal distribution from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal has been documented by several workers (see Bhalla et al., 2007 for review; Gooday et al., 1998; Jannik et al., 1998). Detailed benthic and planktic (recent) foraminiferal distribution has also been studied from the coastal and continental shelves of India (Rao and Rao, 1976; Setty, 1984; Guptha et al., 1990; Nigam and Henriques, 1992; Naidu, 1993; Talib and Farooqui, 1994; Khare et al., 1995; Rao and Jayalaxmy, 1997; Bhalla and Kathal, 1998; Nigam and Khare, 1999; Kathal et al., 2000; Kathal, 2002; Gandhi et al., 2002, 2007; Sreerag, 2009; Maheshwari et al., 2009; Gandhi and Solai, 2010; Kathal and Singh, 2010; Nisha and Singh, 2010; Thilagavathi et al., 2012; Mazumder and Nigam, 2014; Caulle et al., 2015; Hussain et al., 2016, 2017; Sheeba and Mohanraj, 2017; Barik et al., 2019). No attempt

2 yet has, however, been made to document foraminiferal distribution from the shelf, slope and abyssal region off the southern tip off India. Several workers have studied the grain size distribution and mineralogy of the sediments only from the inner shelf region off the southern tip of India. The carbonate mineralogy of the surface sediments from the western and eastern inner shelf regions around Cape Comorin off the southern tip of India has been correlated with faunal distribution. The carbonate mineralogy is dominated by high magnesium calcite in benthic foraminifera rich sediments, as on the extreme western side and on a narrow strip between the depths of 40 and 50 m on the eastern side (Gulf of Mannar). As compared to this, aragonite dominates the eastern shelf between 10 and 40 m, as mollusks are abundant in this region (Hashimi et al., 1982). Three distinct erosional and depositional environments (Cochin to Quilon, Quilon to Cape Comorin and Cape Comorin to Tuticorin) were identified in the proposed study area based on the grain-size and carbonate distribution in the surface sediments (Hashimi et al., 1981; Nair et al., 1982; Rao et al., 1983). The Bay of Bengal water brings clay minerals from the bay into the southwestern continental margin of India during the post south-west monsoon season (Chauhan and Gujar, 1996). A part of the clay minerals, viz. palygorskite and gibbsite are transported into this region from Arabia and Somalia by the Arabian northwesterly winds (Chauhan, 1996). Foraminiferal characteristics have been extensively used to infer paleoclimatic changes from the northern Indian Ocean, especially the variation in summer monsoon intensity and duration (Anderson and Prell, 1992, 1993; Nigam et al., 1993; Nigam and Khare., 1994, 1995; Naidu and Malmgren, 1995, 1996; Overpack et al., 1996; Sarkar et al., 2000; Chodankar et al., 2005; Gupta et al., 2003; Naidu and Malmgren, 2005; Gupta et al., 2008; Bassinot et al., 2011). Recently, changes in the sea surface temperature and monsoon intensity have been inferred from coupled stable isotopic and elemental analysis of foraminifera from the Several studies from the Arabian Sea (Saher et al., 2007; Anand et al., 2008; Banakar et al., 2010, 2017; Govil and Naidu, 2010; Mahesh et al., 2011; Kessarkar et al., 2013; Saraswat et al., 2013; Feldmeijer et al., 2014; Tiwari et al., 2015; Tierney et al., 2016; Azharuddin et al., 2017; Munz et al., 2017), Bay of Bengal (Rashid et al., 2011, Govil and Naidu, 2011; Kumar et al., 2018), Andaman Sea (Rashid et al.,

2007; Gebrigeorgis et al., 2016, 2018; Gaye et al., 2018) and the northern Indian Ocean (Saraswat et al., 2005a; Tachikawa et al., 2009). Reduced summer monsoon strength during glacial interval has been inferred by several workers (Cullen, 1981; Duplessy, 1982; Sarkar et al., 2000; Saraswat et al., 2005a; Govil and Naidu, 2010; 2011, Banakar et al., 2010; Mahesh et al., 2011; Saraswat et al., 2013). An inverse coupling between summer and winter monsoon during the last 3 kyr was inferred based on the clay mineralogy and stable oxygen isotopes ratio of foraminifera from the southeastern Arabian Sea (Chauhan et al., 2010a). The local orography is suggested to influence the entrapment of moisture and subsequent precipitation during the summer monsoon in the study area (Chauhan et al., 2010b). During the Holocene, the productivity off the southern tip of India was low at ~9 ka, and strengthened towards the present as inferred from the relative abundance of Globigerinoides bulloides (Bassinot et al., 2011). Beside these studies, orbital scale changes in monsoon have also been inferred based on long-term past records (Clemens et al., 2010). Additionally, changes in summer and winter monsoon intensity over glacial- interglacial time scale have also been inferred (Naidu and Malmgren, 1996; Overpeck et al., 1996; Sarkar et al., 2000; Chodankar et al., 2005; Banakar et al., 2010; Saraswat et al., 2013). However, only a few records have centennial or finer resolution (Chauhan et al., 2010a; Kessarkar et al., 2013; Saraswat et al., 2013) making it difficult to delineate short-term climatic events in the tropical Indian Ocean. Therefore, in view of the gap in understanding of modern foraminiferal distribution off the southern tip of India and potential of this area to retrieve high resolution archives of both summer and winter monsoon records, it is necessary to understand foraminiferal distribution in this region so that the same can be applied to reconstruct past monsoon intensity. Additionally, the region is marked by very high sedimentation rate. Therefore, sub-centennial scale records of past climatic conditions can be reconstructed from the region off the southern tip of India.

1.3 Objectives Foraminiferal distribution from the southern tip of India, a core upwelling cum monsoon affected region has not yet been documented. A few preliminary studies from the shallow depths, documented total foraminiferal distribution without detailed species level

4 information. Besides this, a few sediment archives, although provide a high resolution insight of the past climatic variability but do not cover the crucial last glacial-interglacial interval. On the other hand, a few other sediment archives that cover glacial-interglacial interval do not have sufficient resolution to decipher decadal to centennial monsoon variability. Considering this knowledge gap, the following objectives were set- 1. To document modern foraminiferal distribution from the region off the southern tip of India. 2. To understand the effect of seasonal physico-chemical changes on the foraminiferal distribution to develop proxies to infer seasonal monsoon changes. 3. To reconstruct changes in relative strength of summer and winter monsoon intensity during the Late Quaternary. 4. To reconstruct changes in Indo-Pacific warm pool during the Late Quaternary.

To collect representative samples indicating all possible environments in the region off the southern tip of India, it was necessary to study the modern physico-chemical conditions. The information was collected from published literature as well as ocean databases. The details are given in the next chapter.

Chapter 2 Study Area: Off the Southern Tip of India

2.1 Modern Setting The region off the southern tip of India is oceanographically unique. The study area is a part of the Lakshadweep Sea (a junction point between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal), between 6-9°N; 75-79°E and covers around 117620 km2 area (Fig. 2.1). Out of this large area, 20994 km2 is shallow and broad continental shelf. There is no major river directly draining in the area and salinity is controlled by the oceanographic processes of the northern Indian Ocean.

Figure 2.1: The Indian Ocean and the adjacent landmass. The red rectangle marks the study area (off the southern tip of India).

2.2 Bathymetry The study area includes both the continental shelf and slope (Fig. 2.2). The eastern part of the area (Gulf of Mannar) is semi-enclosed, flanked on eastern side by the western margin of Sri Lanka and on the other side by the eastern margin of India. The slope is steeper in the Gulf of Mannar, than the western part of the region. The central part of the study has a very broad shelf, followed by a steep slope to ~2000 m. The region deeper than ~2000 m in this part and beyond ~1500 m further west has a very gentle slope.

Figure 2.2: The bathymetry off the southern tip of India. The filled- countour area indicates relict carbonate platform (after Rao et al., 2003).

2.3 Seawater Temperature The seawater temperature is one of the key factors that modulate geographical distribution of the both planktic as well as benthic foraminifera. It limits growth, morphology, reproduction and distribution of foraminifera. It is also observed that the higher population of foraminifera is associated with large fluctuation in temperature and salinity (Benda and Puri, 1962). The seawater temperature in the study area is controlled by winds, upwelling and cross basin exchange of water. During the southwest monsoon (hence afterwards referred as summer monsoon) (June-September), wind-induced upwelling of cold subsurface water generates a Mini-Cold Pool (<26°C) (Rao et al., 2006a). The average annual sea surface temperature (SST) in the study area is ~ 27-28°C and varies between 26-29°C. The maximum SST (>29°C) is observed before the summer monsoon vortex in April-May (Rao et al., 2006a). The average SST is ~27°C during the summer monsoon (June-September) and ~28°C during the northeast monsoon (hence afterwards referred as winter monsoon) (November-February) (Fig.2.3). The bottom water temperature varies between 2.5-27.4°C in October month (the month of sampling) and decreases with increasing depth (Fig. 2.3).

Figure 2.3: The sea surface temperature during a) the summer monsoon (July- September), b) the winter monsoon (January-March), c) annual mean SST, and the d) bottom water temperature (October). Please note that the color scale is different in different images.

2.4 Seawater Salinity As in case with temperature, salinity also limits the abundance and distribution of foraminifera. Planktic foraminifera are comparatively more sensitive to salinity changes whereas benthic foraminifera can tolerate large salinity variations. In the region off the southern tip of India, coastal currents transport saltier water (~35 psu) from the Arabian Sea into the Bay of Bengal during the summer monsoon, and low saline water (~33 psu) back from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea during the winter monsoon (Schott and McCreary, 2001; Shankar and Shetye, 2001; Shankar et al., 2002; Rao et al., 2011). The average annual sea surface salinity is 34.5 psu and varies between 33.3-35.2 psu (Fig. 2.4).The bottom water salinity was relatively constant (34.7-35.1 psu) (Fig. 2.4).

Figure 2.4: The sea surface salinity during a) the summer monsoon (July-September), b) the winter monsoon (January-March), c) annual mean SST, and the d) bottom water temperature (October). Please note that the color scale is different in different images.

2.5 Nutrients The upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich sub-surface water to the surface increases surface productivity in the region during the summer monsoon (Banse, 1959; Prasanna Kumar et al., 2002; Jyothibabu et al., 2008; Smitha et al., 2008). During summer monsoon (JJAS), chlorophyll-a concentration (productivity indicator) increases several folds (>0.6 mg/m3). The concentration decreases during the winter (NDJF) (~0.3mg/m3) but is still higher than the annual average (~0.15mg/m3) (Fig. 2.5).

Figure 2.5: The sea surface chlorophyll-a concentration during the a) summer monsoon (August) and b) winter monsoon (February). Please note that the color scale is different in different images.

2.6 Dissolved Oxygen The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in seawater is another important factor that controls foraminiferal diversity and abundance. In the surface water, DO remains stable throughout the year ~4.4 ml/l (Fig.2.6). It is interesting to observe that the area has lower DO than its surroundings, probably because of upwelling of deeper oxygen poor water or absence of influx of oxygen rich riverine water or both. In the vertical profile, DO varies between 0.2 to 4.3 ml/l. In the intermediate depths (150-1500 m), DO remains <2.0 ml/l with intense oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) condition around 200 m where DO is <0.5 ml/l (Fig. 2.6d). The OMZ condition is well observed in bottom water DO.

Figure 2.6: The sea surface dissolved oxygen concentration during the a) summer monsoon, b) winter monsoon and c) annual as well as d) bottom water dissolved oxygen (October). Please note that the color scale is different in different images.

2.7Atmospheric Circulation and Wind Pattern The atmospheric circulation over the Indian Ocean mainly comprises of two components, viz. meridional Hadley circulation and zonal Indian Walker circulation. The Hadley cell controls the precipitation and the meridional transport of heat and energy within tropics and subtropics (Donohoe et al., 2013). The ascending branch of Hadley cell is known as the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and is associated with the zone of maximum precipitation. ITCZ moves between northern and southern hemisphere throughout the year. During the boreal summer, ITCZ moves to Himalayan foothills (30°N) leading to heavy rainfall. During austral summer it moves to 10°S (Fig.2.7). ITCZ is positioned off the southern tip of India in the month of October (Lashkari et al., 2017). Beside this, the differential heating of land and Ocean during summer/winter generates strong winds, commonly known as “monsoon” (Fig. 2.8). The

11 study area gets notably affected by seasonally reversing monsoon winds that lead to different physico-chemical conditions during summer and winter.

Figure 2.7: The ITCZ position (red line) during the a) summer monsoon, and b) winter monsoon. The colored contours show high (H) and low (L) sea level pressure. (Modified after Pidwirny, 2006).

Even though the area falls under the monsoon precipitation zone, it does not receive significant amount of precipitation in the form of direct rainfall. The precipitation remains <0.1 mm/hour throughout the year (Fig.2.9).

(b)

Figure 2.8: The wind direction and intensity during the a) summer and b) winter monsoon.

Figure 2.9: The rainfall (mm/hour) during the a) summer monsoon and b) winter monsoon. Please note that the color scale is different in different images.

2.8 Ocean Circulation and Water Masses As discussed above, monsoon winds also generate coastal currents along the eastern and western boundary of the Indian subcontinent (Shankar et al., 2002). During summer, the southwesterly winds generate west India coastal current (WICC) which meets summer monsoon current (SMC) and transports water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal through the region off the southern tip of India. Opposite to this, in winter, northeasterly winds generate east India coastal current (EICC). Along with winter monsoon current (WMC), EICC brings low saline water from the Bay of Bengal to the southeastern Arabian Sea and creates a low saline tongue (Fig. 2.10). The EICC turns westward, south of Sri Lanka. The very shallow sill in-between India and Sri Lanka restricts the water movement from the Palk Bay to the Gulf of Mannar. Therefore, the north-eastern part of the study area is in the shadow zone of the seasonal surface currents.

Figure2.10: Surface Ocean condition in winter (a, January- March), summer (b, July- September) and annual (c) in the northern Indian Ocean. The color shading is sea surface salinity (psu) and dotted lines represent sea surface temperature (°C). Arrows mark seasonal surface currents after Shankar et al. (2002) (SC- Somali Current; EC- Equatorial Current; SMC- Summer Monsoon Current; WMC- Winter Monsoon Current; EICC- East India Coastal Current; WICC- West India Coastal Current; SECC- South Equatorial Counter Current, SEC- South Equatorial Current).

2.9 Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (IPWP) The study area is a part of the broader Indo-Pacific warm pool (IPWP). IPWP is the world’s largest heat reservoir with surface area more than 30 × 106 km2 (De Deckker, 2016). The SST in the IPWP remains warmer than 28°C throughout the year (Wyrtki, 1989) and the region modulates large-scale deep convection (Graham and Barnett, 1987). Earlier, the oceanic area between 10°N to 10°S with its center at 170°E was suggested as the IPWP (Wyrtki, 1989). Later, however, it was realized that the 28°C isotherm extends up to 25°N to 25°S (Weller et al., 2016) (Fig. 2.11). The IPWP extends through the Indian and the western Pacific Ocean. At a few localities, like the northern part of the study area, within the broader Indo-Pacific warm pool region, the annual SST remains <28°C because of local processes like upwelling as it brings cold sub-surface water to the surface. These areas include the western Arabian Sea, region off the southern tip of India and off Sumatra in the eastern Indian Ocean.

IPWP is the largest source of heat and moisture and drives the majority of the atmospheric circulations including Walker and Hadley circulation. The mean state of the IPWP is crucial for the precipitation in entire Asia, the most populated region of the world. The warm and intense low pressure zone is also essential to maintain the zonal

Figure 2.11: The sea surface temperature in the modern equatorial Indian and Pacific Ocean. The 28°C isotherm represents IPWP region and covers the western Pacific Ocean and the eastern and central part of the Indian Ocean.

Walker circulation and meridional Hadley circulation. At present, the eastern part of the IPWP is relatively warmer than the western part. The Pacific and the Indian Ocean part of the IPWP are connected through the Indonesian islands. Nearly 15 Sv (Sv = 106 m3 s-1) of low saline warm water passes into the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Through flow (ITF) (Castruccio et al., 2013). The ITF is a vital route for the transfer of heat and freshwater from the equatorial western Pacific Ocean to eastern Indian Ocean and thus to maintain the IPWP extent and intensity in the western Pacific and the eastern Indian Ocean (Lee et al., 2002). The samples were collected, so as to cover a majority of the processes that influence the region off the southern tip of India. The details of samples and subsequent processing are given in the next chapter.

Chapter 3 Materials and Methodology

3.1 Sediment Samples To understand the effect of cross basin water exchange on foraminifera, 43 surface samples were collected during the 4th cruise of ORV Sindhu Sadhana (SSD004) (Fig. 3.1, Table 3.1). The samples were collected in October 2014, after the end of the summer monsoon. The sediments as well as water samples were collected by using multi-corer, grab sampler and gravity corer. The multi-corer samples were collected by using an Ocean Scientific International Limited (OSIL) Maxi multi-corer with 600 mm long core tubes of 110 mm outer diameter and 100 mm internal diameter. The multi-cores samples were sub-sampled at 1 cm interval. The half of the top 5 subsamples was stored in a 100 ml wide mouth plastic vial. Ethanol and rose-Bengal stain (2 gm of rose-Bengal dissolved in 1 liter of ethanol) was added into the plastic vial, immediately after collection, and shaken gently to mix well with the sediments to stain and preserve living benthic foraminifera. The top five sections of each multi-core were stained with ethanol rose- Bengal solution to study the vertical distribution of living benthic foraminifera. The stained samples were stored at 4°C for a minimum of 3 weeks to completely stain living

Figure 3.1: Surface and sub-surface samples collected from the study area. The color contours are bathymetry. 16 benthic foraminifera. The stained sediments were processed following a procedure slightly modified after Jorissen et al. (1992), (Manasa et al., 2016). After 3 weeks, the over lying ethanol and rose-Bengal solution was removed from the storage vials. A 63 μm muslin cloth was fixed at the tip of the pipette to prevent any loss of foraminifera. The excess ethanol was removed from the sediment samples. The total removal of ethanol was necessary for the complete freezing of sediments. Subsequently, the sediments were transferred into pre-weighed and labeled glass petri-dishes. The sediments were deep- frozen at -30°C overnight and subsequently dried in a freeze-dryer. The dried samples were weighed, and wet sieved by using a 63 μm sieve with a very slow shower and low water pressure to prevent foraminiferal test breakage. The coarse fraction (>63 μm) retained on the sieve was transferred to a pre-weighed beaker for drying. The dried coarse fraction was weighed and stored in plastic vials.

Table 3.1: Details of surface samples collected from the region off the southern tip of India.

Sample Longitude Latitude Depth Sample Longitude Latitude Depth (°E) (°N) (m) (°E) (°N) (m)

MC-01 78.7249 8.1081 1550 MC-25 76.9163 8.3365 46 MC-02 78.7365 8.4279 1250 MC-26 76.6045 8.1228 503 MC-03 78.7295 8.6324 1002 MC-27 76.5647 8.0708 764 MC-04 78.7295 8.7439 745 MC-28 76.5091 8.019 970 MC-05 78.7499 8.815 510 MC-29 76.3936 7.9379 1210 MC-06 78.7429 8.8648 215 MC-30 76.2243 7.8288 1506 MC-07 78.7529 8.8929 152 MC-31 76.0441 7.6616 1454 MC-08 78.7533 8.9201 58 MC-32 75.821 7.5150 1704 MC-09 77.9493 8.0778 26 MC-53 75.0281 5.9906 2750 MC-10 77.9551 7.7329 50 MC-54 76.0121 5.9872 2065 MC-11 77.9495 7.5837 110 MC-55 77.0096 5.9974 2238 MC-12 77.9501 7.5372 225 MC-56 77.8429 5.9847 2460 MC-13 77.9512 7.3795 1100 MC-57 78.9799 5.9864 2980 MC-14 77.9514 7.3100 1530 MC-58 79.0225 7.2171 2750 MC-15 77.9458 7.2254 1540 MC-59 79.0058 7.8447 2080 MC-16 76.9748 6.6911 2080 MC-60 79.0983 8.0191 1887 MC-17 77.1242 6.9810 1802 G-01 77.3521 7.8649 50 MC-18 77.1229 7.0533 1327 G-02 77.3513 8.0343 25 MC-19 77.1316 7.0780 1045 G-03 76.7964 8.2460 60

MC-20 77.1333 7.1037 717 G-04 76.7007 8.1736 101 MC-21 77.1256 7.1157 537 G-05 76.636 8.1390 260

MC-23 77.2149 7.4062 107

A representative aliquot of the dried coarse fraction was taken after coning and quartering, weighed and uniformly spread in a tray to pick living (rose-Bengal stained) foraminifera from each sample, by using a stereo zoom microscope (Olympus SZX12). A minimum of 300 specimens of benthic foraminifera (stained and unstained separately) were picked, provided that a sufficient number of specimens (for stained only) were available. In case of a low abundance of stained benthic foraminifera, a maximum of 0.5 gm of coarse fraction was used to pick living benthic foraminifera. The limit of the maximum coarse fraction weight to be used to pick living benthic foraminifera was set, depending on the availability of coarse fraction and time involved in picking. The dried coarse fraction was weighed to get the coarse fraction percentage in the given sample. The absolute abundance of living benthic foraminifera was calculated in one gram dry sediment by using the following equation:

Absolute abundance = (number of living benthic foraminifera/weight of coarse fraction taken for picking)*(weight of total coarse fraction/weight of dry sediment)

To understand the temporal changes, two gravity cores, namely SSD004 GC03 (7.2254°N, 77.9458°E; water depth 1540 m) and SSD004 GC11 (6.0000°N, 78.9312°E; water depth 2901 m) retrieved during the cruise were used. The cores were sub-sampled at one cm interval. The sub-samples were processed by following standard freeze-drying procedure and were wet-sieved at 63 µm. Afterwards, the coarse fraction (>63 µm) was divided into two halves. One part was dry-sieved at 150 µm for total planktic foraminifera counting and other half was sieved at 250 µm and 350 µm.

3.2 Stable Isotopic Analysis The stable isotopes, particularly of oxygen and carbon, in foraminiferal test are one of the most often used proxies to reconstruct quantitative changes in the past oceanic hydrographic conditions. The changes in stable oxygen isotopic ratio are mainly used to

18 reconstruct temperature and isotopic composition of sea water. On the other hand, carbon isotopes are considered to be useful for reconstructing changes in global carbon cycle as well as paleoproductivity. The abundance and fractionation of these elements’ isotopes is largely controlled by ambient conditions and local as well as global processes. The stable isotopes of oxygen (18O and 16O) fractionate thermodynamically. For example, evaporation preferentially removes the lighter isotope (16O) out of the seawater

Figure 3.2: Environmental factors that influence the δ18O of foraminiferal test (redrawn after Ravelo and Hillaire-Marcel, 2007). due to its higher vapor pressure and leaves the heavier (18O) behind, which makes seawater 18O enriched and water vapor, hence rain water depleted in 18O. As foraminifera calcify their test in equilibrium with ambient seawater, climate induced changes in seawater isotopic composition get incorporated in foraminiferal test (Fig. 3.2). The oxygen isotopic composition of a sample (δ18O) is expressed as a deviation of the 18O/16O ratio of the sample from the ratio of a known standard in parts per thousand (per mil, ‰): 18 18 16 18 16 18 16 δ O (‰) = [( O/ Osample- O/ Ostandard)/ ( O/ Ostandard)]*1000

The stable oxygen isotopic composition of carbonates is reported relative to the Vienna Peedee Belemnite (VPDB), and the composition of water samples relative to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) (Coplen, 1996). 19

The stable carbon isotopic composition (δ13C) of a foraminiferal test is a good indicator of the carbon isotopic composition of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in seawater in which the foraminiferal test calcified. The δ13C of a foraminiferal test, however, is not in isotopic equilibrium with seawater. The main reason that δ13C is not in equilibrium with ambient seawater is that the biogenic calcification is relatively rapid,

Figure 3.3: Environmental factors that influence the δ13C of foraminiferal test (redrawn

after Ravelo and Hillaire-Marcel, 2007). resulting in kinetic isotopic fractionation. Additionally, the strong biological ‘vital’ effects, especially the changing respiration rate with growth stages, also considerably alter δ13C of a foraminifera test. The kinetic fractionation is insignificant for oxygen isotopes, since the ‘equilibrating’ pool of oxygen in seawater is considerably larger than that of carbon. Additionally, the δ13C of DIC in seawater (δ13C DIC) is neither uniform throughout the world’s oceans, nor is the average δ13C DIC of the ocean constant with time. For example, in an upwelling area, on one side the growth of zooplankton leaves the seawater enriched in 13C, and on the other side upwelling of old 13C rich water also adds to this enrichment (Fig. 3.3). Thus, the paleoceanographic records of foraminiferal δ13C are modulated by multiple parameters and therefore, it is not very suitable to use it as a strict proxy for reconstruction of past seawater conditions. The carbon isotopic composition of a sample (δ13C) is expressed as a deviation of the 13C/12C ratio of the sample from the ratio of a known standard, in parts per thousand (per mil, ‰): 20

13 13 12 13 12 13 12 δ C (‰) = [( C/ Csamples - C/ Cstandard)/ ( C/ Cstandard)]*1000

For the stable isotopic analysis, 35-40 specimens of surface-dwelling planktic foraminifera Globigerinoides ruber (sensu stricto) and thermocline water species Neogloboquadrina dutertrei were picked from 250-350 µm fractions. 5-10 specimens of G. ruber (s.s.) were used for the stable isotopic (δ13C and δ18O) analysis. The stable isotopic ratio was measured at MARUM-University of Bremen, Germany, using Thermo Fisher Scientific 253 plus gas isotope ratio mass spectrometer with Kiel IV automated carbonate preparation device. The standard deviation of in-house standard (Solenhofen limestone) over the measurement period was 0.03‰ for δ13C and 0.05‰ for δ18O.

3.3 Trace Elements Analysis 2- Seawater contains many elements including the major like Na, Mg, Cl and CO3 along with a few minor ones like Ca. The availability of Ca and carbonate ions works as bricks 2- for the test formation in calcareous foraminifera. However, this simple Ca and CO3 bondage gets affected by the presence of other elements, with similar ionic radii (Mg, Sr, Ba, Cd, and Na). The concentration of these elements in the test is <1% and are thus

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.4: Al/Ca (left), Fe/Ca (middle) and Mn/Ca (right) in G. ruber of gravity cores SSD004 GC03 (a) and SSD004 GC11 (b), versus Mg/Ca. Note the different scaling of the Y-axes. 21 considered as trace elements in the foraminiferal test. The trace elements get incorporated into foraminiferal tests, directly from the seawater during test formation. For this reason, test composition indicates both seawater composition and physical conditions during precipitation. Out of these trace elements, Mg incorporation (endothermic) in the test is mainly controlled by the ambient seawater temperature. The foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratio also depends on ambient seawater pH (6%) and salinity (4%) (Lea et al., 1999). The effect of both the pH and salinity is much smaller and linear, as compared to the exponential increase with increasing temperature. Therefore, Mg/Ca ratio in the test, works well as a proxy for SST. The temperature sensitivity of foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratio was first reported by Chave (1954) and Blackmon and Todd (1959), by using X-ray diffraction. Later, Kilbourne and Sen Gupta (1973) and Duckworth (1977) further confirmed this relationship by using atomic absorption and electron microprobe analysis. Cronblad and Malmgren (1981) generated down-core record of foraminiferal Mg and Sr concentration and suggested its potential application for paleoclimatic reconstruction. More recently, Mg/Ca thermometry has been greatly refined and applied almost routinely to address paleoceanographic questions concerning temperature variability through time from different oceans (Nurnberg et al., 1996; Hastings et al., 1998; Lea et al., 1999, 2000, 2002; Mashiotta et al., 1999; Elderfield and Ganssen, 2000; Rosenthal et al., 1999, 2002; Dekens et al., 2002; Martin and Lea, 2002; Anand et al., 2003; Barker et al., 2003). For trace element analysis, G. ruber tests were cleaned by following the method developed by Barker et al. (2003), with a few modified steps. 25-30 specimens were gently crushed under clean glass slide and transferred to centrifuge tubes. The crushed specimens were washed five times with ultra-high-quality water (UHQ) with frequent ultrasonic bath after each wash and then rinsed with ethanol two times to remove clay mineral contamination. After that, the samples were treated with hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) buffered with 0.1 M NaOH in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes (every 2.5 minutes, ultrasonic cleaning for 30 seconds was applied) to oxidize organic matter. A short (30 seconds) dilute acid leaching process was also applied by using 0.001 M HNO3 to remove any adsorbed (Fe-Mn overgrowth/coating) contamination from test fragments.

Prior to the measurements, the samples were dissolved in 500 µl of 0.075 MHNO3 and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 6000 rotations per minute. The samples were then 22 transferred into test tubes and diluted. The trace elements (Mg, Ba, Sr, Mn, Al and Fe) were measured along with major element calcium (Ca). The elements were measured by using Agilent Technologies 700 Series Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) equipped with an autosampler (ASX-520), at MARUM, University of Bremen, Germany. Mg/Ca values are reported as mmol/mol and Ba/Ca as µmol/mol. The instrumental precision was determined by using an in-house (Mg/Ca=2.92 mmol/mol) standard run after every fifth sample and ECRM 752-1 (Mg/Ca=3.75 mmol/mol) standard run after every fifty samples. The standard deviation of in-house and ECRM 752-1 standard was ±0.04 (0.14% rsd) (rsd= relative standard deviation) and ±0.03 (0.38% rsd), respectively. The average Fe/Ca (≤0.1 mmol/mol), Al/Ca (0.005 mmol/mol) and Mn/Ca (≤0.04mmol/mol) were below the threshold for contamination (1.0 mmol/mol; Barker et al., 2003). Additionally, no correlation was found between Mg/Ca and Fe/Ca (r2=0.002), Al/Ca (r2= 0.006) and Mn/Ca (r2=0.061) (Fig. 3.4) confirming the efficiency of the cleaning procedure and the absence of contamination. The replicate measurements were performed on 45 samples, and have an average standard deviation of 0.12 mmol/mol. For the SST error estimate, the equation provided by Mohtadi et al., (2014) was used assuming no covariance among the errors. The error in SST, calculated according to this equation was ~0.9°C. Due to the lack of sufficient specimens of G. ruber (s.s.) in the initial 70 cm of the core GC03, 10-15 G. ruber specimens were cleaned by using the robot (Beckman Coulter Biomek-4000) at the Faculty of Geosciences, University of Bremen, Germany. Robot cleaning involves the same steps as in manual cleaning mentioned above (see Johnstone et al., 2016 for detailed methodology). The robotically cleaned samples, however, show consistently lower Mg/Ca compared to the manually cleaned samples, probably due to the lower amount of carbonate/specimens. Therefore, data correction (0.5 mmol/mol) has been applied to the top 70 cm, based on the Mg/Ca difference in samples cleaned by both manual and robot methods. The SST was estimated from the Mg/Ca ratio by using the equation: Mg/Ca= B exp(AT) -- (Anand et al., 2003)

Where, B= 0.38±0.02, A= 0.09±0.003 and T is temperature

This equation gives the closest temperature value in the core top as compared to the modern SST (27.4°C) at the core site. The δ18O of seawater was calculated by using 18 Mg/Ca derived SST and δ Oruber by using the Bemis et al., (1998) equation:

18 18 δ Osw = ((SST-16.5+4.8* δ Oforam)/4.8)

18 18 The δ Oruber was corrected for sea-level changes (δ Osw-ivc), reconstructed by Waelbroeck et al., (2002) and converted to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water 18 (SMOW) by adding 0.27‰ to δ Osw-ivc. The error associated with the ice volume 18 18 corrected δ Osw was 0.3‰. The δ Osw-ivc error was calculated according to Mohtadi et al., (2014). The field and laboratory culturing studies suggests that planktic foraminiferal Ba/Ca can be used as a proxy for riverine influx (Weldeab et al., 2007; Saraswat et al., 2013). The Ganga-Brahmaputra runoff strongly modulates the surface seawater Ba in the entire BoB, including the southern part, close to the core location. The surface water (<5 m) Ba concentration is higher than the deep water (>5 to ~150 m) (Singh et al., 2013). Foraminiferal Ba/Ca ratio is, however, also influenced by upwelling (Saraswat et al., 2013) and sulfate reduction in the eastern Arabian Sea during Holocene (Agnihotri et al.,

2003a). The upwelling induced higher productivity dissolves the barite (BaSO4) in the sediments and releases Ba into pore waters, ultimately causing increased Ba precipitation onto the foraminiferal shells. Additionally, desorption of Ba from clays (formed under fresh water environment during glacial low sea stand) can also modulate foraminiferal Ba/Ca ratio in the shallow water regions, during interglacial intervals of high sea stand (Schmidt and Lynch‐Stieglitz, 2011). The average error associated with the Ba/Ca, based on replicate measurements (n= 45) was 1.3 µmol/mol. To reconstruct thermocline water condition, 30-40 specimens of planktic foraminifera, Neogloboquadrina dutertrei were picked from 250-350 µm fractions. From this, 5-10 specimens were used to measure stable isotopes and rest 25-30 specimens were used to measure Mg/Ca ratio. Mg/Ca ratio was converted into seawater temperature by the equation: Mg/Ca= B exp(AT) -- (Anand et al., 2003)

Where, B= 0.342 ±0.012, A= 0.090 and T is temperature

3.4 Organic Carbon (Corg), Inorganic Carbon (TIC) and Total Nitrogen (TN) A small amount (~5gm) of sediment from unstained half was freeze-dried and powdered by using a clean agate mortar pestle for carbon and nitrogen analysis. The total inorganic carbon (TIC) in the sediment was analyzed by using coulometer (model CM

5015 CO2), and the total carbon as well as nitrogen was analyzed by using elemental analyzer (model FLASH 2000 Thermo Scientific). The organic carbon (%Corg) was estimated by subtracting TIC from total carbon. The average error associated with the TIC, based on replicate measurements (n= 40) was 0.12% and with Total Carbon and Nitrogen, it was 0.08% and 0.008 respectively.

3.5 Seawater Parameters The dissolved oxygen concentration in the seawater, along with other physico-chemical parameters (salinity, temperature, and pH) at the sediment-water interface were measured, wherever possible. The dissolved oxygen concentration at the sediment-water interface could not be measured at a few stations as the multi-core tubes did not contain sufficient water. Additional bottom water parameters (temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen) were downloaded from the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Global Hydrographic Climatology (Gouretski and Koltermann, 2004) by using Ocean Data View (ODV) software (Schlitzer, 2017).

3.6 Picking of Globigerina bulliodes During the summer/winter monsoon, upwelling/vertical mixing brings relatively cold and nutrient rich sub-surface water to the surface. The high nutrient availability supports prolific phytoplankton growth that acts as food for zooplankton including planktic foraminifera, Globigerina bulloides. Hence, the relative abundance of G. bulloides is used as a proxy for nutrient availability and thus monsoon wind strength (Naidu and Malmgren, 1996). To estimate the relative abundance of G. bulloides, a minimum 300 planktic foraminifera were picked from >150 µm fraction. The relative abundance was calculated by using the following formula:

G. bulloides (%) = (Number of G. bulloides/Number of planktic foraminifera)*100

3.7 Foraminifera Identification Foraminifera are usually made up of hard protective shell. The identification of both fossil as well as living (rose-Bengal stained) foraminifera is based on the test morphology. Although, biological characteristics, such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in cytoplasm is also used for generic and species level identification, in this study, foraminiferal test morphology including shell material, chamber position, coiling direction, aperture position and ornamentation are considered for species level identification Primarily, on the basis of their morphology, benthic foraminifera were divided into two morpho-groups, namely angular asymmetrical benthic foraminifera (AABF) and rounded symmetrical benthic foraminifera (RSBF). Further, species level identification was done on all the surface samples. For this, generic level classification was done following the treatise (Leoblich and Tappan, 1988) and the species level identification was done by using previous publications and confirmed with Ellis and Messina Catalogue of Foraminifera (2007). Foraminiferal tests were photographed by using the Scanning Electron Microscope HITACHI TM3000 version .02-02 and the plates were prepared by using Adobe Photoshop (version 10.0.3) software. The details of identification and taxonomic classification are given in the next chapter.

3.8 Statistical Analysis The statistical analysis is a significant component of the data processing and to derive a meaningful inference from a large set of data. In the present work, the statistical analysis helped to establish the relationship between modern foraminiferal abundance and ambient ecological parameters. A minimum 3% abundance at 2 stations is considered as cut-off criteria for the statistical analysis. 3% abundance stands for ~ 10 specimens. This number is appropriate enough to see the changes in down-core data and its presence at minimum 2 stations, justifies the reproducibility of the ecological factor’s significance. Among the statistical analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) has been performed between bottom water physical parameters (temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen), sediment characters is (%Corg and %Corg/TN) and benthic foraminiferal abundance. Additionally, the correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the significance of the

26 correlation. Besides this, the cluster analysis has also been done to find out the similarity of the species in the study area among the sampling stations.

3.9 Chronology The age model of the sediment core (SSD004 GC03) was established by using 9 Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) radiocarbon (14C) dates on the planktic foraminifera, Globorotlia menardii (>350 µm). The six samples (UGMS28254, UGMS19795, UGMS19796, UGAMS39159, UGAMS39160 andUGAMS39161) were dated at the Dating Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, USA. The other three (X30568, X30569R and X30570R) dates were obtained from the AMS laboratory, University of Arizona, USA (Table 3.2). The age-depth model was prepared by Bacon software (Blaauw and Christen, 2011) using Marine13 (Reimer et al., 2013) and reservoir age correction (ΔR) of 36±8 yr (Dutta et al., 2001). The average sedimentation rate was 18 cm/kyr and ranges between 3.6 to 41.3 cm/kyr. Average sample resolution was ~68 years.

Table 3.2: Details of accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon ages in core SSD004 GC03. Lab ID Core 14C Age Error Age Range Median Age Depth (yr) (±yr) (Cal. yr BP) (1σ) (Cal. yr BP) (cm) UGAMS28254 19.5 1710 20 1141-1350 1260 UGAMS19795 49.5 2650 25 2171-2492 2321 UGAMS19796 149.5 7140 30 7486-7702 7605 X30568 229.5 9420 33 10018-10652 10211 UGAMS39159 287.5 14060 30 16027-16830 16410 X30569R 294.5 15309 54 17651-18308 18017 UGAMS39160 317.5 17160 40 19840-20440 20154 UGAMS39161 467.5 30820 90 33075-34254 34254 X30570R 556.5 33660 530 36891-39384 38119

Figure 3.6: Left panel of the graph shows core

depth against the age.

Grey area represents age

range variability. The

right panel of the graph shows sedimentation rate (cm/kyr ) against the age.

The chronology of the upper section of SSD004 GC11 was established by using 3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) radiocarbon (14C) dates on the planktic foraminifera, Globorotalia menardii (>350 µm). One sample (UGMS19801) was dated at the Dating Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, USA. The other two(X30572 and X30573) dates were received from the AMS Laboratory, University of Arizona, USA (Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Details of accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon ages in core SSD004 GC11. Lab ID Core 14C Age Error Age Range Median Age Depth (yr) (±yr) (Cal. yr BP) (1σ) (Cal. yr BP) (cm) X30572 0.5 1422 21 806-976 903 UGAMS19801 81.5 17590 40 20534-20768 20654 X30573 149.5 36690 770 40077- 41558 40758

The chronology of the lower older section of the core is based on the comparison 18 of δ Oruber with LR04 isostack (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) (Fig. 3.7).

Figure 3.7: The δ18O variation in core SSD004 GC11 and its correlation with LR04 Benthic Isostack δ18O duting the last 176 kyr. The inverted triangles indicate the 14C dated intervals.

A proper identification of foraminifera is necessary to understand species indicative of characteristic ambient conditions. The properly identified specimens are also required for the isotopic and elemental analysis. The next chapter includes the details of all species identified from the region off the southern tip of India.

Chapter 4 Systematic Description of Foraminifera

4.1 Introduction Foraminifera are heterotrophic protists ubiquitous in marine environments (Murray, 2006; Saraswat and Nigam, 2013) and are classified within the protistan supergroup Rhizaria (Adl et al., 2005). They are important constituents of the plankton, although most are benthic. The usually high abundance of foraminifera in marine sediments makes them very useful in paleoclimatic studies. The estimates of the number of extant species range from ∼4,100 (Murray, 2007) to 10,000-12,000 (Boltovskoy and Wright, 1976). The description of the same species under different names is a recurrent problem (Boltovskoy 1965). Murray (2007) estimated that 10% to 25% of modern species are synonyms. Hence, proper species level identification of the fauna is the primary goal of the work. This chapter includes the systematic description of all foraminifera species identified from the region off the southern tip of India. The generic level taxonomic classification is based on the treatise (Loeblich and Tappan, 1988) that strictly follows the “International Code of Zoological Nomenclature” (1985). Further species level identification was done by comparing the specimens with available literature, World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) as well as the Ellis and Messina Catalogue of Foraminifera (2007). The identified species’ name is mentioned with the original author’s name and publication year. In case of any change in the genus name, the same is mentioned in the following row. Specific notes are given wherever required. The specimens that have an affinity (aff.) or close affinity (cf.) with the type specimen have been mentioned. If the specimens did not match with any species in the available literature within reach, they have been placed under open nomenclature. These specimens were classified up to generic level with suffix “sp.”. Species within the same genera has been arranged in alphabetical order. I’ve refrained from erecting any new species at this time, although there seems to be a scope as this being the first such extensive report of living benthic foraminifera from a unique setting in the northern Indian Ocean.

All the identified species have been catalogued and deposited in Micropaleontology Laboratory, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India. The type slides are indexed as NIO/Micropal/SSD004. SSD004 denotes the name of the scientific expedition, i.e. ORV Sindhu Sadhana.

4.2 Foraminiferal Diversity A total of 355 species have been identified belonging to 146 genera, 60 subfamily, 69 family, 32 superfamily and 7 suborder under the order foraminiferida from the shelf, slope and deeper region off the southern tip of India. Among the 355 identified species, 25 are planktic and the rest 330 are benthic foraminifera. Out of the 7 suborders, Rotaliina was the most abundant with 180 species followed by Textulariina (57), Lagenina (57),

Miliolina (35), Figure 4.1:The relative percentage of a) superfamily under Globigerinina (23), suborder, b) family under suborder, c) genus under Robertinina (2) and suborder, and d) species under suborder. Spirillinina (1) (Figure 4.1; Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: List of suborder and constituent superfamily, family, subfamily, genus and species. Suborder Superfamily Family Subfamily Genus Species

TEXTULARIINA 10 18 19 34 57 MILIOLINA 3 5 5 14 35 LAGENINA 1 4 9 19 57 ROBERTININA 2 2 2 2 2 GLOBIGERININA 3 7 4 15 23 ROTALINA 13 33 21 61 180

Nodosariacea with 58 species is the largest superfamily in the study area, followed by Bolivinacea (39), Buliminacea (39), Miliolacea (29), Discorbacea (25), Nonionacea (18), Chilostomellacea (18), Textulariacea (15), Globigerinacea (13), Lituolacea (12), Globorotaliacea (10), Planorbulinacea (10) and several others with less than 10 species (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: List of superfamily and constituent family, subfamily, genus and species. Superfamily Family Subfamily Genus Species ASTRORHIZACEA 4 3 5 7 HIPPOCREPINACAE 1 1 1 1 AMMODISCACEA 1 2 2 2 HORMOSINACEA 1 1 2 3 LITUOLACEA 2 2 6 12 HAPLOPHRAGMIACEA 1 2 3 3 SPIROPLECTAMMINACEA 1 2 2 2 TROCHAMMINACEA 1 1 4 5 VERNEUILINACEA 3 1 3 6 TEXTULARIACEA 3 4 6 15 CORNUSPIRACEA 1 0 2 3 MILIOLACEA 2 4 9 29 SORITACEA 2 1 3 3

NODOSARIACEA 4 9 20 58 CONORBOIDACEA 1 1 1 1 CERATOBULIMINACEA 1 1 1 1 HETEROHELICACEA 1 0 1 1 GLOBOROTALIACEA 4 2 6 10 GLOBIGERINACEA 2 2 8 13 BOLIVINACEA 1 0 1 39 CASSIDULINACEA 1 2 3 8 TURRILINACEA 1 0 2 5 BULIMINACEA 5 3 9 39 FURSENKOINACEA 1 0 4 8 STIWSTOMELLACEA 1 0 1 1 DISCORBACEA 8 6 13 25 PLANORBULINACEA 2 2 6 10 ASTERIGERINACEA 2 1 2 2 32

NONIONACEA 2 1 6 18 CHILOSTOMELLACEA 5 3 8 18 ROTALIACEA 2 3 4 6 NUMMULITACEA 1 0 1 1

Bolivinidae is the largest family with 39 species followed by Hauerinidae (26), Uvigerinidae (21), Ellipsolagenidae (18), Vaginulinidae (17), Lagenidae and Nonionidae (15) and several others with less than 15 species per family (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: List of family and constituent subfamily, genus and species. Family Subfamily Genus Species BATHYSIPHONIDAE 0 1 3 RHABDAMMINIDAE 1 1 1 PSAMMOSPHAERIDAE 1 1 2 SACCAMMINIDAE 1 2 2

HIPPOCREPINADAE 1 1 1 AMMODISCIDAE 2 2 2 HORMOSINIDAE 2 1 3 HAPLOPHRAGMOIDIDAE 0 2 7 LITUOLIDAE 2 4 5 AMMOSPHAEROIDINIDAE 2 3 3 SPIROPLECTAMMINIDAE 2 2 2 TROCHAMMINIDAE 1 4 4 CONOTROCHAMMINIDAE 0 1 1 PROLIXOPLECTIDAE 0 1 1 VERNEUILINIDAE 1 1 4 EGGERELLIDAE 1 3 3 TEXTULARIIDAE 2 2 11 PSEUDOGAUDRYINIDAE 1 1 1 SPIRILLINIDAE 0 1 1 OPTHALMIDIIDAE 0 2 3 SPIROIOCULINIDAE 0 2 3 HAUERINIDAE 4 7 26 PENEROPLIDAE 0 2 2 SORITIDAE 1 1 1 NODOSARIIDAE 2 4 8 VAGINULINIDAE 3 7 17 33

LAGENIDAE 1 4 15 ELLIPSOLAGENIDAE 3 6 18 ROBERTINIDAE 1 1 1 EPISTOMINIDAE 1 1 1 GUEMBELITRIIDAE 0 1 1 GLOBOROTALIIDAE 0 1 5 PULLENIATINIDAE 0 1 1 CANDEINIDAE 2 2 2 CATAPSYDRACIDAE 0 1 5 GLOBIGERINIDAE 2 7 4 HASTIGERINIDAE 0 1 1 BOLIVINIDAE 0 1 39 CASSIDULINIDAE 2 3 8 STAINFORTHIIDAE 0 2 5 SIPHOGENERINOIDIDAE 1 2 2 BULIMINIDAE 0 2 13 BULIMINELLIDAE 0 1 1 UVIGERINIDAE 2 3 21 REUSSELLIDAE 0 1 3 FURSENKOINIDAE 0 3 8 STILOSTOMELLIDAE 0 1 2 BAGGINIDAE 1 3 9 EPONIDIDAE 1 2 2 MISSISSIPPINIDAE 1 1 1 DISCORBIDAE 0 1 1 ROSALINIDAE 0 2 5 PARRELLOIDIDAE 0 2 6 PSEUDOPARRELLIDAE 1 1 5 DISCORBINELLIDAE 1 1 1 PLANULINIDAE 0 3 5 CIBICIDIDAE 2 3 4 EPISTOMARIIDAE 1 1 1 AMPHISTEGINIDAE 0 1 1 NONIONIDAE 2 6 15 CHILOSTOMELLIDAE 1 1 1 ORIDORSALIDAE 0 1 1 OSANGULARIIDAE 0 1 1

GAVELINELLIDAE 2 4 13 TRICHOHYALIDAE 0 1 3 ROTALIIDAE 2 3 5 ELPHIDIIDAE 1 1 1 NUMMULITIDAE 0 1 1

Bolivina was the most abundant genus with 39 species followed by Uvigerina (17), Quinqueloculina (15), Bulimina (12), Lagena (11) and Textularia (9). Details of all genus and associated number of species are given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: List of identified genus and species in the study area. Genus Species Genus Species BATHYSIPHON 3 PULLENIATINA 1 RHIZAMMINA 1 GLOBIGERINITA 1 PSAMMOSPHAERA 2 CANDEINA 1 LAGENAMMINA 1 GLOBOQUADRINA 1 SACCAMMINA 1 BEELLA 1 SACCORHIZA 1 GLOBIGERINA 3 AMMODISCUS 1 GLOBIGERINELLA 2 AMMOLAGENA 1 GLOBIGERINOIDES 4 HORMOSINELLA 1 GLOBOTURBOROTALIA 1 REOPHAX 2 SPHAEROIDINELLA 1 CRIBROSTOMOIDES 1 ORBULINA 1 HAPLOPHRAGMOIDES 6 HASTIGERINA 1 AMMOMARGINULINA 1 BOLIVINA 39 AMMOBACULITES 2 CASSIDULINA 5 ERATIDUS 1 GLOBOCASSIDULINA 2 LITUOLA 1 EHRENBERGINA 1 ADERCOTRYMA 1 STAINFORTHIA 3 CYSTAMMINA 1 HOPKINSINA 2 RECURVOIDES 1 BITUBULOGENERINA 1 SPIROPLECTAMMINA 1 SIPHOGENERINA 1 SPIROTEXTULARIA 1 BULIMINA 12 AMMOGLOBIGERINA 1 GLOBOBULIMINA 1 PORTATROCHAMMINA 1 BULIMINELLA 1 TRITAXIS 1 EUBULIMINELLA 1 TROCHAMMINA 2 NEOUVIGERINA 3 CONOTROCHAMMINA 1 UVIGERINA 17 ARENOGAUDRYINA 1 ANGULOGERINA 1 35

GAURYINA 4 REUSSELLA 2 EGGERELLA 1 FURSENKOINA 4 EGGERELOIDES 1 CASSIDELLA 1 KARRERIELLA 1 SIGMAVIRGULINA 1 TEXTULARIA 9 RUTHERFORDOIDES 1 SIPHOTEXTULARIA 2 ORTHOMORPHINA 1 PSEUDOGAUDRYINA 1 BAGGINA 2 SPIRILLINA 1 CANCRIS 5 OPTHALMINA 1 VALVULINERIA 2 SPIROPHTHALMIDIUM 2 EPONOIDES 1 ADELOSINA 1 IOANELLA 1 SPIROLOCULNA 2 MISSISSIPPINA 1 QUINQUELOCULINA 15 TROCHULINA 1 MILIOLINELLA 5 NEOCONORBINA 1 TRILOCULINA 1 ROSALINA 4 SIGMOILINITA 2 CIBICIDOIDES 4 SIGMOILINA 1 PARRELLOIDES 1 SUBEDENTOSTOMINA 1 EPISTOMINELLA 4 SIGMOILOPSIS 1 LATICARININA 1 MONALYSIDIUM 1 CRESPINELLA 1 PENEROPLIS 1 HYALINEA 1 CYCLORBICULINA 1 PLANULINA 2 DENTALINA 3 CIBICIDES 2 LAEVIDENTALINA 1 MONTFORTELLA 1 NODOSARIA 3 PYROPILOIDES 1 NEOLINGULINA 1 PSEUDOEPONIDES 1 LENTICULINA 5 AMPHISTEGINA 1 NEOLENTICULINA 2 NONION 2 SARACENARIA 1 NONIONELLA 4 ASTACOLUS 1 NONIONELLINA 1 AMPHICORYNA 4 PSEUDONONION 1 VAGINULINA 3 MELONIS 5 HYALINONETRION 1 PULLENIA 3 LAGENA 11 ALLOMORPHINA 1 PROCEROLAGENA 1 ORIDORSALIS 1 PYGMAEOSEISTRON 2 OSANGULARIA 1 ANTURINA 1 GYROIDINOIDES 1 OOLINA 1 ROTALIATINOPSIS 1 FISSURINA 7 GYROIDINA 6 LAGENOSOLENIA 5 HANZAWAIA 2 36

PARAFISSURINA 4 BUCCELLA 4 ROBERTINOIDES 1 PARAROTALIA 3 HOEGLUNDINA 1 AMMONIA 1 GALLITELLIA 1 ROTALIDIUM 1 GLOBOROTALIA 4 ELPHIDIUM 1 NEOGLOBOQUADRINA 1 OPERCULINA 1

4.3 Systematic Taxonomy

Domain: EUCARYOTA Kingdom: PROTISTA Phylum: PROTOZOA Class: RETICULARIA Order: FORAMINIFERIDA Eichwald, 1830

Suborder: TEXTULARIINA Delage and Herouard, 1896 Superfamily: ASTRORHIZACEA Brady, 1881 Family: BATHYSIPHONIDAE Avnimelech, 1952

Genus: Bathysiphon Sars, 1872 (Pg. 22, Pl. 13, Figs. 1-2, 5-7, 9,10, 12-14; Pl. 14, Fig. 1)

Bathysiphon folini Gooday, 1983 (Pl. 1, Fig. 1) Bathysiphon folini Gooday, 1983, vol. 13, pg. 267-269. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 1, Fig. 16. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74401 WoRMS AphiaID: 528245 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/001

Family: RHABDAMMINIDAE Brady, 1884 Subfamily: RHABDAMMININAE Brady, 1884

Genus: Rhabdamminella de Polin, 1887(Pg. 24, Pl. 15, Figs. 3) 37

Rhabdammina discreta (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 1, Figs. 2, 3) Psammosiphonella discreta Brady, 1881Pl. 22, Figs. 7-10. Rhabdammina discreta (Brady) Jones, 1994, Pl. 22, Figs. 7-10. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 22, Figs. 7-10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38761 WoRMS AphiaID: 993559 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/002

Genus: Rhizammina Brady, 1879 (Pg. 24, Pl. 15, Figs. 6-8)

Rhizammina echinata Saidova, 1975 (Pl. 1, Fig. 4) Rhizammina echinata Saidova, 1975, Pl. 4, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 80257. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 80257 WoRMS AphiaID: 521964 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/003

Family: PSAMMOSPHAERIDAE Haeckel, 1894 Subfamily: PSAMMOSPHAERINAE Haeckel, 1894

Genus: Psammosphaera Schulze, 1875 (Pg. 28, Pl. 18, Figs. 10-13; Pl. 19, Figs. 2, 3)

Psammosphaera fusca Schulze, 1875 (Pl. 1, Fig. 5) Psammosphaera fusca Schulze, 1875, Pl. 2, Fig. 8a-f. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 19, Figs. 2, 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17602 WoRMS AphiaID: 114184 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/004 38

Psammosphaera sp. (Pl. 1, Fig. 6) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/005 Remarks: The specimen has been compared with Psammosphaera perforata. It showed difference in neck projection which lacks in type specimen.

Family: SACCAMMINIDAE Brady, 1884 Subfamily: SACCAMMININAE Brady, 1884

Genus: Lagenammina Rhumbler, 1911 (Pg. 31, Pl. 21, Figs. 7-9)

Lagenammina longicolli Wiesner, 1931 (Pl. 1, Fig. 7) Lagenammina longicolli Wiesner, Pl. 6 Fig., 55. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 6, Fig. 11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 27245 WoRMS AphiaID: 849895 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/006

Genus: Saccammina Carpenter, 1869(Pg. 32, Pl. 23, Fig. 8).

Saccammina huanghaiensis Zheng and Fu, 2001 (Pl. 1, Fig. 8) Saccammina huanghaiensis Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 5, Figs. 22-25. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 5, Figs. 22- 25. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 81119 WoRMS AphiaID: 556701 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/007

Superfamily: HIPPOCREPINACAE Rhumbler, 1895 Family: HIPPOCREPINADAE Rhumbler, 1895 Subfamily: HYPERAMMININAE Eimer and Fickert, 1899

Genus: Saccorhiza Eimer and Fickert, 1899 (Pg. 43, Pl. 32, Figs. 10-15)

Saccorhiza ramosa (Brady, 1879) (Pl. 1, Fig. 9) Hyperammina ramosa Brady, 1879, Pl. 3, Figs. 14-15. Saccorhiza ramosa (Brady) Barker, 1960, Pl. 23, Figs. 15-19. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 9, Figs. 9-12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9614 WoRMS AphiaID: 9614 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/008

Superfamily: AMMODISCACEA Reuss, 1862 Family: AMMODISCIDAE Reuss, 1862 Subfamily: AMMODISCINAE Reuss, 1862

Genus: Ammodiscus Reuss, 1862 (Pg. 47, Pl. 36, Figs. 1-9)

Ammodiscus gullmarensis Höglund, 1948 (Pl. 1, Fig. 10a, b) Ammodiscus gullmarensis Höglund, 1948, Pl.8, Figs. 2, 3. Source: Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 9, Fig. 5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32961 WoRMS AphiaID: 113818 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/009

Genus: Arenoturrispirillina Tairov, 1956 (Pg. 48, Pl. 35, Figs. 21-23)

Arenoturrispirillina catinus Höglund, 1947 40

(Pl. 1, Fig. 11a, b) Ammodiscus catinus Höglund, 1947, Pl. 31, Fig. 9. Arenoturrispirillina catinus (Höglund) Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 11, Fig. 9. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 11, Fig. 9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32952 WoRMS AphiaID: 944618 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/010

Subfamily: TOLYPAMMININAE Cushman, 1928

Genus: Ammolagena Eimer and Fickert, 1899 (Pg. 49, Pl. 36, Fig. 16)

Ammolagena clavata (Jones and Parker, 1860) (Pl. 1, Figs. 12, 13) Trochammina irregularis var. clavata Jones and Parker, 1860, Pg. 304. Ammolagena clavata (Jones and Parker) Barker, 1960, Pl. 41, Figs. 12-16. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl.11, Figs. 12-14. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22639 WoRMS AphiaID: 113827 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/011

Superfamily: HORMOSINACEA Haeckel, 1894 Family: HORMOSINIDAE Haeckel, 1894 Subfamily: REOPHACINAE Cushman, 1910

Genus: Hormosinella Shchedrina, 1969 (Pg. 57, Pl. 44, Figs. 6-9)

Hormosinella distans Brady 1881 (Pl. 1, Fig. 14) Lituola distans Brady, 1881, Pl. 9, Fig. 31, Figs. 18-22. Reophax distans (Brady) Barker, 1960, Pl. 31, Figs. 18-22. Hormosinella distans (Brady) Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 12, Figs. 9-17. 41

Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 12, Figs. 9-17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38587 WoRMS AphiaID: 113984 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/012

Genus: Reophax de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 58, Pl. 44, Fig. 6)

Reophax brevis Parr, 1950 (Pl. 1, Fig. 15) Reophax brevis Parr, 1950, Pl. 4, Fig. 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38755. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38755 WoRMS AphiaID: 816093 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/013

Reophax rostrata Höglund, 1947 (Pl. 1, Fig. 16) Reophax rostrata Höglund, 1947, Pl. 6, Fig. 188-190. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 22, Figs. 1-7. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 33504 WoRMS AphiaID: 114015 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/014

Reophax spiculifer Brady, 1879 (Pl. 1, Fig. 17) Reophax spiculifer Brady, 1979, Pl. 4, Figs. 10-11. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 22, Figs. 21-26. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18742 WoRMS AphiaID: 417570 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/015

Superfamily: LITUOLACEA de Blainville, 1827 42

Family: HAPLOPHRAGMOIDIDAE Maync, 1952

Genus: Cribrostomoides Cushman, 1910 (Pg. 65, Pl. 49, Figs. 1-3)

Cribrostomoides nitida (Goës, 1896) (Pl. 1, Fig. 18a, b) Haplophragmium nitidum Goës, 1896, Pg. 1-103. Cribrostomoides nitida (Goës) Saidova, 1975, Pl. 20 Fig. 9. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 79804. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79804 WoRMS AphiaID: 114037 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/016

Genus: Haplophragmoides Cushman, 1910 (Pg. 66, Pl. 49, Figs. 4, 5, 12-16, and 19-23)

Haplophragmoides bradyi (Robertson, 1891) (Pl. 1, Fig. 19a, b) Trochammina bradyi Robertson, 1891, vol. 7, pg. 388. Haplophragmoides bradyi (Robertson) Uchio, 1962, Pl. 18, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 59514. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 59514 WoRMS AphiaID: 113947 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/017

Haplophragmoides canariensis d’Orbigny, 1839 (Pl. 1, Fig. 20a, b) Haplophragmoides canariensis d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 8, Figs. 2, 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 9238. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9238 WoRMS AphiaID: 113948 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/018

Haplophragmoides evolutum Cushman and McCulloch, 1939 (Pl. 1, Fig. 21a, b) Haplophragmoides columbiense var. evolutum Cushman and McCulloch, 1939, Pl. 5, Figs. 5, 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77360. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77360 WoRMS AphiaID: 927965 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/019

Haplophragmoides sphaeriloculus Cushman, 1910 (Pl. 1, Fig. 22a, b) Haplophragmoides sphaeriloculus Cushman, 1910, Pl. 107, Fig. 110. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 35, Fig. 17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9269 WoRMS AphiaID: 417579 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/020

Haplophragmoides subglobosum Cushman, 1910 (Pl. 1, Fig. 23a, b) Haplophragmoides subglobosum Cushman, 1910, Pl. 106, Figs. 162-164. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77362. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77362 WoRMS AphiaID: 254681 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/021

Haplophragmoides symmetricus Zheng, 2000 (Pl. 1, Fig. 24a, b) Haplophragmoides symmetricus Zheng, 2000, Pl. 111, Figs. 7, 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 81151. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 81151 WoRMS AphiaID: 1038099 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/022 44

Family: LITUOLIDAE de Blainville, 1827 Subfamily: AMMOMARGINULININAE Podobina, 1978

Genus: Ammobaculites Cushman, 1910 (Pg. 74, Pl. 58, Figs. 3, 4)

Ammobaculites exiguous Cushman and Brönnimann, 1948 (Pl. 1, Fig. 25) Ammobaculites exiguous Cushman and Brönnimann, 1948, Pl. 7, Figs. 7-8. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 40, Figs. 9, 10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32941 WoRMS AphiaID: 417589 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/023

Ammobaculites cf. commotus Saidova, 1975 (Pl. 1, Fig. 26a, b) Ammobaculites commotus Saidova, 1975, Pl. 25, Fig. 26. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 79772. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79772 WoRMS AphiaID: 523597 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/024 Remarks: Aperture in the specimen is oval, not rounded as it is typical for the genus.

Genus: Ammomarginulina Wiesner, 1931 (Pg. 74, Pl. 60, Fig.7)

Ammomarginulina troptunensis Voloshinova, 1958 (Pl. 1, Fig. 27a, b) Ammomarginulina troptunensisVoloshinova, 1958, Pl. 3, Figs. 1-3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 53104. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 53104 WoRMS AphiaID: 852057 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/025 45

Genus: Eratidus Saidova, 1975 (Pg. 75, Pl. 59, Figs. 1-3)

Eratidus foliaceus (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 1, Fig. 28a, b) Haplophragmium foliaceus Brady, 1881, Pl. 6, Figs. 6-9. Eratidus foliaceus (Brady) Jones, 1994, Pl. 6, Figs. 6-9. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 6, Figs. 6-9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38589 WoRMS AphiaID: 398905 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/026

Subfamily: LITUOLINAE de Blainville, 1827

Genus: Lituola Lamarck, 1804 (Pg. 78, Pl. 64, Figs. 1-5)

Lituola hispida Zheng, 1988 (Pl. 1, Fig. 29a, b) Lituola hispida Zheng, 1988, Pl. 23, Figs. 1-3. Source: Shonyi and Fu, 2001, Pl. 43, Figs. 1-4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 75669 WoRMS AphiaID: 556533 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/027

Superfamily: HAPLOPHRAGMIACEA Eimer and Fickert, 1899 Family: AMMOSPHAEROIDINIDAE Cushman, 1927 Subfamily: AMMOSPHAEROIDININAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Adercotryma Loeblich and Tappan, 1952 (Pg. 81, Pl. 67, Figs. 1-3)

Adercotryma glomeratum Brady, 1878 (Pl. 2, Fig. 1) 46

Adercotryma glomeratum Brady, 1878, Pl. 96, Fig. 6. Source: Zheng and Fu 2001, Pl. 44, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79768 WoRMS AphiaID: 417607 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/028

Genus: Cystammina Neumayr, 1889 (Pg. 82, Pl. 68, Figs. 1-16)

Cystammina sp. (Pl. 2, Fig. 2a, b) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/029 Remarks: The specimen has been compared with Cystammina pauciloculata. It varies in aperture position which is not distinct in the specimen.

Subfamily: RECURVOIDINAE Alekseychik-Mitskevich, 1973

Genus: Recurvoides Earland, 1934 (Pg. 83, Pl. 68, Figs. 7-14)

Recurvoides gigas Zheng, 1988 (Pl. 2, Fig. 3a, b) Recurvoides gigas Zheng, 1988, Pl. 20, Fig. 6. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 48, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 75853 WoRMS AphiaID: 556548 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/030

Superfamily: SPIROPLECTAMMINACEA Cushman, 1927 Family: SPIROPLECTAMMINIDAE Cushman, 1927 Subfamily: SPIROPLECTAMMINAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Spiroplectammina Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 112, Pl. 119, Figs. 19, 20)

Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and Jones, 1865) (Pl. 2, Fig. 4a, b) Textularia agglutinans var. biformis Parker and Jones, 1865, Pg. 325-441. Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and Jones)Cole and Ferguson, 2001, Pl. 3, Fig. 3. Source: Cole and Ferguson, 2001, Pl. 3, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 114226 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/031

Subfamily: SPIROTEXTULARIINAE Saidova, 1975

Genus: Spirotextularia Saidova, 1975 (Pg. 113, Pl. 121, Figs. 7-12)

Spirotextularia cf. fistulosa (Brady, 1884) (Pl. 2, Fig. 5a, b) Textularia sagittula var. fistulosa Brady, 1884, Pl. 42, Figs. 19-22. Spirotextularia fistulosa (Brady) Saidova, 1975, Pl. 121, Figs. 7-12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 21955. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 21955 WoRMS AphiaID: 466000 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/032 Remarks: The specimen lacked the spinose keel as compared to the type specimen.

Superfamily: TROCHAMMINACEA Schwager, 1877 Family: TROCHAMMINIDAE Schwager, 1877 Subfamily: TROCHAMMININAE Schwager, 1877

Genus: Ammoglobigerina Eimer and Pickert, 1899 (Pg. 120, Pl. 128, Figs. 9, 10; Pl.129, Figs. 7-11)

Ammoglobigerina globigeriniformis (Parker and Jones, 1865) (Pl. 2, Fig. 6) Lituola nautiloides var. globigeriniformis Parker and Jones, 1865, Pg. 325-441. Ammoglobigerina globigeriniformis (Parker and Jones) Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 61, Figs. 1-3. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 61, Figs. 1-3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 114298 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/033

Genus: Portatrochammina Echols, 1971(Pg. 121, Pl. 129, Figs. 4-6)

Portatrochammina eltaninae Echols, 1971 (Pl. 2, Fig. 7a-c) Portatrochammina eltaninae Echols, 1971, Pl. 8, Figs. 1-2. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 129, Figs. 4-6. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 59735 WoRMS AphiaID: 757084 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/034

Genus: Tritaxis Schubert, 1921(Pg. 122, Pl. 128, Figs. 1-4)

Tritaxis fusca (Williamson, 1858) (Pl. 2, Fig. 8a-c) Rotalina fusca Williamson, 1858, Pl. 5, Figs. 114-115. Tritaxis fusca (Williamson) Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl.60, Fig.6. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl.60, Fig.6. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19800 WoRMS AphiaID: 114334 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/035

Genus: Trochammina Parker and Jones, 1859 (Pg. 122, Pl. 129, Figs. 20-23) 49

Trochammina boltovskoyi Brönnimann, 1979 (Pl. 2, Fig. 9a, b) Trochammina boltovskoyi Brönnimann, 1979, Pl. 19, Fig. 7. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 62, Figs. 1-4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 68674 WoRMS AphiaID: 850305 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/036

Trochammina conica Earland, 1934 (Pl. 2, Fig. 10a, b) Trochammina conica Earland, 1934, Pl. 3, Figs. 47-49. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 115, Fig. 7. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22611 WoRMS AphiaID: 582660 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/037

Superfamily: VERNEUILINACEA Cushman, 1911 Family: CONOTROCHAMMINIDAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Conotrochammina Finlay, 1940 (Pg. 129, Pl. 139, Figs. 4-6)

Conotrochammina bullata (Höglund, 1947) (Pl. 2, Fig. 11a, b) Trochamminella bullata, Höglund, 1947, Pl. 17, Fig. 5. Conotrochammina bullata (Höglund) Echols, 1971, Pg. 144, Pl. 5, Fig. 12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 33651. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 33651 WoRMS AphiaID: 741088 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/038

Family: PROLIXOPLECTIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1985 50

Genus: Arenogaudryina Podobina, 1975 (Pg. 130, Pl. 140, Figs. 1-4)

Arenogaudryina scabra (Brady, 1884) (Pl. 2, Fig. 12a, b) Gaudryina scabra Brady, 1884, Pl. 46, Fig. 7. Arenogaudryina scabra (Brady) Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 77, Fig. 2. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 77, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 7946 WoRMS AphiaID: 849374 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/039

Family: VERNEUILINIDAE Cushman, 1911 Subfamily: VERNEUILININAE Cushman, 1911

Genus: Gaudryina d’Orbigny, 1839 (Pg. 136, Pl. 144, Figs. 1-3)

Gaudryina baccata Schwager, 1866 (Pl. 2, Fig. 13a-c) Gaudryina baccata Schwager, 1866, Pl. 4, Fig. 12a, b. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 7745. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 7745 WoRMS AphiaID: 594868 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/040

Gaudryina lapugyensis Cushman, 1936 (Pl. 2, Fig. 14) Gaudryina lapugyensis Cushman, 1936, Pl. 1, Fig. 19. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 71, Fig. 9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 7861 WoRMS AphiaID: 850236 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/041 51

Gaudryina niigataensis Asano, 1950 (Pl. 2, Fig. 15) Gaudryina niigataensis Asano, 1950, Pl. 2, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 39960. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 39960 WoRMS AphiaID: 814920 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/042

Gaudryina sp. (Pl. 2, Fig. 16) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/043 Remarks: The specimen is smaller in size as compared to Gaudryina baccata.

Superfamily: TEXTULARIACEA Ehrenberg, 1838 Family: EGGERELLIDAE Cushman, 1937 Subfamily: EGGERELLINAE Cushman, 1937

Genus: Eggerella Cushman, 1935 (Pg. 170, Pl. 189, Figs. 1-4)

Eggerella humboldti Todd and Brönniman, 1957 (Pl. 2, Fig. 17) Eggerella humboldti Todd and Brönniman, 1957, Pl. 2, Fig. 26. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 47206. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 47206 WoRMS AphiaID: 478971 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/044

Genus: Eggerelloides Haynes, 1973 (Pg. 170, Pl. 189, Figs. 5-7)

Eggerelloides scaber (Williamson, 1858) (Pl. 2, Fig. 18a, b) Bulimina scabra Williamson, 1858, Pl. 5, Figs. 136- 137. Eggerelloides scaber (Williamson) Mendes et al., 2013, Pl. 1, Fig. 1. Source: Mendes et al., 2013, Pl. 1, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2437 WoRMS AphiaID: 113938 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/045

Genus: Karreriella Cushman, 1933(Pg. 171, Pl. 189, Figs. 8-15)

Karreriella bradyi (Cushman, 1911) (Pl. 2, Fig. 19a, b) Gaudryina bradyi Cushman, 1911, Pl. 32, Fig.4 Karreriella bradyi (Cushman) Barker, 1960, Pl. 46, Figs. 1-4. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 46, Figs. 1-4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 7759 WoRMS AphiaID: 113941 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/046

Family: TEXTULARIIDAE Ehrenberg, 1838 Subfamily: TEXTULARIINAE Ehrenberg, 1838

Genus: Textularia Defrance, 1824 (Pg. 173, Pl. 10-21, Figs. 1-4)

Textularia bermudezi Cushman and Todd, 1945 (Pl. 2, Fig. 20a-c) Textularia bermudezi Cushman and Todd, 1945, Pl. 1, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 32850. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32850 WoRMS AphiaID: 896676 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/047 53

Textularia bocki Höglund, 1947 (Pl. 2, Fig. 21a-c) Textularia bocki Höglund, 1947, Pl. 12, Figs. 5-7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 33616. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 33616 WoRMS AphiaID: 114267 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/048

Textularia calva Lalicker, 1940 (Pl. 3, Fig. 1a-c) Textularia calva Lalicker, 1940, Pl. 1, Figs. 1, 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 21638. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 21638 WoRMS AphiaID: 114269 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/049

Textularia candeiana d'Orbigny, 1839 (Pl. 3, Fig. 2a, b) Textularia candeiana d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 1Figs. 25-27. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 85, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 21639 WoRMS AphiaID: 417660 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/050

Textularia fistula Cushman, 1911 (Pl. 3, Fig. 3a-c) Textularia agglutinans d’Orbigny var. fistula Cushman, 1911, Pl.10, Fig. 11. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 21594. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 21594 WoRMS AphiaID: 491918 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/051 54

Textularia occidentalis Cushman, 1922 (Pl. 3, Fig. 4a, b) Textularia occidentalis Cushman, 1922, Pl. 17, Figs. 1-2. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 88, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 3180 WoRMS AphiaID: 723334 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/052

Textularia oceanica Cushman, 1932 (Pl. 3, Fig. 5a-c) Textularia foliacea Heron-Allenand Erland var. oceanica Cushman, 1932, Pl.1, Figs. 11, 12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 21752. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 21752 WoRMS AphiaID: 491929 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/053

Textularia pseudogramen Chapman and Parr, 1937 (Pl. 3, Fig. 6a-c) Textularia pseudogramen Chapman and Parr, 1937, Pl. 43, Figs. 9, 10. Source: Yassini and Jones, 1995, Pg. 118, Fig. 196. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 81496 WoRMS AphiaID: 114282 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/054

Textularia scrupula Lalicker and McCulloch, 1940 (Pl. 3, Fig. 7a-c) Textularia scrupula Lalicker and McCulloch, 1940, Pl. 16, Fig. 25. Source: Zheng and Fu, 2001, Pl. 94, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 35259 WoRMS AphiaID: 491938 55

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/055

Subfamily: SIPHOTEXTULARIINAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1985

Genus: Siphotextularia Finlay, 1939(Pg. 175, Pl. 193, Figs. 5, 6)

Siphotextularia masudai Asano, 1953 (Pl. 3, Fig. 8a-c) Siphotextularia masudai Asano, 1953, Pl. 1, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 44622. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 44622 WoRMS AphiaID: 556465 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/056

Siphotextularia rolshauseni Phleger and Parker, 1951 (Pl. 3, Fig. 9a-c) Siphotextularia rolshauseni Phleger and Parker, 1951, Pl. 1, Figs. 23-24. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 40207. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 40207 WoRMS AphiaID: 114261 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/057

Family: PSEUDOGAUDRYINIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1985 Subfamily: PSEUDOGAUDRYININAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1985

Genus: Pseudogaudryina Cushman, 1936 (Pg. 179, Pl. 197, Figs. 5-9)

Pseudogaudryina triangulata Lei and Li, 2016 (Pl. 3, Fig. 10a, b) Pseudogaudryina triangulata Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 79, Fig. 40. Source: Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 79, Fig. 40. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA 56

WoRMS AphiaID: 944618 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/058

Suborder: SPIRILLININA Hohenegger and Piller, 1975 Family: SPIRILLINIDAE Reuss and Fritsch, 1861

Genus: Spirillina Ahrenberg, 1843 (Pg. 304, Pl. 318, Figs. 4-7)

Spirillina canaliculata Terquen, 1880 (Pl. 3, Fig. 11a, b) Spirillina canaliculata Terquen, 1880, Pl. 13, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 20636. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 20636 WoRMS AphiaID: 897712 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/059

Spirillina helenae Chapman and Parr, 1937 (Pl. 3, Fig. 12a, b) Spirillina helenae Chapman and Parr, 1937, Pl. 7, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 20653. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 20653 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/060

Suborder: MILIOLINA Delarge and Herouard, 1896 Superfamily: CORNUSPIRACEA Schultze, 1854 Family: OPTHALMIDIIDAE Wiesner, 1920

Genus: Opthalmina Rhumbler, 1936 (Pg. 326, Pl. 336, Figs. 1-4)

Ophthalmina spiratula Rhumbler, 1936 (Pl. 3, Fig. 13a, b) 57

Ophthalmina kilianensis var. spiratula Rhumbler, 1936, Pg. 220, Figs. 194-195. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 28451. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 28451 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/061

Genus: Spirophthalmidium Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 327, Pl. 334, Figs. 10, 11)

Spirophthalmidium acutimargo (Brady, 1884) (Pl. 3, Fig. 14a, b) Spiroloculina acutimargo Brady, 1884, Pl. 1-115. Spirophthalmidium acutimargo (Brady) Barkar, 1960 Pl. 10, Fig. 14. Source: Loebilch and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 334, Figs. 10, 11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 61417 WoRMS AphiaID: 112788 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/062

Spirophthalmidium sp. (Pl. 3, Fig. 15) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/063 Remarks: The specimen lacks distinct chamber formation.

Superfamily: MILIOLACEA Ehrenberg, 1839 Family: SPIROIOCULINIDAE Wiesner, 1920

Genus: Adelosina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 328, Pl. 337, Figs. 1-19)

Adelosina bicornis (Walker and Jacob, 1798) (Pl. 3, Fig. 16a, b) Serpula bicornis Walker and Jacob, 1798, P1.1, Fig. 2. 58

Adelosina bicornis (Walker and Jacob) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 337, Fig. 17. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 337, Fig. 17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 81437 WoRMS AphiaID: 112527 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/064

Genus: Spiroloculina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 331, P1. 340, Figs. 2-5)

Spiroloculina californica Cushman and Todd, 1944 (Pl. 3, Fig. 17a, b) Spiroloculina depressa d’Orbigny var. californica Cushman and Todd, 1944, Pl. 5, Figs. 10-12. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 23, Figs. 15, 18. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32818 WoRMS AphiaID: 492877 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/065

Spiroloculina excisa Cushman and Todd, 1944 (Pl. 3, Fig. 18a, b) Spiroloculina communis Cushman and Todd var. excisa Cushman and Todd, 1944, Pl. 9, Figs. 15-17. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 32813. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32813 WoRMS AphiaID: 492877 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/066

Family: HAUERINIDAE Schwager, 1876 Subfamily: HAUERININAE Schwager, 1876

Genus: Quinqueloculina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 336, Pl. 344, Figs. 8-13, 17-22)

Quinqueloculina argunica (Gerke, 1938) 59

(Pl. 3, Fig. 19a, b) Miliolina akneriana var. longa f. argunica Gerke, 1938, Pl. 4, Fig. 8. Quinqueloculina argunica (Gerke) Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 104, Fig. 9. Source: Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 104, Fig. 9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 850029 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/067

Quinqueloculina echinata d’Orbigny, 1905 (Pl. 3, Fig. 20a, b) Quinqueloculina echinata d’Orbigny, 1905,Pl. 1, Fig. 9. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 27888. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 27888 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/068

Quinqueloculina elegans Terquem, 1878 (Pl. 3, Fig. 21a, b) Quinqueloculina elegans Terquem, 1878, Pl. 6, Figs. 7-9. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 80723. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 80723 WoRMS AphiaID: 523481 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/069

Quinqueloculina inaequalis d’Orbigny, 1839 (Pl. 3, Fig. 22a, b) Quinqueloculina inaequalis d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 3, Figs. 28-30. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 80723. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 80728 WoRMS AphiaID: 723296 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/070

Quinqueloculina lamarckiana d'Orbigny, 1839 (Pl. 4, Fig. 1a, b) Quinqueloculina lamarckiana d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl.11, Figs. 14-16. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 18316. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18316 WoRMS AphiaID: 112643 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/071

Quinqueloculina mixta McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 4, Fig. 2) Quinqueloculina (?) mixta McCulloch, 1981, P.13, Fig. 15. Source: McCulloch, 1981, P.13, Fig. 15. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762482 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/072

Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 4, Fig. 3a, b) Miliolina parkeri Brady, 1881, Pl. 7, Fig. 14. Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady) Cushman, 1917, P.15, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38632. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38632 WoRMS AphiaID: 417711 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/073

Quinqueloculina sabulosa Cushman, 1947 (Pl. 4, Fig. 4a, b) Quinqueloculina sabulosa Cushman, 1947, Pl. 18, Fig. 22. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 32712. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32712 WoRMS AphiaID: 838353 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/074 61

Quinqueloculina schlumbergeri (Weisner, 1923) (Pl. 4, Fig. 5a, b) Miliolina schlumbergeri Weisner, 1923, Pl. 6, Fig. 73. Quinqueloculina schlumbergeri (Weisner) Daniels, 1970, Pg. 75, P1. 3, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 44337. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 44337 WoRMS AphiaID: 112671 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/075

Quinqueloculina seminula Linnaeus, 1758 (Pl. 4, Fig. 6) Quinqueloculina seminula Linnaeus, 1758, P1. 2, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 20290. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 20290 WoRMS AphiaID: 112674 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/076

Quinqueloculina tropicalis Cushman, 1924 (Pl. 4, Fig. 7a, b) Quinqueloculina tropicalis Cushman, 1924, Pl. 23, Figs. 9-10. Source: Barkar, 1960, Pl. 5, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18527 WoRMS AphiaID: 417722 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/077

Quinqueloculina venusta Karrer, 1868 (Pl. 4, Fig. 8a, b) Quinqueloculina venusta Karrer, 1868, Pl. 2, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 18540. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18540 WoRMS AphiaID: 112688 62

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/078

Quinqueloculina weaveri Rau, 1948 (Pl. 4, Fig. 9a, b) Quinqueloculina weaveri Rau, 1948, Pl. 28, Figs. 1-3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 33486. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 33486 WoRMS AphiaID: 417723 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/079

Quinqueloculina cf. trigonula Terquem, 1876 (Pl. 4, Fig. 10) Quinqueloculina trigonula Terquem, 1876, Pl. 12, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 18523. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18523 WoRMS AphiaID: 737771 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/080 Remarks: The specimen lacks undulations in the last chamber as compared to the type specimen.

Quinqueloculina aff. oblonga Ruess, 1856 (Pl. 4, Fig. 11a, b) Quinqueloculina oblonga Ruess, 1856, Pl. 9, Fig. 89. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 18359. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18359 WoRMS AphiaID: 112653 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/081 Remarks: The specimen is smaller in size as compared to the type specimen.

Quinqueloculina sp. (Pl. 4, Fig. 12a, b) Quinqueloculina sp. Barkar, 1960, Pl. 113, Fig. 17. 63

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/082 Remarks: The specimen remains unidentified since Barkar, 1960.I do not have sufficient specimen to form a new species.

Subfamily: MILIOLINELLINAE Vella, 1957

Genus: Miliolinella Wiesner, 1931 (Pg. 340, Pl. 350, Figs. 1-18)

Miliolinella australis (Parr, 1932) (Pl. 4, Fig. 13) Quinqueloculina australis Parr, 1932, Pl. 1, Fig. 8. Miliolinella australis (Parr) Barker, 1960, Pl. 5, Figs. 10-11. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 5, Figs. 10-11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22293 WoRMS AphiaID: 593807 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/083

Miliolinella erecta McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 4, Fig. 14a, b) Miliolinella erecta McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 238, Fig. 20. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 238, Fig. 20. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 764743 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/084

Miliolinella labiosa (d’Orbigny, 1839) (Pl. 4, Fig. 15a, b) Triloculina labiosa d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 10, Figs. 12-14. Miliolina labiosa (d’Orbigny) Ponder, 1974, Figs. 1, 2 and 5. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 22293. 64

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22293 WoRMS AphiaID: 112558 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/085

Miliolinella neomicrostoma McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 4, Fig. 16) Miliolinella neomicrostoma McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 238, Fig. 23. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 238, Fig. 23. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 112028 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/086

Miliolinella neocircularis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 4, Fig. 17a, b) Miliolinella neocircularis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 21, Fig. 12. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 21, Fig. 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762553 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/087

Miliolinella subrotunda Montagu, 1803 (P1. 4, Fig. 18) Miliolinella subrotunda Montagu, 1803, Pg. 521. Source: Milker et al., 2009, Pl. 1, Fig. 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 112564 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/088

Genus: Pyrgo Defrance, 1824 (Pg. 343, Pl. 351, Figs. 5-16)

Pyrgo rotalaris Loeblich and Tappan 1953 (P1. 4, Figs. 19a-c) 65

Pyrgo rotalaris Loeblich and Tappan, 1953, Pl. 7, Fig. 47 Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 241, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 42994 WoRMS AphiaID: 112598 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/089

Pyrgo wrangellensis McCulloch 1977 (P1. 4, Figs. 20a-c) Pyrgo wrangellensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 239, Fig. 13. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 239, Fig. 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 112037 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/090

Pyrgo sp. (P1. 4, Figs. 21a, b) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 112037 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/091 Remarks: The specimen has thick carinate periphery and distinct neck. It could not be placed under any known species.

Genus: Triloculina d'Orbigny, 1826, (Pg. 344, Pl. 351, Figs. 19-21)

Triloculina tricarinata d'Orbigny, 1826 (P1. 4, Fig. 22) Triloculina tricarinata d'Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 1, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 22205. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22205 WoRMS AphiaID: 112771 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/092

Subfamily: SIGMOILINITINAE Ƚuczkowska, 1974

Genus: Sigmoilina Schlumberger, 1887 (Pg. 348, Pl. 356, Figs. 21- 24)

Sigmoilina tenuis (Czjzek, 1848) (P1. 4, Figs. 23a, b) Quienqueloculina tenuis Czjzek, 1848, Pl. 13, Figs. 31-34. Sigmoilina tenuis (Czjzek) Barker, 1960, Pl. 10, Fig. 8. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 10, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 112701 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/093

Genus: Sigmoilinita Seiglie, 1965 (Pg. 348, Pl. 356, Figs. 14-18)

Sigmoilinita asperula Karrer, 1868 (P1. 4, Figs. 24a, b) Sigmoilinita asperula Karrer, 1868, Pl. 1, Fig. 10. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988 Pl. 356, Figs. 14-16. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 20857 WoRMS AphiaID: 710943 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/094

Sigmoilinita delacaboensis McCulloch, 1977 (P1. 4, Figs. 25a, b) Sigmoilinita delacaboensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 232, Fig. 11. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 232, Fig. 11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/095

Genus: Subedentostomina McCulloch, 1981 (Pg. 349, Pl. 357, Figs. 8-10) 67

Subedentostomina lavelaenus McCulloch, 1977 (P1. 4, Figs. 26a, b) Subedentostomina lavelaenus McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 24, Fig. 10. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 24, Fig. 10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 759662 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/096

Subfamily: SIGMOILOPSINAE Vella, 1957

Genus: Sigmoilopsis Finlay, 1947 (Pg. 350, Pl. 356, Figs. 8-13)

Sigmoilopsis schlumbergeri Silvestri, 1904 (P1. 5, Figs. 1a-c) Sigmoilopsis schlumbergeri Silvestri, 1904, Pl. 22, Figs. 267-269. Source: Barkar, 1960, Pl. 8, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 20370 WoRMS AphiaID: 112704 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/097

Superfamily: SORITACEA Ehrenberg, 1839 Family: PENEROPLIDAE Schultze, 1854

Genus: Monalysidium Chapman, 1900 (Pg. 370, Pl. 391, Figs. 9, 10)

Monalysidium politum McCulloch, 1977 (P1. 5, Fig. 2) Monalysidium politum McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 100, Fig. 15. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 100, Fig. 15. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 417778 68

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/098

Genus: Peneroplis de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 371, Pl. 391, Fig. 7-8 and 11-120)

Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal, 1775) (Pl. 5, Figs. 3a, b) Nautilus pertusus Forskal, 1775, Pg. 125. Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal) Cushman, 1921, Pg. 481. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 37090. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 37090 WoRMS AphiaID: 112815 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/099

Family: SORITIDAE Ehrenberg, 1839 Subfamily: ARCHAIASINAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Cyclorbiculina Silvestri, 1937 (Pg. 379, Pl. 412, Figs. 1-6; Pl. 413, Figs. 1-7)

Cyclorbiculina colombiana McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 5, Figs. 4a, b) Cyclorbiculina colombiana McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 41, Fig. 18. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 41, Fig. 18. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 417781 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/0100

Suborder: LAGENINA Delage and Herouard, 1896 Superfamily: NODOSARIACEA Ehrenberg, 1838 Family: NODOSARIIDAE Ehrenberg, 1838 Subfamily: NODOSARIINAE Ehrenberg, 1838

Genus: Dentalina Risso, 1826 (Pg. 395, Pl. 439, Fig. 19) 69

Dentalina aphelis Loeblich and Tappan, 1986 (Pl. 5, Fig. 5) Dentalina aphelis Loeblich and Tappan, 1986, Pl. 243 Figs. 1-3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 13022. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 13022 WoRMS AphiaID: 710450 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/101

Dentalina cf. bradyensis Dervieux, 1894 (P1. 5, Figs. 6a, b) Dentalina inornata d’Orbigny var. bradyensis Dervieux, 1894, Pl. 5, Figs. 30-31. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 62, Figs. 19-20. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 28402 WoRMS AphiaID: 417808 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/102 Remarks: The proloculus in the illustrated specimen shows chamber arrangement in opposite direction as compared to the type specimen.

Dentalina cf. trondheimensis Hanssen, 1964 (Pl. 5, Fig.7) Dentalina trondheimensis Hanssen, 1964, Pl. 9, Fig. 5. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 63197. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 63197 WoRMS AphiaID: 737762 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/103 Remarks: The illustrated specimen comprises of only three chambers as compared to the type specimen which consists of four or more chambers.

Genus: Laevidentalina Loeblich and Tappan, 1986 (Pg. 396, Pl. 439, Figs. 22-24)

Laevidentalina phiala Costa, 1856 70

(Pl. 5, Fig. 8) Nodosaria phiala Costa, 1856, Pl. 13, Figs. 20-21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 13558. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 13558 WoRMS AphiaID: 915194 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/104

Genus: Nodosaria Lamarck, 1812 (Pg. 397, Pl. 438, Figs. 24-27)

Nodosaria brevis d’Orbigny, 1902 (Pl. 5, Fig. 9) Nodosaria brevis d’Orbigny, 1902, Pl. 27, Fig. 21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 26453. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 26453 WoRMS AphiaID: 523498 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/105

Nodosaria transparenta Neufville, 1971 (Pl. 5, Fig. 10) Nodosaria transparenta Neufville, 1971, Pl. 1, Fig. 2. Source: Neufville, 1971, Pl. 1, Fig. 2 Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/106

Nodosaria cf. calomorpha Reuss, 1865 (Pl. 5, Fig. 11) Nodosaria calomorpha Ruess, 1865, Pl. 1 Figs. 15-19. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 61, Fig. 23-27. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 12971 WoRMS AphiaID: 113538 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/107 71

Remarks: The specimen is compressed as compared to the cylindrical chambers in the type specimen.

Subfamily: LINGULININAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1961

Genus: Neolingulina McCulloch, 1977 (Pg. 399, Pl. 442, Figs. 9-10)

Neolingulina aff. parva McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 5, Fig. 12) Neolingulina parva McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 49, Fig. 23. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 49, Fig. 23. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 75703 WoRMS AphiaID: 521442 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/108 Remarks: The specimen has much globular chamber shape and different aperture than type specimen.

Family: VAGINULINIDAE Reuss, 1860 Subfamily: LENTICULININAE Chapman, Parr and Collins, 1934

Genus: Lenticulina Lamarck, 1804 (Pg. 405, Pl. 446, Figs. 1-12)

Lenticulina calcaesfera Molcikova, 1978 (Pl. 5, Figs. 13a, b) Lenticulina calcaesfera Molcikova, 1978, Pl. 4, Figs. 2, 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 82796. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 82796 WoRMS AphiaID: 1038363 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/109

Lenticulina crassa (d'Orbigny, 1846) (Pl. 5, Fig. 14) 72

Cristellaria crassa d'Orbigny, 1846, P1. 4, Figs. 1-3. Lenticulina crassa (d'Orbigny) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pg. 405. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pg. 405. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76093 WoRMS AphiaID: 710294 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/110

Lenticulina lucidiformis McCulloch, 1981 (Pl.5, Figs. 15a, b) Robulus lucidiformis McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 3. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762595 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/111 Remarks: As per Loeblich and Tappan (1988) the genus shifted from Robulus to Lenticulina.

Lenticulina pliocaena (Silvestri, 1898) (P1. 5, Fig. 16) Polymorphina pliocaena Silvestri, 1898, Pl. 4, Fig. 3. Robulus pliocaenicus (Silvestri) Thalmann, 1932. Robulus pliocaenicus (Silvestri) Barker, 1960, Pg. 144, Pl. 69, Fig. 5. Lenticulina pliocaena (Silvestri) Jones, 1994, Pl. 69, Fig. 5 Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 69, Fig. 5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17185 WoRMS AphiaID: 484661 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/112

Lenticulina tortugaensis McCulloch, 1981 (P1. 5, Fig. 17a, b) Robulus tortugaensis McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 1. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 1. 73

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17185 WoRMS AphiaID: 762593 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/113

Genus: Neolenticulina McCulloch, 1977 (Pg. 406, Pl. 447, Figs. 9-16)

Neolenticulina peregrina (Schwager, 1866) (Pl. 5, Fig. 18a, b) Cristellaria peregrina Schwager, 1866, Pl. 7, Fig. 89. Lenticulina peregrina (Schwager) Parker, 1954, Pg. 506. Neolenticulina peregrina (Schwager) Loeblich and Tappan 1988, Pg. 115, P1.447,Fig.10- 12. Source: Loeblich and Tappan 1988, Pg. 115, P1.447, Fig.10-12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 4299 WoRMS AphiaID: 113807 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/114

Neolenticulina antarctica McCulloch, 1977 (Pl.5, Figs. 19a, b) Neolenticulina antarctica McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 94, Fig. 13. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 94, Fig. 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 521436 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/115

Genus: Saracenaria Defrance, 1824 (Pg. 407, Pl. 448, Figs. 13, 14, 16-18)

Saracenaria caribbeanica McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 5, Fig. 20) Saracenaria caribbeanica McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 12. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 27, Fig. 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA 74

WoRMS AphiaID: 762600 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/116

Subfamily: MARGINULININAE Wedekind, 1937

Genus: Astacolus de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 410, Pl. 450, Figs. 7-10)

Astacolus insolitus (Schwager, 1866) (P1. 5, Figs. 21a, b) Cristellarea insolitus Schwager, 1866, Pl. 6, Fig. 85. Astacolus insolitus (Schwager) Barker, 1960, Pl. 67, Fig. 67. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 67, Fig. 67. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 4017 WoRMS AphiaID: 466135 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/117

Genus: Amphicoryna Schlumberger, 1881 (Pg. 410, Pl. 450, Figs. 11-15)

Amphicoryna bilocularis Rhumbler, 1949 (P1. 5, Fig. 22) Nodosaria scalaris (Batsch) var. bilocularis Rhumbler, 1949, Pl. 20, Figs. 12-16. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 34200. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 34200 WoRMS AphiaID: 525713 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/118

Amphicoryna variabilis Terquem and Berthelin, 1875 (P1. 5, Fig. 23) Amphicoryna variabilis Terquem and Berthelin, 1875, Pl. 1, Fig. 9. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 13884. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 13884 WoRMS AphiaID: NA 75

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/119

Amphicoryna cf. diversiformis McCulloch, 1981 (P1. 5, Fig. 24) Amphicoryna diversiformis McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 31, Fig. 12. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 31, Fig. 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762608 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/120 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has less prominent striae than type specimen.

Amphicoryna sp. (P1. 5, Fig. 25) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/121 Remarks: Test elongate, uniserial and rectilinear; chambers circular in transverse section; chambers are separated through long neck, wall calcareous and covered with longitudinal striae.

Subfamily: VAGINULININAE Ruess, 1860

Genus: Vaginulina d’Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 414, Pl. 454, Figs. 15-17)

Vaginulina albemarlensis McCulloch, 1977 (P1. 5, Fig. 26) Vaginulina albemarlensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 96, Fig. 27. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 96, Fig. 27. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 75951 WoRMS AphiaID: 521548 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/122 Remarks: The specimen has much longer neck than type specimen. 76

Vaginulina inflata (Schuvert, 1900) (P1. 5, Fig. 27) Nodosaria communis d’orbigny var. inflata Schuvert, 1900, Pl. 1, Fig. 5. Vaginulina inflata (Schuvert) Panchang, 2014, Pl. 18, Figs. 8, 9. Source: Panchang, 2014, Pl. 18, Figs. 8, 9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 26472 WoRMS AphiaID: 736528 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/123

Vaginulina cf. pauciloculata Cushman and Grey, 1917 (P1. 5, Fig. 28) Vaginulina advena pauciloculata Cushman and Grey, 1917, Pl. 3, Fig. 15. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 96, Figs. 21. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32883 WoRMS AphiaID: 927254 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/124 Remarks: The specimen has less prominent striae than type specimen.

Family: LAGENIDAE Ruess, 1862

Genus: Hyalinonetrion Patterson and Richardson, 1987 (Pg. 415, Pl. 455, Figs. 6-8)

Hyalinonetrion elongata (Ehrenberg, 1844) (Pl. 5 Figs. 29-32) Miliolina elongata Ehrenberg, 1844, Pg. 371. Procerolagena elongata (Ehrenberg) Yassini and Jones, 1995 Figs. 271-273. Hyalinonetrion elongata (Ehrenberg) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 455, Figs. 6-8. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 455, Figs. 6-8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 12193 WoRMS AphiaID: 723201 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/125 77

Genus: Lagena Walker and Jacob, 1798 (Pg. 415, Pl. 455, Figs. 15-17)

Lagena apiculata Cushman, 1913 (Pl. 5, Fig. 33) Lagena sulcata var. apiculata Cushman, 1913, Pl. 3, Fig. 23. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 78661. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 78661 WoRMS AphiaID: 931254 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/126

Lagena foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 5, Fig. 34) Lagena foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 50, Fig. 35. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 74797. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74797 WoRMS AphiaID: 521286 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/127

Lagena macculochae Albani and Yassini, 1989 (Pl. 5, Fig.35) Lagena macculochae Albani and Yassini, 1989, Pg. 209, Figs. 310-313. Source: Albani and Yassini, 1989, Pg. 209, Figs. 310-313. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 556201 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/128

Lagena oceanica Albani, 1974 (Pl. 5, Fig. 36) Lagena oceanica Albani, 1974, Pl.1, Figs. 7, 10, 11. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 61865. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 61865 78

WoRMS AphiaID: 466149 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/129

Lagena perculiaris Cushman and McCulloch, 1950 (Pl. 5, Fig. 37) Lagena salcata Walker and Jacob var. perculiaris Cushman and McCulloch, 1950, Pl. 48, Figs. 11-13. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 37762. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 37762 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/130

Lagena subangulosa McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 5, Fig. 38a, b) Lagena subangulosa McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 60, Figs. 25, 27. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 60, Figs. 25, 27. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74856 WoRMS AphiaID: 521333 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/131

Lagena cf. acuticosta Ruess, 1862 (Pl. 5, Fig. 39) Lagena acuticosta Ruess, 1862, Pl. 1, Fig. 4. Source: Rao, 1998,Pl. 24, Figs. 1-2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9753 WoRMS AphiaID: 113483 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/132 Remarks: The illustrated specimen also has a tube like projection on the basal part.

Lagena cf. englishae McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 1) Lagena englishae McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 50, Fig. 36. 79

Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 50, Fig. 36. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74785 WoRMS AphiaID: 521280 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/133 Remarks: The specimen has a distinct neck with phialine lip.

Lagena cf. flatulenta Loeblich and Tappan, 1953 (Pl. 6, Fig. 2) Lagena flatulenta Loeblich and Tappan, 1953, Pl. 11, Fig. 10. Source: Yassini and Jones, 1995, Pg. 209, Fig. 302. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 466143 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/134 Remarks: The specimen has a comparatively longer neck than type specimen.

Lagena cf. subacuticosta Parr, 1950 (Pl. 6, Fig. 3) Lagena subacuticosta Parr, 1950, Pl. 8, Fig. 3. Source: Parr, 1950, Pl. 8, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 581976 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/135 Remarks: The specimens differ in neck ornamentation.

Lagena aff. semistriata Williamson, 1848 (Pl. 6, Fig. 4) Lagena striata Walker var. semistraita Williamson, 1848, Pl. 1, Figs. 9-10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 10231. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 10231 WoRMS AphiaID: 113504 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/136

Remarks: The specimens have much thick neck and basal part as compared to the type specimen.

Genus: Procerolagena Puri, 1954 (Pg. 416, Pl. 455, Fig. 2)

Procerolagena gracillima (Seguenza, 1862) (Pl. 6, Fig. 5) Lagena gracillima (Seguenza) Barker, 1960, Pl. 56, Figs. 19-26. Procerolagena gracillima (Seguenza) Jones, 1994, Pg. 62, Pl. 56, Figs. 19-22, 24-29. Source: Jones, 1994, Pg. 62, Pl. 56, Figs. 19-22, 24-29. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 113547 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/137

Genus: Pygmaeoseistron Patterson and Richardson 1987 (Pg. 416, Pl. 455, Figs. 3-5)

Pygmaeoseistron hispidula (Cushman) Patterson and Richardson, 1988 (Pl. 6, Fig. 6) Lagena hispidula Cushman, 1913, Pl. 5, Figs. 2, 3. Pygmaeoseistron hispidula (Cushman) Patterson and Richardson, 1988, Pg. 243, Figs. 7- 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 9984. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9984 WoRMS AphiaID: 113496 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/138

Pygmaeoseistron nebulosum (Cushman, 1923) (Pl. 6, Figs. 7, 8) Lagena laevis (Montagu) var. nebulosa Cushman, 1923, Pl. 5, Figs. 4, 5. Pygmaeoseistron nebulosum (Cushman) Igarshi et al., 2001, Pl.7, Fig. 14. Source: Igarshi et al., 2001, Pl.7, Fig. 14. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 10014 81

WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/139

Family: ELLIPSOLAGENIDAE Silvestri, 1923 Subfamily: OOLININAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1961

Genus: Anturina Jones, 1984 (Pg. 425, Pl. 462, Fig. 1)

Anturina haynesi Jones, 1984 (Pl. 6, Fig. 9) Anturina haynesi Jones, 1984, Pl.4, Fig.6. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 462, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 760387 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/140

Genus: Oolina d’orbigny, 1839 (Pg. 427, Pl. 463, Figs. 8-11)

Oolina cf. globosa Montagu, 1803 (Pl. 6, Fig. 10) Oolina globosa Montagu, 1803, Pl. 56, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77438. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77438 WoRMS AphiaID: 113219 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/141 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has slightly different neck than O. globosa.

Subfamily: ELLIPSOLAGENINAE Silvestri, 1923

Genus: Fissurina Ruess, 1850 (Pg. 428, Pl.465, Figs. 5-9)

Fissurina caudimarginata McCulloch, 1977 82

(Pl. 6, Fig. 11) Fissurina aligera caudimarginata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 58, Fig. 28. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 58, Fig. 28. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76968 WoRMS AphiaID: 523556 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/142

Fissurina crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 12) Fissurina crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977, Pl.56, Fig. 22. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl.56, Fig. 22. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77008 WoRMS AphiaID: 466209 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/143

Fissurina gravata McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 13a, b) Fissurina gravata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 62, Fig. 21. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 62, Fig. 21. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 521141 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/144

Fissurina imporcata McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 14a, b) Fissurina imporcata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Fig. 22. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Fig. 22. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 521145 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/145

Fissurina cf. kerguelenensis Parr, 1950 83

(Pl. 6, Fig. 15) Fissurina kerguelenensis Parr, 1950, pl. 8, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38419. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38419 WoRMS AphiaID: 113204 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/146 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has much longer spines than type specimen.

Fissurina aff. crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 16) Fissurina crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 56, Fig. 16. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 56, Fig. 16 Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77008 WoRMS AphiaID: 466209 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/147 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has thick keel and is different than the type specimen. Besides these, striations on apetrural area are also lacking in the specimens.

Fissurina aff. globosocaudata Albani and Yassini, 1989 (Pl. 6, Fig. 17) Fissurina globosocaudata Albani and Yassini, 1989, Pl. 395, Fig. 6. Source: Albani and Yassini, 1989, Pl. 395, Fig. 6. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 466217 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/148 Remarks: The specimen does not have intact apertural area and placed in affinity.

Genus: Lagenosolenia McCulloch, 1977 (Pg. 428, Pl. 465, Figs. 10-11)

Lagenosolenia cervicosa McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 18)

Lagenosolenia bradyiformata McCulloch subsp. cervicosa McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Figs. 12, 13. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Figs. 12, 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 75651 WoRMS AphiaID: 723214 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/149

Lagenosolenia eucerviculata McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 19) Lagenosolenia eucerviculata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 60, Fig. 5-7. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 60, Fig. 5-7. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76394 WoRMS AphiaID: 466259 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/150

Lagenosolenia neocincta McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 20) Lagenosolenia neocincta McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Fig. 7. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 61, Fig. 7. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76431 WoRMS AphiaID: 521389 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/151

Lagenosolenia neoduplicata McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 21) Lagenosolenia neoduplicata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 62, Figs. 15, 16. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 62, Figs. 15, 16. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76443 WoRMS AphiaID: 521390 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/152

Lagenosolenia cf. inflatiperforata McCulloch, 1977 85

(Pl. 6, Fig. 22) Lagenosolenia inflatiperforata McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 64, Fig. 28. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 64, Fig. 28. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76415 WoRMS AphiaID: 509264 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/153 Remarks: Basal area is bit different in the illustrated specimen as compared to the type species.

Subfamily: PARAFISSURININAE Jones, 1984

Genus: Parafissurina Parr, 1947 (Pg. 429, Pl. 466, Figs. 5-9).

Parafissurina arctica Green, 1959 (Pl. 6, Fig. 23) Parafissurina arctica Green, 1959, Pl. 1, Fig. 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 61944. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 61944 WoRMS AphiaID: 113230 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/154

Parafissurina neocurta McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 24a-c) Parafissurina neocurta McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 70, Fig. 22. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 70, Fig. 22. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 466301 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/155

Parafissurina cf. curta Parr, 1950 (Pl. 6, Fig. 25a, b) Parafissurina curta Parr, 1950, Pl. 10, Figs. 6-7. 86

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38678. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38678 WoRMS AphiaID: 466293 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/156 Remarks: The illustrated specimen do not have distinct peripheral keel.

Parafissurina cf. metaconica McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 6, Fig. 26) Parafissurina metaconica McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 71, Fig. 24. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 71, Fig. 24. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 521528 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/157 Remarks: The perpehral keel in the illustrated specimen is much broader than type specimen.

Superorder: ROBERTININA Loeblich and Tappan, 1984 Superfamily: CERATOBULIMINACEA Cushman, 1927 Family: EPISTOMINIDAE Wedekind, 1937 Subfamily: EPISTOMININAE Wedekind, 1937

Genus: Hoeglundina Brotzen, 1948 (Pg. 446, Pl. 478, Figs. 1-5)

Hoeglundina heterolucida McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 6, Fig. 27a-c) Hoeglundina heterolucida McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 57, Fig. 7. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 57, Fig. 7. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763136 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/158

Superfamily: CONORBOIDACEA Thalmann, 1952 87

Family: ROBERTINIDAE Reuss, 1850 Subfamily: ROBERTININAE Reuss, 1850

Genus: Robertinoides Höglund, 1947(Pg. 452, Pl. 483, Figs. 5-14)

Robertinoides oceanic Cushman and Parker, 1947 (Pl. 7, Fig. 1a, b) Robertinoides oceanica Cushman and Parker, 1947, Pl. 18, Fig. 18. Source: Barker 1960, Pl. 50, Fig.19. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 34391 WoRMS AphiaID: 418119 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/159

Suborder: GLOBIGERININA Delage and Herouard, 1896 Superfamily: HETEROHELICACEA Cushman, 1927 Family: GUEMBELITRIIDAE Montanaro Gallitelli, 1957

Genus: Gallitellia Loeblich and Tappan, 1986 (Pg. 453, Pl. 485, Figs. 1-3)

Gallitellia vivans (Cushman, 1934) (Pl. 7, Fig. 2) Guemblitria (?) vivans Cushman, 1934, Pl. 13, Figs. 9-10. Gallitellia vivans (Cushman) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 485, Figs. 1-3. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 485, Figs. 1-3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 8862 WoRMS AphiaID: 526506 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/160

Superfamily: GLOBOROTALIACEA Cushman, 1927 Family: GLOBOROTALIIDAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Globorotalia Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 475, Pl. 515 Figs. 4-6 and 16-22; Pl. 516, Fig. 1-11)

Globorotalia crassaformis Galloway and Wissler, 1927 (Pl. 7, Fig. 3a, b) Globorotalia crassaformis Galloway and Wissler, 1927, Pl. 7, Fig. 12. Source: Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 24, Fig. 2.5a-c. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 56546 WoRMS AphiaID: 418113 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/161

Globorotalia menardii (Parker, Jones and Brady, 1865) (Pl. 7, Fig. 4a, b) Rotalia menardii Parker, Jones and Brady 1865, Pl. 3, Fig. 81. Rotalia (Rotalie) menardii d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 273. Palvinulina menardii (d’Orbigny) Brady, 1884, Pl. 103, Fig. 1-2. Globorotalia menardii (d’Orbigny) Cushman, 1931, Pl. 12, Fig. l. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 78295. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 78295 WoRMS AphiaID: 113450 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/162

Globorotalia scitula (Brady, 1882) (Pl. 7, Fig. 5a, b) Palvinulina scitula Brady, 1882, Pl. 103, Fig. 7. Globorotalia scitula (Brady) Be, 1967, Fig. 28. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 79668. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79668 WoRMS AphiaID: 113452 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/163

Globorotalia theyeri Fleisher, 1974 89

(Pl. 7, Fig. 6a, b) Globorotalia theyeri Fleisher, 1974, Pl. 12, Fig. 9, and Pl. 13, Figs. 1-5. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 58771. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 58771 WoRMS AphiaID: 558955 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/164

Globorotalia tumida (Brady, 1877) (Pl. 7, Fig. 7a, b) Pulvinulina menardii var. tumida Brady, 1877, Pg. 534-536. Globorotalia tumida (Brady) Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 26, Fig. 2.6g-i. Source: Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 26, Fig. 2.6g-i. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 58774 WoRMS AphiaID: 418114 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/165

Globorotalia ungulata Bermudez, 1961 (Pl. 7, Fig. 8a, b) Globorotalia ungulata Bermudez, 1961, Pl. 15, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 56565. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 56565 WoRMS AphiaID: 418115 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/166

Family: GLOBOROTALIIDAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Neogloboquadrina Bandy, Frerichs and Vincent, 1967(Pg. 476, Pl. 514, Figs. 12- 14; Pl. 515, Figs. 1-3)

Neogloboquadrina dutertrei (d’Orbigny, 1839) (Pl. 7, Fig. 9a, b) Globigerina dutertrei d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 4, Figs. 19-21. 90

Globoquadrina dutertrei (d’Orbigny) Be, 1967, Fig. 20. Neogloboquadrina dutertrei (d’Orbigny) Hemleben et al. 1988, Fig. 2.4. Source: Hemleben et al. 1988, Fig. 2.4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77141 WoRMS AphiaID: 113473 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/167

Genus: Turborotalia Cushman and Bermudez, 1949 (Pg. 477, Pl. 519, Figs. 10-12)

Turborotalia quinqueloba (Natland, 1938) (Pl. 7, Fig. 10a, b) Globigerina quinqueloba Natland, 1938, Pg. 149. Turborotalia quinqueloba (Natland) Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 14, Fig. 2.2a-f. Source: Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 14, Fig. 2.2a-f. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 59170 WoRMS AphiaID: 828227 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/168

Family: PULLENIATINIDAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Pulleniatina Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 480, Pl. 524, Figs. 4-12)

Pulleniatina obliquiloculata (Parker and Jones, 1865) (Pl. 7, Fig. 11a, b) Pullenia obliquiloculata Parker and Jones, 1865, Pl. 19, Fig. 4. Pulleniatina obliquiloculata (Parker and Jones, 1865) Be, 1967, Fig. 23. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 79641. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79641 WoRMS AphiaID: 221331 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/169

Family: CANDEINIDAE Cushman, 1927 91

Subfamily: GLOBIGERINITINAE Bermudez, 1961

Genus: Globigerinita Bronnimann, 1951 (Pg. 481, Pl. 525, Figs. 5-9)

Globigerinita glutinata (Egger, 1893) (Pl. 7, Fig. 12a, b) Globigerina glutinata Egger, 1893, Pl. 13, Figs. 19-21. Tinophodella ambitacrena Loeblich and Tappan, 1957, Figs. 2-3. Globigerinita glutinata (Egger) Bradshaw, 1959, Pl. 7, Figs. 7-8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77148. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77148 WoRMS AphiaID: 113464 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/170

Subfamily: GLOBIGERINITINAE Bermudez, 1961 Family: CATAPSYDRACIDAE Bolli, Loeblich and Tappan, 1957

Genus: Globoquadrina Finlay, 1947 (Pg. 483, Pl. 527, Figs. 4-7)

Globoquadrina conglomerata (Schwager, 1866) (Pl. 7, Fig. 13a, b) Globigerina conglomerata Schwager, 1866, Pl. 7, Fig. 113. Globoquadrina conglomerata (Schwager) Be, 1967, Fig. 21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77124. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77124 WoRMS AphiaID: 558969 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/171

Family: CATAPSYDRACIDAE Bolli, Loeblich, and Tappan, 1957

Genus: Globorotaloides Bolli, 1957 (Pg. 484, Pl. 529, Figs. 1-6)

Globorotaloides hexagonus (Natland, 1938) (Pl. 7, Fig. 14a, b) Globorotaloides hexagonus (Natland) Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 26, Fig. 2.6n-p. Source: Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 26, Fig. 2.6n-p. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 1026605 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/172

Superfamily: GLOBIGERINACEA Carpenter, Parker and Jones, 1862 Family: GLOBIGERINIDAE Carpenter, Parker and Jones, 1862 Subfamily: GLOBIGERININAE Carpenter, Parker and Jones, 1862

Genus: Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 489, Pl. 535, Figs. 1-7)

Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 7, Fig. 15a, b) Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, p. 277. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77097. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77097 WoRMS AphiaID: 113434 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/173

Globigerina falconensis Blow, 1959 (Pl. 7, Fig. 16a, b) Globigerina falconensis Blow, 1959, Pl. 9, Figs. 40, 41. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 50254. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 50254 WoRMS AphiaID: 221249 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/174

Genus: Globigerinella Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 489, Pl. 535, Figs. 8-12)

Globigerinella adamsi (Banner and Blow, 1959) (Pl. 7, Fig. 17, 18) Hastigerina adamsi Banner and Blow, 1959, Pl. 82, Figs. 6-7. Globigerinella adamsi (Banner and Blow) Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 17, Fig. 2.3c, d. Source: Hemleben et al., 1989, Pg. 17, Fig. 2.3c, d. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 52661 WoRMS AphiaID: 558961 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/175

Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady, 1879) (Pl. 7, Fig. 19a, b) Globigerina aequilateralis Brady, 1879, figured in Brady, 1884, Pl. 80, Figs. 18-21. Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady, 1879) Be, 1967, Fig. 16. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38462. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38462 WoRMS AphiaID: 113439 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/176

Globigerinella calida (Parker, 1962) (Pl. 8, Fig. 1a, b) Globigerina calida Parker, 1962, Pl. 1, Figs. 9-13, 15. Globigerinella calida (Parker) Cushman, 1927, Pg. 1-27. Source: Bhatt, 1969, p. 31, Pl. 10, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77112 WoRMS AphiaID: 418106 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/177

Genus: Globigerinoides Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 490, Pl. 536, Figs. 1-6)

Globigerinoides conglobatus (Brady, 1879) (Pl. 8, Fig. 2a, b)

Globigerina conglobata Brady, 1879, p. 286; Brady, 1884, Pl. 80, Figs. 1-5; Pl. 82, Fig. 5. Globigerinoides conglobatus (Brady) Parker, 1962, Pg. 219. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 77120. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77120 WoRMS AphiaID: 113441 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/178

Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny, 1839) (Pl. 8, Fig. 3a, b and 4) Globigerina ruber d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 4, Figs. 12-14. Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny) Cushman, 1927, p. 87. Source: Parker, 1962, p. 230, Pl. 3, Figures 11-14, Pl. 4, Figs. 1-10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 77193 WoRMS AphiaID: 113444 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/179

Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady, 1877) (Pl. 8, Fig. 5a, b and 6a, b) Globigerina sacculifer Brady, 1877, p. 535; Brady, 1884, Pl. 80, Figs. 11-17. Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady) Hemleben et al., 1988, Fig. 2.2m-r. Source: Hemleben et al., 1988, Fig. 2.2m-r. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79839 WoRMS AphiaID: 113445 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/180

Globigerinoides tenellus Parker, 1958 (Pl. 8, Fig. 7a, b) Globigerinoides tenellus Parker, 1958, Pl. 6, Figs. 7-11. Source: Parker 1958, Pl. 6, Figs. 7-11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 48057 WoRMS AphiaID: 418107 95

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/181

Genus: Globoturborotalita Hofker, 1976(Pg. 490, Pl. 537, Figs. 7-15)

Globoturborotalita rubescens (Hofker, 1956) (Pl. 8, Fig. 8a, b) Globigerina rubescens Hofker, 1956, Pl. 32, Fig. 26, Pl. 35, Figs. 18-21. Globoturborotalita rubescens (Hofker) Hofker, 1976, p. 52. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 47269. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 47269 WoRMS AphiaID: 113454 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/182

Subfamily: ORBULININAE Schultze, 1854

Genus: Orbulina d’Orbigny, 1839(Pg. 494, Pl. 541, Figs. 1-11)

Orbulina universa d’Orbigny, 1839 (Pl.8, Fig. 9) Orbulina universa d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 1, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 79476. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 79476 WoRMS AphiaID: 113460 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/183

Family: HASTIGERINIDAE Bolli, Loeblich and Tappan, 1957

Genus: Hastigerina Thomson, 1876(Pg. 495, Pl. 544, Figs. 1-9)

Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orbigny) Banner and Blow, 1960 (Pl. 8, Fig. 10a, b) Nonioninapelagica d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 3, Figs. 13-14. 96

Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orbigny) Brady, 1884, Pl. 83, Fig. 4. Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orbigny), Banner and Blow, 1960. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 60304. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 60304 WoRMS AphiaID: 113477 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/184

Suborder: ROTALINA Delage and Herouard, 1896 Superfamily: BOLIVINACEA Glaessner, 1937 Family: BOLIVINIDAE Glaessner, 1937

Genus: Bolivina d'Orbigny, 1839 (Pg. 498, Pl. 547, Figs. 1-4)

Bolivina abbreviata Longinelli, 1956 (Pl. 8, Fig. 11a-c) Bolivina dilatata Reuss var. abbreviata Longinelli, 1956, Pl. 22, Fig. 21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 63962. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 63962 WoRMS AphiaID: 849390 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/185

Bolivina acaulis Egger, 1893 (Pl. 8, Fig. 12a-c) Bolivina acaulis Egger, 1893, Pl. 8, Figs. 28-30. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 73620. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 73620 WoRMS AphiaID: 894380 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/186

Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925 (Pl. 8, Fig. 13a, b) Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925, Pl. 5, Fig. 1. 97

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1545. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1545 WoRMS AphiaID: 814778 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/187

Bolivina churchi Kleinpell and Tipton, 1980 (Pl. 8, Fig. 14a-c) Bolivina churchi Kleinpell and Tipton, 1980, Pl. 9, Figs. 11-12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 65532. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 65532 WoRMS AphiaID: 898341 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/188

Bolivina cincta Heron-Allen and Earland, 1932 (Pl. 8, Fig. 15a-c) Bolivina cincta Heron-Allen and Earland, 1932, Pl. 9, Figs. 16-18. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1621. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1621 WoRMS AphiaID: 112969 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/189

Bolivina compacta Sidebottom, 1905 (Pl. 8, Fig. 16a-c) Bolivina robusta Brady var. compacta Sidebottom, 1905, Pl. 3, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1912. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1912 WoRMS AphiaID: 112969 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/190

Bolivina cuneatum Hofker, 1951 (Pl. 8, Fig. 17a-c) Bolivina (Loxostoma) cuneatum Hofker, 1951, Pl. 46, Fig. 18. 98

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 41079. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 41079 WoRMS AphiaID: 900114 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/191

Bolivina currai Sellier de Civrieux, 1976 (Pl. 8, Fig. 18a-c) Bolivina currai Sellier de Civrieux, 1976, Pl. 6, Figs. 1-4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 68144. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 68144 WoRMS AphiaID: 738347 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/192

Bolivina dilatata Reuss, 1850 (Pl. 8, Figs. 19a-c and Pl. 9, Figs. 1a-c) Bolivina dilatata Reuss, 1850, Pl. 48, Fig. 15. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1664. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1664 WoRMS AphiaID: 112973 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/193

Bolivina earlandi Parr, 1950 (Pl. 9, Fig. 2a, b) Bolivina earlandi Parr, 1950, Pl. 12, Fig. 16. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38250. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38250 WoRMS AphiaID: 183019 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/194

Bolivina globulosa Cushman, 1933 (Pl. 9, Fig. 3a, b) Bolivina globulosa Cushman, 1933, Pl. 8, Fig. 9 99

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 72720. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 72720 WoRMS AphiaID: 522817 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/195

Bolivina hirsuta Rhumbler, 1911 (Pl. 9, Fig. 4a, b) Bolivina hirsuta Rhumbler, 1911, Pl. 19, Fig. 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 33800. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 33800 WoRMS AphiaID: 521669 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/196

Bolivina inflata Heron-Allen and Earland, 1913 (Pl. 9, Fig. 5a-c) Bolivina inflata Heron-Allen and Earland, 1913, Pl. 4, Figs. 16-19. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1714. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1714 WoRMS AphiaID: 112974 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/197

Bolivina jacksonensis Cushman and Applin, 1926 (Pl. 9, Fig. 6a-c) Bolivina jacksonensis Cushman and Applin, 1926, Pl. 7, Figs. 3-4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1750. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1750 WoRMS AphiaID: 925723 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/198

Bolivina lowmani Sellier, 1976 (Pl. 9, Fig. 7a-c) Bolivina lowmani Sellier, 1976, Pl. 9, Figs. 1, 2. 100

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 68151. Ellis and Messina ForaminiferaCatalogueNo.:68151 WoRMS AphiaID: 112976 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/199

Bolivina mantaensis Cushman, 1929 (Pl. 9, Fig. 8a, b) Bolivina mantaensis Cushman, 1929, Pl. 13, Fig. 27. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1784. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1784 WoRMS AphiaID: 522726 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/200

Bolivina obscuranta Cushman, 1936 (Pl. 9, Fig. 9a-c) Bolivina obscuranta Cushman, 1936, Pl. 7, Fig. 20. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1839. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1839 WoRMS AphiaID: 913043 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/201

Bolivina pacifica Boomgaart, 1949 (Pl. 9, Fig. 10a, b) Bolivina robusta Brady var. pacifica Boomgaart, 1949, Pl. 12, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 37541. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 37541 WoRMS AphiaID: 1027890 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/202

Bolivina pseudogoesii Hofker, 1956 (Pl. 9, Fig. 11a, b) Bolivina pseudogoesii Hofker, 1956, Pl. 7, Figs. 37-42. 101

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 47122. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 47122 WoRMS AphiaID: 528299 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/203

Bolivina pseudopygmaea Cushman, 1933 (Pl. 9, Fig. 12a-c) Bolivina pseudopygmaea Cushman, 1933, Pl. 8, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1872. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1872 WoRMS AphiaID: 522819 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/204

Bolivina robusta (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 9, Fig. 13a-c) Bulimina robusta Brady, 1881, Pl. 53, Figs. 7-9. Bolivina robusta (Brady) Barkar, 1960, Pl. 53, Figs. 7-9. Source: Barkar, 1960, Pl. 53, Figs. 7-9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38279 WoRMS AphiaID: 466349 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/205

Bolivina seminuda Cushman, 1911 (Pl. 9, Fig. 14-16) Bolivina seminuda Cushman, 1911, Pl. 34, Fig. 55. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1932. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1932 WoRMS AphiaID: 417913 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/206

Bolivina spathulata (Williamson, 1858) (Pl. 9, Fig. 17a-c) 102

Textularia variabilis Williamson var. spathulata Williamson, 1858, Pl. 6, Figs. 5-6. Bolivina spathulata (Williamson) Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 207, Fig. 5. Source: Lei and Li, 2016, Pg. 207, Fig. 5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22039 WoRMS AphiaID: 112988 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/207

Bolivina spinescens Cushman, 1911 (Pl. 9, Fig. 18a, b) Bolivina spinescens Cushman, 1911, Pl. 52, Figs. 24, 25. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1950. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1950 WoRMS AphiaID: 466350 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/208

Bolivina striatula Cushman, 1922 (Pl. 9, Fig. 19, 20a, b) Bolivina striatula Cushman, 1922, Pl. 3, Fig. 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1957. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1957 WoRMS AphiaID: 112989 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/209

Bolivina subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929 (Pl. 9, Fig. 21a, b) Bolivina subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929, Pl. 4, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1977. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1977 WoRMS AphiaID: 478808 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/210

Bolivina subspathulata Boomgaart, 1949 103

(Pl. 9, Fig. 22a-c) Bolivina subspathulata Boomgaart, 1949, Pl. 12, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 37544. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 37544 WoRMS AphiaID: 112991 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/211

Bolivina tokelauae Boersma, 1969 (Pl. 9, Fig. 23a, b) Bolivina tokelauae Boersma, 1969, Pl. 1, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 57728. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 57728 WoRMS AphiaID: 922866 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/212

Bolivina victoriana Cushman, 1936 (Pl. 10, Fig. 1a, b) Bolivina victoriana Cushman, 1936, Pl. 8, Fig. 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2029. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2029 WoRMS AphiaID: 924582 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/213

Bolivina zanzibarica Cushman, 1936 (Pl. 10, Fig. 2a, b) Bolivina zanzibarica Cushman, 1936, Pl. 8, Fig. 12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2033. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2033 WoRMS AphiaID: 849408 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/214

Bolivina cf. advena Cushman, 1925 104

(Pl. 10, Fig. 3a, b) Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925, Pl. 5, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1545. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1545 WoRMS AphiaID: 814778 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/215 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has slight curve while the type specimen is straight.

Bolivina aff. attica Parker, 1958 (Pl.10, Fig. 4a, b) Bolivina attica Parker, 1958, Pl. 2, Figs. 12-14. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 47866. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 47866 WoRMS AphiaID: 737754 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/216 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has parallel straight chambers as compared to the type specimen which has a cone shaped chamber.

Bolivina aff. glutinata Egger, 1893 (Pl. 10, Fig. 5a-c) Bolivina glutinata Egger, 1893, Pl. 8, Figs. 57-59, 62. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 73624. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 73624 WoRMS AphiaID: 466346 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/217 Remarks: The illustrated specimens’ testis low curling as compared to the type specimen.

Bolivina aff. mera Cushman and Ponton, 1932 (Pl. 10, Fig. 6a, b) Bolivina plicatella var. mera Cushman and Ponton, 1932, Pl. 12, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1867. 105

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1867 WoRMS AphiaID: 930327 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/218 Remarks: The test of illustrated specimen is bending while the type specimen is straight.

Bolivina aff. skagerrakensis Qvale and Nigam, 1985 (Pl. 10, Fig. 7a-c) Bolivina skagerrakensis Qvale and Nigam, 1985, Pl. 2, Fig. 11. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 73633. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 73633 WoRMS AphiaID: 112987 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/219

Bolivina aff. subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929 (Pl. 10, Fig. 8a, b) Bolivina subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929, Pl. 4, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1977. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1977 WoRMS AphiaID: 478808 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/220

Bolivina sp. A (Pl. 10, Fig. 9a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/221 Remarks: The specimen is similar to Bolivina striatula in form of striae in initial part of the test but differs in later part in chamber shape and size.

Bolivina sp. B (Pl. 10, Fig. 10a, b) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA 106

WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/222 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is similar to Bolivina subspathulata in the form of chamber shape and size but differs with highly twisted test and aperture type.

Bolivina sp. C (Pl. 10, Fig. 11a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/223 Remarks: The specimen is similar to Bolivina striatula in the form of straie in initial part of the test but differs in the last set of chamber with comparatively bigger shape and size, aperture with neck.

Superfamily: CASSIDULINACEA d'Orbigny, 1839 Family: CASSIDULINIDAE d'Orbigny, 1839 Subfamily: CASSIDULININAE d'Orbigny, 1839

Genus: Cassidulina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 504, Pl. 555, Figs. 1-8)

Cassidulina angulosa Cushman, 1933 (Pl. 10, Fig. 12a, b and 13a, b) Cassidulina angulosa Cushman, 1933, Pl. 10, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2724. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2724 WoRMS AphiaID: 466368 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/224

Cassidulina bradyi Norman, 1881 (Pl. 10, Fig. 14a, b) Cassidulina bradyi Norman, 1881, Pl. 54, Figs. 6-10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 38301. 107

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38301 WoRMS AphiaID: 479154 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/225

Cassidulina carinata Silvestri, 1896 (Pl. 10, Fig. 15a-c) Cassidulina laevigata d'Orbigny var. carinata Silvestri, 1896, P1.2, Fig. 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2786. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2786 WoRMS AphiaID: 183041 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/226

Cassidulina laevigata d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 10, Fig. 16a, b) Cassidulina laevigata d'Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 15, Figs. 4, 5. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2782. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2782 WoRMS AphiaID: 113077 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/227

Cassidulina aff. minuta Cushman, 1933 (Pl. 10, Fig. 17a, b) Cassidulina minuta Cushman, 1933, Pl. 10, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2803. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2803 WoRMS AphiaID: 113078 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/228

Genus: Cassidulinoides Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 504, Pl. 555, Figs. 10-13)

Cassidulionoides waltoni Uchio, 1960 (Pl. 10, Fig. 18a, b) 108

Cassidulionoides waltoni Uchio, 1960, Pl. 9, Fig. 24-27. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 166, Fig. 8, 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 53949 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/229

Genus: Globocassidulina Voloshinova, 1960 (Pg. 505, Pl. 557, Figs. 1-23)

Globocassidulina porrecta Heron-Allen and Earland, 1932 (P1. 10, Fig. 19a, b) Cassidulina crassa d’Orbigny var. porrecta Heron-Alien and Earland, 1932, Pl. 9, Figs. 34-37. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2754. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2754 WoRMS AphiaID: 526105 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/230

Globocassidulina subglobosa (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 10, Fig. 20a, b) Cassidulina subglobosa Brady, 1881, P1. 54, Fig. 17 Globocassidulina subglobosa (Brady) Belford 1966. Source: Loeblich and Tappan 1988, Pl.557, Figs. 18-23. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38308 WoRMS AphiaID: 113091 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/231

Subfamily: EHRENBERGININAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Ehrenbergina Reuss, 1850 (Pg. 508, Pl. 561, Figs. 14-16)

Ehrenbergina pacifica Cushman, 1927 (Pl. 11, Fig. 1) 109

Ehrenbergina pacifica Cushman, 1927, Pl. 2, Fig. 2. Source: Yassini and Jones, 1995, Pg. 225, Figs. 561- 563. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 6040 WoRMS AphiaID: 479149 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/232

Superfamily: TURRILINACEA Cushman, 1927 Family: STAINFORTHIIDAE Reiss, 1963

Genus: Hopkinsina Howe and Wallace, 1932 (Pg. 514, Pl. 565, Figs. 6-8)

Hopkinsina atlantica Cushman, 1944 (Pl. 11, Fig. 2a, b) Hopkinsina pacifica Cushman var. atlantica Cushman, 1944, Pl. 4, Fig. 1. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 32481. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 32481 WoRMS AphiaID: 582285 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/233

Genus: Stainforthia Hofker, 1956 (Pg. 514, Pl. 565, Figs. 9-12)

Stainforthia loeblichi (Feyling-Hanssen, 1954) (Pl. 11, Fig. 3) Virgulinaloeblichi Feyling-Hanssen, 1954, Pl. 1, Figs. 14-18. Stainforthia loeblichi (Feyling-Hanssen) Polyak et al., 2002, Pl. 2, Fig. 19. Source: Polyak et al., 2002, Pl. 2, Fig. 19. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 113071 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/234

Stainforthia sp. A (Pl. 11, Fig. 4) 110

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/235 Remarks: The specimen is similar to Stainforthia loeblichi but differs in size and comparatively smaller apertural opening.

Stainforthia sp. B (Pl. 11, Fig. 5) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/236 Remarks: The specimen has elongated test and chambers. The aperture is enclosed with phialine lip.

Superfamily: BULIMINACEA Jones, 1875 Family: SIPHOGENERINOIDIDAE Saidova, 1981 Subfamily: SIPHOGENERINOIDINAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Hopkinsinella Bermudez and Fuenmayor, 1966(Pg. 516, Pl. 567, Figs. 1-5)

Hopkinsinella glabra Millett, 1903 (Pl. 11, Fig. 6a, b) Uvigerina auberiana d’Orbigny var. glabra Millett, 1903, Pl. 5, Figs. 8, 9. Hopkinsinella glabra (Millett) Bermúdez, and Fuenmayor, 1966, pg. 508. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23035. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23035 WoRMS AphiaID: 113729 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/237

Superfamily: BULIMINACEA Jones, 1875 Family: SIPHOGENERINOIDIDAE Saidova, 1981 Subfamily: TUBUWGENERININAE Saidova, 1981 111

Genus: Bitubulogenerina Howe, 1934(Pg. 518, Pl. 569, Figs. 1, 2)

Bitubulogenerina howei Cushman, 1935 (Pl. 11, Fig. 7a, b) Bitubulogenerina howei Cushman, 1935, Pl. 3, Figs. 10-12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1525. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1525 WoRMS AphiaID: 906120 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/238

Family: BULIMINIDAE Johnes, 1875

Genus: Bulimina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 521, Pl. 571, Figs. 1-3)

Bulimina aculeata d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 11, Fig. 8-11) Bulimina aculeata d'Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 11, Fig. 128. Source: Barkar, 1960, Pl. 51, Figs. 7-9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 34563 WoRMS AphiaID: 113030 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/239

Bulimina arabiensis Bharti and Singh, 2013 (Pl. 11, Fig. 12) Bulimina arabiensis Bharti and Singh, 2013, Fig. 3. Source: Bharti and Singh, 2013, Fig. 3. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 736472 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/240

Bulimina alazanensis Cushman, 1927 112

(Pl. 11, Fig. 13) Bulimina alazanensis Cushman, 1927, Pl. 25, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2156. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2156 WoRMS AphiaID: 113032 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/241

Bulimina elegans d’Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 11, Fig. 14) Bulimina elegans d’Orbigny, 1826, Pl.2, Figs. 64. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2243. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2243 WoRMS AphiaID: 466351 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/242

Bulimina elongata d'Orbigny, 1846 (Pl. 11, Fig. 15) Bulimina elongata d'Orbigny, 1846, Pl. 11, Figs. 19, 20. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 76928. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76928 WoRMS AphiaID: 933974 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/243 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is short and broad as compared to the type specimen.

Bulimina gibba Fornasini, 1902 (Pl. 11, Fig. 16) Bulimina gibba Fornasini, 1902, Pl. O, Figs. 32, 34. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 24391. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 24391 WoRMS AphiaID: 113040 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/244

113

Bulimina marginata d’Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 11, Fig. 17) Bulimina marginata d’Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 12, Figs. 10-12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2317. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2317 WoRMS AphiaID: 113042 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/245

Bulimina marginospinata Cushman and Parker, 1938 (Pl. 11, Fig. 18) Bulimina marginospinata Cushman and Parker, 1938, Pl. 9, Fig. 11. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2322. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2322 WoRMS AphiaID: 522948 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/246

Bulimina psuedoaffinis Kleinpell, 1938 (Pl. 11, Fig. 19) Bulimina psuedoaffinis Kleinpell, 1938, Pl. 9, Fig. 9. Source: Martin, 1952, Pl. 23, Fig. 4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 25576 WoRMS AphiaID: 522948 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/247

Bulimina pupoides d'Orbigny, 1846 (Pl. 11, Fig. 20) Bulimina pupoides d'Orbigny, 1846, Pl. 11, Figs. 11, 12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 76935. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76935 WoRMS AphiaID: 113044 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/248

114

Bulimina rostratiformis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 11, Fig. 21) Bulimina rostratiformis McCulloch, 1977, Pg. 245, Pl. 104, Fig. 8. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pg. 245, Pl. 104, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 526550 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/249

Bulimina spinosa Seguenza, 1862 (Pl. 11, Fig. 22) Bulimina spinosa Seguenza, 1862, Pl. 1, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2462. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2462 WoRMS AphiaID: 709058 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/250

Bulimina striata d'Orbigny, 1843 (Pl. 11, Fig. 23) Bulimina striata d'Orbigny, 1843, Pl. 2, Fig. 16. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 24405. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 24405 WoRMS AphiaID: 113047 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/251

Bulimina aff. delreyensis Cushman and Galliher, 1934 (Pl. 11, Fig. 24) Bulimina delreyensis Cushman and Galliher, 1934, Pl. 4, Fig. 8 Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2232. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2232 WoRMS AphiaID: 900829 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/252

115

Remarks: The illustrated specimen has more number of costae as compared to the type specimen.

Family: BULIMINELLIDAE Hofker, 1951

Genus: Eubuliminella Revets, 1993 (Pl. 1, Figs. 1-7)

Eubuliminella exilis (Brady, 1884) (Pl. 11, Fig. 25) Bulimina elegans d'Orbigny var. exilis Brady, 1884, Pl. 50, Figs. 5-6. Bulimina exilis (Brady) Barkar, 1960, Pl.50, Figs. 5, 6. Eubuliminella exilis (Brady) Jones, 1994, Pl.50, Figs. 5, 6. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 50, Figs. 5, 6. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2243 WoRMS AphiaID: 466351 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/253

Genus: Globobulimina Cushman, 1927(Pg. 521, Pl. 571, Figs. 4-12 and 17-19)

Globobulimina pacifica Cushman, 1927 (Pl. 11, Fig. 26) Globobulimina pacifica Cushman, 1927, Pl. 14, Fig. 12. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 50, Figs. 7-10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 8457 WoRMS AphiaID: 417928 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/254

Family: UVIGERINIDAE Hofker, 1984 Subfamily: UVIGERININAE Haeckel, 1894

Genus: Neouvigerina Thalmann, 1952 (Pg. 524, Pl. 573, Figs. 14-17)

116

Neouvigerina ampullacea (Brady, 1884) (P1. 12, Fig. 1) Uvigerina asperula Czjzek var. ampullacea Brady, 1884, Pl. 75, Figs. 10-11. Neouvigerina ampullacea (Brady) HofIcer, 1951, Pg. 208, Figs. 135-138. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23031. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23031 WoRMS AphiaID: 417941 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/255

Neouvigerina eketahuna Vella, 1963 (P1. 12, Fig. 2) Neouvigerina eketahuna Vella, 1963, Pl. 2, Figs. 20, 21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 57436. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 57436 WoRMS AphiaID: 989896 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/256

Neouvigerina porrecta (Brady, 1879) (Pl. 12, Fig. 3-5) Uvigerina porrecta Brady, 1879, Pg. 274, Pl. 8, Figs. 15, 16. Neouvigerina porrecta (Brady) Hofker, 1951, Pg. 213, Figs. 140-142. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23214. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23214 WoRMS AphiaID: 490045 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/257

Genus: Uvigerina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 525, Pl. 573, Fig. 21-28)

Uvigerina akitaensis Asano, 1950 (Pl. 12, Fig. 6) Uvigerina akitaensis Asano, 1950, Pl. 14, Figs. 60-62. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 39654. 117

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 39654 WoRMS AphiaID: 580072 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/258

Uvigerina auberiana d'Orbigny, 1839 (P1. 12, Fig. 7) Uvigerina auberiana d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 2, Fig. 24. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23033. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23033 WoRMS AphiaID: 113763 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/259

Uvigerina barbatula Macfadyen, 1930 (P1. 12, Fig. 8) Uvigerina barbatula Macfadyen, 1930, Pl. 3, Fig. 26. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23040. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23040 WoRMS AphiaID: 896358 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/260

Uvigerina canariensis d'Orbigny, 1839 (Pl. 12, Fig. 9) Uvigerina canariensis d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 1, Fig. 25-27. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23067. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23067 WoRMS AphiaID: 113766 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/261

Uvigerina dirupta Todd, 1948 (Pl. 12, Fig. 10) Uvigerina peregrina var. dirupta Todd, 1948, Pl. 34, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 35286. 118

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 35286 WoRMS AphiaID: 528577 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/262

Uvigerina finisterrensis Colom, 1952 (P1. 12, Fig. 11) Uvigerina finisterrensis Colom, 1952, Pl. 4, Figs. 1, 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 42453. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 42453 WoRMS AphiaID: 903201 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/263

Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932 (P1. 12, Fig.12) Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932, Pl. 119, Fig. 32. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 29802. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 29802 WoRMS AphiaID: 113772 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/264

Uvigerina multicostata Leroy, 1939 (Pl. 12, Fig. 13) Uvigerina multicostata Leroy, 1939, Pl. 2, Figs. 4, 5; Pl. 7, Figs. 3-5. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 31290. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 31290 WoRMS AphiaID: 911902 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/265

Uvigerina peregrina Cushman, 1923 (Pl. 12, Fig. 14) Uvigerina peregrina Cushman, 1923, Pl. 42, Figs. 7-10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23190. 119

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23190 WoRMS AphiaID: 113773 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/266

Uvigerina proboscidea Schwager, 1866 (Pl. 12, Fig. 15) Uvigerina proboscidea Schwager, 1866, Pl. 7, Fig. 96. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23218. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23218 WoRMS AphiaID: 113775 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/267

Uvigerina subproboscidea Haque, 1956 (Pl. 12, Fig. 16) Uvigerina subproboscidea Haque, 1956, Pl. 27, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 46988. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 46988 WoRMS AphiaID: 921639 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/268

Uvigerina cf. asperula Czjzek, 1848 (P1. 12, Fig. 17) Uvigerina asperula Czjzek 1848, Pl. 13, Fig. 14, 15. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23028. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23028 WoRMS AphiaID: 525673 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/269 Remarks: The specimen is smaller in size than type specimen.

Uvigerina aff. longa Cushman and Bermúdez, 1937 (Pl. 12, Fig. 18) Uvigerina longa Cushman and Bermúdez, 1937, Pl. 16, Figs. 5, 6. 120

Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23159. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23159 WoRMS AphiaID: 909633 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/270 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has relatively less prominent costae.

Uvigerina aff. mediterranea Hofker, 1932 (P1.12, Fig. 19) Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932, Pl. 119, Fig. 32. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 29802. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 29802 WoRMS AphiaID: 113772 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/271 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is shorter as compared to the type specimen.

Uvigerina sp. A (Pl. 12, Fig. 20) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/272 Remarks: The specimen is short, broad and having ornamentation in hispid form. It also lacks in peripheral neck keel.

Uvigerina sp. B (Pl. 12, Fig. 21) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/273 Remark: The last chamber of the specimen is uniserial.

Subfamily: ANGULOGERININAE Galloway, 1933

121

Genus: Angulogerina Cushman, 1927 (Pg. 525, Pl. 574, Figs. 5-9)

Angulogerina picta Todd, 1948 (Pl. 12, Fig. 22) Angulogerina hughesi (Galloway and Wissler) var. picta Todd, 1948, Pl. 36, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 34563. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 34563 WoRMS AphiaID: 528576 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/274

Family: REUSSELLIDAE Cushman, 1933

Genus: Reussella Galloway, 1933 (Pg. 527, Pl. 575, Figs. 9-12)

Reussella aequa Cushman and McCulloch, 1948 (Pl. 12, Fig. 23, 24) Reussella aequa Cushman and McCulloch, 1948, Pl. 31, Fig. 7. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 35157. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 35157 WoRMS AphiaID: 490048 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/275

Reussella lavelaensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 12, Fig. 25) Reussella lavelaensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 46, Figs. 3-5. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 46, Figs. 3-5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762922 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/276

Reussella sp. (Pl. 12, Fig. 26) 122

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/277 Remarks: The specimen has very large aperture with last two enlarged chambers.

Superfamily: FURSENKOINACEA Loeblich and Tappan, 1961 Family: FURSENKOINIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1961

Genus: Cassidella Hofker, 1951 (Pg. 530, Pl. 578, Figs. 26, 27)

Cassidella pacifica Hofker, 1951 (Pl. 12, Fig. 27) Cassidella pacifica Hofker, 1951, Pl. 263, Fig. 174. Source: Barkar, 1960, Pl.52, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 41853 WoRMS AphiaID: 913942 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/278

Genus: Fursenkoina Loeblich and Tappan, 1961 (Pg. 530, Pl. 578, Figs. 15-25)

Fursenkoina carinata (Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915) (Pl. 12, Fig. 28) Virgulina schreibersiana var. carinata Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915, Pl. 49, Figs. 13- 17. Fursenkoina carinata (Heron-Allen and Earland) Loeblich and Tappan, 1961, Pl. 578, Figs. 15-25. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23992. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23992 WoRMS AphiaID: 526063 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/279

Fursenkoina cornuta (Cushman, 1913) 123

(Pl. 12, Fig. 29) Vergulina cornuta Cushman, 1913, Pl. 2, Fig. 24. Fursenkoina cornuta (Cushman) Matoba, 1982, Pl. 2, Fig. 8. Source: Matoba, 1982, Pl. 2, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23926 WoRMS AphiaID: 862715 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/280

Fursenkoina obliqua Saidova, 1975 (Pl. 12, Fig. 30) Fursenkoina obliqua Saidova, 1975, Pl. 87, Fig. 13. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 80524. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 80524 WoRMS AphiaID: 521840 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/281

Fursenkoina pontoni (Cushman, 1932) (Pl. 12, Fig. 31) Virgulina pontoni Cushman, 1932, Pl. 3, Fig. 7. Fursenkoina pontoni (Cushman) Loeblich and Tappan, 1961, Pl. 578, Figs. 15-25. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 23976. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 23976 WoRMS AphiaID: 522805 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/282

Genus: Rutherfordoides McCulloch, 1981 (Pg. 531, Pl. 578, Figs. 7-12)

Rutherfordoides rotundiformis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 12, Fig. 32) Rutherfordoides rotundiformis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 105, Figs. 6-10. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 105, Figs. 6-10. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA 124

WoRMS AphiaID: 763572 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/283

Genus: Sigmavirgulina Loeblich and Tappan, 1957 (Pg. 531, Pl. 579, Figs. 1-5)

Sigmavirgulina tortuosa (Brady, 1881) (Pl. 12, Fig. 33a-c) Bolivina tortuosa Brady, 1881 Pl. 52, Figs. 31-34. Sigmavirgulina tortuosa (Brady) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 579, Figs. 1-5. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 579, Figs. 1-5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38295 WoRMS AphiaID: 113392 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/284

Superfamily: STIWSTOMELLACEA Finlay, 1947 Family: STILOSTOMELLIDAE Finlay, 1947

Genus: Orthomorphina Stainforth, 1952 (Pg. 539, Pl. 440, Figs., 17, 18)

Orthomorphina aff. parvula Todd, 1966 (Pl. 12, Fig. 34) Orthomorphina parvula Todd, 1966, Pl. 12, Fig. 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 64398. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 64398 WoRMS AphiaID: 914570 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/285 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has a comparatively long neck with less number of chambers than type specimen.

Superfamily: DISCORBACEA Ehrenberg, 1838 Family: BAGGINIDAE Cushman, 1927 Subfamily: BAGGINIDAE Cushman, 1927 125

Genus: Baggina Cushman, 1926 (Pg. 545, P1.591, Figs. 5-7)

Baggina californica Cushman, 1926 (Pl. 12, Fig. 35a, b) Baggina californica Cushman, 1926, Pl. 9, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 1190. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 1190 WoRMS AphiaID: 761525 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/286

Baggina diversa McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 12, Fig. 36) Baggina diversa McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 51, Fig. 12, 13. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 51, Fig. 12, 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763097 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/287

Genus: Cancris de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 545, Pl. 591, Figs. 1-4)

Cancris auriculus (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) (Pl. 12, Fig. 37a-c) Nautilus auricula Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Pl. 26, Figs. 3-8. Cancris auriculus (Fichtel and Moll) Cushman, 1927, Pg. 164, Pl. 5, Fig. 10. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 74021. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74021 WoRMS AphiaID: 582554 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/288

Cancris sagra (d'Orbigny, 1839) (Pl. 13, Fig. 1a-c) 126

Rotalina sagra d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 5, Figs. 13-15. Cancris sagra (d'Orbigny) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 591, Fig. 4. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 591, Fig. 4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19899 WoRMS AphiaID: 418011 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/289

Cancris cf. penangensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 13, Fig. 2a, b) Cancris penangensis McCulloch, 1977, Pg. 344, Pl. 135, Fig. 11. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pg. 344, Pl. 135, Fig. 110. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763875 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/290

Cancris sp. (Pl. 13, Fig. 3a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/291 Remarks: The specimen is relatively shorter than other Cancris species.

Genus: Valvulineria Cushman, 1926(Pg. 547, Pl. 593, Figs. 12-17)

Valvulineria glabra Cushman, 1927 (Pl. 13, Fig. 4a, b) Valvulineria glabra Cushman, 1927, Pl.6, Fig.4. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pg. 344, Pl. 134, Fig. 4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 418014 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/292

127

Valvulineria hamanakoensis (Ishiwada, 1958) (Pl. 13, Fig. 5) Anomalina hamanakoensis Ishiwada, 1958, Pl. 1, Figs. 24-27. Valvulineria hamanakoensis (Ishiwada) Matoba, 1970, Pl. 4, Figs. 12, 13. Source: Matoba, 1970, Pl. 4, Figs. 12, 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 62250 WoRMS AphiaID: 816026 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/293

Valvulineria minuta Parker, 1954 (Pl. 13, Fig. 6) Valvulineria minuta Parker, 1954, Pl. 9, Fig. 4-6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 43951. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 43951 WoRMS AphiaID: 911325 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/294

Family: EPONIDIDAE Hofker, 1951 Subfamily: EPONIDINAE Hofker, 1951

Genus: Eponides de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 549, Pl. 594, Figs. 1-13)

Eponides umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) (P1. 13, Fig. 7a, b) Rotalina umbonata Reuss, 1851, Pg. 75 Pl. 5 Fig. 35. Eponides umbonatus (Reuss) Barker, 1960, Pl. 105, Fig. 2. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 105, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 113361 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/295

Genus: Ioanella Saidova, 1975(Pg. 549, Pl. 595, Figs. 4-10) 128

Ioanella aff. tumidula (Brady, 1884) (Pl. 13, Fig. 8a, b) Truncatulina tumidula Brady, 1884, Pl. 95, Fig. 8. Eponides tumidulus (Brady) Barker, 1960, Pl. 95, Fig. 8. Ioanella aff. tumidula (Brady) Jones, 1994, Pl. 95, Fig. 8. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 95, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22920 WoRMS AphiaID: 113363 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/296 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is larger in size than type specimen.

Family: MISSISSIPPINIDAE Saidova, 1981 Subfamily: MISSISSIPPININAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Mississippina Howe, 1930 (Pg. 554, Pl. 600, Figs. 7-9)

Mississippina symmetrica McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 13, Fig. 9a, b) Mississippina symmetrica McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 149, Fig. 11. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 149, Fig. 11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 764005 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/297

Family: DISCORBIDAE Ehrenberg, 1838

Genus: Rotorbinella Bandy, 1944 (Pl.61, Fig. 6)

Rotorbinella bikinensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 13, Fig. 10a-c) 129

Rotorbinella bikinensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 115, Figs. 14-15. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 115, Figs. 14-15. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763916 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/298

Family: ROSALINIDAE Reiss, 1963

Genus: Neoconorbina Hofker, 1951 (Pg. 560, Pl. 609, Figs. 8-10)

Neoconorbina terquemi (Rzehak, 1888) (Pl. 13, Fig. 11a-c) Discorbina terquemi Rzehak, 1888, Pl. 19, Fig. 4. Neoconorbina terquemi (Rzehak) Barker, 1960, Pl. 88, Figs. 4-8. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 88, Figs. 4-8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 30651 WoRMS AphiaID: 113697 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/299

Genus: Rosalina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 561, Pl. 610, Figs. 1-5; P1. 611, Figs. 1-6)

Rosalina columbiensis (Cushman, 1925) (Pl. 13, Fig. 12a-c) Discorbis columbiensis Cushman, 1925, Pg. 38-47. Rosalina columbiensis (Cushman) Lankford, 1973, Pl. 5, Figs. 10-12. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 59055. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 59055 WoRMS AphiaID: 418031 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/300

Rosalina globularis d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pl. 13, Fig. 13a, b) 130

Rosalina globularis d'Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 13, Figs. 1-4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 19172. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19172 WoRMS AphiaID: 113171 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/301

Rosalina leei Hedley and Wakefield, 1967 (Pl. 13, Fig. 14a, b) Rosalina leei Hedley and Wakefield, 1967, Pl. 4 Fig. 6-7. Source: Nigam at al., 2000. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 582671 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/302

Superfamily: DISCORBINELLACEA Sigal, 1952 Family: PARRELLOIDIDAE Hofker, 1956

Genus: Cibicidoides Thalmann, 1939 (Pg. 572, Pl. 626, Figs. 1-3)

Cibicidoides bradii Tolmachoff, 1934 (Pl. 13, Fig.15a-c) Cibicidoides bradii Tolmachoff, 1934, Pl. 41, Figs. 32-34. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 16408. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 16408 WoRMS AphiaID: 183063 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/304

Cibicidoides globulosa (Chapman and Parr, 1937) (P1.13, Fig. 16) Anomalina globulosa Chapman and Parr, 1937, Pl. 9, Fig. 27. Cibicidoides globulosa (Chapman and Parr) Jones, 1994, Pl. 94, Figs. 4, 5. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 94, Figs. 4, 5. 131

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 676 WoRMS AphiaID: 112867 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/303

Cibicidoides mundula (Brady, Parker and Jones, 1888) (Pl.14, Fig. 1a, b) Truncatulina mundula Brady, Parker and Jones, 1888, Pl. 45, Fig. 25. Cibicidoides mundula (Brady, Parker and Jones) Loeblich and Tappan, 1955, Pl. 4, Fig. 4. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1955, Pl. 4, Fig. 4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 44086 WoRMS AphiaID: 418067 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/305

Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (Schwager, 1866) (P1. 14, Fig. 2a-c) Anomalina wuellerstorfi Schwager, 1866, Pl. 7, Figs. 105, 107. Truncatulina wuellerstorfi (Schwager) Brady, 1884, Pl. 93, Figs. 8, 9. Planulina wuellerstorfi (Schwager) Phleger, Parker and Peirson, 1953, Pl. 11, Figs. 1, 2. Cibicides wuellerstorfi (Schwager) Srinivasan and Sharma, 1980, Pl. 8, Figs. 11-13. Fontbotia wuellerstorfi (Schwager) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 634, Figs. 10-12. Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (Schwager) Jones, 1994, Pl. 93, Fig. 9. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 93, Fig. 9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 771 WoRMS AphiaID: 113117 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/306

Genus: Parrelloides Hofker, 1956(Pg. 573, Pl. 625, Figs. 1-7)

Parrelloides sp. (Pl. 14, Fig. 3a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA 132

WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/307 Remarks: The illustrated specimen has translucent test. In lateral view, it is thinner.

Family: PSEUDOPARRELLIDAE Voloshinova, 1952 Subfamily: PSEUDOPARRELLINAE Voloshinova, 1952

Genus: Epistominella Hussezima and Maruhasi, 1944 (Pg. 574, P1. 627, Figs. 1-6)

Epistominella exigua (Brady, 1884) (P1. 14, Fig. 4a, b) Pulvinulina exigua Brady, 1884, Pl. 103, Figs. 13, 14. Epistominella exigua (Brady) Barker, 1960, Pl. 107, Figs. 13, 14. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 107, Figs. 13, 14. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17913 WoRMS AphiaID: 113334 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/308

Epistominella pulchella Husezima and Maruhasi, 1944 (Pl. 14, Fig. 5a, b) Epistominella pulchella Husezima and Maruhasi, 1944, Pl. 34, Fig. 10 Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 39933. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 39933 WoRMS AphiaID: 761687 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/309

Epistominella umbonifera Cushman, 1933 (P1. 14, Fig. 6a-c) Pulvinulina umbonifera Cushman, 1933, Pl. 9, Fig. 9. Epistominella umbonifera (Cushman) Saraswat, 2006, Pl. 20, Fig. 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 18042. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 18042 133

WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/310

Epistominella sp. (P1. 14, Fig. 7a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/311 Remarks: Our specimen is concavo-convex in lateral view with comparatively large last chamber.

Family: DISCORBINELLIDAE Sigal, 1952 Subfamily: DISCORBINELLINAE Sigal, 1952

Genus: Laticarinina Galloway and Wissler, 1927 (Pg. 578, Pl. 631, Figs. 1-13)

Laticarinina pauperata (Parker and Jones, 1865) (Pl. 14, Fig. 8a, b) Pulvinulina repanda var. menardii pauperata Parker and Jones, 1865, Pg. 145. Laticarinina pauperata (Parker and Jones) Leoblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 631, Figs. 1-4. Source: Leoblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 631, Figs. 1-4. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17985 WoRMS AphiaID: 113162 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/312

Superfamily: PLANORBULINACEA Schwager, 1877 Family: PLANULINIDAE Bermudez, 1951

Genus: Crespinella Parr, 1942 (Pg. 579, Pl. 632, Figs. 9-13)

Crespinella umbonifera (Howchin and Parr, 1938) (Pl. 14, Fig. 9a-c) 134

Operculina? umbonifera Howchin and Parr, 1938, Pl. 18, Figs. 3, 4. Crespinella umbonifera (Howchin and Parr) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 632, Figs. 9- 13. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 632, Figs. 9-13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 26913 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/313

Genus: Hyalinea Hofker, 1951 (Pg. 580, Pl. 632, Figs. 5-8)

Hyalinea balthica (Schroeter, 1783) (Pl. 14, Fig. 10a, b) Nautilus balthicus Schroeter, 1783, Pl. 1, Fig. 2. Anomalina balthica (Schroeter) Cushman, 1931, Pg. 108, Pl. 19, Fig. 3. Hyalinea balthica (Schroeter) Hofker, 1951, Pg. 508, Figs. 346-348. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 37878. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 37878 WoRMS AphiaID: 113636 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/314

Genus: Planulina d'Orbigny, 1826(Pg. 580, Pl. 633, Figs. 1-4)

Planulina foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 15, Fig. 1a-c) Planulina foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 69, Figs. 11-12. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 69, Figs. 11-12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762853 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/315

Planulina ornata (d'Orbigny, 1839) (Pl. 15, Fig. 2a-c) 135

Truncatulina ornata d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 6 Figs. 7-9. Planulina ornata (d'Orbigny) lamkford and Phleger, 1973, Pl. 6, Fig. 21. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 22859. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22859 WoRMS AphiaID: 418080 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/316

Family: CIBICIDIDAE Cushman, 1927 Subfamily: CIBICIDINAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Cibicides de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 582, Pl. 634, Figs. 1-3)

Cibicides pokuticus Afzenshtat, 1954 (Pl. 15, Fig. 3a-c) Cibicides pokuticus Afzenshtat, 1954, Pl. 24, Fig. 3. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 50941. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 50941 WoRMS AphiaID: 915696 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/317

Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808 (Pl. 15, Fig.4a-c) Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808, Pl. 122. Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 3044. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 3044 WoRMS AphiaID: 112877 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/318

Genus: Montfortella Loeblich and Tappan, 1963 (Pg. 583, Pl. 636, Figs. 1-6; Pl. 637, Figs. 1-9)

Montfortella sp. 136

(Pl. 15, Fig. 5a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/319 Remarks: The specimen has trochospiral test, umbilical side convex and involute, chambers having umbilical flap.

Subfamily: STICHOCIBICIDINAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Pyropiloides Zheng, 1979(Pg. 585, Pl. 640, Figs. 8-11)

Pyropiloides elongatus Zheng, 1979 (Pl. 15, Fig. 6a-c) Pyropiloides elongatus Zheng, 1979, Pl. 24, Figs. 4, 5. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 689, Figs. 8-17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 72260 WoRMS AphiaID: 527077 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/320

Superfamily: ASTERIGERINACEA d'Orbigny, 1839 Family: EPISTOMARIIDAE Hofker, 1954 Subfamily: EPISTOMORIINAE Hofker, 1954

Genus: Pseudoeponides Uchio, 1950 (Pg. 602, Pl. 667, Figs. 10-12)

Psuedoeponides equatoriana (Leroy, 1941) (Pl. 15, Fig. 7a, b) Rotalia equatoriana Leroy, 1941, Pl. 1, Figs. 8-10. Psuedoeponides equatoriana (Leroy) Bhatia and Kumar, 1976, Pl. 2, Fig. 8. Source: Bhatia and Kumar, 1976, Pl. 2, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 31171 WoRMS AphiaID: NA 137

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/321

Family: AMPHISTEGINIDAE Cushman, 1927

Genus: Amphistegina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 609, P1. 677, Figs. 1-8)

Amphistegina gibbosa d'Orbigny, 1839 (P1. 15, Fig. 8a-c) Amphistegina gibbosa d'Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 8, Figs. 1-3 Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 506. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 506 WoRMS AphiaID: 112863 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/322

Superfamily: NONIONACEA Schultze, 1854 Family: NONIONIDAE Schultze, 1854 Subfamily: NONIONINAE Schultze, 1854

Genus: Nonion de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 617, Pl. 690, Figs. 1-7; P1. 691, Figs. 1- 7 and 14-16)

Nonion glabrella Cushman, 1930 (Pl. 15, Fig. 9a-c) Nonion glabrella Cushman, 1930, Pl. 6, Fig. 6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 13968. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 13968 WoRMS AphiaID: 522752 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/323

Nonion granosum (d'Orbigny, 1846) (Pl. 15, Fig. 10a, b) Nonionina granosa d'Orbigny, 1846, Pg. 110 Pl. 5, Fig. 19-20. 138

Nonion granosum (d'Orbigny) Cushman, 1939, Pl. 2, Fig. 17. Source: Cushman, 1939, Pl. 2, Fig. 17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 113589 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/324

Genus: Nonionella Cushman, 1926 (Pg. 617, Pl. 689, Figs. 5-7 and 18-21)

Nonionella limbato-striata Cushman, 1931 (Pl. 15, Fig. 11a-c) Nonionella limbato-striata Cushman, 1931, Pl. 4, Fig. 8. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 14046. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 14046 WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/325

Nonionella simplex McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 16, Fig. 1a, b) Nonionella simplex McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 160, Figs. 12, 14. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 160, Figs. 12, 14. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763977 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/326

Nonionella subchiliensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 16, Fig. 2a-c) Nonionella subchiliensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 39, Figs. 11, 12. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 39, Figs. 11, 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 762853 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/327

139

Genus: Nonionellina Voloshinova, 1958 (Pg. 617, Pl. 689, Figs. 8-17)

Nonionellina labradorica (Dawson, 1860) (Pl. 16, Fig. 3a-c) Nonionina labradorica Dawson, 1860, Pl. 192, Fig. 4 Nonionellina labradorica (Dawson) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 689, Figs. 8-17. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 689, Figs. 8-17. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 14167 WoRMS AphiaID: 113606 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/328

Subfamily: PULLENIINAE Schwager, 1877

Genus: Melonis de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 621, Pl. 696, Figs. 5-8)

Melonis affinis (Reuss, 1851) (Pl. 16, Fig. 4a-c) Nonionina affinis Reuss, 1851, Pl.5, Fig. 32. Melonis affinis (Reuss) Jones, 1994, Pl.109, Figs. 8-9. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl.109, Figs. 8-9. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 14069 WoRMS AphiaID: 418046 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/329

Melonis chathamensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 16, Fig. 5a-c) Melonis cf. chathamensis McCulloch, 1977, Pl.180, Fig. 5. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl.180, Fig. 5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74076 WoRMS AphiaID: 764134 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/330

140

Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) (Pl. 16, Fig. 6a-c) Nautilus pompilioides Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Pl. 2, Fig. 3. Nonionina pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll) d’Orbigny, 1826, Pg. 294. Nonion pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll) Cushman, 1929, Pg. 89, P1. 113, Fig. 25. Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll) Khare, 1992, Pg. 171, Pl. 16, Fig. 1. Source: Khare, 1992, Pg. 171, Pl. 16, Fig. 1. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 74076 WoRMS AphiaID: 113564 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/331

Melonis sp. (Pl. 16, Fig. 7a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/332 Remarks: The specimen has an undulating periphery and is low trochospirally coiled with concavo-convex form.

Genus: Pullenia Parker and Johnes, 1862 (Pg. 621, Pl. 696, Figs. 3, 4)

Pullenia bulloides (d’Orbigny, 1846) (Pl. 16, Fig. 8a-c) Nonionina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1846, Pg. 107, Pl. 5, Fig. 9-10. Pullenia bulloides (d’Orbigny) Parker and Jones, 1862, Pg. 184. Source: Barker, 1960, Pl. 84, Figs. 12, 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 76565 WoRMS AphiaID: 113110 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/333

Pullenia salisburyi Stewart and Stewart, 1930 (Pl. 16, Fig. 9a-c) 141

Pullenia salisburyi Stewart and Stewart, 1930 Pl. 8, Fig. 2. Source: Yassini and Jones, 1995, Pg. 249, Figs. 936-939. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 17870 WoRMS AphiaID: 113113 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/334

Pullenia sp. (Pl. 16, Fig. 10a-c) Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: NA Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/335 Remarks: The specimen is smaller and having only four chambers in the final whorl and apertural part is not intact hence, kept as species.

Superfamily: CHILOSTOMELLACEA Brady, 1881 Family: CHILOSTOMELLIDAE Brady, 1881 Subfamily: CHILOSTOMELLINAE Brady, 1881

Genus: Allomorphina Reuss, 1849 (Pg. 624, Pl. 710, Figs. 1-3)

Allomorphina pacifica Hofker, 1951 (Pl. 17, Fig. 1a-c) Allomorphina pacifica Hofker, 1951, P1.139, Fig. 86. Source: Barker, 1960, P1.54, Figs. 24-26. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 41032 WoRMS AphiaID: 417997 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/336

Family: OSANGULARIIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1964

Genus: Osangularia Brotzen, 1940 (Pg. 630, Pl. 707, Figs. 13-19)

142

Osangularia bengalensis (Schwager, 1866) (Pl. 17, Fig. 2a-c) Anomalina bengalensis Schwager, 1866, Pl. 7 Fig. 111. Osangularia bengalensis (Schwager) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 708, Figs. 1-5. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 708, Figs. 1-5. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 628 WoRMS AphiaID: 466406 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/337

Family: ORIDORSALIDAE Loeblich and Tappan, 1984

Genus: Oridorsalis Anderson, 1961 (Pg. 630, P1. 708, Figs. 6-11)

Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) (Pl. 17, Fig. 3a-c) Rotalina umbonata Reuss, 1851, P1. 5, Fig. 35. Truncatulina tenera (Reuss) Brady, 1884, Pl. 95, Fig. 11. Eponides umbonatus (Reuss) Thalmann, 1932. Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss) Hermelin, 1989. Source: Jones, 1994, Pl. 95, P1. 11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19939 WoRMS AphiaID: 254690 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/338

Family: GAVELINELLIDAE Hoflcer, 1956 Subfamily: GYROIDINOIDINAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Gyroidinoides Brotzen, 1942 (Pg.633, Pl. 713, Figs. 7-9)

Gyroidinoides soldanii (d'Orbigny, 1826) (Pl. 17, Fig. 4a-c) Gyroidina soldanii d'Orbigny, 1826, Pl. 8, Figs. 10-12. 143

Gyroidinoides soldanii (d'Orbigny) Brotzen, 1942, Pg. 1-60. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 9058. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 9058 WoRMS AphiaID: 113416 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/339

Genus: Rotaliatinopsis Banner and Blow, 1967 (Pg. 634, P1. 714, Figs. 7-11)

Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta (Germeraad, 1946) (Pl. 17, Fig. 5a, b) Pulleniatina semiinvoluta Germeraad, 1946, Pg. 7-135. Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta (Germeraad) Banner and Blow, 1967, Pl. 4, Figs. 6-8. Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta (Germeraad) Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 714, Figs. 7- 11. Source: Loeblich and Tappan, 1988, Pl. 714, Figs. 7-11. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 56784 WoRMS AphiaID: 527099 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/340

Subfamily: GAVELINELLINAE Hofker, 1956

Genus: Gyroidina d'Orbigny, 1826 (Pg. 638, Pl. 716, Figs. 8-18)

Gyroidina io Resig, 1958 (Pl. 17, Fig. 6a-c) Gyroidina io Resig, 1958, P1. 304, Fig. 15. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 47407. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 47407 WoRMS AphiaID: 763951 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/341

Gyroidina quinqueloba Uchio, 1960 144

(Pl. 17, Fig. 7a-c) Gyroidina quinqueloba Uchio, 1960, P1. 8, Figs. 22-25. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 54104. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 54104 WoRMS AphiaID: 522139 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/342

Gyroidina pilasensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 17, Fig. 8a-c) Gyroidina pilasensis McCulloch, 1977, P1. 140, Figs. 1, 2. Source: McCulloch, 1977, P1. 140, Figs. 1, 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763953 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/343

Gyroidina tenera (Brady, 1884) (Pl.17, Fig. 9a-c) Truncatulina tenera Brady, 1884, P1. 95, Fig. 11. Gyroidina tenera (Brady) McCulloch, 1977, P1. 141, Fig. 13. Source: McCulloch, 1977, P1. 141, Fig. 13. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22902 WoRMS AphiaID: 522417 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/344

Gyroidina cf. guadalupensis McCulloch, 1977 (Pl. 17, Fig. 10a, b) Gyroidina (?) guadalupensis McCulloch, 1977, P1. 140, Figs. 8, 12. Source: McCulloch, 1977, P1. 140, Figs. 8, 12. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763950 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/345 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is much smaller in size. 145

Genus: Hanzawaia Asanu, 1944 (Pg. 639, Pl. 719, Fig. 1-4)

Hanzawaia concentrica (Cushman, 1918) (Pl. 17, Fig. 11a-c) Truncatulina concentrica Cushman, 1918, Pl. 21, Fig. 3. Cibicides concentricus (Cushman) Phleger and Parker, 1951, Pl. 15, Figs. 14, 15 Hanzawaia concentrica (Cushman) Smith, 1964, Pl. 6, Fig. 2. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 22756. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 22756 WoRMS AphiaID: 113186 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/346

Hanzawaia aff. strattoniformis McCulloch, 1981 (Pl. 17, Fig. 12a-c) Hanzawaia strattoniformis McCulloch, 1981, Pl.71, Fig. 2. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl.71, Fig. 2. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763213 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/347 Remarks: The illustrated specimen is plano-convex.

Family: TRICHOHYALIDAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Buccella Anderson, 1952 (Pg. 644, Pl. 726, Figs. 11-16)

Buccella differens McCulloch, 1981 (P1. 18, Fig. 1a-c) Buccella differens McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 58, Fig. 8. Source: McCulloch, 1981, Pl. 58, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 763142 146

Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/348

Buccella tenerrima (Bandy, 1950) (P1. 18, Fig. 2a-c) Rotalia tenerrima Bandy, 1950, Pl. 42, Fig. 3. Buccella cf. tenerrima (Bandy) McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 143, Fig. 8. Source: McCulloch, 1977, Pl. 143, Fig. 8. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 38102 WoRMS AphiaID: 113139 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/349

Superfamily: ROTALIACEA Ahrenberg, 1839 Family: ROTALIIDAE Ahrenberg, 1839 Subfamily: PARAROTALIINAE Reiss, 1963

Genus: Pararotalia Le Calvez, 1949 (Pg. 659, Pl. 755, Figs. 15-21)

Pararotalia calcar (d’Orbigny, 1826) (Pl. 18, Fig. 3a, b) Calcarina calcar d'Orbigny, 1826 in Parker, Jones and Brady 1865, Pl. 3, Fig. 87; d’Orbigny, 1839, Pl. 5, Figs. 22-24. Pararotalia calcar (d'Orbigny) Brady, 1884, Pg. 709, Pl. 108, Figs. 3, 4. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 2593. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 2593 WoRMS AphiaID: 582375 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/350

Pararotalia minuta (Takayanagi, 1955) (Pl. 18, Fig. 4a-c) Rotalia minuta Takayanagi, 1955, Pg. 18-52, Pls. 1-2 Pararotalia minuta (Takayanagi) Matoba, 1970, Pl. 6, Fig. 7. Source: Matoba, 1970, Pl. 6, Fig. 7. 147

Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: NA WoRMS AphiaID: 814833 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/351

Subfamily: AMMONIINAE Saidova, 1981

Genus: Ammonia Brunnich, 1772 (Pg. 664, Pl. 767, Figs. 1-10)

Ammonia sobrina (Shupack, 1934) (Pl. 18, Fig. 5a-c) Rotalia beccari (Linne) var. sobrina Schupack, 1934, Pg. 9, Fig. 4. Ammonia sobrina (Schupack) Seibold, 1971, Pg. 46, Pl. 6, Figs. 4-6. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 19330. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19330 WoRMS AphiaID: 595893 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/352

Genus: Rotalidium Asano, 1936 (Pg. 667, P1. 771, Fig. 7-9; Pl. 772, Figs. 1-7)

Rotalidium annectens (Parker and Jones, 1865) (Pl. 18, Fig. 6a-c) Rotalia beccari (Linne) var. annectens Parker and Jones, 1865, P1. 19, Fig. 11. Streblus annectens (Parker and Jones) Ishizaki, 1940, Pg. 58, Pl. 3, Figs. 12, 13. Ammonia annectens (Parker and Jones) Huang, 1964, Pg. 50-52, Pl. 2, Fig. 3, P1. 3, Figs. 1, 2. Cavarotalia annectens (Parker and Jones) Muller-Merz, 1980, Pg. 36. Rotalidium annectens (Parker and Jones) Khare, 1992, Pg. 181-182, P1. 17, Fig. 51. Source: Khare, 1992, Pg. 181-182, P1. 17, Fig. 51. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 19314 WoRMS AphiaID: 850050 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/353

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Family: ELPHIDIIDAE Galloway, 1933 Subfamily: ELPHIDIINAE Galloway, 1933

Genus: Elphidium de Montfort, 1808 (Pg. 674, Pl. 786, Figs. 6-9; Pl. 787, Figs. 1-7; P1. 788, Figs. 1-13; Pl. 789, Figs. 1-7, 12 and 13)

Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus, 1758) (Pl. 18, Fig. 7a, b) Nautilus crispus Linnaeus, 1758, Pl. 1, Fig. 2. Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus) Cushman and Grant, 1927, Pg. 73. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 12581. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 12581 WoRMS AphiaID: 113262 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/354

Superfamily: NUMMULITACEA de Blainville, 1827 Family: NUMMULITIDAE de Blainville, 1827

Genus: Operculina d’orengny, 1826 (Pg. 686, Pl. 812, Figs. 4-8; P1. 813, Figs. 1, 2, 4-8) Operculina inaequilateralis Sidebottom, 1918 (Pl. 18, Fig. 8a-c) Operculina inaequilateralis Sidebottom, 1918, Pl. 6, Figs. 30-34. Source: Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue, Figure 15053. Ellis and Messina Foraminifera Catalogue No.: 15053 WoRMS AphiaID: 906470 Repository Ref. No.: NIO/Micropal/SSD004/355

Note: The publications cited in the systematic taxonomy section are not mentioned in the references. Please refer to the treatise (Loeblich and Tappan, 1988) for most of the references.

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All the ethanol rose-Bengal stained specimens (5562 Nos.) picked from surface samples were identified up to species level. The species abundance (per gram sediment) was calculated for each sample. The top two centimeter sections were considered to calculate the absolute and relative abundance, as it contains a majority of the living benthic foraminifera (Singh et al., 2018). The species abundance was compared with the ambient ecological parameters to identify the principal factor which controls the abundance of benthic foraminifera in the study area. The details are discussed in the next chapter.

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Chapter 5 Ecological Preferences of Foraminifera

5.1 Introduction Foraminifera are a hugely successful group of predominantly marine, single-celled microorganisms (Saraswat and Nigam, 2013). Because of their excellent fossil record and sensitivity to environmental conditions, foraminifera have been extensively used in paleoceanographic studies. Application of foraminifera in paleoecology requires a good understanding of the influence of different ambient parameters on foraminifera. Benthic foraminifera are influenced by a variety of parameters including dissolved oxygen, food availability (Corliss, 1985; Gooday and Turley, 1990; Jorissen et al., 1992, 1995; Sen Gupta and Machain-Castillo, 1993; Mackensen et al., 1995; McCorkle et al., 1997; Schmiedl et al., 1997; Van der Zwaan et al., 1999; Den Dulk et al., 2000; Nomaki et al., 2008; Mackensen, 2012; Mackensen and Schmiedl, 2016), temperature, salinity (Nigam et al.,1992, 2008; Kurtarkar et al., 2011; Saraswat et al., 2011, 2015; Manasa et al., 2016), depth (Corliss and Chen, 1988), sediment texture (Alve and Murray, 1999) and others (Boltovskoy et al., 1991; Murray, 2001; 2006). The response of benthic foraminifera to ambient parameters is studied by comparing the characteristics of recent fauna with the prevailing conditions. Benthic foraminifera in the top 1 cm of the sediments are usually studied for this purpose. As infaunal benthic foraminifera can survive up to 10-15 cm deep in the sediments (Corliss, 1985; Jannink et al., 1998), more attention is being paid to understand their sub-surface habitat. Ideally, living (rose-Bengal stained) benthic foraminifera are better suited than the dead assemblage, to understand the influence of prevailing physico-chemical conditions. Even though the surface distribution of total benthic (living and fossil) foraminiferal assemblages has been extensively studied from several parts of the northern Indian Ocean (see Bhalla et al., 2007 for extensive review; Gupta, 1994; Nigam and Khare, 1999; Saidova, 2007; De and Gupta, 2010; Jayaraju et al., 2010; Panchang and Nigam, 2014; Manasa et al., 2016), studies on the vertical distribution of living benthic foraminifera are still limited. So far, only a handful of studies, on living (rose-Bengal stained) benthic

151 foraminiferal distribution, have been carried out from the Indian margin (Gandhi et al., 2002; Gandhi and Solai, 2010; Caulle et al., 2015; Suokhrie et al., 2018, Barik et al., 2019). Moreover, limited attempts have been made to understand sub-surface distribution of living benthic foraminifera from the northern Indian Ocean, except off the Pakistan margin (Caulle et al., 2014; Enge et al., 2014; Erbacher and Nelskamp, 2006; Gooday et al., 2009; Jannink et al., 1998; Larkin and Gooday, 2008; Schumacher et al., 2007), off Oman (Hermelin and Shimmield, 1990; Gooday et al., 2000), and off the Indian margin (Caulle et al., 2015). Additional studies on the distribution of living benthic foraminifera across the northern Indian Ocean will help to improve the application of benthic foraminifera in paleoclimatic studies, especially to reconstruct past changes in intensity and spatial extent of OMZ. Therefore, the main objective of this work was to document the distribution of living (stained) benthic foraminifera off the southern tip of India, to understand the characteristic ecological preferences of foraminifera.

5.2 Results 5.2.1 Sediment Characteristics 5.2.1.1 Coarse Fraction (%CF) The coarse fraction (>63 µm) comprises of biogenic shells and terrigenous material. The %CF off the southern tip of India varies from a minimum of 3.01% to as high as 96.28%. The CF distribution in the region is typical of the marine settings where shallow depths on the Figure 5.1: The coarse fraction (%) variation in the continental shelf have high region off southern tip of India. The numbered contour %CF and it decreases with lines mark the bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations. increasing depths. The extensive stretch of very high coarse fraction (>80%) on the shelf in the middle of the study area, is attributed to the relict carbonate platform (Rao and Wagle, 1997). The 152 coarse fraction in this region includes both the biogenic remains as well as terrigenous sediments. The lack of a similarly high coarse fraction on the shelf and deeper depths in both the eastern and western side of the study area is due to the lack of relict carbonate platform (Fig. 5.1). The coarse fraction in both the eastern and western part of the study area as well on the slope and further deeper depths mainly comprises of biogenic remains, dominated by foraminiferal tests.

5.2.1.2 Calcium Carbonate (%CaCO3) Calcium carbonate abundance is the indicator of total inorganic carbon in the sediments. Biogenic remains, especially foraminiferal tests and coccolithophores mainly contribute to the sedimentary

CaCO3. %CaCO3 is relatively high throughout the study area including the continental shelf, ranging from 17.63% to 88.20%. The relict carbonate platform contributes a Figure 5.2: The calcium carbonate (%CaCO3) variation significant part of the CaCO3 in the region off the southern tip of India. The numbered contour lines mark the bathymetry. The in the sediments. The highest black dots are sample locations. %CaCO3 is on the slope at the intermediate depths and is attributed to the abundant presence of calcareous biogenic remains at these depths (Fig. 5.2).

5.2.1.3 Organic Carbon (%Corg) Organic carbon content in the sediments depends on both the intensity of biological productivity in the region as well as diagenetic processes. The organic carbon in the sediments can also give an idea about food availability for benthic foraminifera. %Corg varied from 0.71% to 8.32% in the study area and higher values (>4.5%) were at intermediate depths (500-1500 m), whereas, shallow and deeper depths had relatively less

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Corg (Fig. 5.3). Incidentally, the intermediate depth also had an intense oxygen minimum zone.

Figure 5.3: The organic

carbon (%Corg) variation in the region off southern tip of India. The numbered contour lines mark the bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

5.2.1.4 %Corg/TN %Corg/TN in the sediment indicates the origin of the organic carbon. %Corg/TN ≤10 is considered as marine in the eastern Arabian Sea (Tripathi et al., 2017) and higher values suggest terrestrial origin. The

%Corg/TN varies from 4.8 to 17.8 in the area. The high

%Corg/TN is in the western part of the study area. The area does not receive any significant direct terrestrial Figure 5.4: The %Corg/TN variation in the region off input in the form of riverine the southern tip of India. The numbered contour lines mark the bathymetry. The black dots are sample influx. The high (>10) locations. %Corg/TN despite the lack of terrestrial input suggests the influence of other factors in modulating the organic carbon input and preservation in the study area (Fig. 5.4).

5.2.2 Living (rose-Bengal stained) Benthic Foraminiferal Abundance The absolute abundance of living (rose-Bengal stained) benthic foraminifera in the area varies from a minimum of 4 specimen/g sediment to as high as 3126 specimen/g sediment (Fig. 5.5). As samples were collected along four different transects (T1-T4), the

154 living foraminiferal variation is discussed accordingly. The maximum abundance of living benthic foraminifera (>1000/g sediments) is found along the first transect (T1).

The abundance along T1 varies from 23 specimen/g sediment to 3126 specimen/g sediment, with the maximum abundance at 215 m and the lowest at 1887 m and 2080 m. A large increase in absolute abundance is found at Figure 5.5: The absolute abundance of living (rose-Bengal 152 m. In the second stained) benthic foraminifera (specimens/g sediment) in the transect (T2), the core top (0-1cm) sediments off the southern tip of India.The numbered contour lines mark the bathymetry. The black maximum abundance dots are sample locations. (1494 specimen/g sediment) is at 1540 m and the minimum (22 specimen/g sediment) is at 225 m. The abundance along T2 is very different than that in T1, where maximum abundance was on the upper slope (~250 m). However, in this transect there is no station between 225 m and 1100 m and that makes it difficult to delineate the depth at which the abundance increases rapidly. The living benthic foraminiferal abundance along other two transects (T3, T4) is relatively less. The abundance in T3 ranges between 4 specimen/g sediment and 237 specimen/g sediment at 25 m and 1327 m, respectively. In T4 transect, living benthic foraminiferal abundance varies between 3 specimen/g sediment to 957 specimen/g sediment at 1506 m and 764 m, respectively. The living benthic foraminiferal abundance does not have any linear relationship with depth. Rather, the abundance is more likely influenced by the dissolved oxygen and organic carbon content in the sediments (Fig. 5.5). To ascertain the depth up to which benthic foraminifera live, the top 5 sections (up to 5 cm) of the multi-core samples were processed. It was found that the core top (0-1 cm) contains the maximum number of living specimens. Further, >90% of the total living

155

Figure 5.6: The Average Living Depth (ALD; 5 cm) of the living benthic foraminifera along the transect 1 (Gulf of Mannar). foraminifera were found in the top 2 cm of sediments at a majority of the stations (Singh et al., 2018). The average living depth of benthic foraminifera was thus only up to 2 cm (Fig. 5.6). On the basis of living benthic foraminiferal abundance in T1 transect, it was decided to consider the top 2 cm of each multicore. The living benthic foraminiferal abundance Figure 5.7: Living benthicforaminiferal (specimen/g in top 2 cm, vary between sediment) abundance in the core top (0-2 cm) sediments off the southern tip of India.The numbered contours are 3 and 448 specimen/g bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations. sediment (Fig. 5.7). The surface distribution of living benthic foraminifera in combined top 2 cm of the sediments follows a trend same as that in top 1 cm sediments. The higher abundance was in T1 (Gulf of Mannar) and intermediate water depths along all transects. As compared to the

156 intermediate depths, the shallow and deeper water sediments contained <50 specimen/g sediment. Thus the living benthic foraminiferal abundance at shallow and deeper depths was 3-4 times less than that at intermediate water depths.

5.3 Biodiversity Indices Biodiversity indices are preliminary statistical analysis to measure the species diversity, richness and evenness in the given community. Among biodiversity indices, Margalef index (d) for richness, Shannon index (H) for diversity and Pielou index (J) for evenness is considered here. The absolute abundance of living benthic foraminifera (0-2 cm from multicore and 0-1 cm from grab samples) was used to calculate the diversity indices. Both richness and diversity is high in the Gulf of Mannar, including intermediate depths (~1000 m). Margalef index (d) varies from 1.3 to13.3 and Shannon index (H) ranges from 0.6 to 2.9 with higher values in the Gulf of Mannar (Fig. 5.8). Both the species richness and diversity correlated well with %Corg in the region. Opposite to this, shallow and deeper depths show lower species richness and diversity which suggest unfavorable conditions and thus limited opportunity for a few species to survive. Pielou

Figure 5.8: The biodiversity indices a) Margalef index, b) Shannon index and c) Pielou index off the southern tip of India. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations. index (J) shows evenness in the species distribution. It has a very narrow range in the area, and varies between 0.980 to 1.000 (Fig. 5.8), suggesting a comparable abundance of

157 all available species. Again, the Gulf of Mannar and intermediate depths show low evenness which indicate that only a few species are abundant in these localities.

5.4 Ecology of Benthic Foraminiferal Genera A total of 147 genera were found in the region off the southern tip of India. To understand the dominant environmental parameters governing the abundance of different genera in the study area, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was performed by

Figure 5.9: CCA plot of genus abundance and environmental parameters. Ade- Adercotryma, Amm-Ammoglobigerina, Ast-Astacolus, Bol-Bolivina, Buc-Buccella, Bul- Bulimina, Can-Cancris, Cas-Cassidulina, Cibi-Cibicidoides, Egg-Eggerelloides, Epi- Epistominella, Fiss-Fissurina, Fus-Fursenkoina, Glob-Globocassidulina, Gyr-Gyroidina, Gyr-Gyroidinoides, Hanz-Hanzawaia, Hap-Haplophragmoides, Hoe-Hoeglundina, Hop- Hopkinsina, Hor-Hormosinella, Hya-Hyalinea, Lag-Lagenammina, Mel-Melonis, Neouvi-Neouvigerina, Noin-Nonion, Noil-Nonionella, Osa-Osangularia, Pepo- Psuedoeponides, Pull-Pullenia, Reus-Reussella, Rot-Rotaliatinopsis, Rotm-Rotalidium, Roto-Rotorbinella, Tro-Trochammina, Uvi-Uvigerina, Val-Valvulineria, Temp-

temperature, DO-dissolved oxygen, %Corg-organic carbon, %Corg/TN-organic carbon/nitrogen. using multivariate statistical package (MVSP) software. Only those genera with >3% relative abundance, at least at 2 stations, were considered (Fig. 5.9). CCA provides a bi- plot of correlation between environmental parameters and faunal abundance (Fig. 5.9). In the plot, the vectors represent weight average change in the environmental parameters and position of fauna (triangles) suggests the degree of impact of the environmental 158 parameter on the abundance of the fauna. The head of the vector suggests positive correlation with the fauna and its backward extension indicates negative correlation. From the CCA plot, it is clear that each environmental parameter affects the distribution of benthic foraminifera in the region off the southern tip of India, up to some extent. The genera influenced by similar environmental parameters, have been categorized in a group and are discussed in the following section in detail.

5.4.1 Genera having positive relationship with %Corg and %Corg/TN Bulimina, Epistominella, Hoeglundina, Lagenammina, Melonis, Osangularia, Pullenia,

Rotaliatinopsis, Rotorbinella and Uvigerina are positively correlated with %Corg and

%Corg/TN (Figs. 5.10a, b). Genera like Bulimina, Epistominella, Rotorbinella, Rotaliatinopsis and Lagenammina are abundant in the intermediate depths (500-1500 m) with high %Corg and %Corg/TN. The genera also indicate negative relationship with bottom water temperature which justifies their absence in shallow depths where water temperature is comparatively high and %Corg is low. Additionally, a clear east-west difference in abundance of a majority of these genera is also evident.

Figure 5.10a: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with %C org and %Corg/TN. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations. 159

Figure 5.10b: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with %Corg

and %Corg/TN. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

Melonis, Osangularia, Epistominella and Uvigerina are abundant in the western part Rotaliatinopsis and Bulimina are abundant in the Gulf of Mannar on the eastern side. As compared to these, Lagenammina is equally abundant in both the eastern and western part of the area. 160

5.4.2 Genera having positive relationship with dissolved oxygen and water depth Ammoglobigerina, Gyroidina, Gyroidinoides, Cibicidoides, Adercotryma, Eggerelloides, Globocassidulina, Hyalinea, Psuedoeponides, Haplophragmoides and Nonionella are positively correlated with dissolved oxygen and water depth (Figs. 5.11a, b). Ammoglobigerina, Haplophragmoides, Gyroidina and Globocassidulina are abundant at well oxygenated shallow to intermediate depths and Gyroidinoides, Cibicidoides, Adercotryma, Eggerelloide, Hyalinea, Psuedoeponides, Haplophragmoides and Nonionella dominate the intermediate to deeper depths. Intriguingly, the dissolved oxygen in the bottom water has a very limited effect on the genera abundance. Beside this, the negative relationship of these genera with salinity justifies the increased faunal abundance at deeper depths where salinity was comparatively low, because of the influx of the Bay of Bengal water. Adercotryma and Hyalinea are abundant in the southeastern part of the study area, suggesting their preference for the Bay of Bengal water.

Figure 5.11a: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with

dissolved oxygen and water depth. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

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Figure 5.11b: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with dissolved oxygen and water depth. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

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5.4.3 Genera having positive relationship with bottom water salinity Fursenkoina, Cassidulina, Buccella, Hopkinsina, Bolivina, Nonion and Trochammina are positively correlated with bottom water salinity (Fig. 5.12). The bottom water salinity

Figure 5.12: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with salinity. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

163 decreases with depth. The increased abundance of Nonion, Buccella and Bolivina in shallow to intermediate water depths suggests their preference for higher salinity. Other genera in this quadrant Fursenkoina, Cassidulina, Hopkinsina, Bolivina, and Trochammina are abundant at intermediate to deeper depths justifying their correlation with dissolved oxygen with the OMZ in the region between 150-1500 m.

5.4.4 Genera having positive relationship with bottom water temperature

Figure 5.13a: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with seawater temperature. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

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Figure 5.13b: Spatial distribution of the genera having positive relationship with seawater temperature. The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

Neouvigerina, Reussella, Cancris, Valvulineria, Astacolus, Hanzawaia and Rotalidium are abundant in comparatively warmer seawater (Figs. 5.13a, b). The bottom water temperature decreases with depth. The warm shallow water preference of these genera is also confirmed by their negative correlation with %Corg and %Corg/TN, as both these parameters are lower in the shallow depths.

5.5 Ecology of Benthic Foraminiferal Species To understand the ecological preferences of species, CCA analysis was performed. A total 61 species with >3% abundance at least at two stations were considered for the analysis. It was found that ~60% species were positively correlated with %Corg,

%Corg/TN and dissolved oxygen and the rest are negatively correlated (Fig. 5.14). The significance of the ecological preferences of each species as inferred from CCA plot

Figure 5.14: CCA plot between species abundance and environmental parameters. For abbreviations, see table 5.1. 165

(Table 5.1) was assessed from the correlation coefficients (Table 5.2). Table 5.1: The benthic foraminifera species and their positive (+) and/or negative (-) correlation with ambient environmental parameters, as inferred from CCA plot.

Species Abbr Temp. Salinity %Corg %Corg/TN Depth (m) . (°C) (psu) Buccella differens A - - + + + Fusenkoina rotundata B - - + + + Rotalidium annectens C + + - - - Bulimina marginospinata D - - + + + Ammoglobigerina globigeriniformis E - - + + + Epistominella umbonifera F - - + + + Cancris auriculus G + + - - - Cassidulina bradyi H - - + + + Astacolus insolitus I + + - - - Trochammina boltovskoyi J + + - - - Gyroidina tenera K - - + + + Gyroidinoides soldanii L - - + + + Uvigerina af. asperula M - - + + + Gyroidina pilasensis N - - + + + Bolivina striatula O - - + + + Gyroidina pilasensis P + + - - - Cancris penangensis Q + + - - - Adercotryma glomeratum R - - + + + Haplophragmoides canariensis S - - + + + Bolivina compacta T + + - - - Bulimina psuedoaffinis U - - + + + Gyroidina cf. guadalupensis V - - + + + Hoeglundina heterolucida W - - + + + Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi X - - + + + Uvigerina auberiana Y - - + + + Buliminella exilis Z + + - - - Bulimina pupoides AA + + - - - Hyalinea balthica AB - - + + + Bulimina alazanensis AC - - + + + Gyroidina io AD - - + + + Cassidulina angulosa AE - - + + + Bolivina spinescens AF + + - - - Bolivina spathulata AG + + - - - 166

Lagenammina longicolli AH - - + + + Epistominella pulchella AI - - + + + Pullenia salisburyi AJ - - + + + Osangularia bengalensis AK - - + + + Eggerelloides scaber AL - - + + + Melonis cf. chathamensis AM - - + + + Haplophragmoides subglobosum AN - - + + + Cassidulina carinata AO + + - - - Uvigerina peregrina AP - - + + + Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta AQ - - + + + Neouvigerina porrecta AR + + - - - Hanzawaia concentrica AS + + - - - Haplophragmoides symmetricus AT - - + + + Pullenia bulloides AU - - + + + Bulimina arabiensis AV + + - - - Hopkinsinella glabra AW + + - - - Bolivina obscuranta AX + + - - - Cancris sagra AY + + - - - Bolivina robusta AZ + + - - - Rotorbinella bikinensis BA - - + + + Bolivina currai BB + + - - - Psuedoeponides equatoriana BC - - + + + Cassidulina laevigata BD + + - - - Globocassidulina subglobosa BE + + - - - Bulimina aculeata BF - - + + + Fursenkoina spinosa BG + + - - - Epistominella exigua BH - - + + + Bolivina seminuda BI + + - - -

Table 5.2: Correlation coefficient of species relative abundance with ambient environmental parameters. Marked (in red) correlations are significant at p <0.05.

Species Abbr. Temp Salinity DO %Corg %Corg/T Depth (°C) (psu) (ml/l) N (m) Buccella differens -0.1268 -0.0945 0.0207 0.1811 -0.0968 0.0655 A p=.489 p=.607 p=.911 p=.321 p=.598 p=.722 Fusenkoina -0.171 -0.2696 0.3026 0.1128 -0.1375 0.344 rotundata B p=.349 p=.136 p=.092 p=.539 p=.453 p=.054 Rotalidium annectens C 0.5108 0.4195 0.178 -0.1739 0.1138 -0.2903

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p=.003 p=.017 p=.330 p=.341 p=.535 p=.107 Bulimina -0.0907 -0.0459 -0.0164 0.1604 0.0727 0.0625 marginospinata D p=.621 p=.803 p=.929 p=.380 p=.692 p=.734 Ammoglobigerina -0.1521 -0.163 0.1164 0.1101 -0.3179 0.1878 globigeriniformis E p=.406 p=.373 p=.526 p=.549 p=.076 p=.303 Epistominella -0.0082 0.1506 -0.3064 0.4988 -0.0135 -0.1703 umbonifera F p=.964 p=.411 p=.088 p=.004 p=.942 p=.352 Cancris auriculus 0.0815 0.1919 -0.249 -0.0271 0.4843 -0.179 G p=.658 p=.293 p=.169 p=.883 p=.005 p=.327 Cassidulina bradyi -0.1139 -0.1327 0.0061 0.0175 0.2166 0.157 H p=.535 p=.469 p=.973 p=.924 p=.234 p=.391 Astacolus insolitus 0.5692 0.4199 0.2561 -0.2867 0.1927 -0.2869 I p=.001 p=.017 p=.157 p=.112 p=.291 p=.111 Trochammina -0.0893 -0.0832 0.0294 0.0704 -0.0398 0.049 boltovskoyi J p=.627 p=.651 p=.873 p=.702 p=.829 p=.790 Gyroidina tenera -0.1193 -0.0832 -0.0164 0.0291 0.2223 0.1557 K p=.516 p=.651 p=.929 p=.874 p=.221 p=.395 Gyroidinoides 0.0016 -0.1352 0.324 -0.3117 0.2717 0.1724 soldanii L p=.993 p=.461 p=.070 p=.082 p=.132 p=.345 Uvigerina aff. -0.1578 -0.0807 -0.0147 0.307 0.0563 0.0559 asperula M p=.388 p=.661 p=.937 p=.087 p=.760 p=.761 Gyroidina pilasensis -0.2444 -0.2653 0.2067 0.1489 -0.3498 0.2884 N p=.178 p=.142 p=.256 p=.416 p=.050 p=.109 Bolivina striatula -0.184 -0.299 0.2555 -0.3614 0.4028 0.2568 O p=.313 p=.096 p=.158 p=.042 p=.022 p=.156 Gyroidina pilasensis -0.189 -0.2235 0.1696 0.1025 -0.1221 0.1692 P p=.300 p=.219 p=.353 p=.577 p=.505 p=.354 Cancris penangensis 0.1019 0.2572 -0.3916 0.0735 -0.0417 -0.2748 Q p=.579 p=.155 p=.027 p=.689 p=.821 p=.128 Adercotryma -0.2518 -0.379 0.3316 -0.0688 -0.0717 0.4476 glomeratum R p=.164 p=.032 p=.064 p=.708 p=.696 p=.010 Haplophragmoides -0.2056 -0.2122 0.1126 0.2158 0.1513 0.1649 canariensis S p=.259 p=.244 p=.539 p=.236 p=.408 p=.367 Bolivina compacta 0.702 0.4437 0.3136 -0.3131 -0.1764 -0.3699 T p=.000 p=.011 p=.080 p=.081 p=.334 p=.037 Bulimina 0.0403 0.3421 -0.5588 0.3712 -0.0048 -0.3446 psuedoaffinis U p=.827 p=.055 p=.001 p=.036 p=.979 p=.053 Gyroidina cf. -0.1329 -0.2162 0.1585 -0.1321 0.2626 0.1826 guadalupensis V p=.468 p=.235 p=.386 p=.471 p=.147 p=.317 168

Hoeglundina -0.1351 -0.1 0.0237 -0.0534 0.128 0.0839 heterolucida W p=.461 p=.586 p=.897 p=.772 p=.485 p=.648 Cibicidoides -0.3051 -0.4621 0.4447 -0.1155 -0.3373 0.4815 wuellerstorfi X p=.089 p=.008 p=.011 p=.529 p=.059 p=.005 Uvigerina auberiana -0.1154 0.0615 -0.2315 0.4815 -0.0912 -0.0744 Y p=.530 p=.738 p=.202 p=.005 p=.620 p=.686 Buliminella exilis 0.3433 0.2778 -0.3215 -0.1677 -0.0291 -0.3735 Z p=.054 p=.124 p=.073 p=.359 p=.875 p=.035 Bulimina pupoides 0.0914 0.253 -0.2942 0.2063 -0.1579 -0.2355 AA p=.619 p=.162 p=.102 p=.257 p=.388 p=.194 Hyalinea balthica -0.1272 -0.2071 0.1715 -0.1828 -0.0956 0.3154 AB p=.488 p=.255 p=.348 p=.317 p=.603 p=.079 Bulimina alazanensis -0.1793 -0.1657 0.0673 -0.0423 0.2478 0.1251 AC p=.326 p=.365 p=.714 p=.818 p=.172 p=.495 Gyroidina io -0.1874 -0.2075 0.1005 -0.1395 0.1497 0.1827 AD p=.304 p=.254 p=.584 p=.446 p=.413 p=.317 Cassidulina angulosa -0.1004 -0.0531 -0.0632 -0.0933 0.4759 0.0277 AE p=.585 p=.773 p=.731 p=.612 p=.006 p=.880 Bolivina spinescens 0.4934 0.2028 0.3449 -0.3517 -0.1639 -0.1973 AF p=.004 p=.266 p=.053 p=.048 p=.370 p=.279 Bolivina spathulata ------AG p= --- p= --- p= --- p= --- p= --- p= --- Lagenammina -0.3034 -0.2843 0.1535 0.3645 -0.0175 0.2569 longicolli AH p=.091 p=.115 p=.401 p=.040 p=.924 p=.156 Epistominella -0.0824 -0.0238 -0.0415 -0.1777 0.0125 0.0127 pulchella AI p=.654 p=.897 p=.822 p=.330 p=.946 p=.945 Pullenia salisburyi -0.215 -0.15 -0.0078 0.1605 -0.0386 0.0957 AJ p=.237 p=.412 p=.966 p=.380 p=.834 p=.602 Osangularia -0.1741 -0.0893 -0.1145 0.3569 0.1309 0.0188 bengalensis AK p=.341 p=.627 p=.533 p=.045 p=.475 p=.919 Eggerelloides scaber -0.2306 -0.3543 0.2994 -0.1364 0.0645 0.376 AL p=.204 p=.047 p=.096 p=.457 p=.726 p=.034 Melonis cf. -0.0854 -0.0338 -0.0452 -0.2211 0.0309 0.0076 chathamensis AM p=.642 p=.854 p=.806 p=.224 p=.867 p=.967 Haplophragmoides -0.3248 -0.3328 0.1919 0.1872 -0.1735 0.3584 subglobosum AN p=.070 p=.063 p=.293 p=.305 p=.342 p=.044 Cassidulina carinata -0.0739 0.0822 -0.1912 0.2489 0.0391 -0.0634 AO p=.688 p=.655 p=.294 p=.169 p=.832 p=.730 Uvigerina peregrina AP -0.226 -0.1241 -0.0358 0.3203 0.0481 0.0741 169

p=.214 p=.499 p=.846 p=.074 p=.794 p=.687 Rotaliatinopsis 0.0047 0.1882 -0.3451 0.1191 -0.1762 -0.2119 semiinvoluta AQ p=.980 p=.302 p=.053 p=.516 p=.335 p=.244 Neouvigerina 0.0869 0.1949 -0.229 -0.033 -0.1595 -0.1851 porrecta AR p=.636 p=.285 p=.207 p=.858 p=.383 p=.310 Hanzawaia 0.8266 0.5307 0.3523 -0.4502 -0.0476 -0.4276 concentrica AS p=.000 p=.002 p=.048 p=.010 p=.796 p=.015 Haplophragmoides -0.3699 -0.4517 0.3071 0.0861 -0.1464 0.4335 symmetricus AT p=.037 p=.009 p=.087 p=.639 p=.424 p=.013 Pullenia bulloides -0.2209 -0.2059 0.1 -0.0133 -0.0109 0.2252 AU p=.224 p=.258 p=.586 p=.942 p=.953 p=.215 Bulimina arabiensis 0.0071 0.2168 -0.3798 0.3485 -0.2515 -0.2319 AV p=.969 p=.233 p=.032 p=.051 p=.165 p=.202 Hopkinsinella glabra 0.3308 0.5577 -0.7188 0.1098 0.1408 -0.5946 AW p=.064 p=.001 p=.000 p=.550 p=.442 p=.000 Bolivina obscuranta 0.1084 0.2282 -0.3539 0.201 -0.2319 -0.2693 AX p=.555 p=.209 p=.047 p=.270 p=.202 p=.136 Cancris sagra 0.7879 0.4783 0.359 -0.4402 -0.0787 -0.3946 AY p=.000 p=.006 p=.044 p=.012 p=.668 p=.025 Bolivina robusta 0.0036 0.0684 -0.1275 0.2144 0.0127 -0.0738 AZ p=.985 p=.710 p=.487 p=.239 p=.945 p=.688 Rotorbinella -0.2895 -0.2965 0.1214 0.1407 0.3249 0.2171 bikinensis BA p=.108 p=.099 p=.508 p=.442 p=.070 p=.233 Bolivina currai 0.2311 0.4725 -0.6208 0.4248 0.1063 -0.4839 BB p=.203 p=.006 p=.000 p=.015 p=.563 p=.005 Psuedoeponides -0.2721 -0.3852 0.3219 -0.0604 -0.1774 0.4729 equatoriana BC p=.132 p=.029 p=.072 p=.743 p=.331 p=.006 Cassidulina laevigata -0.0527 0.0747 -0.2527 0.2542 0.2299 -0.1047 BD p=.774 p=.685 p=.163 p=.160 p=.206 p=.569 Globocassidulina -0.1487 -0.413 0.5312 -0.3609 -0.1014 0.4208 subglobosa BE p=.417 p=.019 p=.002 p=.042 p=.581 p=.016 Bulimina aculeata -0.2794 -0.173 0.0097 0.3116 0.1378 0.156 BF p=.121 p=.344 p=.958 p=.083 p=.452 p=.394 Fursenkoina spinosa 0.1009 0.352 -0.5521 0.5867 -0.1172 -0.3662 BG p=.583 p=.048 p=.001 p=.000 p=.523 p=.039 Epistominella exigua -0.2736 -0.2607 0.0919 -0.2812 -0.0252 0.1963 BH p=.130 p=.150 p=.617 p=.119 p=.891 p=.282 Bolivina seminuda 0.3263 0.3154 -0.2499 -0.163 -0.0543 -0.3573 BI p=.068 p=.079 p=.168 p=.373 p=.768 p=.045

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5.5.1 Species Affected by Temperature From the total 61 species, 24 species showed positive correlation with temperature (Table 5.1). From the 24 species identified to be affected by temperature, only 6 species, namely Rotalidium annectens, Astacolus insolitus, Bolivina compacta, Bolivina spinescens, Hanzawaia concentrica and Cancris sagra are significantly positively correlated with seawater temperature (Table 5.2). The species are more abundant in shallow water where temperature is usually high (Fig. 5.15). Beside this, out of 37 species that showed negative correlation with temperature in CCA plot, only Haplophragmoides symmetricus was significantly negatively correlated (Fig. 5.15). Its abundance increases with increasing water depth.

Figure 5.15: The relative abundance of the species as a function of temperature along the water depths.

5.5.2 Species Affected by Salinity Out of 61, 24 species are positively correlated with salinity (Table 5.1). From these 37 species, Rotalidium annectens, Astacolus insolitus, Bolivina compacta, Hanzawaia concentrica, Hopkinsinella glabra, Cancris sagra and Bolivina currai showed a significant relationship (Table 5.2). The higher abundance of these species in shallow water where salinity is comparatively high, justifies their significant positive correlation (Fig. 5.16a). A total 37 species showed negative relationship with salinity (Table 5.1). Out of these, Globocassidulina subglobosa, Adercotryma glomeratum, Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Eggerelloides scaber and Haplophragmoides symmetricus showed 171 significant negative correlation (Table 5.2). These species were abundant in deep water where bottom seawater salinity was low (Fig. 5.16b).

Figure 5.16: The relative abundance of the species at different depths plotted with the salinity at the sediment water interface. a) species with significant positive and b)

significant negative correlation are plotted separately.

5.5.3 Species Affected by Dissolved Oxygen The bottom water dissolved oxygen is a limiting factor for foraminiferal abundance in the region. Out of total 61, 33 species are positively correlated with dissolved oxygen (Table 5.1). However, only Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Hanzawaia concentrica, Cancris sagra and Globocassidulina subglobosa showed a significant positive correlation (Table 5.2). Hanzawaia concentrica and Cancris sagra was abundant in the shallow water while Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi and Globocassidulina subglobosa was abundant in deep water where dissolved oxygen is comparatively higher (Fig. 5.17a). The significant relationship

172 with dissolved oxygen, suggests their application to infer past changes in dissolved oxygen.

Figure 5.17: The relative abundance of the species at different depths plotted with the dissolved oxygen. a) species with a significant positive and b) negative correlation with

dissolved oxygen.

In the region off the southern tip of India, 28 species were negatively correlated with bottom water dissolved oxygen (Table 5.1). However, only Cancris penangensis, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Bolivina currai, Bulimina arabiensis, Hopkinsinella glabra and Bolivina obscuranta showed a significant negative correlation (Table 5.2). These species were mainly abundant within OMZ depths (~150-1500 m) where dissolved oxygen concentration is significantly low (Fig. 5.17b). These species can thus be used to reconstruct past changes in the OMZ intensity and extent in this region.

5.5.4 Species Affected by Organic Carbon in the Sediment The organic carbon generated as a result of primary productivity, is the food and thus strongly influences benthic foraminiferal abundance. Out of 61 species fulfilling the minimum abundance criteria, 37 are positively correlated with organic carbon in the sediment. However, only Epistominella umbonifera, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Uvigerina 173 auberiana, Lagenammina longicolli, Osangularia bengalensis and Bolivina currai showed a significant positive correlation. These species were more abundant in intermediate depths where Corg (%) was also higher (Fig. 5.18a). Besides this, 24 species were negatively correlated with organic carbon. From these species, only Globocassidulina subglobosa, Bolivina striatula, Bolivina spinescens,

Figure 5.18: The relative abundance of the species plotted with organic carbon in the sediment at different depths. a) species showing significant positive, and b) negative correlation with organic carbon at different depths. Hanzawaia concentric and Cancris sagra showed a significant negative correlation.

These species were abundant in either shallow or deep water where Corg (%) was comparatively less (Fig. 5.18b).

5.5.5 Species Affected by %Corg/TN

174

All the 37 species that are positively correlated with organic carbon, also showed a similar relationship with Corg/TN (Table 5.1). However, out of 37 species only three namely Cancris auriculus, Bolivina striatula and Cassidulina angulosa were significantly correlated. There was no clear linear trend in Corg/TN along the water depth and it is also evident in species distribution (Fig. 5.19). Gyroidina pilasensis has a significant negative relationship with Corg/TN and is abundant on the lower slope and Figure 5.19: The relative abundance of the further deeper region. species plotted withCorg/TN at diferent water depths.

5.5.6 Species Affected by Water Depth 38 species were positively correlated with water depth but only 5 species Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Eggerelloides scaber, Haplophragmoides subglobosum, Haplophragmoides symmetricus and Globocassidulina subglobosa were significantly correlated. These species’ abundance increased with depth (Fig. 5.20a). Out of 61 species, 23 species were negatively correlated with water depth. Out of these 23 species, only 6 (Bolivina seminuda, Bolivina compacta, Buliminella exilis, Hanzawaia concentrica, Cancris sagra and Bolivina currai) were significantly negatively correlated. The relative abundance of these species decreases with depth hence, justifies their negative correlation (Fig. 5.20b).

175

Figure 5.20: The relative abundance of the a) species with a significant positive, and b) negative correlation withthe water depth.

5.7 Benthic Foraminifera in the Oxygen Deficient Zone The oxygen minimum zone is considered as the region where dissolved oxygen concentration is less than 2 ml/l. In the region off the southern tip of India, the oxygen deficient zone lies between 100-1550 m where dissolved oxygen varies between 0.35- 2.03 ml/l. Out of 43 locations, 25 stations fall in the oxygen minimum zone. At these stations, only 32 species have >3% abundance at two stations. From the correlation matrix, it is clear that out of 32 species, only two namely Hopkinsinella glabra (AW) and Bolivina currai (BB) are negatively correlated with dissolved oxygen (Table 5.2).

Table 5.3: Correlation coefficient of species with ambient environmental parameters in the oxygen minimum zone. Marked (in red) correlations are significant at p <0.05.

Species Abbr Temp. Salinit DO %Corg %Corg/T Depth . (°C) y (psu) (ml/l) N (m) Buccella differens -0.3394 -0.4664 0.4814 0.1021 -0.0981 0.4237 A p=.143 p=.038 p=.032 p=.668 p=.681 p=.063 Epistominella -0.0741 -0.0073 -0.0929 0.5203 0.0379 0.0073 umbonifera F p=.756 p=.975 p=.697 p=.019 p=.874 p=.975 Cancris 0.2051 0.3199 -0.4262 -0.1118 -0.0129 -0.3206 penangensis Q p=.386 p=.169 p=.061 p=.639 p=.957 p=.168 176

Bulimina 0.0125 0.2422 -0.3198 0.1423 0.0961 -0.1597 psuedoaffinis U p=.958 p=.304 p=.169 p=.550 p=.687 p=.501 Gyroidina cf. -0.1682 -0.2497 0.173 0.212 -0.0609 0.1744 guadalupensis V p=.478 p=.288 p=.466 p=.370 p=.799 p=.462 Uvigerina -0.2867 -0.2162 0.1652 0.464 -0.0073 0.2495 auberiana Y p=.220 p=.360 p=.486 p=.039 p=.976 p=.289 Buliminella exilis 0.792 0.4099 -0.3287 -0.4581 -0.0018 -0.6004 Z p=.000 p=.073 p=.157 p=.042 p=.994 p=.005 Cassidulina 0.0047 0.086 -0.1617 0.0272 0.611 -0.0558 angulosa AE p=.984 p=.719 p=.496 p=.909 p=.004 p=.815 Lagenammina -0.3224 -0.2873 0.2989 0.4908 0.0985 0.3308 longicolli AH p=.166 p=.219 p=.201 p=.028 p=.680 p=.154 Epistominella -0.2266 -0.2626 0.2682 -0.4342 0.0484 0.2598 pulchella AI p=.337 p=.263 p=.253 p=.056 p=.839 p=.269 Pullenia -0.2591 -0.1866 0.2047 0.0431 -0.4299 0.2583 salisburyi AJ p=.270 p=.431 p=.387 p=.857 p=.059 p=.272 Osangularia -0.2494 -0.2414 0.1312 0.5619 0.0388 0.2297 bengalensis AK p=.289 p=.305 p=.581 p=.010 p=.871 p=.330 Melonis cf. -0.1752 -0.2094 0.2164 -0.465 0.0299 0.2024 chathamensis AM p=.460 p=.376 p=.360 p=.039 p=.900 p=.392 Haplophragmoids -0.3221 -0.3242 0.3296 0.1411 -0.1115 0.3486 subglobosum AN p=.166 p=.163 p=.156 p=.553 p=.640 p=.132 Cassidulina -0.1838 -0.0899 0.0947 0.0944 0.1391 0.1545 carinata AO p=.438 p=.706 p=.691 p=.692 p=.559 p=.515 Uvigerina -0.5032 -0.5772 0.6012 0.1196 0.0221 0.5723 peregrina AP p=.024 p=.008 p=.005 p=.615 p=.926 p=.008 Rotaliatinopsis 0.0777 0.2287 -0.2758 -0.1677 -0.2513 -0.1848 semiinvoluta AQ p=.745 p=.332 p=.239 p=.480 p=.285 p=.435 Neouvigerina 0.1833 0.2951 -0.2561 -0.1769 -0.1943 -0.2483 porrecta AR p=.439 p=.207 p=.276 p=.456 p=.412 p=.291 Haplophragmoide -0.2586 -0.3957 0.4461 -0.0224 -0.0592 0.3329 s symmetricus AT p=.271 p=.084 p=.049 p=.925 p=.804 p=.152 Pullenia bulloides -0.278 -0.1549 0.1957 0.1841 -0.2246 0.2638 AU p=.235 p=.514 p=.408 p=.437 p=.341 p=.261 Bulimina -0.0545 0.0414 -0.0732 0.1968 -0.2959 -0.0143 arabiensis AV p=.819 p=.863 p=.759 p=.406 p=.205 p=.952 Hopkinsinella 0.7944 0.851 -0.8222 -0.2848 0.3125 -0.86 glabra AW p=.000 p=.000 p=.000 p=.224 p=.180 p=.000 Bolivina AX 0.2098 0.1247 -0.1052 -0.0076 -0.2701 -0.1688 177

obscuranta p=.375 p=.600 p=.659 p=.975 p=.249 p=.477 Bolivina robusta -0.0198 -0.0369 0.0476 0.1838 0.0478 0.049 AZ p=.934 p=.877 p=.842 p=.438 p=.842 p=.837 Rotorbinella -0.4183 -0.5179 0.5134 0.2423 0.138 0.4882 bikinensis BA p=.066 p=.019 p=.021 p=.303 p=.562 p=.029 Bolivina currai 0.3313 0.49 -0.661 0.3348 0.2163 -0.4818 BB p=.154 p=.028 p=.002 p=.149 p=.360 p=.031 Psuedoeponides -0.0498 -0.0236 -0.1135 0.1838 0.6058 -0.0086 equatoriana BC p=.835 p=.921 p=.634 p=.438 p=.005 p=.971 Cassidulina 0.0036 -0.001 -0.0441 -0.0146 0.367 -0.0089 laevigata BD p=.988 p=.997 p=.854 p=.951 p=.111 p=.970 Bulimina -0.3712 -0.2802 0.3357 0.1245 0.2456 0.3836 aculeata BF p=.107 p=.231 p=.148 p=.601 p=.297 p=.095 Fursenkoina 0.2001 0.3371 -0.3972 0.5432 -0.1035 -0.2845 spinosa BG p=.398 p=.146 p=.083 p=.013 p=.664 p=.224 Epistominella -0.299 -0.2698 0.2601 -0.3812 -0.2213 0.288 exigua BH p=.200 p=.250 p=.268 p=.097 p=.348 p=.218 Bolivina 0.6199 0.3686 -0.1666 -0.4497 -0.0191 -0.4777 seminuda BI p=.004 p=.110 p=.483 p=.047 p=.936 p=.033

5.7 Cluster Analysis Cluster analyses groups similar objects together (Kaufman and Rousseeuw, 2009). Thus the cluster analysis helps to find out the groups of sampling locations that have similar species abundance. For the cluster analysis, the relative abundance of each species has been considered from all 43 locations. The relative abundance was transformed to square root value and Bray Curtis similarity index was applied. The groups were named as Cluster I, II, III, and IV at 12% similarity level (Fig. 5.21; 5.22). Cluster II was further divided into sub-cluster IIa and IIb at 20% and cluster IV into IVa, IVb, IVc, IVd and IVe at 30% similarity level. Each cluster signifies distinct species assemblage. The species assemblage representing a cluster was identified by using simple percentage (SIMPER) program at 100% and described below:

Cluster I Cluster I includes station MC11 and MC12 on the shelf edge and upper slope (110 m and 225 m, respectively). The SIMPER analysis shows that the average similarity was 33.69%. This cluster is characterized by Bolivina robusta (66.38%) and Bulimina 178 arabiensis (37.62%). The preferred environmental parameters of this cluster are moderate seawater temperature (13.61-19.90°C), high salinity (35.04-35.08 psu), low dissolved oxygen (0.53-0.93 ml/l) and medium to high organic matter (2.41-6.49%).

Cluster II This cluster includes ten stations (MC06 to MC10, MC25, G01, 03, 04, and 05). A majority of these stations are on the shelf and a few on the upper slope (water depth ranging from 26-260 m). This group is further divided into two sub-clusters (Fig. 5.21):

Sub-cluster IIa The sub-cluster IIa includes five stations (MC06, MC07, MC09, G01 and G05).All of these stations also belong to a relatively shallow depth (26-260 m). The SIMPER analysis shows that the average similarity was 28.30%. This sub-cluster is represented by Bolivina seminuda (67.20%), Bolivina obscuranta (10.08%), Buliminella exilis (8.63%), Fursenkoina spinosa (4.21%), Hopkinsinella glabra (3.43%) and Bulimina pupoides (2.65%). The sub-cluster IIa indicates moderate to warm temperature (12.74-27.42°C), high salinity (35.02-35.20 psu), moderate dissolved oxygen (0.52-4.21 ml/l) and medium to high organic matter (2.45-4.29%).

Figure 5.21: Cluster analysis between the sampling station and relative abundance of benthic foraminifera. Y-axis is similarity in percentage.

179

Sub-cluster IIb The sub-cluster IIb is represented by MC08, MC10, MC25, G03 and G04 on the shelf (46-101 m). The SIMPER analysis shows that the average similarity was 21.50%. This sub-cluster is represented by Cancris sagra (47.71%), Hanzawaia concentrica (14.17%), Bolivina seminuda (13.25%), Bolivina compacta (8.6%), Cassidulina laevigata (4.73%) and Bolivina spathulata (4.33%). The sub-cluster IIb indicates warm water (20.66- 26.32°C), high salinity (35.09-35.18 psu), moderate dissolved oxygen (1.13-3.45 ml/l) and low organic matter (0.70-2.25%) with %Corg/TN varying from 6.22-12.79.Overall, subgroup IIb indicates comparatively lower water depth, warmer seawater, higher dissolved oxygen and lower organic matter as compared to sub-cluster IIa.

Cluster III (b) Cluster III includes MC23, MC53 and MC55 with depth varying from upper to lower slope (107 to 2750 m). The SIMPER analysis shows that the average similarity was 25.37%. The cluster is represented by Globocassidulina subglobosa (85.07%) and Pullenia bulloides (14.93%). This cluster does not have any specific preference and represents cold to warm water (1.84-20.15°C), high salinity (34.74-35.09 psu), moderately high dissolved oxygen (0.99-3.46%), high organic carbon (2.12-3.94%) with

Corg/TN varying from 5.49-14.54.

9 Cluster IV Cluster IV covered the largest part of the area. This cluster was divided into five sub- clusters:

Figure 5.22: The spatial distribution of the clusters in the region off the southern tip of India. a) Four major clusters, b) both the clusters and sub-clusters.The numbered contours are bathymetry. The black dots are sample locations.

180

Sub-cluster IVa Sub-cluster IVa includes MC31 and MC32 covering the depth range from 1454 to 1704 m. SIMPER shows average group similarity is 36.36% and the representative species are Epistominella exigua (66.35%) and Melonis cf. chathamensis (33.65%). The sub-cluster indicates cold seawater temperature (3.57-4.49°C), moderate salinity (34.82-34.88 psu), comparatively high dissolved oxygen (1.78-2.31 ml/l), high organic matter (2.24-3.26%) with %Corg/TN varying from 9.99-11.71.

Sub-cluster IVb This sub-cluster includes station MC56, MC58, MC59 and MC60 mainly on the lower slope (covering the depth range of 1887-2750 m). SIMPER shows an average group similarity of 41.77% and the representative species are Globocassidulina subglobosa (12.49%), Bulimina aculeata (12.45%), Haplophragmoides subglobosum (10.88%), Lagenammina longicolli (9.49%), Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (8.49%) and Gyroidina pilasensis (8.27%). The sub-cluster indicates very low seawater temperature (2.03- 3.01°C), moderate salinity (34.75-34.79 psu), high dissolved oxygen (2.85-3.48 ml/l), high organic matter (1.96-5.86%) and low %Corg/TN (4.83-8.82).

Sub-cluster IVc This sub-cluster includes station MC19, MC20, MC21, MC26 and MC27 covering the depths range between 503-1045 m. SIMPER shows an average group similarity of 37.28% and the representative species are Bolivina currai (23.57%), Hopkinsinella glabra (18.71%), Fursenkoina spinosa (14.26%), Bulimina psuedoaffinis (6.3%), Psuedoeponides equatoriana (5.51%) and Bulimina aculeata (3.77%). The sub-cluster indicates low seawater temperature (6.38-10.02°C), high salinity (34.96-35.04 psu), low dissolved oxygen (0.35-1.09 ml/l), very high organic matter (4.32-8.32%) and high

%Corg/TN (7.01-17.83).

Sub-cluster IVd This sub-cluster includes station MC02, MC03, MC04, MC05, MC13 and MC28 covering the depth ranges from 510 m to 1250 m. SIMPER shows an average group similarity of 39.86% and the representative species are Fursenkoina spinosa (9.5%), Bolivina obiscuranta (7.89%), Bulimina arabiensis (7.51%), Bolivina currai (6.97%), Epistominella exigua (6.58%) and Cassidulina laevigata (5.79%). The sub-cluster 181 indicates low seawater temperature (5.50-9.94°C), high salinity (34.92-35.04 psu), very low dissolved oxygen (0.48-1.43 ml/l), high organic matter (4.25-8.27%) and moderate

%Corg/TN (5.40-10.13).

Sub-cluster IVe This sub-cluster includes station MC01, MC14 to MC18, MC29 and MC30. The stations fall on the lower slope (depth ranges from 1210 to 2080 m). SIMPER shows an average group similarity of 37.99%. The representative species are Bulimina aculeate (12.9%), Rotorbinella bikinensis (12.45%), Fursenkoina spinosa (7.92%), Haplophragmoides symmetricus (7.44%), Uvigerina peregrina (6.69%) and Epistominella exigua (6.27%). The sub-cluster indicates low seawater temperature (2.58-5.65°C), high salinity (34.77- 34.93 psu), low dissolved oxygen (1.33-2.86 ml/l), very high organic matter (4.1-7.4%) and moderate %Corg/TN (6.39-12.79).

5.8 Inferences  Living benthic foraminifera are mainly (~90%) limited to the top 2 cm in the sediments. The maximum abundance of RBSF was in the Gulf of Mannar.  Across the depths, the higher abundance of foraminifera was at intermediate depths marked by perennial OMZ in the Arabian Sea. The maximum RBSF abundance at intermediate depths was followed by that in the shallow water and the lowest abundance was in deeper waters.  The maximum species diversity is at the intermediate depth, including that in the Gulf of Mannar.  A relatively higher abundance of RBSF at intermediate depths was well correlated with higher percentage of organic carbon, suggesting increased food availability for living foraminifera in the region.  Bulimina, Epistominella, Hoeglundina, Lagenammina, Melonis, Osangularia, Pullenia, Rotaliatinopsis, Rotorbinella and Uvigerina showed a positive relationship

with %Corg and %Corg/TN in the sediment.  Fissurina, Fursenkoina, Cassidulina, Buccella, Hopkinsina, Bolivina, Nonion and Trochammina showed negative relationship with dissolved oxygen. Abundance of these genera at the intermediate depth suggests that OMZ provides living space to only

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limited genera but their abundance exceed to other depths as food availability controls benthic foraminifera abundance.  Cancris penangensis, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Bolivina currai, Bulimina arabiensis, Hopkinsinella glabra and Bolivina obscuranta showed significant negative correlation with bottom water dissolved oxygen.  Epistominella umbonifera, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Uvigerina auberiana, Lagenammina longicolli, Osangularia bengalensis and Bolivina currai showed a significant positive correlation with organic carbon in the sediment which is usually higher in quantity in the intermediate depth/OMZ depths.  Rotalidium annectens, Astacolus insolitus, Bolivina compacta, Bolivina spinescens, Hanzawaia concentrica and Cancris sagra are significantly positively correlation with seawater temperature. These species represent in shallow water conditions.  Globocassidulina subglobosa, Adercotryma glomeratum, Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Eggerelloides scaber and Haplophragmoides symmetricus showed significant negative correlation with salinity. The higher abundance of these species in deeper water signifies the effect of low salinity Bay of Bengal water on the texa in the region.

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Chapter 6 Sediment Accumulation Rate in the Eastern Arabian Sea

6.1Introduction The sedimentation rate is defined as the volume of sediments deposited in unit time and is usually denoted as cm/kyr. The sedimentation rate along continental margins depends on several factors including sea level, distance from the point of riverine influx as well as the coast, shelf width, surface currents, water depth, wind direction, and the physico- chemical as well as biological conditions, especially productivity (Swift, 1974; Hill et al., 2007). Post-depositional processes, however, also affect sediments and may lead to excess accumulation as well as dissolution/removal of sediments deposited on the sea- floor (Berner, 1980; Mulder and Cochonat, 1996). The result of post-depositional diagenetic processes is the final accumulation of sediments, defined as sedimentation rate (McKee et al., 1983). The sedimentation rate in the continental margins also depends on sea-level, turbidite activity, carbonate preservation, bioturbation, wave and storm action (Krishnaswami et al., 1980; Mucci et al., 1999; Prins et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2007; Carvalho et al., 2011; Kristensen et al., 2012; Limmer et al., 2012a) as well as local tectonics (Limmer et al., 2012b). The sedimentation rate can be calculated by dating (210Pb, 14C) the sediments at different levels of the core (Borole, 1988; Manjunatha and Shankar, 1992; Nigam et al., 1995; Somayajulu et al., 1999; Carvalho et al., 2011). The changes associated with glacial-interglacial transition can affect the supply of sediments from various sources and their subsequent diagenesis, thus altering the sedimentation rate. In monsoon-dominated regions like the Arabian Sea, the sedimentation rate can vary substantially due to a large change in monsoon intensity over the glacial-interglacial transition (Enzel et al., 1999; Fleitmann et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2003; Saraswat et al., 2013). The eastern Arabian Sea is strongly affected by monsoon processes. Organic carbon influx and oxygen minimum zone intensity are other major factors which influence sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea, by modulating the sinking rate and post-depositional diagenetic alteration of sediments accumulated on the sea floor.

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Here, the change in sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during the last glacial- interglacial transitions reconstructed from well dated cores. Previously, several attempts (Borole, 1988; Manjunatha and Shankar, 1992; Nigam et al., 1995; Somayajulu et al., 1999; Pandarinath et al., 2001; Sarkar, 2011) were made to estimate the sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea. But these studies were limited in both spatial (mainly confined to the inner shelf) as well as temporal coverage (Late Holocene) (Table 6.1). Table 6.1: Details of cores used to synthesize the sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea. Sr. No. Reference Core Name Latitude Longitude Depth (°N) (°E) (m) 1 Rao et al., 2012 GC-4/SK-148/32 20.50 69.40 111 2 GC-3/SK-148/30 21.10 69.20 121 3 Thamban et al., 2001 GC-05 10.38 75.56 280 4 Staubwasser and Dulski,2002 63 KA/41KL 24.60 65.91 316 5 Tiwari et al., 2005 SK145 GC09 13.00 74.00 400 6 Thamban et al., 2007 SK148 GC55 17.75 70.86 500 7 Sarkar et al., 1990 SK20/185 10.00 71.83 523 8 Schulz et al., 1998 136KL 23.11 66.50 568 9 Von rad et al., 1995 SO90-137KL 23.12 66.49 573 10 Sarkar et al., 2000 3268G5 12.53 74.16 600 11 Singh et al., 2011 SK-17 15.25 72.96 640 12 Schulz et al., 1998 111KL 23.10 66.48 775 13 Verma and Sudhakar, 2006 SK117 GC11 08.27 76.54 776 14 Kessarkar et al., 2013 AAS62 GC1 11.50 74.62 800 15 Pichevin et al., 2007 MD 04-2876 24.80 64.00 828 16 Andrea et al., 2009 MD 04-2879 22.54 64.04 920 17 Dulk et al., 1998 NIOP455 23.33 65.57 1002 18 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 77-194 10.46 75.23 1222 19 Singh et al., 2011 MD 76131 15.53 72.56 1230 20 Saraswat et al., 2013 SK237 GC04 10.97 74.99 1245 21 Bassinot et al., 2011 MD 77-191 07.50 76.71 1254 22 Rao et al., 2010 AAS 62/2 11.00 75.00 1380 23 Kessarkar et al., 2007 SK126 GC16 08.03 76.05 1420 24 Rao et al., 2010 SSK 148/4 07.50 76.00 1420

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25 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 76-132 16.99 71.51 1430 26 Reichart et al., 1997 NIOP464 22.15 63.35 1470 27 Gupta et al., 2011 ABP/25/02 20.39 69.02 1497 28 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 76-127 12.09 73.90 1610 29 Somyajulu et al., 1999 SS 3104G 12.83 71.76 1680 30 Goswami et al., 2012 SS3104G 12.80 71.70 1680 31 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 76-128 13.13 73.31 1712 32 Schulz et al., 1998 93KL 23.58 64.21 1802 33 Naidu and Govil., 2010 AAS9 GC21 14.50 72.65 1807 34 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 76-125 08.58 75.33 1878 35 Prabhu et al., 2004 SK128A GC30 15.03 71.68 2000 36 Chodankar et al., 2005 SK129 CR04 06.50 75.98 2000 37 Goswami et al., 2012 SS3101G 06.00 74.00 2000 38 36KL 17.07 69.04 2055 Sirocko et al., 2000 39 182SK 08.77 73.70 2234 40 Pattan et al., 2012 SK129 GC05 09.35 71.98 2300 41 Zeigler et al., 2010 MD 04-2881 22.20 63.09 2387 42 Prabhu et al., 2004 SK128A GC31 13.26 71.00 2400 43 Chodankar et al., 2005 SK117 GC08 15.48 71.01 2500 44 Banakar et al., 2010 SK117 GC02 15.48 72.85 2500 45 MD 76-123 06.38 78.65 2631 46 Sirocko et al., 2000 51KL 20.96 65.55 2644 47 223SK 20.06 66.88 2686 48 CLIMAP Project Members, M1048B 21.95 64.18 2835 1976 49 Sirocko et al., 2000 MD 77-200 16.54 67.89 2910 50 Present study SK237 GC09 12.01 70.87 3001 51 Sirocko et al., 2000 232SK 21.78 64.60 3098 52 Tiwari et al., 2006 SS3827G 03.70 75.90 3118 53 Ivanova et al., 2003 NAST 19.99 65.66 3167 54 SO42-64KL 19.07 64.68 3281 55 Sirocko et al., 2000 SO42-57KL 20.90 63.12 3422 56 26KL 15.51 68.76 3776 57 Ivanova et al., 2003 EAST 15.66 68.58 3820 58 Sirocko et al., 2000 IOE181SK 07.50 71.05 4122

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Therefore, a comprehensive study with large spatial and temporal coverage is required to assess the sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea, as it will not only help in assessing the effect of monsoon and other related processes on sediment accumulation but also in selecting locations to collect undisturbed cores with suitable sample resolution. Additionally, the terrigenous influx, as well as productivity in the Arabian Sea, is controlled by monsoon (Banse, 1987; Nair et al., 1989; Prasanna Kumar et al., 2004; Chauhan et al., 2011). A large increase in sediment flux in the Indus Delta was reported during the early Holocene (Clift and Giosan, 2014). A similar early Holocene pulse of high sedimentation was also recorded in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000). These reports are substantiated by the evidence of enhanced erosion in the source regions during the early Holocene strong monsoon (Bookhagen et al., 2005; Clift et al., 2008). Therefore, it is expected that changes in monsoon intensity and extent would alter sediment deposition in the Arabian Sea. Large scale changes have been reported in monsoon intensity and seasonality over the last glacial-interglacial period (Saraswat et al., 2005b; 2013; Naik et al., 2017). Such changes might have affected the sediment accumulation in the Arabian Sea. In view of the above, sedimentation rate in the slope and abyssal regions of the eastern Arabian Sea is estimated during the last glacial-interglacial interval.

6.2 Study Area The radiocarbon-dated cores covering the last 24 kyr from the eastern Arabian Sea (Fig. 6.1) were used to estimate the sedimentation rate. The eastern Arabian Sea is bound by the western continental shelf of India in the east and Pakistan in the north. This part of the Arabian Sea receives terrigenous influx by both monsoon winds and the major rivers including the Indus, Narmada, Tapti and a few smaller ones, like the Mandovi, Zuari, Kali, Sharavathi and Swarna, during the summer monsoon. The Indus River brings 400x106 metric tons of sediment into the eastern Arabian Sea per year (Wells and Coleman, 1984; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Inam et al., 2007) with 100-150 km3/yr of fresh-water discharge. As compared to the Indus, the Narmada and Tapti Rivers contribute 30x106 t/yr (from the Narmada only) of sediment (Gupta and Chakrapani, 2005) and ca. 60000 m3/s and 40,000 m3/s freshwater, respectively (Chamyal et al., 1997; Kale et al., 2003) while the combined freshwater discharge from these rivers is

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>160,000x106 m3 (Manjunathaand Shankar, 1992). The catchment area of the Indus river system is 944573 km2, of the Narmada River, which originates at Amarkantak, 98796 km2, while that of the Tapti is 65145 km2 (Chamyal et al., 1997; Kale et al., 2003). The Western Ghatsliningthe western margin of India bordering the eastern Arabian Sea, receive a huge volume of precipitation during the southwest monsoon. A large part of this rainwater drains into the eastern Arabian Sea through several high- gradient rivers due to the high elevation (ca. 2000 m) and the Precambrian mountainous terrain (Chauhan et al., 2011 and references therein). The average annual sea surface temperature in the eastern Arabian Sea varies from 25-32°C (Locarnini et al., 2010), while the sea surface salinity ranges from 32- 37 (Antonov et al., 2010). The area is also affected by the seasonal reversal of monsoon Figure 6.1: The cores compiled for synthesizing sedimentation winds which is rate. New cores are marked by a triangle, while previously responsible for published coresare marked by a filled circle. The shaded seasonal changes in contours are bathymetry and the scale is to the right of the coastal currents figure.

(Shankar et al., 2002). The primary productivity in the eastern Arabian Sea is the highest during the southwest monsoon season because wind-induced upwelling brings a lot of nutrients to the surface (Banse, 1987; Chauhan et al., 2011). The high productivity in the

188 southeastern Arabian Sea region is also reported during the northeast monsoon season as a result of cool water influx from the Bay of Bengal (Prasanna Kumar et al., 2004). The monsoon-induced upwelling, high productivity and fresh-water discharge are linked to the perennial intense, intermediate water depth, oxygen minimum zone, as well as seasonal coastal water hypoxia in the eastern Arabian Sea (Naqvi et al., 2010). The monsoon winds and rivers bring a huge volume of terrigenous sediment and fresh-water flux into the eastern Arabian Sea (via the Indus, Narmada, Tapti, Kali and others) (Wells and Coleman, 1984; Chamyal et al., 1997; Kale et al., 2003; Gupta and Chakrapani, 2005). Besides the terrigenous input, marine productivity also, directly and indirectly, contributes a large fraction of the mass deposited in the deeper regions of the Arabian Sea (Ramaswamy et al., 1991).

6.3 Methodology Two gravity cores (SK237 GC04, 10.97N,74.99 E, 1245 m water depth; SK237 GC09, 12N, 70.87E, 3001 m water depth) were collected from the slope and abyssal region of the southeastern Arabian Sea (Fig. 6.1). The top sections of the gravity cores were dated by the accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon dating method Figure 6.2: The water depth of the cores used for the (Table 6.2) (Saraswat et al., synthesis. The cores cover a fairly uniform water depth 2013). The data from these onthe slope as well as the abyssal plain. two cores were augmented with an additional 56 radiocarbon-dated sedimentary cores compiled from the published literature. The cores lie in the slope and abyssal plain of the eastern Arabian Sea. Therefore, data from a total of 58 cores were used to calculate changes in the sedimentation rate along the eastern Arabian Sea (Table 6.1). The cores cover a fairly uniform water depth along the slope and the abyssal plain of the eastern Arabian Sea, ruling out any depth-related bias in the calculation of the sediment accumulation rate in the slope and abyssal regions (Fig. 6.2). Only radiocarbon-dated 189 cores were utilized to estimate the sediment accumulation rate. To calculate changes in the sedimentation rate, four-time slices were considered, viz. the last glacial maximum (24.0-19.0 kyr), glacial-interglacial transition (19.0-11.2 kyr), early Holocene (11.2-7.0 kyr) and the Late Holocene (7.0 kyr to present). The time intervals were decidedon the basis of significant changes in climatic conditions that also affect oceanographic processes. The early and Late Holocene boundary has been demarcated based on sea level changes in the eastern Arabian Sea (Hashimi et al., 1995). The average sedimentation rate was calculated at different time intervals, viz. 0-7.0 kyr, 7.0-11.2 kyr, 11.2-19.0 kyr and 19.0-24.0 kyr. If the core depth at any of these age intervals was not dated, then the age was estimated by extrapolating the sedimentation rate between the nearest higher and lower dated depth intervals. All the 14C dates used for calculating sedimentation rate were calibrated. As all the cores do not cover the entire glacial- interglacial time period, the cores were grouped by different time intervals. The sedimentation rate map was prepared by using Surfer-8.

Table 6.2: Details of AMS radiocarbon dates of core SK237 GC09. UGAMS Sample 14Cage Error Age-Range (1σ) Median Age (yr, # Depth (cm) (yr BP) (±) (yr, BP) BP)

5382 00-01 3693 41 2979-3180 3083 5383 25-26 12935 100 12267-1253 12382 5384 49-50 27664 413 26677-2701 26841 5385 74-75 37060 688 35707-36000 35851

6.4 Results The cores cover a fairly uniform area and water depth along the slope and the abyssal plain of the entire eastern Arabian Sea (Fig. 6.1, 6.2). Even though a huge difference in sediment accumulation is noted from core to core (Fig. 6.3), the sedimentation rate averaged over the entire slope and abyssal region is uniform during all four-time intervals (Fig. 6.4). The sediment accumulation rate in most of the cores is <20 cm/kyr (Fig. 6.5). Additionally, although regional differences are observed, the lowest sedimentation rate (>5 cm/kyr) was during the last glacial maximum (LGM), followed by the early Holocene (Fig. 6.6). The highest sedimentation rate, reaching as high as >50 cm/kyr, is observed during the Late Holocene, followed by that during the glacial-

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Figure 6.3: The thickness of the sediment section, representing four time-slices in all the cores. interglacial transition. The high sedimentation rate is confined to the inner slope region in the eastern Arabian Sea. The sedimentation rate on most of the deep slope and further deeper regions of the eastern Arabian Sea remained <10 cm/kyr throughout the studied time interval. Based on the sedimentation rate during the four-time slices, it is possible to delineate four prominent zones with medium to high sedimentation rates. These areas are 1) the northeastern Arabian Sea, 2) the region off the Gulf of Khambhat, 3) the region off Goa and Mangalore, and 4) the southeastern Arabian Sea region off the southern tip of India. The sedimentation rate in the northeastern Arabian Sea was 20-50 cm/kyr during the Figure 6.4: Average sedimentation rate during the LGM, while it decreased to 10 - four-time slices. All cores that cover the specified 50 cm/kyr during the glacial- time frame were included to calculate the average sedimentation rate. interglacial transition. The sedimentation rate subsequently increased during the early and Late Holocene. The maximum sedimentation rate in this region (>50 cm/kyr) is observed during the Late 191

Holocene and the lowest was during the glacial-interglacial transition. The sedimentation rate in the region off the Gulf of Khambhat was low (10-20 cm/kyr) during the last glacial maximum, but increased (20-30 cm/kyr) during the glacial- interglacial transition as well as the early Holocene. The highest sedimentation rate (30-50 cm/kyr) in the region off the Gulf of Khambhat was during the Late Figure 6.5: The sedimentation rate in all the cores during different time intervals. The sedimentation Holocene, the same as in the region rate in the majority of the cores is >20 cm/kyr, further north. The sedimentation whereas only a few cores have a sedimentation rate >20 cm/kyr. rate in the region off Goa and Mangalore was 10-20 cm/kyr during the LGM and the Late Holocene. The sedimentation rate in this region also increased to a maximum of 20-30 cm/kyr during the glacial- interglacial transition as well as in the early Holocene. In the southeastern Arabian Sea region off the southern tip of India, the sedimentation rate was the lowest (5-10 cm/kyr) during the last glacial maximum. Subsequently, a gradual increase in sedimentation rate in this region is observed throughout the glacial-interglacial transition until the Late Holocene. The maximum sedimentation rate (30-50 cm/kyr) in the southeastern Arabian Sea off the southern tip of India is observed during the Late Holocene.

6.5 Discussion The uniform sedimentation rate on the entire slope and abyssal region of the eastern Arabian Sea since the last glacial maximum suggests constant sediment accumulation in the eastern Arabian Sea. It further indicates that during the last glacial-interglacial transition, the terrigenous sediment influx from winds and rivers, marine productivity, and diagenetic processes, in different parts of the eastern Arabian Sea, functioned in such a way that the average sediment accumulation in the slope and abyssal region of the eastern Arabian Sea remained constant. Even a large change in sea level during the last

192 glacial-interglacial transition that exposed the entire present-day continental shelf during the last glacial maximum, did not significantly affect the overall sediment accumulation in the slope and abyssal region of the eastern Arabian Sea. The zones of minimum and maximum sediment deposition have shifted during different time intervals, as discussed below.

6.5.1 Last Glacial Maximum The sedimentation rate was comparatively uniform and less patchy during the LGM, even though the sedimentation rate was comparatively lower, but not significantly lowers than during the rest of the intervals. Both the less patchy and comparatively lower sedimentation rate during the LGM is attributed to reduced riverine influx. Several studies suggest weaker monsoons during the last glacial interval(Sirocko et al., 1991; Saraswat et al., 2012; 2013). A weaker monsoon implies reduced erosion and riverine influx (Clift et al., 2008), resulting in a reduced sedimentation rate during the LGM. Since the riverine influx was reduced, the patchiness due to high sedimentation rate in front of the river mouths is also not observed during the LGM. The most intriguing finding of this work is only a minor difference in average sedimentation rate between the LGM and the rest of the intervals, especially the Holocene. It is well known that sediment erosion in the source region of the eastern Arabian Sea is strongly coupled with Asian monsoon evolution, with lower erosion during weaker monsoon precipitation in the LGM than in the Holocene (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; Clift et al., 2008; Lupker et al., 2013). Thus considerably-reduced sediment flux and therefore sedimentation rate is expected during the LGM as compared to the Holocene. However, this is not the case, as demonstrated in this work. The changes in eolian input may be one of the possible factors resulting in less of a reduction in sedimentation rate during the LGM. However, it is unlikely that the stronger eolian input in this region during the LGM was sufficient to counteract the decreased river-derived sediment flux, as increased eolian flux during the glacial period was mainly confined to the northeastern Arabian Sea (Anil Kumar et al., 2005). Another factor likely to have counteracted an expected large decrease in sedimentation rate due to reduced riverine influx is increased biogenic flux. The CaCO3 percentage during the last glacial period, including the LGM, in many of the cores studied from the eastern Arabian Sea, was comparatively higher than that during the

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Holocene (Ivanochko, 2004; Anil Kumar et al., 2005), with a few exceptions (Agnihotri et al., 2003b; Banakar et al., 2005; Guptha et al., 2005). Therefore, it is likely that the change in CaCO3 percentage is partially responsible for the lower than expected decrease in sedimentation rate during the LGM. Similarly, the Corg percentage in the majority of the cores is comparatively higher during the last glacial period (Agnihotri et al., 2003b;

Anil Kumar et al., 2005; Banakar et al., 2005; Guptha et al., 2005). The increased CaCO3 and Corgduring cold intervals in the eastern Arabian Sea are attributed to the deepening of surface-mixed layers under the influence of strengthened winter monsoons, leading to enhanced primary productivity and thus an increased biogenic flux (Ivanova et al., 2003). The influence of winter monsoon-induced primary productivity changes is more pronounced in the northeastern Arabian Sea and is evident in the highest sedimentation rate in this region during the LGM.

6.5.2 Glacial-interglacial Transition The increase in sedimentation rate all along the eastern Arabian Sea continental slope during the glacial-interglacial transition, relative to the LGM, is attributed to the rise in sea level. The glacial-interglacial transition, in general, is characterized by a rapid rise in global sea level and abrupt climatic events (Hashimi et al., 1995; Rao et al., 2010). The increased CaCO3 and aragonite preservation, as a result of a deepening of the aragonite compensation depth and decreased organic matter production, also influenced the sedimentation rate during the glacial-interglacial transition (Singh, 2007; Singh et al., 2011). Additionally, the sea level also affected the sedimentation rate, as during the last glacial maximum the sea level was ca. 120 m below present, thus exposing the entire modern day shelf (Clark and Mix, 2002; Camoin et al., 2004). In such a scenario, prior to the sea level rise during the glacial-interglacial transition, the westward flowing rivers from India would drain into the eastern Arabian Sea, far to the west, away from the modern continental shelf, thus transporting the sediments even out to the slope and further deeper regions as suggested by incised valleys and paleo-channels (SubbaRaju et al., 1991). The deglacial melt-driven rise in sea-stand, during the glacial-interglacial transition, inundated a part of the continental shelf. The inundation restricted the dispersal of riverine sediments to the modern day continental shelf and inner slope, as evident from an increase in the sedimentation rate from 10-20 cm/kyr during the LGM to 20-30 cm/kyr

194 during the glacial- interglacial transition, all along the eastern Arabian Sea slope, except for a few small patches. An abrupt increase in the sedimentation rate during the last glacial maximum at ~19 kyr, which is 2- 3 times higher than the rest of the glacial period as well as the Holocene has, however, been observed in a few cores (Verma and Sudhakar, 2006; Sarkar, 2011). The Figure 6.6: The sedimentation rate (cm/kyr) during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 24-19 kyr), Glacial-interglacial increased transition (GIT; 19.0-11.2 kyr), Early Holocene (EH; 11.2-7.0 sedimentation rate kyr), and Late Holocene (LH; 7 kyr-Recent). during the last glacial maximum is contrary to the possible monsoon-induced sediment transport, as it was a period of lower southwest monsoon intensity (Saraswat et al., 2013). The northeastern Arabian Sea still received a high sedimentation rate because of the enhanced aridity-induced reduced binding capacity of the soil. The erosion increased due to reduced building capacity of soil and transportation of the windborne sediment from the ‘Thars’ to the northeastern Arabian Sea (Sarkar, 2011). The reworking of sediments from the upper slope region might have also contributed to the high sedimentation rate (Verma and Sudhakar, 2006). A few cores, however, record a lower sedimentation rate of 4.5 cm/kyr during the glacial-interglacial transition (Rao et al., 2010).

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6.5.3 Holocene The sedimentation rate during the Holocene is again driven by a combination of sea-level rise as well as monsoon. The high sedimentation rate regions during both the early and Late Holocene are either near the river mouth (northeastern Arabian Sea and Gulf of Khambhat) or have high productivity (southeastern Arabian Sea). The early Holocene was a period of highly variable climate, having the Holocene climatic optimum (warm period) with >50 m lower sea level and a rapid increase in rainfall. The southwest monsoon was at its maximum between 8-11 kyr (Fleitmann et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2003). The intensified southwest monsoon is also responsible for wind-induced upwelling, which facilitates high primary productivity. The high productivity combined with fresh water influx-induced stratification intensifies the oxygen minimum zone in the area (Naqvi et al., 2010). The intense oxygen minimum zone reduces the oxidation of organic matter and increases its likelihood of preservation, adding to the mass deposited in the sediments. The higher sedimentation rate during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition period (in comparison to the Holocene) has been reported in a few cores collected from the southeastern Arabian Sea (Pandarinath et al., 2001). The Late Holocene was a relatively stable phase with minor climatic changes, a steady sea level and stronger southwest monsoons. The strengthened monsoon winds during interglacial periods like the Holocene induce high productivity by supplying nutrients through upwelling and/or increased runoff, thus leading to an increased sedimentation rate (Weedon and Shimmield, 1991; Shimmield, 1992; Reichart et al., 1997; Schnetger et al., 2000). The Late Holocene records the highest productivity of the last 140 ka (Pattan et al., 2003). The sedimentation rate pattern in the Late Holocene clearly resembles the patchy primary productivity map of the eastern Arabian Sea (Pant, 1992). The patchy primary productivity is attributed to high nitrogen and phosphorus levels in river water that enhances productivity in regions drained by the rivers. Previous studies also suggest high sedimentation in the regions off the Gulf of Khambhat, Goa and Mangalore during the Late Holocene (Manjunatha and Shankar, 1992; Somayajulu et al., 1999; Pandarinath et al., 2001) (Fig. 6.6). The southeastern Arabian Sea region, off the southern tip of India, also has a relatively higher sedimentation rate (20-50 cm/kyr) during the early and Late Holocene. The productivity in the highly hypoxic region off the southern tip of India is influenced 196 and regulated by the cross-basin exchange of water during both summer and winter monsoon seasons (Prasanna Kumar et al., 2004). In the southeastern Arabian Sea, fluvial processes are active only in the shallow shelf region and the upwelling controls the productivity in the deeper regions during the summer monsoon season (Chauhan et al., 2011). Despite the intense summer monsoon, the along-shore hydrography of modern times restricts transport of terrigenous material derived from the Western Ghats region of India to the middle and outer shelf region of the southeastern Arabian Sea, resulting in reduced sedimentation in this region (Chauhan et al., 2011). However, a gradual increase in productivity from the early Holocene to the present, as a result of the increase in wind intensity in response to the southward shift of the monsoon winds, has been reported from this region (Bassinot et al., 2011). Therefore, the increase in sedimentation rate off the southern tip of India, during the Holocene, is attributed to increased productivity. Besides productivity, dissolved oxygen also influences mass accumulation in the continental margin off the southern tip of India. In the southeastern Arabian Sea, the increased abundance of organic carbon and CaCO3 in the glacial sediments was attributed to productivity-induced low-oxygenated bottom waters and reducing sedimentary conditions. The higher organic carbon and CaCO3 in the early-to-Late Holocene sediments were ascribed to productivity and oxygenated bottom waters (Rao et al., 2010). Previous studies suggest that north of the southeastern Arabian Sea, convective mixing and more richly oxygenated subsurface waters during the winter monsoon season resulted in higher primary productivity and reduced denitrification during the last glacial maximum. The strengthened stratification as a result of an intensified southwest monsoon-induced precipitation, however, decreased primary productivity during MIS 1/2 and mid-MIS 3 (Kessarkar et al., 2010).

6.5.4 Spatial Changes An overall decrease in the sedimentation rate from the northeastern Arabian Sea to the southeastern Arabian Sea is attributed to the change in terrigenous influx, hemipelagic sedimentation, productivity and the oxygen minimum zone intensity. The hemipelagic sedimentation in the slope region of the eastern Arabian Sea decreases from near the Indus River mouth (ca. 10 cm/kyr) to the southern tip of India (3.5 cm/kyr) (Zobel, 1973). The volume of sediments brought by the Indus River is an order of magnitude

197 higher than the combined influx of the rest of the rivers draining into the eastern Arabian Sea, resulting in a huge volume of sediment influx into the northeastern Arabian Sea (Chauhan et al., 2000). The fine clays brought by the Indus River are transported out to the outer shelf along the west coast of India, leading to a decrease in the sedimentation rate towards the south (Ramaswamy and Nair, 1989). Previously, a low sedimentation rate in two cores collected from the inner shelf region off Mangalore was attributed to a low quantity of suspended particulate matter in the rivers (Netravati and Gurupur) draining this region as compared to the rivers further north. The suspended particulate matter in the Narmada and Tapti rivers is two orders of magnitude higher when compared with other peninsular rivers that drain into the eastern Arabian Sea, south of the Gulf of Khambhat. The high quantity of suspended particulate matter in the Narmada and Tapti rivers as compared to the rivers further south is attributed to the rocks exposed in the catchment area. The Deccan basalts, covering a large part of the catchment area of the Narmada and Tapti rivers are more susceptible to weathering than the granitic gneisses and charnockites that cover a large part of the catchment area of the peninsular rivers (Manjunath and Shankar, 1992). The highest sedimentation rate is restricted to the inner slope, due to the coastal currents (Shankar et al., 2002), as well as the shelf width and gradient. All of the material, including the fine clays brought in by the peninsular rivers, deposits along the shelf, with minimal cross-shelf transport resulting in a high sedimentation rate in the shelf and inner slope region (Ramaswamy and Nair, 1989). The majority of clay sedimentation is, at present, restricted to the inner and middle shelf (Siddiquie et al., 1981). The tremendous terrigenous influx by the Indus, Narmada and Tapti rivers further affects the sedimentation rate in this region by modulating the shelf and slope configuration. The continental slope gradient decreases from the north of the Gulf of Khambhat (narrow shelf and slope, shallow shelf-break) to its south (wide shelf and slope, deep shelf-break) in response to the fluvial supply of the sediments, with the discharge of terrigenous detritus by the Himalayan rivers (Indus) being much higher than the combined discharge by all the peninsular rivers (Narmada, Tapti, Mahi, Sabarmati) (Chauhan et al., 2000). The high (>30 cm/kyr) sedimentation rate in the northeastern Arabian Sea, compared with the rest of the region, during all four time segments, including the highest observed sedimentation rate during the last glacial maximum, glacial-interglacial 198 transition and Holocene, is attributed to a combination of changing terrigenous influx, productivity, and oxygen minimum zone intensity, in this region (Reichert et al., 1998). The decrease in sedimentation rate in the northeastern Arabian Sea during the glacial- interglacial transition (though still the highest out of all the eastern Arabian Sea), as compared to that during the last glacial maximum and Holocene, is attributed to weaker deglacial southwest monsoon intensity (Saraswat et al., 2013), which lowers the terrigenous influx by the Indus River (Naidu, 1991). The varve thickness and turbidite frequency off Pakistan depend on precipitation intensity and river runoff. The sedimentation rate in this region also depends on sea surface productivity, as it not only directly contributes to the mass accumulation on the seabed but also indirectly favours flux of lithogenic material as a result of scavenging and rapid settling of lithic sediments by biogenic matter (Ramaswamy et al., 1991). The highly bioturbated sediments with low organic carbon and high CaCO3 and pteropod content, indicate periods of less intense southwest monsoon during cold periods, while the strong monsoon-induced biological productivity results in well-laminated bands rich in organic carbon in the region off Pakistan; the productivity leading to organic carbon-rich bands in the cores collected off Pakistan is linked to advection of nutrient-rich water upwelled off Oman and brought to this region by anticyclonic gyre (Schulz et al., 1998). It should, however, be noted here that Sirocko et al. (1991) reported a sudden increase in CaCO3 and a decrease in the eolian lithic component during the early Holocene and a subsequent decrease during the Late Holocene, based on a core (74KL) collected from the northwestern Arabian Sea. This unusual change was attributed to an intense southwest monsoon activity during the early Holocene and aridification during the Late Holocene. The sedimentation rate in the northwestern Arabian Sea is different from that in the northeastern Arabian Sea. The difference in sedimentation rate between these two regions is because while the northwestern Arabian Sea is marked by a seasonal reversal in surface circulation due to the strong southwestern-monsoon winds during summer (July-August), and northeastern winds during winter (December-February), such a seasonal reversal of current directions is less distinct off Pakistan (Schulz et al., 1998). The sedimentation rate increased gradually from the last glacial maximum to the Late Holocene in the region off the Gulf of Khambhat. The changes in sedimentation rate in this region are also attributed to the sea level rise, changing shelf configuration and 199 monsoon intensity. The increase in sea level shifts the location of terrigenous sedimentation from the present slope (during the last glacial maximum) to the continental shelf region (during the Late Holocene). As the Narmada and Tapti rivers are the main sources of terrigenous material off the Gulf of Khambhat, the clay accumulation rate decreases from the river mouth (1.9 cm/yr) towards the deeper water regions of the shelf and slope (1.8 mm/yr) (Borole, 1988). Even though a few records suggest decreased southwest monsoon intensity during the Late Holocene, the nonetheless increased sedimentation rate is attributed to the sedimentation being restricted only to the inner slope. The third zone, the continental margin off Goa and Mangalore, received an average sediment accumulation (10-30 cm/kyr) during all four phases, but a comparatively higher sedimentation rate during the glacial-interglacial transition and the early Holocene (10-30 cm/kyr). The findings of this work will also help in the reconstruction of past climatic events from the eastern Arabian Sea, which requires the delineation of areas to recover undisturbed sediments of appropriate sample resolution. Often, cores are collected and worked upon, only to realize later that either the core is disturbed, or does not have the required resolution. The sample resolution depends on sedimentation rate, as the higher (or lower) the sedimentation rate, the finer (or coarser) the sample resolution. Therefore, in order to avoid the waste of resources and time, a prior knowledge of sedimentation rate is important as it helps in selecting the optimal location to recover sediments for paleoclimatic reconstruction. Therefore, this work will help to assess sedimentation rate in the area of interest in the eastern Arabian Sea.

6.6 Inferences The estimation of spatio-temporal changes in the sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during the last glacial-interglacial period reveals a uniform average sedimentation rate in the entire slope to the abyssal region of the eastern Arabian Sea. The negligible difference in sedimentation rate since the last glacial-interglacial transition, suggests compensation between various processes, so as to lead to a constant average sedimentation throughout the last 24 kyr. However, regional changes in sedimentation rate are reported. Restriction of the high sedimentation rate zones to the inner slope region, especially during the Holocene, is attributed to minimal cross-shelf

200 transport and rapid sea level rise. The gradual increase in sedimentation rate from the last glacial maximum to the Holocene in the southeastern Arabian Sea off the southern tip of India is attributed to the increase in monsoon-induced productivity. The insignificant difference in the average sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during climatically contrasting conditions is attributed to the compensation between terrigenous and biogenic/organic matter contributions in the eastern Arabian Sea, which is mainly controlled by monsoon and oxygen minimum zone intensity. A strengthened monsoon enhances primary productivity, which intensifies the oxygen minimum zone, leading to enhanced accumulation of organic matter and riverine influx in the bottom sediments, but increased dissolution of biogenic carbonate. Thus both the terrigenous and biogenic/organic matter fluxes are the major factors that regulate sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea. Based on information about the sedimentation rate, the region off the southern tip of India was chosen to reconstruct past hydrographic changes and the details are discussed in the next chapter.

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Chapter 7 Past Temperature, Monsoon, Productivity Changes

7.1 Introduction The northern Indian Ocean, including both the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (BoB) are the major source of moisture for the monsoonal precipitation over southern Asia (Mei et al., 2015). The projected warming of 0.6°C in this region is supposed to increase rainfall in the southern and central Indian region (Singh and Oh, 2007) and extreme monsoon precipitation due to the increased moisture flux from the ocean (Goswami et al., 2006, Wang and Ding, 2006; Chevuturi et al., 2018), the so-called “warmer-gets-wetter” scenario (Christensen et al., 2013). In contrast, some studies indicate a weakening of monsoon because of the warming of Indo-Pacific region (Annamalai et al., 2013) and a lower land-sea thermal contrast resulting from stronger heating of the western Indian Ocean (Roxy et al., 2015).The short and long-term trends of extreme rainfall events over the South Asian (Indian) monsoon realm are regulated by sea surface temperature (SST) changes over the tropical Indian Ocean (Rajeevan et al., 2008). Several studies from the Arabian Sea (Saher et al., 2007; Anand et al., 2008; Banakar et al., 2010, 2017; Govil and Naidu, 2010; Mahesh et al., 2011; Kessarkar et al., 2013; Saraswat et al., 2013; Feldmeijer et al., 2014; Tiwari et al., 2015; Tierney et al., 2016; Munz et al., 2017), Bay of Bengal (Rashid et al., 2011, Govil and Naidu, 2011; Kumar et al., 2018), Andaman Sea (Rashid et al., 2007; Gebrigeorgis et al., 2016, 2018; Gaye et al., 2018) and the northern Indian Ocean (Saraswat et al., 2005a; Tachikawa et al., 2009) suggest tropical Indian Ocean SST being critical for the monsoon with warmer SST and increased monsoon intensity being interdependent. In contrast, there is a growing evidence that the warmer SST does not always correlate with intense monsoon, particularly during cold climate intervals like Heinrich Stadials (HS) and the Younger Dryas (YD) (Anand et al., 2008; Mohtadi et al., 2014) when the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) was weak or completely shut off. The recent studies suggest that the entire Indian ocean SST did not respond similarly during these intervals with cooling in the western Indian Ocean/Arabian Sea (Tierney et al., 2016) and warming in the equatorial

202 and the eastern Indian Ocean (Anand et al., 2008; Mohtadi et al., 2014; Panmei et al., 2017). However, all these findings suggest a weakening of the monsoon either because of surface cooling that weakened the monsoon winds or by reorganization of the Hadley circulation including a southward displacement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). During the Holocene, records off Oman margin provide decadal to millennial scale information about past changes in monsoon winds (Gupta et al., 2003; 2006; Saher et al., 2007). The upwelling and productivity trends in the western and eastern Arabian Sea, however, are different during the Holocene. In the western Arabian Sea, the wind induced upwelling, inferred from the relative abundance of Globigerina bulloides, decreased since the early Holocene (8-9 kyr). In contrast, upwelling increased in the eastern Arabian Sea/off the southern tip of India during the same interval because of a southward shift of the boreal summer monsoon winds over the Arabian Sea (Bassinot et al., 2011, Naik et al., 2017). The total organic carbon (%Corg), a proxy for past productivity, however, increased in both the western (Saher et al., 2007) and the eastern Arabian Sea (Naik et al., 2017). These results underline the spatial heterogeneity of proxy records of monsoon winds within the Arabian Sea. So far, there is no sub-centennial to multi-decadal proxy record of monsoon wind or rainfall from the upwelling zone of the eastern Arabian Sea (off the southern tip of India), a key region for cross basin exchange of water between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, depending on the relative strengths of the winter and summer monsoon winds and precipitation. Besides the regional factors, boreal summer insolation is critical for monsoon. A few workers suggest that the 65°N insolation strongly modulates Indian monsoon (Beaufort, 1996; Sun et al., 2015). A few other studies emphasize on the strong influence of inter-hemispheric summer insolation difference like Indian Summer Monsoon Index (ISMI) 30°N - 30°S (Leuschner and Sirocko, 2003), tropics to equatorial insolation difference during winter (Saraswat et al., 2012) and summer inter-tropical insolation gradient (SITIG) between 23°N - 23°S, on monsoon precipitation on orbital time scale (Bosmans et al., 2015). The quantitative estimates of the past runoff, SST, upwelling and productivity during contrasting boundary conditions on both longer glacial-interglacial as well as high resolution sub-centennial to multi-decadal scale can help to better understand the factors affecting monsoon intensity. 203

Here, both the faunal (paired Mg/Ca and δ18O of surface-dwelling planktic foraminifera Globigerinoides ruber sensu stricto, Mg/Ca derived thermocline 18 18 temperature, ice-volume corrected seawater δ O (δ Osw-ivc), Ba/Ca, species relative abundance) and geochemical (CaCO3, Corg and Corg/TN) proxy records of the last glacial - interglacial interval are presented from marine sediment archives, viz. 1) SSD004 GC03 and 2) SSD004 GC11 along with core top samples from the upwelling zone off the southern tip of India. The proxy records are used to understand temporal changes in the regional hydrography and their possible forcing mechanisms.

7.2 Surface/modern Condition 18 δ Oruber varies between -2.85 to -1.70‰. The area between 7-8°N and 77-79°E has 18 18 higher δ Oruber (Fig. 7.1a). A relatively higher δ Oruber is observed around the core 18 upwelling zone. As discussed previously, δ Oruber is affected by upwelling as it brings cold seawater to the surface.

18 Figure 7.1: The spatial change in a) δ Oruberand b) Mg/Ca SST (°C) off the southern tip of India. 18 Mg/Ca derived SST supports the spatial distribution of δ Oruber. Low SST 18 (<28°C) is associated with higher δ Oruber (Fig. 7.1b). Again, upwelling is the most probable reason for this relatively cooler water resulting in low Mg/Ca derived SST and 18 higher δ Oruber.

7.3 Sub-centennial Temperature Variation During the Last 38 kyr The unprecedented increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration, post-industrialization, is a major cause of concern and is suggested as the main driver of recent global warming. Prior to industrialization, earth’s climate fluctuated between long gradual glacial intervals followed by rapid deglaciation leading to a brief interglacial. A change in atmospheric 204

concentration from ~180 ppmv during the peak glacial to ~280 ppmv during the interglacial is suggested as a major driver of the change in global temperature during glacial-interglacial transitions. The contrasting lead-lag relationship between the

beginning of the deglacial warming and increase in atmospheric CO2, however, poses the biggest challenge to address in the paleoclimate research. From the long term data of several glacial-interglacial transitions, it was inferred that the Northern Hemisphere summer insolation triggered the last four deglaciations (Kawamura et al., 2007). A clear

asynchrony between Antarctic temperature and CO2 has also been suggested (Uemura et al., 2018). From a few other marine records of Termination-I, it is evident that the SST

began to warm 500-1000 years prior to CO2 increase, in the tropical Pacific Ocean (Stott et al., 2007; Sarnthein et al., 2011) as well as northern Indian Ocean (Saraswat et al.,

2013). Even global average deglacial warming preceded atmospheric CO2 (Shakun et al., 2012) and lagged in Antarctica also (Fischer at al., 1999; Monnin et al., 2001; Pedro et

al., 2012; Gest et al., 2017). However, the Later revised atmospheric CO2 and Antarctic

temperature stack suggested a synchronous CO2 and temperature change during deglaciation (Parrenin et al., 2013) in the Antarctica. This suggests either that the lead-lag

relationship between temperature and atmospheric CO2, is yet to be established or varies regionally. The problem arises because of the lack of high-resolution multi-decadal to sub-centennial data of temperature change during the glacial-interglacial transition. Therefore, the high resolution records of the glacial-interglacial transitions have to be reconstructed from different parts of the world to understand the relationship between

temperature and CO2.

7.3.1 Results and Discussion The average SST of the top 4 cm section of the core was ~27.0°C and is considered as the representative of the preindustrial time. The Mg/Ca derived core top SST is close to the climatological SST (27.4°C). Mg/Ca derived SST ranged between 24.6-28.6°C during the past 38 kyr (Fig.7.2). During the LGM, average SST was 25.3±0.3°C.SST warmed by ~4°C during the last glacial-interglacial transition. The lowest SST during the last glacial maximum was, however only 1.6±0.28°C lower than the preindustrial SST. As compared to preindustrial SST, MIS3 was 1.0±0.3°C cooler. The deglacial warming in the northern

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Indian Ocean started at ~20.1 kyr (age ranges between 19.8 to 20.4 kyr). Between 20.1- 19.3 kyr, SST warmed by 1.3±0.4°C (Fig. 7.2). The second warming step between 19.0- 17.7 kyr, was even more rapid with an increase of 2.4±0.4°C. In the remaining part ofHS1, SST remained stable and varied only within the 1σ error between 26.4-27.6±0.3°C. During Bølling- Allerød interstadial (12.7- 14.7 kyr), SST warmed by 1.2±0.8°C, while during the Younger Dryas (11.7-12.9 kyr), SST was warmer by 0.85±0.3°C, as compared to the regional preindustrial SST. During MIS1, SST

18 decreased continuously until Figure 7.2: Temporal variation in a) δ Oruber, b) G. bulloidesrelative abundance, c) Ba/Ca, d) δ18O and 7.9 kyr. Afterwards, SST sw-ivc e) SST (°C) during the past 38 kyr, in core SSD004 showed uneven pattern with GC03 off the southern tip of India. Inverted triangles 18 increased in SST centered at show radiocarbon dates. SST and δ Osw-ivc are plotted with 1σ error envelop. 4.4 kyr (1.5±0.3°C) and 2.4 kyr

(0.8±0.3°C) as compared to the preindustrial value.

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Figure 7.3: SST (°C) variation in the northern Indian Ocean during the past 38 kyr. a) Records from the upwelling regions of the western Arabian Sea (ODP 723A, Naik and Naidu, 2014) and the eastern Indian Ocean (GeoB10069-3, Gibbons et al., 2014); b) record off the southern tip of India (SSD004 GC03, this study). Black line represents 3-point average; error envelop (1σ) is also indicated. c) the records from the non-upwelling regions of the western Arabian Sea (178 15P- Tierney et al., 2016), the eastern Arabian Sea (SK17- Anand et al., 2008, AAS9/21- Govil and Naidu, 2010, SK237GC04- Saraswat et al., 2013), equatorial Indian Ocean (SK157GC04- Saraswat

et al., 2005a), central Bay of Bengal (SK157GC14- Raza et al., 2017) and equatorial eastern Indian Ocean (SO189-119KL and SO189-39KL- Mohtadi et al., 2014). SST values are same as in the original publications, without any recalibration or correction. Horizontal bars indicate MIS: Marine Isotopic Stage and vertical bars YD: Younger Dryas, HS: Heinrich Stadial, and LGM: Last Glacial Maximum.

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The Mg/Ca derived SST record of SSD004 GC03 shows ~4.0±0.4°C glacial- interglacial change and a LGM to preindustrial SST difference of 1.6±0.28°C (Fig. 3). The latter is in line with other SST records from upwelling regions with preindustrial SST being warmer by 1-2°C as compared to LGM (ODP 723A; GeoB10069-3) but ~1°C less than the records from the relatively open ocean regions of the northern Indian Ocean (Saraswat et al., 2014 and references therein; Gebrigeorgis et al., 2016; Raza et al., 2017) (Fig. 7.3). The deglacial warming in this high resolution record began at 20.1 kyr, which correlates well with local summer insolation (21 July). At the same time, an abrupt increase in G. bulloides relative abundance in the SSD004 GC03, and regional pCO2increase (Naik et al., 2015; Fig. 7.4) has also been observed. The deglacial warming at the site precededCO2 rise in the Antarctica by ~2 kyr (Parrenin et al., 2013).The deglacial warming in SSD004 GC03 also precedes other records from the Indian Ocean, where deglaciation started between 18-19 kyr. The difference in deglacial warming onset in SSD004 GC03 as compared to other marine records, is attributed to both the coarse resolution as well as the use of different G. ruber morphotypes (sensu stricto/sensu lato). The response of different G. ruber morphotypes to warming might differ during the early deglaciation (Mohtadi et al., 2010a). The two-step deglacial warming at 20.1 and 19.0 kyr is different than other parts of the northern Indian Ocean, where a second step occurred at ~17 kyr (Saher et al., 2007; Govil and Naidu., 2010; Saraswat et al., 2013). The 3-point running average of SST in SSD004GC03 record (Fig. 7.3) indicates that the absence of second warming step might be a result of a lower temporal resolution in other records. The high latitudinal (65°N) summer insolation begins to rise between 22-21 kyr, earlier than the beginning of deglacial warming in SSD004 GC03 (Laskar et al., 2004). The deglacial warming in SSD004 GC03 is concomitant with the increase in local (7°N) summer insolation. Therefore, the local insolation was the primary factor to trigger deglacial warming in the northern Indian Ocean and 65°N does not directly modulate deglacial warming in the tropics. The early warming in the North Atlantic is suggested as the primary cause of deglaciation including the warming in the southern hemisphere and topical oceans by slowing down or shutting off the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) 208

(Shakun et al., 2012) and associated weakening of Indian monsoon (Mohtadi et al., 2014). The slower AMOC restricts the inflow of cold Atlantic water into the Indian Ocean which probably led to the second abrupt warming step as observed in SSD004 GC03. Similar abrupt warming (~1.0-1.5°C) during the Younger Dryas (a North Atlantic cold event) is also reported from the Bay of Bengal (Panmei et al., 2017). Beside this, atmospheric CO2 is another factor that possibly contributed to the rise in SST. The atmospheric CO2 abruptly increased during the North Atlantic cold phases because of thermal imbalance in the Southern Ocean. The slower AMOC initiated upwelling, resulting into out-gassing of CO2 from ~18 kyr onwards (Monnin et al., 2001; Anderson et al., 2009; Skinner et al., 2010). In addition to the Southern Ocean, the southeastern

Arabian Sea also contributed to the deglacial CO2 rise (Naik et al., 2015). In order to evaluate the basin wide response to the North Atlantic cold events, the SST from SSD004 GC03 is compared with other published records from the Indian Ocean. During HS1, the plateau-like warm SST resembles those from the eastern (Mohtadi et al., 2014) and central equatorial Indian Ocean (Anand et al., 2008; Saraswat et al., 2013) but differs from a cooler western Indian Ocean (Tierney et al., 2016). The 1.2±0.7°C warming, during Bølling-Allerød matches well with other records from the northern Indian Ocean (Govil and Naidu, 2011; Kessarkar et al, 2013). During YD, 0.85±0.3°C warming in SSD004 GC03 is same as that in the BoB (~1°C) (Panmei et al., 2017). However, no significant warming was observed during YD, in the southeastern Arabian Sea (Saraswat et al., 2013). Similar to Heinrich Stadial (HS1), the western Arabian Sea also cooled during YD (Tierney et al., 2016) (Fig. 7.4). The SSD004 GC03 SST record shows a clear decreasing trend from early to Late Holocene. The cooling trend is very characteristic of the upwelling regions and also observed in the western (Saher et al., 2007; Naik and Naidu, 2014) and eastern (Gibbons et al., 2014) Indian Ocean. The upwelling brings relatively cold subsurface waters to the surface. The upwelling has been suggested to have strengthened off the southern tip of India through the Holocene, as indicated by the increased relative abundance of Globigerina bulloides (Bassinot et al., 2011), it has cooled the surface waters, throughout the Holocene. In contrast, SST records from non-upwelling regions show a warming or no trend during the Holocene (Mohtadi et al., 2014) (Fig. 7.3).

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7.4 Sub-centennial Monsoon Changes During the Last 38 kyr The Bay of Bengal (BoB) annually receives a large amount of fresh water (~0.14 Sv) from the major (Ganga, Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy) and minor (Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari) rivers as a result of monsoonal precipitation over Indian subcontinent (Sengupta et al., 2006; Wilson and Riser, 2016). This fresh water flows along the eastern margin of India as a narrow coastal current and reaches up to the equatorial Indian Ocean and further into the southeastern Arabian Sea and thus affects the core site (Shankar et al., 2002). Any change in salinity in the surrounding of the core site is directly related to changes in monsoonal precipitation that dictate the BoB salinity. Based on these modern 18 observations, δ Osw in SSD004 GC03 record is used to reconstruct past rainfall-related 18 salinity changes, with high (low) δ Osw indicating increased (decreased) BoB salinity and reduced (enhanced) monsoonal precipitation. Similarly, the strengthened precipitation results in increased fresh water runoff from land carrying more Ba to the sea and thus increasing the Ba/Ca ratio.

7.4.1 Results and Discussion Indian Monsoon shows a strong dependency on high latitudinal (65°N) boreal summer insolation (Clemens et al., 1991) which has relatively strong obliquity signal than low latitudes. Another insolation parameter, Indian Summer Monsoon Index (ISMI; 30°N- 30°S insolation), has a much stronger obliquity signal, relative to precession, than insolation at single low latitude. During July month, a strong ISMI increases the inter- hemispheric pressure between the two limbs of the winter hemisphere Hadley cell, that drives monsoon winds into the summer hemisphere (Leuschner and Sirocko, 2003; 18 Bosmans et al., 2015). The first order variability in SSD004 GC03 δ Osw record as well as Ba/Ca follows ISMI and Indian monsoon precipitation (Fig. 7.4) suggesting a generally weak Indian summer monsoon during glacial and the Late Holocene and a strong Indian summer monsoon during the early Holocene.

18 During MIS3, Ba/Ca and δ Osw lack any long-term trend but are punctuated with a few prominent millennial scale intense monsoon spell at ~31.5, 33.8 and 35.8 kyr BP. 18 Similar low δ Osw (strong monsoon) was also reported from the western BoB (Govil and Naidu, 2011) and the eastern Arabian Sea (Anand et al., 2008; Saraswat et al., 18 2013).During MIS2, δ Osw progressively enriched with a contemporaneous decrease in

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Figure 7.4: Temporal variation in a) Ba/Ca, b) δ18O of ice volume corrected seawater relative, c) relative abundance of Globigerina bulloides, d) Mg/Ca derived-SST during the past 38 kyr, in core SSD004 GC03 off southern tip of India.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) at EPICA Dome C, Antarctica (e;

Parrenin et al., 2013), pCO2 (µatm) evolution in the southeastern Arabian Sea (f; Naik et al., 2015), Indian summer monsoon index (ISMI) (g), 21 July Boreal summer insolation at 7°N (h), and ΔT= northern Hemisphere and Southern thermal difference(i; Shakun et al., 2012), are shown for comparison. Vertical bars MH: Mid-Holocene, YD: Younger Dryas, HS: Heinrich Stadial 1 (~14.9-17.5 kyr), and yellow bar show interval of onset of the glacial termination and subsequent warming (20.1 to 17.7 kyr). Dashed vertical line marked second step of warming at 19.0 kyr.

Ba/Ca ratio towards the later part of LGM until 16.4 kyr, suggesting a continuous weakening of the monsoon (Fig. 7.4). This finding is in agreement with previous results based on low-resolution records suggesting a weaker southwest monsoon and a reduced inflow of BoB water in this region during the LGM (Mahesh and Banakar, 2014). Likewise, a decrease in Ba/Ca in the Andaman Sea has also been interpreted to reflect a weaker ISM rainfall, i.e. a weaker southwest monsoon, and saltier conditions in the BoB during the LGM (Gebregiorgis et al., 2016).

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During early HS1, the weakest monsoon interval is inferred from the most 18 enriched δ Osw at the core site in line with results from other studies (Saraswat et al., 2013; Mohtadi et al., 2014; Tierney et al., 2016). Combined with the lowest Ba/Ca during this interval (1.3±0.4‰), it is suggested that during the early HS1, both the southwest and the northeast monsoon wind and rainfall were the weakest. The subsequent decrease in 18 δ Osw and increase in Ba/Ca suggest a strengthening monsoon towards the Late HS1. An intensification of monsoon towards the end of HS1 and beginning of B-A was proposed from the records reconstructed from the western and eastern Arabian Sea (Tierney et al., 2016; Kessarkar et al., 2013), as well as the Andaman Sea (Gebregiorgis et al., 2016). 18 The very low δ Osw in SSD004 GC03 record during B-A suggest a major intensification of the southwest monsoon in line with records from both the eastern Arabian Sea and BoB (Govil and Naidu, 2011; Kessarkar et al., 2013). Within B-A, an 18 episode of enriched δ Osw was found at ~13 kyr, which show similarity with the western Arabian Sea (ODP 723A, Gupta et al., 2013) suggesting a weak southwest monsoon 18 during Allerød. During YD, δ Osw increased, suggesting a weaker monsoon, as reported previously from the northern (Anand et al., 2008) and eastern Indian Ocean (Mohtadi et al., 2014). The weaker monsoon during HS1 and YD was either due to a repositioning of Hadley Cell and southward movement of the ITCZ (Mohtadi et al., 2014), or a cooler SST in the western Arabian Sea that led to weaker winds and less precipitation (Tierney et al., 2016). In the former scenario, freshwater discharge during HS1 and YD resulted in slowdown of the AMOC and a reduced northward Atlantic heat transport. The Northern Hemisphere cooling (and Southern Hemisphere warming) led to a reorganization of the mean Hadley circulation including a southward movement of ITCZ and a weaker monsoon in the northern part of the Indian Ocean (Mohtadi et al., 2014). In this scenario, a large-scale atmospheric reorganization in response to the AMOC slowdown during HS1 and YD affects the vertical shear over monsoonal Asia, and ultimately weakens the monsoon. The latter scenario implies a regional ocean (Arabian Sea) response to the North Atlantic cooling during HS1 that reduces the moisture transport towards the monsoonal Asia (Tierney et al., 2016). However, almost the entire Mg/Ca-based SST reconstructions from the northern Indian Ocean that resolve these timescales, from off the southern tip of India (this study), eastern (Anand et al., 2008; Saraswat et al., 2013) and 212 western Arabian Sea (Anand et al., 2008), BoB (Panmei et al., 2017), and from the eastern tropical Indian Ocean (Mohtadi et al., 2014) show warm SST anomalies during HS1 and YD. The only Mg/Ca-based SST record that shows a net cooling during the YD is from the Gulf of Aden between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean (Tierney et al., 2016) and might reflect processes unrelated to monsoon circulation or strength. 18 The interval between 9.0-11.7 kyr was marked by a progressively depleted δ Osw, hence strengthened monsoon. The early Holocene monsoon optimum has been reported by several workers (Gupta et al., 2003; Mohtadi et al., 2014). During the Holocene solar 18 maxima centered at 8-9 kyr, δ Osw was the most depleted (0.07‰), suggesting a relatively strong southwest monsoon. The stronger southwest monsoon at ~9 kyr was also reported from the western Arabian Sea (Prell, 1984), suggesting that the monsoon in the entire south Asian region was governed by solar forcing during the early Holocene. During this interval, Ba/Ca was also very high and is attributed to both the strengthened monsoon as well as rapid sea level rise at Melt water Pulse 1c (Smith et al., 2011) and flooding of the shallow shelf (<40 m water depth) off the southern tip of India. The increased sea level released Ba from the formerly exposed areas and thus resulted in anomalously high Ba/Ca (see e.g. Carroll et al., 1993). From 8 kyr onwards, the 18 increasing trend of δ Osw suggests a weakening monsoon with extreme drought 18 condition at 7.2 kyr, also supported by a decreased Ba/Ca. The δ Osw was high during the mid-Holocene interval (~5-7 kyr) with a substantially large decrease in Ba/Ca, suggesting a weak monsoon and decreased runoff. The weakening of monsoon during mid-Holocene is also reported from the south eastern Arabian Sea (Saraswat et al., 2016) and BoB (Kumar et al., 2018). Another interval of an abrupt increase in Ba/Ca was also 18 found between 3.8-5.0 kyr. The δ Osw was close to the lowest value during this interval, 18 suggesting a strengthened monsoon. In the last 2 kyr, a relatively uniform δ Osw and Ba/Ca indicated stable monsoon over the Indian Subcontinent.

7.5 Sub-centennial Paleoproductivity Changes During the Last 38 kyr Marine primary productivity is the basis of marine food chain, and also plays a critical role in carbon sequestration by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmospheric carbon dioxide is also considered to be the dominant driver for recent increase in SST throughout the world Ocean, including Arabian Sea (Roxy et al., 2015). The warmer SST

213 increases the density difference between surface and nutrient rich sub-surface water. This density difference further prevents the vertical mixing of nutrient-rich water into the mixed layer, a process essential for the development of the major photo-autotrophs residing there. The rising temperature, however, also modulates the land-ocean thermal contrast. The land-ocean thermal contrast controls the winds. The primary productivity (PP) in the Arabian Sea is associated with wind induced coastal upwelling in different parts including off Somalia, Oman and off the southern tip of India. The multi-pronged effect of warming on the oceans has led to the contrasting projections of the nature of productivity in the warming world (Goes et al., 2005; Roxy et al., 2016). Data models based on instrumental records also failed to provide any clear trend between SST rise and productivity. The models show either 350% increase in PP under the influence of increased monsoon winds (Goes et al., 2005) or 20% decrease in PP in the past six decades of warming (Roxy et al., 2016). The other studies did not provide a clear trend (Behrenfeld et al., 2006; Shah et al., 2017). The coupled climate simulation up to the year 2300 suggests that the westerly wind will strengthen and shift pole ward, surface water will warm and the sea ice will disappear, leading to intense nutrient trapping in the Southern Ocean and 24% decrease in PP (Moore et al., 2018).Thus, a clear relation between SST and PP is not established yet. The long term records of productivity from the Arabian Sea covering different warming scenarios in the past can provide an idea about imminent productivity changes. The records from the Arabian Sea suggest that warm SST lowered PP during the last deglaciation (Cayre and Bard, 1999; Saher et al., 2007).The PP also collapsed during the Heinrich events (Singh et al., 2011). On a glacial-interglacial time scale, productivity in the eastern Arabian Sea increased during glacial interval(Agnihotri et al., 2003b), whereas increased productivity in the western Arabian Sea is reported during the warmer interglacial (Ivanova et al., 2003). The difference in productivity in various regions during glacial-interglacial intervals suggests strong regional nature and thus requires additional productivity records. Here, change in paleoproductivity during the last glacial- interglacial transition is reconstructed from the region off the southern tip of India.

The increase in primary productivity results in higher organic carbon (Corg) flux to the ocean bottom and vice versa. The change in Corg thus provides a first order estimate of paleoproductivity. The riverine runoff also contributes terrestrial organic carbon to the 214 adjacent ocean. The difference in organic carbon to nitrogen ratio of the marine and terrestrial organic matter helps in delineating the relative contribution of these sources. The absence of any major river in the region, however, rules out any substantial terrestrial organic carbon contribution to the study area. The burial of Corg in the sediments, however, also depends on the ambient conditions, especially the dissolved oxygen. The well oxygenated waters expedite oxidation of organic matter and thus reduced Corg burial in the sediments. The organic matter produced during the primary productivity acts as food for foraminifera. Thus the foraminiferal population increases during the higher productivity and contributes increased calcium carbonate (CaCO3) flux to the ocean sediments. The final burial of CaCO3 also, however, depends on ambient conditions, especially pH and calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD). The core was collected much above the CCD (4500 m; Berger and Winterer, 1974) thus ruling out the possible influence of change in CCD on CaCO3 content in the core. The coarse fraction (CF) includes both the biogenic shells, as well as terrigenous sediments. The substantial fraction of biogenic calcareous shells in the sediments, especially in the regions away from the direct riverine influx, largely controls temporal variation in CaCO3 content. In view of the influence of factors other than productivity on proxies used to reconstruct paleoproductivity, it is advisable to use a multiproxy approach.

7.5.1 Results and Discussion The consistently low %Corg (2.7%) suggests a lower productivity during the last glacial interval as compared to Holocene (4.2%). The productivity further decreased (1.0%) during the early deglacial (20.1-16.4 kyr) warming (3.4°C). Globigerina bulloides’ relative abundance (an upwelling/productivity indicator) also decreased by 16.2% (18.8 18 to 2.6%) which is also supported by higher δ Osw suggesting a weaker monsoon and decreased upwelling related productivity. The abundance of CF, however, increased by

4.3% (from ~20.8 to 25.1%), CaCO3 increased by 6.4% (from 67.5 to 69.4%) and

%Corg/TN increased by 5% (10.4 to 16.4%) during the early deglacial warming (Fig.

7.5).Subsequently, %Corg continuously increased except during the Younger Dryas (YD).

Both the %CF and %CaCO3, however, decreased substantially during the late deglaciation until the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. %Corg continued to increase from~3.0 to 6.0% during the Holocene. The %CaCO3 was low during the Holocene as

215 compared to the glacial interval. A large increase (~5%)in %CF and %CaCO3 but 13 decrease in G. bulloides (%) and δ Cruber was observed between ~8-9 kyr (Fig. 7.5).

%Corg/TN continuously decreased, except ~2% increase during the mid-Holocene. During the early deglaciation, the SST increase at the core location was associated with increase in insolation and/or regional carbon dioxide out-gassing. The warmer SST stratifies the water column and thus prevents vertical mixing of the sub-surface water. The reduced vertical mixing hampers nutrient availability resulting into low

%Corg. The low %Corg in the region also indicates weak oxygen minimum zone (OMZ).

Figure 7.5: Temporal variation in a) Mg/Ca derived-SST, b) thermocline water

temperature (TWT), c) organic carbon Corg, d) relative abundance of Globigerina 13 bulloides, e) δ C of Globigerinoides ruber (sensu stricto), f) %Corg/TN, g) calcium carbonate, h) coarse fraction, i) δ18O of ice volume corrected seawater during the past 38 kyr. The fluorescent green horizontal bar marks the early deglacial warming and Holocene. 18 The decreased relative abundance of G. bulloides, low Ba/Ca and more positive δ Osw-ivc during early deglaciation supports weakening of monsoon/winds lowering the PP in the region. The high %CF and %CaCO3 during the early deglaciation is attributed to its better preservation as a result of less corrosive well oxygenated waters. A part of the high early

216 deglacial %CF and %CaCO3 is also attributed to reduced terrigenous input resulting in 13 low sedimentation rate during this interval (Guptha et al., 2005). The δ Cruber did not change significantly during the early deglaciation. Model studies from the western Arabian Sea (Roxy et al., 2016) and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) climate models according to the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES-A2 scenario), suggest that the warmer surface temperature derived stratification is the primarily influence on the density in the tropical regions(Capotondi et al., 2012). However, a study by Somavilla et al. (2017) explained that the increase in SST can enhance or reduce the stratification including mixed layer deepening with enhanced deepening of winter mixed layer depths. As the productivity decreased in the study area with increasing SST, it is assumed that the warmer SST increased the stratification in the area. The stratified water column reduced mixed layer depth resulting into lower primary productivity. The upwelling induced productivity begins in the region off the southern tip of India and subsequently propagates northwards (Thomas et al., 2013) in the eastern Arabian Sea. During the early deglaciation, the drop in productivity in the region off the southern tip of India reduced productivity in the entire eastern Arabian Sea, as seen in paleoproductivity records from the eastern Arabian Sea (MD76-131, Ganeshram et al., 2000; 3104G, Agnihotri et al., 2003b; SK237GC04, Naik et al., 2017). The low PP was observed in the entire Arabian Sea during early deglaciation. In the western Arabian Sea (off Somalia, NIOP905), the deglacial warming began at ~18 kyr and PP decreased by ~0.8%. Within the age error range, a reduced PP is observed in both SSD004 GC03 and NIOP905 during deglacial warming. Both the regions had higher PP during the last glacial maxima (LGM), either due to the northeast monsoon induced vertical mixing (Singh et al., 2011) or by upwelling as it did not terminate completely during LGM (Anderson and Prell, 1993). The early deglacial warming reduced the PP by preventing vertical mixing and working as a barrier layer. The deglacial warming in the southeastern Arabian Sea was attributed to both the increasing insolation and the rise in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (Saraswat et al., 2013). Another possible way to warm the SST in the region is the influx of low salinity water from the Bay of Bengal as result of stronger northeast monsoon wind during early deglaciation 18 (17-19 kyr) (Tiwari et al., 2005) but the more positive δ Osw during the early 217 deglaciation rules out any major influence of the low salinity water from the Bay of Bengal in warming the region off the southern tip of India.

During Holocene, the continuous increase in %Corg was associated with a decrease in SST. The decrease in SST is attributed to the upwelling of cold sub-surface water. The upwelling of cold subsurface water also brings nutrients and thus the higher PP. The 13 higher %Corg can also be due to the strengthened OMZ. The δ Cruber also increased during the Holocene, further supporting the proposed increase in productivity in this area.

Both the %CF and %CaCO3were lower than the glacial interval. The decrease in %CF and %CaCO3 is attributed to the supra-lysoclinal dissolution in the high productivity zones due to more corrosive waters as a result of intense OMZ (Peterson and Prell, 1985), as well as dilution as a result of increased sedimentation rate. Thus decreasing %CF and

%CaCO3 also suggest strengthening of the productivity in this region. The similar increase of Corg was also found in core SK237GC04 in the Lakshadweep Sea (Naik et al.,

2017). However, %Corg decreased during Holocene in the cores collected further north, off Goa (MD76-131). In the western Arabian Sea also (off Somalia, NIOP905), SST decreased during Holocene with a concomitant increase in %Corg. The similarity in SST and %Corg records in both the western Arabian Sea and the region off the southern tip of India suggests that these regions are affected by similar kind of upwelling related processes. The nutrients are uniformly available throughout the mixed layer, as compared to the water below the thermocline. Both the upwelling and convective mixing affect the thermocline depth. Therefore, the past thermocline temperature record can help to understand changes in the upper water column structure and thus productivity. The thermocline temperature was estimated from the Mg/Ca ratio of thermocline dweller species Neogloboquadrina dutertrei as it has been suggested as a promising indicator of paleoproductivity (Wang et al., 2018). The temporal changes in thermocline temperature are inversely related with %Corg (Fig. 7.5). The early deglaciation thermocline temperature maxima match with %Corg minima, suggesting an opposite relationship between thermocline temperature and %Corg in the region. During Holocene, this relationship got stronger as a continuous decrease in thermocline temperature matches with increasing %Corg. The thermocline temperature and %Corg co-vary with precession enforced insolation and thus indicate a strong influence of precession on productivity. 218

7.6 Indo-Pacific Warm Pool During the Glacial-Interglacial Intervals The extent and intensity of IPWP is crucial for the rainfall in the tropics and has far reaching implications for the vast human population dependent on rain. Therefore, a better understanding of the IPWP structure during different boundary conditions can help in assessing its response to the anthropogenic changes. Several attempts have been made to understand the extent and intensity of IPWP during the past (Gagan et al., 2004; Linsley et al., 2010; Saraswat et al., 2007; Visser et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2010). A majority of the records have focused on the last glacial-interglacial transition. A 1.2°C cooling of the equatorial eastern Pacific (EEP) SST during the LGM was inferred from a core (Koutavas et al., 2002) whereas other records (OPD 1242 and ME0005A-43JC) suggest a similar cooling in both the eastern and western Pacific Ocean (Benway et al., 2006). The Hadley and Walker circulation weakened, ITCZ shifted to a more southerly position and El-Nino like condition prevailed during the LGM (Koutavas et al., 2002). The weakening of the Pacific Walker circulation during the LGM was accompanied by the strengthening of the Indian Walker circulation (Niedermeyer et al., 2014; Mohtadi et al., 2017). Whereas, Gibbons et al (2014) suggest that ENSO like events does not play significant role in glacial-interglacial time scale. The southward shift in the ITCZ was not only synchronous with northern hemisphere cold events, but was also coupled with oceanic advection and mixing, and thus responsible for salinity increase in both the ITF region and the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean (Gibbons et al., 2014). Although the western Pacific warm pool was continuously present during the LGM, the intensity was weak (Thunell et al., 1994). The Indian Ocean was ~3°C cooler during the LGM (Saraswat et al., 2005a, 2013; Anand et al., 2008; Govil and Naidu, 2010). A inter-hemispherical synchrony was persistent in the Indian Ocean (Bard et al., 1997) but asymmetry marked the Pacific Ocean (Russon et al., 2010). The change in monsoon intensity was likely responsible for the inter-hemispheric SST heterogeneity as it affects the annual mean SST and/or the seasonality. The salinity in the Indian Ocean increased by 1.5 psu during the LGM (Mahesh et al., 2011).The short-term salinity records suggest a 1.5 psu change in salinity in the equatorial western Pacific (EWP) during the Holocene (Stott et al., 2004) and 3-4 psu change in EEP (Benway et al., 2006). 18 18 The δ Osw in northern hemisphere freshened, whereas δ Osw south of the equator was not significantly different between the last glacial period and the Holocene. The 219

18 negligible glacial-Holocene difference in δ Osw south of the equator, suggests that additional factors affect annual mean SST in the IPWP (Mohtadi et al., 2010b). A few long term records suggest equally cooler (~2.8°C) EWP and EEP during the LGM and further that the tropical cooling played a major role in driving ice-age climate (Lea et al., 2000; Russon et al., 2010). A comparison of the SST record of the last glacial and interglacial interval from the central equatorial Indian Ocean and equatorial western Pacific, however, suggest that the Indian Ocean was warmer than the Pacific Ocean during the last glacial interval (Saraswat et al., 2007). The limited long-term SST and salinity records from the Indian Ocean hamper a proper assessment of the change in IPWP extent and intensity the during glacial-interglacial intervals. Here, a new record covering the last two glacial-interglacial intervals from the Indian Ocean is presented and compared with 7 published records from the IPWP region in order to understand the spatial extant and intensity of IPWP during contrasting boundary conditions.

7.6.1 Results The core covers the last 176 kyr (Fig. 7.6). During the covered part of MIS6 (130-176 kyr), the Mg/Ca varied from 3.10 to 4.95 mmol/mol (25.18-30.36°C). The average Mg/Ca during this glacial interval was 3.84 mmol/mol. The maximum Mg/Ca (4.95 mmol/mol, 30.36°C) during MIS6 was at 133 kyr. The maximum Mg/Ca (4.88 mmol/mol, 30.20°C) during the last interglacial (MIS5, 71-130 kyr), was at 129 kyr, with an average of4.05mmol/mol. The last glacial interval (MIS2-4, 14-71 kyr) was equally cool as MIS6. The average Mg/Ca during the last glacial interval was 3.61 mmol/mol (26.85°C). The coolest SST (3.26 mmol/mol; 25.73°C) was at 25.5 kyr. The average Mg/Ca during MIS1 (0-14 kyr) was 4.16 mmol/mol (28.43°C). The maximum Mg/Ca (4.39 mmol/mol; 29.03°C) was at 10.8 kyr. The annual average SST in the area is 28.50°C (Locarnini et al., 2006) and is 2.5°C higher than the LGM and 1.60°C warmer than MIS5e (Fig.7.6). 18 During the penultimate glacial period (MIS6), δ Oruber varied between -2.15 to - 18 0.38‰ with an average of -0.84‰ (Fig.7.6). The δ Oruber during the last interglacial (MIS5) was depleted with an average of -1.91‰ (ranging from -2.93 to -1.08‰). The 18 18 most depleted δ Oruber (-2.93‰) was during MIS5e. The average δ Oruber during the last 18 glacial period (MIS2-4) was -0.94‰ (varying from -1.70 to 0.18‰). The averageδ Oruber

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18 during LGM was -0.56‰. The average δ Oruber during the present interglacial (MIS1) 18 was -2.17‰ and was 0.33‰ enriched than the last interglacial. The δ Oruber during the Holocene varied from -2.16‰ to -1.50‰ (Fig.7.6).

18 18 Figure 7.6:Temporal variation in a) δ Oruber, b) Mg/Ca derived SST (°C) and c) δ Osw during the past 176 kyr, in core SSD004 GC11, collected off the southern tip of India.

18 The δ Osw during the penultimate glacial interval (MIS6) varied between 0.89‰ 18 and 2.59‰ with an average of 1.69‰. The maximum δ Osw (2.42‰) was at 142 kyr. 18 During the last interglacial (MIS5), δ Osw varied between -0.04‰ to 1.80‰. The 18 18 minimum δ Osw (-0.04‰) was at 122 kyr. The δ Osw during the last glacial interval (MIS2-4) varied from 0.93‰ to 2.38‰, with an average of 1.50‰. The most enriched 18 δ Osw was at 15.2 kyr and the most depleted was at 52.9 kyr. During the Holocene, 18 δ Osw varied between 0.09‰ and 1.11‰ with an average of 0.58‰. The maximum 18 δ Osw was at 12.9 kyr (Fig.7.6).

7.6.2 Discussion 7.6.2.1 The Penultimate Glacial Interval (MIS6) The published SST and δ18O records were compiled to understand the temporal variation in extent and SST gradient of the IPWP (Fig. 7.7). The SST anomaly was calculated by

221 subtracting the modern SST at the respective core site, from the Mg/Ca SST at each interval in the core (Fig. 7.8). Out of the 7 cores studied from the IPWP, only 5 cover MIS6 interval. The spatial coverage, however, is extensive enough to visualize the IPWP structure throughout its modern extent. The cores are from the central, western Pacific Ocean and the central Indian Ocean and cover both the eastern and western margins of the IPWP. The data was also compared with a core from the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean (TR163-19), to understand the relationship between IPWP and El-Nino Southern Oscillation structure.

Figure 7.7: The map shows spatial structure of the Indo- Pacific Warm Pool and colored shades represented sea surface temperature contour. The core SSD004 GC11 along with other published core’s locations are marked, SK157 GC04 (Saraswat et al., 2005a), GeoB 10038-4 (Mohtadi et al., 2010a), MD97- 2140 (de Garidel-Thoron et al., 2005), ODP 806B (Lea et al., 2000), ODP 871 (Dyez and Ravelo, 2013).

The entire equatorial region was cooler than present, throughout the MIS6. The degree of cooling in the large part of the equatorial Indian and the western Pacific Ocean was same in the beginning of MIS6 (Fig. 7.8). The SST anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean was also same as that in the western Pacific and Indian Ocean. The cooling in the central Pacific Ocean (ODP871) during the same interval was, however, relatively less, thus altering the zonal SST gradient. The SST anomaly in the central equatorial Indian Ocean and the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean matches very well throughout the MIS6, until the deglaciation.

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The central Pacific Ocean (ODP871) was the warmest region of the IPWP, throughout the MIS6 (Fig. 7.8). The western equatorial Pacific Ocean (ODP806B, MD97-2140) was cooler than the central equatorial Pacific Ocean. The central equatorial Indian Ocean (SSD004 GC11) was also cooler and the difference in central equatorial Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean SST increased with the progress of MIS6, until the deglaciation. The warmer central equatorial Pacific Ocean during the MIS6 as compared to the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean suggests eastward shift of atmospheric convection from the Indonesian maritime continent to the central Pacific Ocean. A compartively higher average temperature (≥1.5°C) in the central equatorial Pacific Ocean as compared to the Figure 7.8: The graphs show a) SST (°C) of the cores used to study spatial and temporal behavior of the eastern Pacific and the Indian IPWP, b) ΔSST (°C) of the cores, c) sea level change, Ocean, due to the eastward d) atmospheric Carbon dioxide, e) local summer insolation changes. Vertical grey bars show marine shift of the warm waters isotopic stages 1-6 as numbered. suggests a change in IPWP structure and also a weaker Walker circulation (Bayr et al., 2014; Tokinaga et al., 2012; Vecchi et al., 2006; Wara, 2005; Williams and Funk, 2011). A weaker Walker circulation 223 implies warmer eastern Pacific Ocean. The SST anomaly in the eastern Pacific Ocean, however, was same as that in the western Pacific as well as the Indian Ocean. The comparable SST anomaly in the eastern and western Pacific as well as the central Indian Ocean, suggests the effect of factors other than Walker circulation in modulating the IPWP structure. The difference in SST, however, decreased towards the end of MIS6. Interestingly, the equatorial eastern Pacific Ocean warmed considerably towards the end of MIS6, so much so that the SST in the entire equatorial region was same, within the error limits. The warming during the end of MIS6 is attributed to a change in polar ice sheets. The increased solar insolation melted the ice sheets leading to upwelling in the Southern

Ocean. The widespread Southern Ocean upwelling increased atmospheric CO2 and the concomitant rise in global SST (Denton, 2010). The SST in the IPWP region evidently responds to the solar insolation and atmospheric CO2 concentration. The SST in the Pacific Ocean is, however, more sensitive to greenhouse gas concentration (Dyez and Ravelo, 2013). The SST gradient in the Pacific Ocean lineraly responds to atmospheric

CO2 (Yang et al., 2016). The increase in SST difference between the Indian and the Pacific Ocean with the progress of MIS6 is attributed to the relatively lower sea level. The lower sea-level reduced cross-basin exchange that serves as the conduit for water and heat flow into the Indian Ocean from the Pacific Ocean via the Indonesian through-flow region. The increase in sea-level towards the end of MIS6 resulted in a comparable SST throughout the equatorial Indian and the Pacific Ocean.

7.6.2.2 The Last Interglacial (MIS5) A total 7 records, including the present core, cover the entire MIS5 in the IPWP region (Fig. 7.8). The extent of warm SST anomaly in the records increased considerably, as compared to MIS6. In the eastern Indian (GEOB10038-4) and the central Pacific Ocean (ODP871) however, the SST anomaly was within ±1°C, for a major part of the MIS5. The maximum negative SST anomaly (~2°C) was in SSD004 GC11, for the major part of MIS5, implying an increase in meridional SST gradient during the last interglacial. The zonal SST gradient decreased considerably, throughout the core IPWP, during MIS5 as compared to MIS6. The westernmost margin of the IPWP was equally warm as the core IPWP. The equatorial Indian Ocean region south of the present core, as well as the entire

224 western equatorial Pacific Ocean was ~1°C warmer than present interglacial. The SST in the westernmost IPWP was warmer than the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, during the MIS5eand the difference broaden with the progress of the last glacial interval, thus altering the zonal SST gradient in the equatorial Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Incidentally, the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean and eastern Indian Ocean (GeoB 10038-4) was significantly cooler than IPWP. The difference in SST between the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean and the IPWP was the maximum during 107-112 kyr as well as 83-90 kyr, suggesting weaker El-Nino. The east-west SST difference leads to stronger Walker circulation and northward shift of ITCZ. The SST in IPWP dropped by ~2°C from MIS5e to MIS5a. The entire equatorial IPWP region, except the westernmost part, was equally warm with only small difference in SST, throughout the MIS5. The reduced zonal SST gradient in the core IPWP region during MIS5 indicates that the increased heat transfer from the western pacific region influences the SST of central and eastern Indian Ocean during the interglacial interval. The reduced zonal SST gradient is attributed to the enhanced cross-basing heat transport facilitated by the high sea-stand during the last interglacial interval (Fig. 7.8). Based on the records from the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean, the sea level was suggested as the dominant factor controlling zonal SST gradient in the IPWP during glacial-interglacial transition (Mohtadi et al., 2010a). The cooler eastern Pacific Ocean SST is attributed to the warming of the Indian Ocean SST as higher SST in the Indian Ocean helps in transition from El-Nino to La-Nina stage by generating upwelling Kelvin waves (Kug and Kang, 2006). The similar SST trend throughout the MIS6 and MIS5 further confirms a close link between the westernmost IPWP and the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.

7.6.2.3 The Last glacial interval (MIS2-4) The SST was uniform throughout the MIS2-4 in a majority of the records, prior to transition (Fig. 7.8). Interestingly, in several records (SK157 GC04, ODP871, ODP806B, GeoB10038-4), the SST during the last glacial maximum (LGM) (19-23 kyr) was not significantly cooler than during the rest of the MIS2-4. The SK157 GC04 SST was, however, warmer than the region further north. The difference in SST at these two sites of the central Indian Ocean varied throughout the last glacial period, being the maximum during the transition. The seawater exchange between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian

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Sea modulates the SST in the southeastern Arabian Sea and central equatorial Indian Ocean. Any change in the intensity of seasonally reversing currents is likely to influence the SST in this region. The higher SST difference between SK157 GC04 and SSD004 GC11 is attributed to the stronger winter monsoon current and weaker summer monsoon current during the last glacial interval. The stronger winter monsoon current enhanced the transport of cooler Bay of Bengal water thus decreasing the SST at SSD004 GC11 as compared to the equatorial core. The difference in SST at these two core sites decreases during the transition. The decreased difference is attributed to strengthened summer monsoon current as it brings warmer water to the southeastern Arabian Sea. The eastern equatorial Indian Ocean SST was cooler by up to ~1°C, than the central equatorial Indian Ocean (SK157 GC04). The highest SST difference was during the last glacial-interglacial transition. The lower degree of cooling (1.2°C) in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean (Koutavas et al., 2002), as compared to the western Pacific and the Indian Ocean (~3°C) reduced the zonal SST gradient. The reduced zonal SST gradient ensured a weaker Walker circulation, El-Nino like conditions and southward shift of ITCZ (Dinezio and Tierney, 2013; Koutavas et al., 2002). A strengthening of the Indian Walker circulation was also suggested (Mohtadi et al., 2017) during the LGM.

7.6.2.4 Present Interglacial (MIS1) A majority of the records have a uniform SST anomaly throughout the Holocene (Fig. 7.8). The extent of SST anomaly during the Holocene was same as that during the last interglacial (MIS5). However, a decreasing SST anomaly trend is not observed during the Holocene as evident during MIS5. The eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean was the coldest, as compared to the IPWP, throughout the MIS1. The difference in SST between the eastern equatorial Pacific and the IPWP was the maximum during the early Holocene and decreased subsequently, with the warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. The average SST at the site (GeoB10038-4) within the modern IPWP was lower than the threshold (28°C) and decreased below the threshold during the Late Holocene. The SST at the rest of the sites within the core IPWP was consistently warmer than 28°C, throughout the MIS1. The SST at the westernmost IPWP site (SSD004 GC11) was also consistent, with an average of 28.43°C, throughout the present interglacial.

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7.6.2.5 Implications for Future Warming Over the past few decades, the western Indian Ocean warmed two to three times faster than the tropical Pacific Ocean. A similar anomalous warming of the central equatorial Indian Ocean is, however, not observed during the last interglacial. Additionally, it is suggested that the eastward shift of atmospheric convection from the Indonesian maritime continent to the central tropical Pacific leads to the weaker Walker circulation and more El-Nino like conditions under global warming (Vecchi et al., 2006; Wara, 2005; Williams and Funk, 2011; Tokinaga et al., 2012; Bayr et al., 2014). The climate models forced with increasing greenhouse gases also show that the Walker Circulation tends to weaken (Power and Smith, 2007). A shift in the ascending limb of the Walker circulation towards the central equatorial Pacific Ocean during the penultimate transition as well as interglacial is evident from the comparison of records across the IPWP. The considerable warming of the eastern Pacific during the last interglacial also suggests, a strong El-Nino. Therefore, a further strengthening of the El-Nino is expected in response to the future warming. It should, however, be noted here that normal monsoon even under strengthened ENSO conditions is also reported (Kumar et al., 1999). Beside this, weakening of trade winds warms the western Indian Ocean (Roxy et al., 2015) and this warming would probably. The warm western Indian Ocean helps to strengthen the Walker circulation in the Pacific Ocean and thus likely to suppress the El-Nino. The Indian Ocean warming thus helps in termination of El-Nino and results into La-Nina in the following year (Kug and Kang, 2006).

7.7Inferences  The new sub-centennial scale Mg/Ca derived SST record off the southern tip of India reveals the paleo-hydrographic conditions of the Lakshadweep Sea including the past monsoonal changes and forcing factors in the past 38 kyr. Mg/Ca derived SST showed that last glacial termination started at ~20.1 kyr and was synchronous with the local

summer insolation increase and local CO2 out-gassing and well before (~2 kyr) global

atmospheric CO2 rise (~18 kyr).

18  The changes in δ Osw suggest that Indian monsoon broadly follows ISMI insolation changes and weakened during the North Atlantic phases like HS and YD. The region exhibits warmer SST during cold phases in the North Atlantic (HS1 and YD). These

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warming events have been associated with a slowdown of AMOC and repositioning of Hadley cell and southward movement of ITCZ. The warming events showed weaker 18 monsoon indicated by higher δ Osw-ice and lower Ba/Ca. It is inferred that SST in the northern Indian Ocean remains unaffected or warms during the north Atlantic cold phases while the monsoon weakens by repositioning of the Hadley cell.  The past productivity reconstructed from multi-proxy records suggests that during the early deglaciation, low productivity was caused by stratification because of warm SST in the western and eastern Arabian Sea. A stronger southwest monsoon during Holocene increased upwelling in the region off the southern tip of India, resulting in the highest productivity in the region. The productivity decreased from south to north in the eastern Arabian Sea during Holocene. This finding will further help to resolve glacial- interglacial paleoproductivity paradox in the region.  The glacial-interglacial changes in the seawater temperature and precipitation in the western most regions of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool are reconstructed from Mg/Ca and δ18O of surface dwelling Globigerinoides ruber. The data is then used to reconstruct spatial extent and intensity of Indo-Pacific Warm Pool structure as well as its relationship with other regional phenomena, during the last ~176 kyr BP. The extent of SST anomaly in the records increased considerably during the MIS5 as compared to MIS6 and thus the zonal SST gradient decreased considerably, throughout the core IPWP. The westernmost IPWP, however, was cooler than the core IPWP. The eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean warmed considerably during the MIS5e, suggesting a weaker Walker Circulation and a strong El-Nino. Interestingly, in several records (SK157 GC04, ODP871, ODP806B, GeoB10038-4), the SST during the last glacial maximum (LGM) (19-23 kyr) was not significantly cooler than during the rest of the MIS2-4. A majority of the records have a uniform SST anomaly throughout the Holocene. The shift from the glacial maximum to the warmest interglacial temperature was longer during the penultimate transition.

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Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Scope

8.1 Inferences The present work illustrates distribution and abundance of foraminifera species in core- top as well as down core sediment samples off the southern tip of India. In total 1219 samples (43 surface samples and 1176 subsurface samples) were used. An attempt has been made to understand modern foraminifera distribution and its relationship with ambient ecological parameters in the region. Beside this, down core variation in the ecological parameters has been reconstructed which provides long term changes and its governing factors. Major outcome of the work has been listed below-

8.1.1 Foraminiferal Taxonomy  43 surface samples were collected covering a wide range of ecological parameters from 25 to 2980 m depth off the southern tip of India. 355 species of foraminifera have been found, including 330 benthic and 25 planktic.  The species belong to 146 genera, 60 subfamily, 69 family, 32 superfamily and 7 suborder. Rotaliina was the most abundant suborder with 180 species. Nodosariacea with 58 species is the largest superfamily in the study area and Bolivinidae is the largest family with 39 species.  This is the first comprehensive study on foraminifera with photographic illustration from the region off the southern tip of India.

8.1.2 Benthic Foraminifera and their Ecological Preferences CCA analysis between living benthic foraminifera and ambient foraminifera reveals significant ecological preferences of benthic foraminifera.

 A relatively higher abundance of living (rose-Bengal stained) benthic foraminifera in intermediate depths establishes their dependency on higher percentage of organic carbon.  Bulimina, Epistominella, Hoeglundina, Lagenammina, Melonis, Osangularia, Pullenia, Rotaliatinopsis, Rotorbinella and Uvigerina showed a positive

relationship with %Corg. 229

 Fissurina, Fursenkoina, Cassidulina, Buccella, Hopkinsina, Bolivina, Nonion and Trochammina showed negative relationship with dissolved oxygen. Abundance of these genera at the intermediate depth suggests that OMZ provides living space to only limited genera but their abundance exceeds than that at other depths as food availability controls benthic foraminifera abundance.  Cancris penangensis, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Bolivina currai, Bulimina arabiensis, Hopkinsinella glabra and Bolivina obscuranta showed significant negative correlation with bottom water dissolved oxygen and can be used as a proxy for past OMZ conditions.  Epistominella umbonifera, Bulimina psuedoaffinis, Uvigerina auberiana, Lagenammina longicolli, Osangularia bengalensis and Bolivina currai showed a significant positive correlation with organic carbon in the sediment which is usually higher in quantity in the intermediate depth/OMZ depths.  Rotalidium annectens, Astacolus insolitus, Bolivina compacta, Bolivina spinescens, Hanzawaia concentrica and Cancris sagra are significantly positively correlated with seawater temperature. These species represent shallow water conditions.  Globocassidulina subglobosa, Adercotryma glomeratum, Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Eggerelloides scaber and Haplophragmoides symmetricus showed significant negative correlation with salinity. The higher abundance of these species in deeper water signifies the effect of low salinity Bay of Bengal water into the region on the fauna.

8.1.3 Identification of Potential Region for Paleoclimatic Studies  The spatio-temporal changes in sedimentation rate along the continental margin of the monsoon dominated eastern Arabian Sea during the last 24 kyr, have been estimated from a compilation of 58 radiocarbon dated cores.  It was found that average sedimentation rate in the slope to abyssal region of the entire eastern Arabian Sea, although higher during the Holocene as compared to that during the last glacial maximum and glacial-interglacial transition, is not significantly different.

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 Four zones of relatively high sedimentation rate, viz. northeastern Arabian Sea, the region off the Gulf of Khambhat, the region off Goa and Mangalore, and off the southern tip of India were identified.  A complex interaction of land-ocean-atmospheric processes controlled sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during the last 24 kyr in such a way that the average sedimentation rate does not vary significantly, even during highly contrasting climatic conditions.

8.1.4 Sea Surface Temperature, Productivity and Monsoon Changes  Down core data from the sediment core helps to indentify sub-centennial to millennial scale variability. For this purpose, two gravity cores namely, SSD004 GC03 and SSD004 GC11 covering time period of 38 kyr and 176 kyr respectively were analyzed.  Mg/Ca derived SST (SSD004 GC03) showed that last glacial termination started at ~20.1 kyr and was synchronous with the local summer insolation increase and

local CO2 out-gassing and well before (~2 kyr) global atmospheric CO2 rise (~18 kyr).  The changes in seawater δ18O suggest that Indian monsoon broadly follows ISMI insolation changes and weakened during the North Atlantic phases like HS and YD. The region exhibits warmer SST during cold phases in the North Atlantic (HS1 and YD).  During the early deglaciation, low productivity was caused by stratification because of warm SST in the western and eastern Arabian Sea. A stronger southwest monsoon during Holocene increased upwelling in the region off the southern tip of India.  The glacial-interglacial change (using SSD004 GC11) in the seawater temperature and precipitation in the western most regions of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool reveals that the extent of SST anomaly in the region increased considerably during the MIS5 as compared to MIS6. The eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean warmed considerably during the MIS5e, suggesting a weaker Walker Circulation and a strong El-Nino.

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8.2 Future Scope of the Study This work covers a significant aspect of foraminifera distribution and paleoclimatic inferences from the region. 21 species remain identified only up to generic level. This study provides the following scope of future work-

 A good scope for establishing new species.  Quantitative isotopic estimation of paleoproductivity and upwelling.  Study of other microfossils and proxies to provide multiproxy approach for paleoclimatic inferences.

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Plate-1 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. 1 Bathysiphon folini Gooday, 1983 37 2, 3 Rhabdammina discreta (Brady, 1881) 38 4 Rhizammina echinata Saidova, 1975 38 5 Psammosphaera fusca Schulze, 1875 38 6 Psammosphaera sp. 39 7 Lagenammina longicolli Wiesner, 1931 39 8 Saccammina huanghaiensis Zheng and Fu, 2001 39 9 Saccorhiza ramosa (Brady, 1879) 40 Ammodiscus gullmarensis Höglund, 1948 10 a) side view b) lateral view 40 Arenoturrispirillina catinus Höglund, 1947 11 a) side view b) lateral view 41 12, 13 Ammolagena clavata (Jones and Parker, 1860) 41 14 Hormosinella distans Brady 1881 41 15 Reophax brevis Parr, 1950 42 16 Reophax rostrata Höglund, 1947 42 17 Reophax spiculifer Brady, 1879 42 Cribrostomoides nitida (Goës, 1896) 18 a) Side view b) lateral view 43 Haplophragmoides bradyi (Robertson, 1891) 19 a) side view b) lateral view 43 Haplophragmoides canariensis d'Orbigny, 1839 20 a) side view b) lateral view 43 Haplophragmoides evolutum Cushman and Mcculloch, 1939 21 a) side view b) lateral view 44 Haplophragmoides sphaeriloculus Cushman, 1910 22 a) side view b) lateral view 44 Haplophragmoides subglobosum Cushman, 1910 23 a) side view b) lateral view 44 Haplophragmoides symmetricus Zheng, 2000 24 a) side view b) lateral view 44 25 Ammobaculites exiguous Cushman and Brönnimann, 1948 45 Ammobaculites cf. commotus Saidova, 1975 26 a) side view b) apertural view 45 Ammomarginulina troptunensis Voloshinova, 1958 27 a) side view b) lateral view 45 Eratidus foliaceus (Brady, 1881) 28 a) side view b) lateral view 46 Lituola hispida Zheng, 1988 29 a) side view b) apertural view 46

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Plate-2 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. 1 Adercotryma glomeratum Brady, 1878 47 Cystammina Sp. 2 a) side view b) side view 47 Recurvoides gigas Zheng, 1988 3 a) Side view b) lateral view 47 Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and Jones, 1865) 4 a) side view b) lateral view 48 Spirotextularia cf. fistulosa (Brady, 1884) 5 a) side view b) lateral view 48 Ammoglobigerina globigeriniformis (Parker and Jones, 6 1865) 49 Portatrochammina eltaninae Echols, 1971 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 49 Tritaxis fusca (Williamson, 1858) 8 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 49 Trochammina boltovskoyi Brönnimann, 1979 9 a) Spiral view b) Umbilical view 50 Trochammina conica Earland, 1934 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 50 Controchammina bullata (Höglund, 1947) 11 a) side view b) apertural view 50 Arenogaudryina scabra (Brady, 1884) 12 a) side view b) lateral view 51 Gaudryina baccata Schwager, 1866 13 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 51 14 Gaudryina lapugyensis Cushman, 1936 51 15 Gaudryina niigataensis Asano, 1950 52 16 Gaudryina sp. 52 17 Eggerella humboldti Todd and Brönniman, 1957 52 Eggerelloides scaber (Williamson, 1858) 18 a) side view b) apertural view 53 Karreriella bradyi (Cushman, 1911) 19 a) side view b) lateral view 53 Textularia bermudezi Cushman and Todd, 1945 20 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 53 Textularia bocki Höglund, 1947 21 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 54

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Plate-3 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Textularia calva Lalicker, 1940 1 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 54 Textularia candeiana d'Orbigny, 1839 2 a) side view b) lateral view 54 Textularia fistula Cushman, 1911 3 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 54 Textularia occidentalis Cushman, 1922 4 a) side view b) lateral view 55 Textularia oceanica Cushman, 1932 5 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 55 Textularia pseudogramen Chapman and Parr, 1937 6 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 55 Textularia scrupula Lalicker and McCulloch, 1940 7 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 55 Siphotextularia masudai Asano, 1953 8 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 56 Siphotextularia rolshauseni Phleger and Parker, 1951 9 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 56 Pseudogaudryina triangulate Lei and Li, 2016 10 a) side view b) side view 56 Spirillina canaliculata Terquen, 1880 11 a) side view b) lateral view 57 Spirillina helenae Chapman and Parr, 1937 12 a) side view b) lateral view 57 Ophthalmina spiratula Rhumbler, 1936 13 a) side view b) lateral view 58 Spirophthalmidium acutimargo (Brady, 1884) 14 a) side view b) lateral view 58 15 Spirophthalmidium sp. 58 Adelosina bicornis (Walker and Jacob, 1798) 16 a) side view b) lateral view 59 Spiroloculina excisa Cushman and Todd, 1944 17 a) side view b) lateral view 59 Spiroloculina californica Cushman and Todd, 1944 18 a) side view b) lateral view 59 Quinqueloculina argunica (Gerke, 1938) 19 a) side view b) apertural view 60 Quinqueloculina echinata d’Orbigny, 1905 20 a) side view b) apertural view 60 Quinqueloculina elegans Terquem, 1878 21 a) side view b) apertural view 60 Quinqueloculina inaequalis d’Orbigny, 1839 22 a) side view b) apertural view 60

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Plate-4 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Quinqueloculina lamarckiana d’Orbigny, 1839 1 a) side view b) apertural view 61 2 Quinqueloculina mixta McCulloch, 1981 61 Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady, 1881) 3 a) side view b) apertural view 61 Quinqueloculina sabulosa Cushman, 1947 4 a) side view b) apertural view 61 Quinqueloculina schlumbergeri (Weisner, 1923) 5 a) side view b) apertural view 62 6 Quinqueloculina seminula Linnaeus, 1758 62 Quinqueloculina tropicalis Cushman, 1924 7 a) side view b) apertural view 62 Quinqueloculina venusta Karrer, 1868 8 a) side view b) apertural view 62 Quinqueloculina weaveri Rau, 1948 9 a) side view b) apertural view 63 10 Quinqueloculina cf. trigonula Terquem Terquem, 1876 63 Quinqueloculina aff. oblonga Ruess, 1856 11 a) Side view b) apertural view 63 Quinqueloculina sp. 12 a) side view b) lateral view 64 13 Miliolinella australis (Parr, 1932) 64 Miliolinella erecta McCulloch, 1977 14 a) side view b) lateral view 64 Miliolinella labiosa (d’Orbigny, 1839) 15 a) side view b) lateral view 65 16 Miliolinella neomicrostoma McCulloch, 1977 65 Miliolinella neocircularis McCulloch, 1977 17 a) side view b) apertural view 65 18 Miliolinella subrotunda Montagu, 1803 65 Pyrgo rotalaris Loeblich and Tappan 1953 19 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 66 Pyrgo wrangellensis McCulloch 1977 20 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 66 Pyrgo sp. 21 a) side view b) lateral view 66 22 Triloculina tricarinata d'Orbigny, 1826 66 Sigmoilina tenuis (Czjzek, 1848) 23 a) side view b) lateral view 67 Sigmoilinita asperula Karrer, 1868 24 a) side view b) lateral view 67 Sigmoilinita delacaboensis McCulloch, 1977 25 a) side view b) lateral view 67 Subedentostomina lavelaenus McCulloch, 1977 26 a) side view b) lateral view 68

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Plate-5 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Sigmoilopsis schlumbergeri Silvestri, 1904 1 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 68 2 Monalysidium politum McCulloch, 1977 68 Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal, 1775) 3 a) side view b) lateral view 69 Cyclorbiculina colombiana McCulloch, 1981 4 a) side view b) lateral view 69 5 Dentalina aphelis Loeblich and Tappan, 1986 70 Dentalina cf. bradyensis Dervieux, 1894 6 a) side view b) lateral view 70 7 Dentalina cf. trondheimensis Hanssen, 1964 70 8 Laevidentalina phiala Costa, 1856 71 9 Nodosaria brevis d’Orbigny, 1902 71 10 Nodosaria transparenta Neufville, 1971 71 11 Nodosaria cf. calomorpha Reuss, 1865 71 12 Neolingulina aff. parva McCulloch, 1977 72 Lenticulina calcaesfera Molcikova, 1978 13 a) side view b) lateral view 72 14 Lenticulina crassa (d'Orbigny, 1846) 73 Lenticulina lucidiformis McCulloch, 1981 15 a) side view b) lateral view 73 16 Lenticulina pliocaena (Silvestri, 1898) 73 Lenticulina tortugaensis McCulloch, 1981 17 a) side view b) lateral view 74 Neolenticulina peregrina (Schwager, 1866) 18 a) Side view b) lateral view 74 Neolenticulina antarctica McCulloch, 1977 19 a) side view b) lateral view 74 20 Saracenaria caribbeanica McCulloch, 1981 75 Astacolus insolitus (Schwager, 1866) 21 a) side view b) lateral view 75 22 Amphicoryna bilocularis Rhumbler, 1949 75 23 Amphicoryna variabilis Terquem and Berthelin, 1875 75 24 Amphicoryna cf. diversiformis McCulloch, 1981 76 25 Amphicoryna sp. 76 26 Vaginulina albemarlensis McCulloch, 1977 76 27 Vaginulina inflata (Schuvert, 1900) 77 Vaginulina cf. advena pauciloculata Cushman and Grey, 28 1917 77 29-32 Hyalinonetrion elongata (Ehrenberg, 1844) 77

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33 Lagena apiculata Cushman, 1913 78 34 Lagena foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1977 78 35 Lagena macculochae Albani and Yassini, 1989 78 36 Lagena oceanica Albani, 1974 79 37 Lagena perculiaris Cushman and McCulloch, 1950 79 Lagena subangulosa McCulloch, 1977 38 a) side view b) lateral view 79 39 Lagena cf. acuticosta Ruess, 1862 79

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Plate-6 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. 1 Lagena cf. englishae McCulloch, 1977 80 2 Lagena cf. flatulenta Loeblich and Tappan, 1953 80 3 Lagena cf. subacuticosta Parr, 1950 80 4 Lagena aff. semistriata Williamson, 1848 80 5 Procerolagena gracillima (Seguenza, 1862) 81 Pygmaeoseistron hispidula (Cushman) Patterson and 6 Richardson, 1988 81 7, 8 Pygmaeoseistron nebulosum (Cushman, 1923) 81 9 Anturina haynesi Jones, 1984 82 10 Oolina cf. globosa Montagu, 1803 82 11 Fissurina caudimarginata McCulloch, 1977 83 12 Fissurina crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 83 Fissurina gravata McCulloch, 1977 13 a) side view b) apertural view 83 Fissurina imporcata Mcculloch, 1977 14 a) side view b) apertural view 83 15 Fissurina cf. kerguelenensis Parr, 1950 84 16 Fissurina aff. crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 84 17 Fissurina aff. globosocaudata Albani and Yassini, 1989 84 18 Lagenosolenia cervicosa McCulloch, 1977 85 19 Lagenosolenia eucerviculata McCulloch, 1977 85 20 Lagenosolenia neocincta McCulloch, 1977 85 21 Lagenosolenia neoduplicata McCulloch, 1977 85 22 Lagenosolenia cf. inflatiperforata McCulloch, 1977 86 23 Parafissurina arctica Green, 1959 86 Parafissurina neocurta McCulloch, 1977 24 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 86 Parafissurina cf. curta Parr, 1950 25 a) side view b) apertural view 87 26 Parafissurina cf. metaconica McCulloch, 1977 87 Hoeglundina heterolucida McCulloch, 1981 27 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 87

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Plate-7 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Robertinoides oceanica Cushman and Parker, 1947 1 a) apertural view b) Side view 88 2 Gallitellia vivans (Cushman, 1934) 88 Globorotalia crassaformis Galloway and Wissler, 1927 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 89 Globorotalia menardii (Parker, Jones and Brady, 1865) 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 89 Globorotalia scitula (Brady, 1882) 5 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 89 Globorotalia theyeri Fleisher, 1974 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 90 Globorotalia tumida (Brady, 1877) 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 90 Globorotalia ungulata Bermudez, 1961 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 90 Neogloboquadrina dutertrei (d’Orbigny, 1839) 9 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 91 Turborotalia quinqueloba (Natland, 1938) 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 91 Pulleniatina obliquiloculata (Parker and Jones, 1865) 11 a) dorsal view b) apertural view 91 Globigerinita glutinata (Egger, 1893) 12 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 92 Globoquadrina conglomerata (Schwager, 1866) 13 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 92 Globorotaloides hexagonus (Natland, 1938) 14 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 93 Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826 15 a) apertural view b) dorsal view 93 Globigerina falconensis Blow, 1959 16 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 93 17,18 Globigerinella adamsi (Banner and Blow, 1959) 94 Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady, 1879) 19 a) dorsal view b) lateral view 94

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Plate-8 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Globigerinella calida (Parker, 1962) 1 a) apertural view b) dorsal view 94 Globigerinoides conglobatus (Brady, 1879) 2 a) dorsal view b) apertural view 95 Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny, 1839) 3, 4 a) dorsal view b) apertural view 95 Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady, 1877) 5, 6 a) side view b) side view 95 Globigerinoides tenellus Parker, 1958 7 a) apertural view b) dorsal view 95 Globoturborotalita rubescens (Hofker, 1956) 8 a) apertural view b) dorsal view 96 9 Orbulina universa d’Orbigny, 1839 96 Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orbigny) Banner and Blow, 1960 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 96 Bolivina abbreviata Longinelli, 1956 11 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 97 Bolivina acaulis Egger, 1893 12 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 97 Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925 13 a) side view b) lateral view 97 Bolivina churchi Kleinpell and Tipton, 1980 14 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 98 Bolivina cincta Heron-Allen and Earland, 1932 15 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 98 Bolivina compacta Sidebottom, 1905 16 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 98 Bolivina cuneatum Hofker, 1951 17 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 98 Bolivina currai Sellier de Civrieux, 1976 18 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 99 Bolivina dilatata Reuss, 1850 19 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 99

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Plate-9 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Bolivina dilatata Reuss, 1850 1 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 99 Bolivina earlandi Parr, 1950 2 a) side view b) lateral view 99 Bolivina globulosa Cushman, 1933 3 a) side view b) lateral view 99 Bolivina hirsuta Rhumbler, 1911 4 a) side view b) lateral view 100 Bolivina inflata Heron-Allen and Earland, 1913 5 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 100 Bolivina jacksonensis Cushman and Applin, 1926 6 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 100 Bolivina lowmani Sellier, 1976 7 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 100 Bolivina mantaensis Cushman, 1929 8 a) side view b) lateral view 101 Bolivina obscuranta Cushman, 1936 9 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 101 Bolivina pacifica Boomgaart, 1949 10 a) side view b) lateral view 101 Bolivina pseudogoesii Hofker, 1956 11 a) side view b) lateral view 101 Bolivina pseudopygmaea Cushman, 1933 12 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 102 Bolivina robusta (Brady, 1881) 13 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 102 14-16 Bolivina seminuda Cushman, 1911 102 Bolivina spathulata (Williamson, 1858) 17 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 102 Bolivina spinescens Cushman, 1911 18 a) side view b) lateral view 103 Bolivina striatula Cushman, 1922 19, 20 a) side view b) lateral view 103 Bolivina subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929 21 a) side view b) lateral view 103 Bolivina subspathulata Boomgaart, 1949 22 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 104 Bolivina tokelauae Boersma, 1969 23 a) side view b) apertural view 104

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Plate-10 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Bolivina victoriana Cushman, 1936 1 a) side view b) lateral view 104 Bolivina zanzibarica Cushman, 1936 2 a) side view b) lateral view 104 Bolivina cf. advena Cushman, 1925 3 a) side view b) lateral view 105 Bolivina aff. attica Parker, 1958 4 a) side view b) lateral view 105 Bolivina aff. glutinata Egger, 1893 5 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 105 Bolivina aff. mera Cushman and Ponton, 1932 6 a) side view b) lateral view 105 Bolivina aff. skagerrakensis Qvale and Nigam, 1985 7 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 136 Bolivina aff. subexcavata Cushman and Wickenden, 1929 8 a) side view b) lateral view 106 Bolivina sp. A 9 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 106 Bolivina sp. B 10 a) side view b) lateral view 107 Bolivina sp. C 11 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 107 Cassidulina angulosa Cushman, 1933 12, 13 a) side view b) side view c) lateral view 107 Cassidulina bradyi Norman, 1881 14 a) side view b) side view 107 Cassidulina carinata Silvestri, 1896 15 a) side view b) side view c) lateral view 108 Cassidulina laevigata d'Orbigny, 1826 16 a) side view b) lateral view 108 Cassidulina aff. minuta Cushman, 1933 17 a) side view b) side view 108 Cassidulionoides waltoni Uchio, 1960 18 a) side view b) side view 109 Globocassidulina porrecta Heron-Allen and Earland, 1932 19 a) side view b) side view 109 Globocassidulina subglobosa (Brady, 1881) 20 a) side view b) side view 109

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Plate-11 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. 1 Ehrenbergina pacifica Cushman, 1927 110 Hopkinsina atlantica Cushman, 1944 2 a) side view b) lateral view 110 3 Stainforthia loeblichi (Feyling-Hanssen, 1954) 110 4 Stainforthia sp. A 111 5 Stainforthia sp. B 111 Hopkinsinella glabra Millett, 1903 6 a) side view b) lateral view 111 Bitubulogenerina howei Cushman, 1935 7 a) side view b) lateral view 112 8-11 Bulimina aculeata d’Orbigny, 1826 112 12 Bulimina arabiensis Bharti and Singh, 2013 112 13 Bulimina alazanensis Cushman, 1927 113 14 Bulimina elegans d’Orbigny, 1826 113 15 Bulimina elongata d’Orbigny, 1846 113 16 Bulimina gibba Fornasini, 1902 113 17 Bulimina marginata d'Orbigny, 1826 114 18 Bulimina marginospinata Cushman and Parker, 1938 114 19 Bulimina psuedoaffinis Kleinpell, 1938 114 20 Bulimina pupoides d’Orbigny, 1846 114 21 Bulimina rostratiformis McCulloch, 1977 115 22 Bulimina spinosa Seguenza, 1862 115 23 Bulimina striata d’Orbigny, 1843 115 24 Bulimina aff. delreyensis Cushman and Galliher, 1934 115 25 Eubuliminella exilis (Brady, 1884) 116 26 Globobulimina pacifica Cushman, 1927 116

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Plate-12 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. 1 Neouvigerina ampullacea (Brady, 1884) 117 2 Neouvigerina eketahuna Vella, 1963 117 3-5 Neouvigerina porrecta (Brady, 1879) 117 6 Uvigerina akitaensis Asano, 1950 117 7 Uvigerina auberiana d’Orbigny, 1839 118 8 Uvigerina barbatula Macfadyen, 1930 118 9 Uvigerina canariensis d’Orbigny, 1839 118 10 Uvigerina dirupta Todd, 1948 118 11 Uvigerina finisterrensis Colom, 1952 119 12 Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932 119 13 Uvigerina multicostata Leroy, 1939 119 14 Uvigerina peregrina Cushman, 1923 119 15 Uvigerina proboscidea Schwager, 1866 120 16 Uvigerina subproboscidea Haque, 1956 120 17 Uvigerina cf. asperula Czjzek, 1848 120 18 Uvigerina aff. longa Cushman and Bermúdez, 1937 120 19 Uvigerina aff. mediterranea Hofker, 1932 121 20 Uvigerina sp. A 121 21 Uvigerina sp. B 121 22 Angulogerina picta Todd, 1948 122 23, 24 Reussella aequa Cushman and McCulloch, 1948 122 25 Reussella lavelaensis McCulloch, 1977 122 26 Reussella sp. 122 27 Cassidella pacifica Hofker, 1951 123 28 Fursenkoina carinata (Heron-Allen and Earland, 1915) 123 29 Fursenkoina cornuta (Cushman, 1913) 123 30 Fursenkoina obliqua Saidova, 1975 124 31 Fursenkoina pontoni (Cushman,1932) 124 32 Rutherfordoides rotundiformis McCulloch, 1977 124 Sigmavirgulina tortuosa (Brady, 1881) 33 a) side view b) lateral view c) apertural view 125 34 Orthomorphina aff. parvula Todd, 1966 125 Baggina californica Cushman, 1926 35 a) side view b) side view 126 36 Baggina diversa McCulloch, 1981 126 Cancris auriculus (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) 37 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 126

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Plate-13 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Cancris sagra (d'Orbigny, 1839) 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 127 Cancris cf. penangensis McCulloch, 1977 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 127 Cancris sp. 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 127 Valvulineria glabra Cushman, 1927 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 127 5 Valvulineria hamanakoensis (Ishiwada, 1958) 128 Valvulineria minuta Parker, 1954 6 128 Eponides umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 128 Ioanella aff. tumidula (Brady, 1884) 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 129 Mississippina symmetrica McCulloch, 1977 9 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 129 Rotorbinella bikinensisMcCulloch, 1977 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 130 Neoconorbina terquemi (Rzehak, 1888) 11 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 130 Rosalina columbiensis (Cushman, 1925) 12 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 130 Rosalina globularis d’Orbigny, 1826 13 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 131 Rosalina leei Hedley and Wakefield, 1967 14 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 131 Cibicidoides bradii Tolmachoff, 1934 15 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 131 16 Cibicidoides globulosa (Chapman and Parr, 1937) 132

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Plate-14 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Cibicidoides mundula (Brady, Parker and Jones, 1888) 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 132 Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (Schwager, 1866) 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 132 Parrelloides sp. 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 133 Epistominella exigua (Brady, 1884) 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 133 Epistominella pulchella Husezima and Maruhasi, 1944 5 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 133 Epistominella umbonifera Cushman, 1933 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 134 Epistominella sp. 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 134 Laticarinina pauperata (Parker and Jones, 1865) 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 134 Crespinella umbonifera (Howchin and Parr, 1938) 9 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 135 Hyalinea balthica (Schroeter, 1783) 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 135

269

Plate-15 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No.

Planulina foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1981 135 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Planulina ornata (d’Orbigny, 1839) 136 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Cibicides pokuticus Afzenshtat, 1954 136 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808 136 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Montfortella sp. 137 5 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Pyropiloides elongatus Zheng, 1979 137 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Psuedoeponides equatoriana (Leroy, 1941) 138 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view Amphistegina gibbosa d’Orbigny, 1839 138 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Nonion glabrella Cushman, 1930 138 9 a) dorsal view b) lateral view c) lateral view Nonion granosum (d’Orbigny, 1846) 139 10 a) dorsal view b) lateral view Nonionella limbato-striata Cushman, 1931 139 11 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view

270

Plate-16 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Nonionella simplex (McCulloch, 1977) 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 139 Nonionella subchiliensis McCulloch, 1977 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 140 Nonionellina labradorica (Dawson, 1860) 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 140 Melonis affinis (Reuss, 1851) 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 140 Melonis chathamensis McCulloch, 1977 5 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 141 Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel and Moll, 1798) 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 141 Melonis sp. 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 141 Pullenia bulloides (d’Orbigny, 1846) 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 141 Pullenia salisburyi Stewart and Stewart, 1930 9 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 142 Pullenia sp. 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 142

271

Plate-17 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No.

Allomorphina pacifica Hofker, 1951 142 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Osangularia bengalensis (Schwager, 1866) 143 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) 143 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Gyroidinoides soldanii (d’Orbigny, 1826) 144 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta (Germeraad, 1946) 144 5 a) sideview b) side view Gyroidina io Resig, 1958 145 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Gyroidina quinqueloba Uchio, 1960 145 7 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Gyroidina pilasensis McCulloch, 1977 145 8 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Gyroidina tenera (Brady, 1884) 145 9 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Gyroidina cf. guadalupensis McCulloch, 1977 146 10 a) dorsal view b) ventral view Hanzawaia concentrica (Cushman, 1918) 146 11 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view Hanzawaia aff. strattoniformis McCulloch, 1981 146 12 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view

272

Plate-18 Scale bar = 100 µm Figure No. Species Page No. Buccella differens McCulloch, 1981 1 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 147 Buccella tenerrima (Bandy, 1950) 2 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 147 Pararotalia calcar (d’Orbigny, 1826) 3 a) dorsal view b) ventral view 147 Pararotalia minuta (Takayanagi, 1955) 4 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 148 Ammonia sobrina (Shupack, 1934) 5 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 148 Rotalidium annectens (Parker and Jones, 1865) 6 a) dorsal view b) ventral view c) lateral view 148 Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 a) side view b) lateral view 149 Operculina inaequilateralis Sidebottom, 1918 8 a) side view b) side view c) lateral view 149

273

Annexure-I Alphabetical list of the species reported from the region off the southern tip of India and the details of their respective plate and figure number/s.

Sr. No. Species Pl. No. Fig. No. Pg. No. 1 Adelosina bicornis (Walker & Jacob, 1798) 3 16 59 2 Adercotryma glomeratum (Brady, 1878) 2 1 47 3 Allomorphina pacifica Hofker, 1951 17 1 142 4 Ammobaculites commotus Saidova, 1975 1 26 45 Ammobaculites exiguous Cushman and Brönnimann, 5 1948 1 25 45 6 Ammodiscus gullmarensis Höglund, 1948 1 10 40 Ammoglobigerina globigeriniformis (Parker & Jones, 7 1865) 2 6 49 8 Ammolagena clavata Jones and Parker, 1860 1 12, 13 41 9 Ammomarginulina troptunensis Voloshinova, 1958 1 27 45 10 Ammonia sobrina (Shupack, 1934) 18 5 148 11 Amphicoryna bilocularis Rhumbler, 1949 5 22 75 12 Amphicoryna cf. diversiformis McCulloch, 1977 5 24 76 13 Amphicoryna sp. 5 25 76 14 Amphicoryna variabilis Terquem and Berthelin, 1875 5 23 75 15 Amphistegina gibbosa d'Orbigny, 1839 15 8 138 16 Angulogerina picta Todd, 1948 12 22 122 17 Anturina haynesi Jones, 1984 6 9 82 18 Arenogaudryina scabra (Brady, 1884) 2 12 51 19 Arenoturrispirillina catinus Höglund, 1947 1 11 41 20 Astacolus insolitus (Schwager, 1866) 5 21 75 21 Baggina californica Cushman, 1926 12 35 126 22 Baggina diversa McCulloch, 1981 12 36 126 23 Bathysiphon folini Gooday, 1983 1 1 37 24 Bitubulogenerina howei Cushman, 1935 11 7 112 25 Bolivina aff. glutinata Egger, 1893 10 5 105 26 Bolivina abbreviata (Longinelli, 1956) 8 11 97 27 Bolivina acaulis Egger, 1893 8 12 97 28 Bolivina advena Cushman, 1925 8 13 97 29 Bolivina aff. attica Parker, 1958 10 4 105 30 Bolivina aff. mera Cushman & Ponton, 1932 10 6 105 31 Bolivina aff. skagerrakensis Qvale & Nigam, 1985 10 7 136 32 Bolivina aff. subexcavata Cushman & Wickenden, 1929 10 8 106 33 Bolivina cf. advena Cushman, 1925 10 3 105 34 Bolivina churchi Kleinpell & Tipton, 1980 8 14 98 35 Bolivina cincta Heron-Allen & Earland, 1932 8 15 98 36 Bolivina compacta Sidebottom, 1905 8 16 98 274

37 Bolivina cuneatum Hofker, 1951 8 17 98 38 Bolivina currai Sellier de Civrieux, 1976 8 18 99 39 Bolivina dilatata Reuss, 1850 8 19 99 40 Bolivina earlandi Parr, 1950 9 2 99 41 Bolivina globulosa Cushman, 1933 9 3 99 42 Bolivina hirsuta Rhumbler, 1911 9 4 100 43 Bolivina inflata Heron-Allen & Earland, 1913 9 5 100 44 Bolivina jacksonensis Cushman & Applin, 1926 9 6 100 45 Bolivina lowmani Sellier, 1976 9 7 100 46 Bolivina mantaensis Cushman, 1929 9 8 101 47 Bolivina obscuranta Cushman, 1936 9 9 101 48 Bolivina pacifica Boomgaart, 1949 9 10 101 49 Bolivina pseudogoesii Hofker, 1956 9 11 101 50 Bolivina pseudopygmaea Cushman, 1933 9 12 102 51 Bolivina robusta (Brady, 1881) 9 13 102 52 Bolivina seminuda Cushman, 1911 9 14-16 102 53 Bolivina sp. A 10 9 106 54 Bolivina sp. B 10 10 107 55 Bolivina sp. C 10 11 107 56 Bolivina spathulata (Williamson, 1858) 9 17 102 57 Bolivina spinescens Cushman, 1911 9 18 103 58 Bolivina striatula Cushman, 1922 9 19, 20 103 59 Bolivina subexcavata Cushman & Wickenden, 1929 9 21 103 60 Bolivina subspathulata Boomgaart, 1949 9 22 104 61 Bolivina tokelauae Boersma, 1969 9 23 104 62 Bolivina victoriana Cushman, 1936 10 1 104 63 Bolivina zanzibarica Cushman, 1936 10 2 104 64 Buccella differens McCulloch, 1981 18 1 147 65 Buccella tenerrima (Bandy, 1950) 18 2 147 66 Bulimina aculeata d'Orbigny, 1826 11 8-11 112 67 Bulimina aff. delreyensis Cushman & Galliher, 1934 11 24 115 68 Bulimina alazanensis Cushman, 1927 11 13 113 69 Bulimina arabiensis Bharti & Singh, 2013 11 12 112 70 Bulimina elegans d’Orbigny, 1826 11 14 113 71 Bulimina elongata d'Orbigny, 1846 11 15 113 72 Bulimina gibba Fornasini, 1902 11 16 113 73 Bulimina marginata d'Orbigny, 1826 11 17 114 74 Bulimina marginospinata Cushman & Parker, 1938 11 18 114 75 Bulimina psuedoaffinis Kleinpell, 1938 11 19 114 76 Bulimina pupoides d'Orbigny, 1846 11 20 114 77 Bulimina rostratiformis McCulloch, 1977 11 21 115 78 Bulimina spinosa Seguenza, 1862 11 22 115 275

79 Bulimina striata d'Orbigny, 1843 11 23 115 80 Cancris auriculus (Fichtel & Moll, 1798) 12 37 126 81 Cancris cf. penangensis McCulloch, 1977 13 2 127 82 Cancris sagra (d'Orbigny, 1839) 13 1 127 83 Cancris sp. 13 3 127 84 Cassidella pacifica Hofker, 1951 12 27 123 85 Cassidulina aff. minuta Cushman, 1933 10 17 108 86 Cassidulina angulosa Cushman, 1933 10 12, 13 107 87 Cassidulina bradyi Norman, 1881 10 14 107 88 Cassidulina carinata Silvestri, 1896 10 15 108 89 Cassidulina laevigata d'Orbigny, 1826 10 16 108 90 Cassidulionoides waltoni Uchio 1960 10 18 109 91 Cibicides pokuticus Afzenshtat, 1954 15 3 136 92 Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808 15 4 136 93 Cibicidoides bradii Tolmachoff, 1934 13 15 131 94 Cibicidoides globulosa (Chapman & Parr, 1937) 13 16 132 95 Cibicidoides mundula (Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888) 14 1 132 96 Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi (Schwager, 1866) 14 2 132 97 Controchammina bullata (Höglund, 1947) 2 11 50 98 Crespinella umbonifera (Howchin and Parr, 1938) 14 9 135 99 Cribrostomoides nitida (Goës, 1896) 1 18 43 100 Cyclorbiculina colombiana McCulloch, 1981 5 4 69 101 Cystammina Sp. 2 2 47 102 Dentalina aphelis Loeblich and Tappan, 1986 5 5 70 103 Dentalina cf. bradyensis Dervieux, 1894 5 6 70 104 Dentalina cf. trondheimensis Hanssen, 1964 5 7 70 105 Eggerella humboldti Todd & Brönniman, 1957 2 17 52 106 Eggerelloides scaber (Williamson, 1858) 2 18 53 107 Ehrenbergina pacifica Cushman, 1927 11 1 110 108 Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus, 1758) 18 7 149 109 Epistominella exigua (Brady, 1884) 14 4 133 110 Epistominella pulchella Husezima & Maruhasi, 1944 14 5 133 111 Epistominella sp. 14 7 134 112 Epistominella umbonifera Cushman, 1933 14 6 134 113 Eponides umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) 13 7 128 114 Eratidus foliaceus (Brady, 1881) 1 28 46 115 Eubuliminella exilis (Brady, 1884) 11 25 116 116 Fissurina aff. crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 6 16 84 117 Fissurina aff. globosocaudata Albani and Yassini, 1989 6 17 84 118 Fissurina caudimarginata McCulloch, 1977 6 11 83 119 Fissurina cf. kerguelenensis Parr, 1950 6 15 84 120 Fissurina crassiporosa McCulloch, 1977 6 12 83 276

121 Fissurina gravata McCulloch, 1977 6 13 83 122 Fissurina imporcata Mcculloch, 1977 6 14 83 123 Fursenkoina carinata (Heron-Allen & Earland, 1915) 12 32 124 124 Fursenkoina cornuta (Cushman, 1913) 12 28 123 125 Fursenkoina obliqua Saidova 1975 12 29 123 126 Fursenkoina pontoni (Cushman, 1932) 12 33 125 127 Gallitellia vivans (Cushman, 1934) 7 2 88 128 Gaudryina baccata Schwager, 1866 2 13 51 129 Gaudryina lapugyensis Cushman, 1936 2 14 51 130 Gaudryina niigataensis Asano, 1950 2 15 52 131 Gaudryina sp. 2 16 52 132 Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826 7 15 93 133 Globigerina falconensis Blow, 1959 7 16 93 134 Globigerinella adamsi (Banner & Blow, 1959) 7 17,18 94 135 Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady, 1879) 7 19 94 136 Globigerinella calida (Parker, 1962) 8 1 94 137 Globigerinita glutinata (Egger, 1893) 7 12 92 138 Globigerinoides conglobatus (Brady, 1879) 8 2 95 139 Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny, 1839) 8 3, 4 95 140 Globigerinoides sacculifer (Brady, 1877) 8 5, 6 95 141 Globigerinoides tenellus Parker, 1958 8 7 95 142 Globobulimina pacifica (Cushman, 1927) 11 26 116 Globocassidulina porrecta Heron-Allen and Earland, 143 1932 10 19 109 144 Globocassidulina subglobosa (Brady, 1881) 10 20 109 145 Globoquadrina conglomerata (Schwager, 1866) 7 13 92 146 Globorotalia crassaformis (Galloway & Wissler, 1927) 7 3 89 147 Globorotalia menardii (Parker, Jones and Brady, 1865) 7 4 89 148 Globorotalia scitula (Brady, 1882) 7 5 89 149 Globorotalia theyeri (Fleisher, 1974) 7 6 90 150 Globorotalia tumida (Brady, 1877) 7 7 90 151 Globorotalia ungulata (Bermudez, 1961) 7 8 90 152 Globorotaloides hexagonus (Natland, 1938) 7 14 93 153 Globoturborotalita rubescens (Hofker, 1956) 8 8 96 154 Gyroidina cf. guadalupensis McCulloch, 1977 17 10 146 155 Gyroidina io Resig, 1958 17 6 145 156 Gyroidina pilasensis McCulloch, 1977 17 8 145 157 Gyroidina quinqueloba Uchio, 1960 17 7 145 158 Gyroidina tenera (Brady, 1884) 17 9 145 159 Gyroidinoides soldanii (d'Orbigny, 1826) 17 4 144 160 Hanzawaia aff. strattoniformis McCulloch, 1981 17 12 146 161 Hanzawaia concentrica (Cushman, 1918) 17 11 146

277

162 Haplophragmoides bradyi (Robertson, 1891) 1 19 43 163 Haplophragmoides canariensis (d'Orbigny, 1839) 1 20 43 Haplophragmoides evolutum Cushman & Mcculloch, 164 1939 1 21 44 165 Haplophragmoides sphaeriloculus Cushman, 1910 1 22 44 166 Haplophragmoides subglobosum Cushman, 1910 1 23 44 167 Haplophragmoides symmetricus Zheng, 2000 1 24 44 Hastigerina pelagica (d’Orbigny) Banner and Blow, 168 1960 8 10 96 169 Hoeglundina heterolucida McCulloch, 1981 6 27 87 170 Hopkinsina atlantica Cushman, 1944 11 2 110 171 Hopkinsinella glabra Millett, 1903 11 6 111 172 Hormosinella distans Brady 1881 1 14 41 173 Hyalinea balthica (Schroeter, 1783) 14 10 135 174 Hyalinonetrion elongata (Ehrenberg, 1844) 5 29-32 77 175 Ioanella aff. tumidula (Brady, 1884) 13 8 129 176 Karreriella bradyi (Cushman, 1911) 2 19 53 177 Laevidentalina phiala Costa, 1856 5 8 71 178 Lagena aff. semistriata Williamson, 1848 6 4 80 179 Lagena apiculata Cushman, 1913 5 33 78 180 Lagena cf. acuticosta Ruess, 1862 5 39 79 181 Lagena cf. englishae McCulloch, 1977 6 1 80 182 Lagena cf. flatulenta Loeblich and Tappan, 1953 6 2 80 183 Lagena cf. subacuticosta Parr, 1950 6 3 80 184 Lagena foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1977 5 34 78 185 Lagena macculochae Albani and Yassini, 1989 5 35 78 186 Lagena oceanica Albani 1974 5 36 79 187 Lagena perculiaris Cushman and McCulloch, 1950 5 37 79 188 Lagena subangulosa McCulloch, 1977 5 38 79 189 Lagenammina longicolli Wiesner, 1931 1 7 39 190 Lagenosolenia cervicosa McCulloch, 1977 6 18 85 191 Lagenosolenia cf. inflatiperforata McCulloch, 1977 6 22 86 192 Lagenosolenia eucerviculata McCulloch, 1977 6 19 85 193 Lagenosolenia neocincta McCulloch, 1977 6 20 85 194 Lagenosolenia neoduplicata McCulloch, 1977 6 21 85 195 Laticarinina pauperata (Parker and Jones, 1865) 14 8 134 196 Lenticulina calcaesfera (Molcikova, 1978) 5 13 72 197 Lenticulina crassa (d'Orbigny, 1846) 5 14 73 198 Lenticulina lucidiformis (McCulloch, 1981) 5 15 73 199 Lenticulina pliocaena (Silvestri, 1898) 5 16 73 200 Lenticulinatortugaensis McCulloch, 1981 5 17 74 201 Lituola hispida Zheng, 1988 1 29 46 202 Melonis affinis (Reuss, 1851) 16 4 140 278

203 Melonis chathamensis McCulloch, 1977 16 5 141 204 Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel & Moll, 1798) 16 6 14 205 Melonis sp. 16 7 14 206 Miliolinella australis (Parr, 1932) 4 13 64 207 Miliolinella erecta McCulloch, 1977 4 14 64 208 Miliolinella labiosa (d’Orbigny, 1839) 4 15 65 209 Miliolinella neocircularis McCulloch, 1977 4 17 65 210 Miliolinella neomicrostoma McCulloch, 1977 4 16 65 211 Miliolinella subrotunda Montagu, 1803 4 18 65 212 Mississippina symmetrica McCulloch, 1977 13 9 129 213 Monalysidium politum McCulloch, 1977 5 2 68 214 Montfortella sp. 15 5 137 215 Neoconorbina terquemi (Rzehak, 1888) 13 11 130 216 Neogloboquadrina dutertrei (d’Orbigny, 1839) 7 9 91 217 Neolenticulina antarctica McCulloch, 1977 5 19 74 218 Neolenticulina peregrina (Schwager, 1866) 5 18 74 219 Neolingulina aff. parva McCulloch, 1977 5 12 72 220 Neouvigerina ampullacea (Brady, 1884) 12 1 117 221 Neouvigerina eketahuna Vella, 1963 12 2 117 222 Neouvigerina porrecta (Brady, 1879) 12 3-5 117 223 Nodosaria brevis d’Orbigny, 1902 5 9 71 224 Nodosaria cf. calomorpha Reuss, 1865 5 11 71 225 Nodosaria transparenta Neufville, 1971 5 10 71 226 Nonion glabrella Cushman, 1930 15 9 138 227 Nonion granosum (d'Orbigny, 1846) 15 10 139 228 Nonionella limbato-striata Cushman, 1931 15 11 139 229 Nonionella simplex (McCulloch, 1977) 16 1 139 230 Nonionella subchiliensis (McCulloch, 1977) 16 2 140 231 Nonionellina labradorica (Dawson, 1860) 16 3 140 232 Oolina cf. globosa Montagu, 1803 6 10 82 233 Operculina inaequilaterais Sidebottom, 1918 18 8 149 234 Ophthalmina spiratula Rhumbler, 1936 3 13 58 235 Orbulina universa d’Orbigny, 1839 8 9 96 236 Oridorsalis umbonatus (Reuss, 1851) 17 3 143 237 Orthomorphina aff. parvula Todd, 1966 12 34 125 238 Osangularia bengalensis (Schwager, 1866) 17 2 143 239 Parafissurina arctica Green, 1959 6 23 86 240 Parafissurina cf. curta Parr, 1950 6 25 87 241 Parafissurina cf. metaconica McCulloch, 1977 6 26 87 242 Parafissurina neocurta McCulloch, 1977 6 24 86 243 Pararotalia calcar (d'Orbigny, 1826) 18 3 147 244 Pararotalia minuta (Takayanagi, 1955) 18 4 148 279

245 Parrelloides sp. 14 3 133 246 Peneroplis pertusus (Forskal, 1775) 5 3 69 247 Planulina foveolatiformis McCulloch, 1981 15 1 135 248 Planulina ornata (d'Orbigny, 1839) 15 2 136 249 Portatrochammina eltaninae Echols, 1971 2 7 49 250 Procerolagena gracillima (Seguenza, 1862) 6 5 81 251 Psammosphaera fusca Schulze, 1875 1 5 38 252 Psammosphaera sp. 1 6 39 253 Pseudogaudryina triangulate Lei & Li, 2016 3 10 56 254 Psuedoeponides equatoriana (Leroy, 1941) 15 7 138 255 Pullenia bulloides (d’Orbigny, 1846) 16 8 141 256 Pullenia salisburyi Stewart & Stewart, 1930) 16 9 142 257 Pullenia sp. 16 10 142 258 Pulleniatina obliquiloculata (Parker and Jones, 1865) 7 11 91 Pygmaeoseistron hispidula (Cushman) Patterson and 259 Richardson, 1988 6 6 81 260 Pygmaeoseistron nebulosum (Cushman, 1923) 6 7, 8 81 261 Pyrgo rotalaris Loeblich and Tappan 1953 4 19 66 262 Pyrgo sp. 4 21 66 263 Pyrgo wrangellensis McCulloch 1977 4 20 66 264 Pyropiloides elongatus Zheng, 1979 15 6 137 265 Quinqueloculina aff. oblongaRuess, 1856 4 11 63 266 Quinqueloculina argunica (Gerke, 1938) 3 19 60 267 Quinqueloculina cf. trigonulaTerquem Terquem, 1876 4 10 63 268 Quinqueloculina echinata d’Orbigny, 1905 3 20 60 269 Quinqueloculina elegans Terquem, 1878 3 21 60 270 Quinqueloculina inaequalis d’Orbigny, 1839 3 22 60 271 Quinqueloculina lamarckiana d’Orbigny, 1839 4 1 61 272 Quinqueloculinamixta McCulloch, 1981 4 2 61 273 Quinqueloculina parkeri (Brady, 1881) 4 3 61 274 Quinqueloculina sabulosa Cushman, 1947 4 4 61 275 Quinqueloculina schlumbergeri (Weisner, 1923) 4 5 62 276 Quinqueloculina seminula (Linnaeus, 1758) 4 6 62 277 Quinqueloculina sp. 4 12 64 278 Quinqueloculina tropicalis Cushman, 1924 4 7 62 279 Quinqueloculina venusta Karrer, 1868 4 8 62 280 Quinqueloculina weaveri Rau, 1948 4 9 63 281 Recurvoides gigas Zheng, 1988 2 3 47 282 Reophax brevis Parr, 1950 1 15 42 283 Reophax rostrata Höglund, 1947 1 16 42 284 Reophax spiculifer Brady, 1879 1 17 42 285 Reussella aequa Cushman & McCulloch, 1948 12 23, 24 122

280

286 Reussella lavelaensis McCulloch, 1977 12 25 122 287 Reussella sp. 12 26 122 288 Rhabdammina discreta (Brady, 1881) 1 2, 3 38 289 Rhizammina echinata Saidova, 1975 1 4 38 290 Robertinoides oceanica Cushman and Parker, 1947 7 1 88 291 Rosalina columbiensis (Cushman, 1925) 13 12 130 292 Rosalina globularis d’Orbigny, 1826 13 13 131 293 Rosalina leei Hedley & Wakefield, 1967 13 14 131 294 Rotaliatinopsis semiinvoluta (Germeraad, 1946) 17 5 144 295 Rotalidium annectens (Parker & Jones, 1865) 18 6 148 296 Rotorbinella bikinensis McCulloch, 1977 13 10 130 297 Rutherfordoides rotundiformis McCulloch, 1977 12 30 124 298 Saccammina huanghaiensis Zheng & Fu, 2001 1 8 39 299 Saccorhiza ramosa Brady, 1879 1 9 40 300 Saracenaria caribbeanica McCulloch, 1981 5 20 75 301 Sigmavirgulina tortuosa (Brady, 1881) 12 31 124 302 Sigmoilina tenuis (Czjzek, 1848) 4 23 67 303 Sigmoilinita asperula Karrer, 1868 4 24 67 304 Sigmoilinita delacaboensis McCulloch, 1977 4 25 67 305 Sigmoilopsis schlumbergeri Silvestri, 1904 5 1 68 306 Siphotextularia masudai Asano, 1953 3 8 56 307 Siphotextularia rolshauseni Phleger & Parker, 1951 3 9 56 308 Spirillina canaliculata Terquen, 1880 3 11 57 309 Spirillina helenae Chapman & Parr, 1937 3 12 57 310 Spiroloculina californica Cushman & Todd, 1944 3 18 59 311 Spiroloculina excisa Cushman & Todd, 1944 3 17 59 312 Spirophthalmidium acutimargo Brady, 1984 3 14 58 313 Spirophthalmidium sp. 3 15 58 314 Spiroplectammina biformis Parker & Jones, 1865 2 4 48 315 Spirotextularia cf. fistulosa (Brady, 1884) 2 5 48 316 Stainforthia loeblichi (Feyling-Hanssen, 1954) 11 3 110 317 Stainforthia sp. A 11 4 111 318 Stainforthia sp. B 11 5 111 319 Subedentostomina lavelaenus McCulloch, 1977 4 26 68 320 Textularia bermudezi Cushman & Todd, 1945 2 20 53 321 Textularia bocki Höglund, 1947 2 21 54 322 Textularia calva Lalicker, 1940 3 1 54 323 Textularia candeiana d'Orbigny, 1839 3 2 54 324 Textularia fistula Cushman, 1911 3 3 54 325 Textularia occidentalis Cushman, 1922 3 4 55 326 Textularia oceanica Cushman, 1932 3 5 55 327 Textularia pseudogramen Chapman & Parr, 1937 3 6 55 281

328 Textularia scrupula Lalicker & McCulloch, 1940 3 7 55 329 Triloculina tricarinata d’Orbigny, 1826 4 22 66 330 Tritaxis fusca (Williamson, 1858) 2 8 49 331 Trochammina boltovskoyi Brönnimann, 1979 2 9 50 332 Trochammina conica Earland, 1934 2 10 50 333 Turborotalia quinqueloba (Natland, 1938) 7 10 91 334 Uvigerina cf. asperula Czjzek, 1848 12 17 120 335 Uvigerina aff. longa Cushman & Bermúdez, 1937 12 18 120 336 Uvigerina aff. mediterranea Hofker, 1932 12 19 121 337 Uvigerina akitaensis Asano, 1950 12 6 117 338 Uvigerina auberiana d'Orbigny, 1839 12 7 118 339 Uvigerina barbatula Macfadyen, 1930 12 8 118 340 Uvigerina canariensis d'Orbigny, 1839 12 9 118 341 Uvigerina dirupta Todd, 1948 12 10 118 342 Uvigerina finisterrensis Colom, 1952 12 11 119 343 Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932 12 12 119 344 Uvigerina multicostata Leroy, 1939 12 13 119 345 Uvigerina peregrina Cushman, 1923 12 14 119 346 Uvigerina proboscidea Schwager, 1866 12 15 120 347 Uvigerina sp. A 12 20 121 348 Uvigerina sp. B 12 21 121 349 Uvigerina subproboscidea Haque, 1956 12 16 120 350 Vaginulina albemarlensis McCulloch, 1977 5 26 76 Vaginulina cf. advena pauciloculata Cushman and 351 Grey, 1917 5 28 77 352 Vaginulina inflata (Schuvert, 1900) 5 27 77 353 Valvulineria glabra Cushman, 1927 13 4 127 354 Valvulineria hamanakoensis (Ishiwada, 1958) 13 5 128 355 Valvulineria minuta Parker, 1954 13 6 128

282

Annexure-II List of Publications

Publications

1. D.P. Singh, R. Saraswat, A. Kaithwar, 2018. Changes in standing stock and vertical distribution of benthic foraminifera along a depth gradient (58–2750 m) in the southeastern Arabian Sea. Marine Biodiversity, Vol. 43, pp. 73-88. 2. D.P. Singh, R. Saraswat, D.K. Naik, R. Nigam, 2017. A first look at factors affecting aragonite compensation depth in the eastern Arabian Sea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Vol. 483, pp. 6–14. 3. D.P. Singh, R. Saraswat, D.K. Naik, R. Nigam, 2017. Does glacial-interglacial transition affect sediment accumulation in monsoon dominated regions?Acta Geologica Sinica (English Edition), Vol. 91, pp. 1079-1094. 4. S.R. Kurtarkar, R. Saraswat, R. Nigam, B. Banerjee, R. Mallick, D.K. Naik, D.P. Singh, 2015. Assessing the effect of calcein incorporation on physiological processes of benthic foraminifera. Marine Micropaleontology, Vol. 114, pp. 36-45. 5. R. Saraswat, S.R. Kurtarkar, R. Yadav, A. Mackensen, D.P. Singh, et al. Inconsistent change in surface hydrography of the eastern Arabian Sea during the last four glacial-interglacial intervals. Geological Magazine (accepted). 6. R. Saraswat, D. P. Singh, D.W. Lea, A. Mackensen, D.K. Naik. Indonesian throughflow controlled westward extent of the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool during the glacial-interglacial intervals. Global and Planetary Change (Revised and resubmitted). 7. S. Sivadas, D.P. Singh, R. Saraswat. Functional and taxonomic diversity patterns of macrobenthic communities along a depth gradient (19–2639 m): A case study from the southern Indian continental margin. (Submitted).

Presentations: 1. Indo-Pacific warm pool during the glacial-interglacial intervals: Implications for future warming. European Geosciences Union (EGU) General Assembly, Vienna, 2018 (Oral). 2. Rose-Bengal stained benthic foraminifera response to oxygen depleted condition. Meiofauna Summer School, IFREMER, Brest, France, 2016 (Poster). 3. Ecology and distribution of Uvigerina in the northern India Ocean. In Indian Colloquium on Micropaleontology and Stratigraphy (ICMS), held at the Institute of Science, Aurangabad, 2015(Oral). 4. A first look at factors affecting aragonite compensation depth in the eastern Arabian Sea. In International Indian Ocean Expedition Symposium (IIOE), held at National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, 2015(Oral).

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5. Does bottom water oxygen concentration affect aragonite compensation depth in the southeastern Arabian Sea? In Annual Convention of Indian Geophysical Union (IGU), held at Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, 2014 (Oral). 6. Sedimentation rate in the eastern Arabian Sea during the last glacial-interglacial period. In Indian Colloquium on Micropaleontology and Stratigraphy (ICMS), held at Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, 2013(Oral).

Workshop/ School Attended: 1. Workshop on Isotopes in Earth, Ocean and Atmosphere Sciences, NIO, Goa, 2019. 2. Meiofauna Summer School University of Brest/ IFREMER, France, 2016. 3. Fixed-point Open Ocean Observatories (FixO3) Workshop at Royal NIOZ, Netherlands, 2016. 4. Linking Ecology with Ocean Biogeochemistry. Indo-German Winter School, CSIR- NIO, Goa, 2015. 5. Marine Geosciences in India: Current Status and Future Directions. Indian Geophysical Union Workshop, CSIR-NIO, Goa, 2013.

Cruise: 1. SK 308, onboard ORV Sagar Kanya, Bay of Bengal, 25 days, January 2014. 2. SSD 004, onboard RV Sindhu Sadhana, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep Sea, 20 days, October 2014. 3. SSD 011, onboard RV Sindhu Sadhana, Arabian Sea, 7 days, June, 2015.

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