Human-induced threats to turtles, sea birds and other vulnerable species; overview, needs analysis and stakeholder identification
Angola
Prepared for the Benguela Current Convention June 2017
Acknowledgement
This project of the Benguela Current Convention’s ecosystem-based management programme is made possible by generous support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway.
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Disclaimer
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessary reflect the views of the Benguela Current Convention and / or Norway. Executive Summary Fisheries and other human activities have direct and indirect impacts on the aquatic and marine ecosystems, which have resulted in growing ecosystem degradation, loss of habitat as well as inadequate management-oriented research, poor long-term monitoring and limited integrated planning of conflicting uses. The focus of this report is the human activities that can be managed and monitored in the BCC environment. The document provides a synthesis of information on human induced threats pertinent to the protection of seabirds, turtles and other vulnerable species, including reference to elasmobranchs, marine mammals and fish species. As the main thrust of the project is to update the National Plan of Action (NPOA) to curb the incidental mortality of seabirds, emphasis has been placed on providing detailed information that will assist in the compilation of the NPOA. Catastrophic incidents such as oil spill disasters and the long-term impact of plastic debris fall outside the scope of this report.
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Table of Contents Acronyms ...... 6 1. Introduction ...... 7 1.1. Review of human threats to the environment of vulnerable marine and seabird species .... 7 1.2. Scope of the NPOA ...... 8 1.3. Human impacts particular to the BCC environment ...... 9 1.4. Existing Legislation ...... 10 2. Main threats affecting conservation status of vulnerable marine species other than seabirds, turtles, current initiatives and proposed interventions ...... 12 2.1. Marine mammals ...... 13 2.1.1. Ecosystem changes ...... 15 2.1.2. Food Web interactions ...... 15 2.1.3. Pollution ...... 15 2.1.4. Habitat loss and disturbance ...... 15 2.1.5. Climate Change ...... 16 3. Overview: Main threats affecting conservation status of vulnerable seabirds and turtles ...... 16 3.1. Seabirds ...... 17 3.1.1. Ecosystem changes ...... 18 3.1.2. Food Web interactions ...... 18 3.1.3. Pollution ...... 19 3.1.4. Habitat loss and disturbance ...... 19 3.1.5. Climate change ...... 19 3.1.6. Predators ...... 19 3.2. Turtles and other reptiles ...... 19 3.2.1. Ecosystem changes ...... 20 3.2.2. Food Web interactions ...... 20 3.2.3. Pollution ...... 21 3.2.4. Habitat loss and disturbance ...... 21 3.2.5. Climate Change ...... 21 3.2.6. Predators ...... 21 3.2.7. Stakeholders...... 21 3.3. Mangroves ...... 22 3.3.1. Ecosystem changes ...... 22 3.3.2. Habitat loss and disturbance ...... 23 3.3.3. Government frameworks ...... 23
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3.3.4. Climate change ...... 24 3.3.5. Current and proposed mitigation measures ...... 24 3.4. Bays and Lagunas ...... 25 3.4.1. Ecosystem changes ...... 28 3.4.2. Habitat loss and disturbance ...... 28 3.4.3. Government frameworks ...... 28 3.4.4. Climate change ...... 29 3.4.5. Stakeholders...... 29 4. Relevant Fishery Sectors affecting seabirds, turtles and other vulnerable marine species ...... 29 4.1. Pelagic Longline ...... 31 4.1.1. Introduction ...... 31 4.1.2. Current information ...... 31 4.1.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing ...... 31 4.1.4. Current and proposed mitigation measures and interventions ...... 32 4.2. Pelagic Longline and tuna pole-line ...... 32 4.2.1. Introduction ...... 32 4.2.2. Current information ...... 33 4.2.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing ...... 34 4.3. Line fishery ...... 35 4.3.1. Introduction ...... 35 4.3.2. Current information ...... 36 4.3.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing ...... 36 4.4. Gillnet fishery ...... 36 4.4.1. Current information ...... 36 4.4.2. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing in mangroves ...... 37 5. Summary table of primary drivers affecting conservation status of vulnerable seabirds, marine turtles and reptiles, current initiatives and proposed interventions ...... 37 5.1. Current mitigation measures ...... 38 5.2. Mitigation of Incidental Seabird Mortality ...... 38 5.2.1. Longline fisheries ...... 38 5.2.2. Night setting ...... 38 5.2.3. “Tori” or bird-scaring line ...... 38 5.2.4. Bird Scaring Lines for vessels >35 m total length ...... 39 5.2.5. Line weighting (and reducing setting speeds) ...... 40 5.2.6. Frozen versus thawed bait ...... 41
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5.2.7. Setting lines at night ...... 42 5.2.8. Offal management ...... 43 5.2.9. Hook shielding devices ...... 43 5.2.10. Smart hook ...... 43 5.3. Mitigation measures that are not recommended ...... 44 5.3.1. Demersal Trawl ...... 44 6. References ...... 45
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Acronyms ACAP Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels BCC Benguela Current Convention BCLME Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem CECAF Committee for Eastern Central Atlantic Fisheries CMS Convention on Migratory Species COMHAFAT-ATLAFCO Ministerial Conference on Fisheries Cooperation between the Atlantic States bordering the Atlantic COREP Regional Fisheries Commission of the Gulf of Guinea EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIG Economic Interest Group EU European Union FADEPA Fundo de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento da Indústria Pesqueira (Support Fund for the Development of the Fishing Industry) FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization ICCAT International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas IPA Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Pesca Artesanal e Aquicultura (Institute for the Development of Artisanal Fishing and Aquaculture; previously Institute for the Development of Artisanal Fishing) MINPESCAS Ministry of Fisheries NPOA National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management UNDP United Nations Development Programme PDGL Plan General Director of Luanda SADC Southern Africa Development Community SEAFO Southeast Atlantic Fisheries Organization TAC Total Allowable Catch EU European Union UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1. Introduction Ecosystems are complex and dynamic natural entities. Fisheries and other human activities have direct and indirect impacts on the aquatic and marine ecosystems, which have resulted in growing ecosystem degradation, loss of habitat as well as inadequate management-oriented research, poor long-term monitoring and limited integrated planning of conflicting uses. During the last five decades, these effects have been an increasing societal concern for the sustainability of fisheries and their environment. As a result, many recently adopted instruments to fisheries promote an approach to fisheries that gives more attention to the ecosystem or an “ecosystem approach to fisheries”. The approach includes: i) a definition and scientific description of the ecosystem in terms of scale, extent, structure, functioning; ii) assessment of its health and integrity as defined by what is acceptable to society; iii) assessment of threats; and iv) maintenance, protection, mitigation, rehabilitation. In addition, to promote a sustainable use and the long-term conservation of fisheries resources, FAO adopted the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The Code sets out principles and international standards for responsible practices of fisheries and the management of living aquatic resources thereby taking into account the nutritional, economic, ecological and cultural importance of fisheries. This Review Report and Needs Analysis takes into account the ecosystem approach to fisheries and aligns with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
1.1. Review of human threats to the environment of vulnerable marine and seabird species Many species are impacted by human activity on habitats critical for their survival. The species typically referred to as vulnerable marine and seabird species include marine reptiles (in the BCC contexts it is limited to marine turtles), marine mammals, sharks and seabirds. The development of a country National Plan of Action (NPOA) is the culmination of a long chain of events that gives countries the right, indeed, the obligation to manage resources in their area of competence, their 200nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which came about at the adoption and ratification of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which is the principle global legal instrument governing the management of our oceans. UNCLOS does not only apply to fish, as it requires states to consider the effect of fishing activities on “species associated with, or dependent upon harvested species, with a view to maintaining or restoring population of such associated or dependent species above levels at which reproduction may become seriously threatened” (Article 61, paragraph 4). Angola ratified UNCLOS in 2009. As the impact on fisheries was recognised to extend to broader than the target species, an approach that embraced a more Ecosystems Approach to Fisheries (EAF) was developed and endorsed and finally, embodied in the UN Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA) of 1995. This binding agreement, requires member States to “…minimize…catch of non-target species, both fish and non-fish species … and impacts on associated or dependent species, in particular endangered species, through measures including, to the extent practicable, the development and use of selective, environmentally safe and cost-effective fishing gear and techniques” (Article 5). South Africa has ratified the UNFSA. This Agreement is very relevant to Angola as several migratory species (tunas, swordfish and sharks) are targeted within Angola’s EEZ. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations was further concerned about the integrity of the entire ecosystem and promotes the development of gear and techniques which maintain biodiversity and conserve vulnerable populations, not only the highly migratory and straddling fish stocks. This lead to the development and adoption of a Code of Conduct for Responsible
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Fisheries in 19951. This code explicitly endorses an ecosystem approach to fisheries management and advocates minimising waste, catch of non-target species and impacts on associated or dependent species. While this code is not legally binding, it provides internationally accepted guidelines for the development and implementation of national fisheries policies, including the use of species selective gear. Angola is a signatory to this Code of Conduct. As the final stage in the development of protection and reduction of catches of non-target species, the FAO endorsed the need for the development of International Plans of Action (IPOA's) for both seabirds and sharks. Under this process both regional and national plans of action can be developed. At the national level, the National Plans of Action (NPOA's) should demonstrate the measures that individual countries will take to reduce impacts to these vulnerable suites of species. Thus, NPOAs are an undertaking aimed at reducing fisheries and human induced impacts and mortalities of vulnerable and non-target species.
1.2. Scope of the NPOA As mentioned above, a variety of issues affecting the species under consideration in this report, contribute to the need to increase the information available for NPOA in development. Aspects such as coastal mining, human settlement recreational use of the coastal environment are regulated by legislation and regulations. Thus, habitats critical to the survival of marine sea birds and reptiles, all of whom breed on land, such as breeding sites and nursery areas, are for the most part, covered by environmental legislation on land. Ancillary activities such as pollution (plastic in particular) and oils spills are not covered by the NPOA as they have specific conventions dealing with these issues, such as Marpol and anti-dumping convention. The main objective of this report is the threats that human activity at sea damage the environment in general and seabirds and turtles in particular. This work clearly recognizes that sharks, marine mammals and certain species of fish are also affected by human activity at sea, for the purposes of this report, vulnerable marine and seabird species are confined to accidental mortality. There is no Biodiversity Management Plan for Turtles, but there is a Turtle Monitoring Project along the coast of Angola denominated Project Kitabanda. The main objectives of the project are to provide basic management until the implementation of the National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Turtles. However, a discussion on the environmental state of the turtles, including threats and mitigations will be provided to integrate and highlight the results of this project. Although Angola adopted a National Biodiversity Strategy in 2006, which contained National Action Plans, no Action Plans were carried out for the specific areas of this report. A specific National Action Plan (NPOA) for mangroves would have the objective to ensure the preservation of these ecosystems whose southern distribution on the West African coast is in Angola. Effectively on this ecosystem several are the pressures that compete as threats to the survival of the mangrove species. Combined with the exploitation of mangroves for coal, water pollution or solid waste and unsustainable tourism, climate change must be considered, the effects of which also endanger these ecosystems. An Action Plan is important to promote the protection of these ecosystems from the viewpoint of ecosystem service and biodiversity preservation. This report will not address the general issues that have an impact on seabirds and other marine species and, does not consider catastrophic incidents such as oil spill catastrophes and plastic debris.
1 http://www.fao.org/fi. Accessed on 7 December 2016.
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In fact, the key objective of this report is to reduce the threats of human activities that can be managed and monitored in the BCC environment. On a daily basis, most of the human impact (deaths) of seabirds and turtles comes from activities carried out by the fishing industry, where incidental mortality occurs as a result of the interaction with gear, entanglement and / or ghost fishing. The NPOA will therefore provide a review of these interactions and propose actions to reduce these accidental mortalities for seabirds and in the case of Angola will consider the integration of turtles in a preliminary manner. 1.3. Human impacts particular to the BCC environment The 1650 km Angolan coastline has a narrow (average 36 km) continental shelf of 200 m depth, which becomes deeper in the north around the Congo River mouth (Potts et al., 2015). The shoreline is characterised by large stretches of sandy beaches, interrupted by rocky beaches and / or cliffs, bays and lagoons. Mann (2000) describes that the close proximity between the different forms of human use with natural resources estuarine, bays and lagoons places these ecosystems at constant risk. For example through: i) construction and dredging of navigation channels; ii) dumping and pollution of all types of liquid effluents; iii) eutrophication from organic matter and excess nutrients (N and P); iv) excessive silting due to the intense construction activity; v) solid waste (litter) pollution, such as plastic and other debris; vi) physical damage to plant communities caused by intense nautical traffic associated with all types of vessels; vii) overexploitation of fishery resources; and viii) introduction of alien species. Deep and ultra-deep marine ecosystems are the most exploited environments due to oil and gas production. This exploration contributes most to the Gross Domestic Product, as Angola is still very dependent on oil. Angolan law defines the following types of fisheries: commercial (artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial) and non-commercial fisheries (subsistence, recreational and research). In general, marine fisheries are the most common activity of marine resource exploitation and contribute to the food security of the population. However, as a result of the El Niño events and overexploitation of resources, these activities contribute to the depletion of marine resources. The fishing industry in Angola has developed through the exploitation of small-scale fishing including artisanal fishing. The Master Plan Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006-2010 was carried out with the main objectives to: • develop Angolan fisheries in a sustainable form through adequate management measures for their long-term sustainability; • improve support infra-structure to fisheries, distribution networks (including harbours, fishing terminals and refrigeration centers); • increase fish food supply to combat poverty; • strengthen scientific research on fisheries and aquaculture and adopt and diffuse pertinent Technologies; and • support and develop (marine and inland) artisanal fisheries. To achieve these objectives, the Master Plan adopted the following management principles: i) A precautionary approach; ii) Management oriented to the target resource; and iii) An ecosystem
9 | P a g e approach. Other features of the Master Plan concerning the artisanal sector will be highlighted in different sections of this report (ACP FISH II Programme). The regional commitments for the management of fisheries are adhered to, as well as the access to regional fisheries organizations: i) CECAF; ii) ICCAT; iii) COMHAFAT-ATLAFCO; iv) COREP and v) SEAFO. Although laws and plans exist, the full implemention is limited, or the laws and plans are not published in the interest of stakeholders. In addition, there is an issue of continuity of information, which might be because of the lack of a concerted communication strategy between the projects and the stakeholders.
1.4. Existing Legislation In Angola, both terrestrial and marine ecosystems are protected under several national and international laws. For example, the law on the environment and the constitution of the Republic guarantee the preservation and sustainable use of the environment. Along the coast, the habitat of seabirds, seals and turtles is protected under Law No. 5/98 of 19 June 1998, by complementary decrees for national and provincial protected areas and international conventions such as Ramsar wetlands and the resolutions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Angola has an extensive legislation on the main fisheries including an umbrella legislation Regulation 139/13 that conforms to the normative provisions of Law 6-A / 04, of October 8 (Law of Aquatic Biological Resources), Law Nº. 16/05, of December 27 (Law of Amendment to the Law of Aquatic Biological Resources), Decrete Nº. 14/05, of May 3 (approving the Regulation of Concession of Fishing Rights and Licensing), Decrete Nº. 38/05, June 3, (Approving the Scientific Research Regulations on Biological Resources, Angolan Waters and the Continental Shelf of Angola), Decrete Nº. 41/05, of 13 June (approving the General Fisheries Regulation), and Decrete No 43/05 of 20 June (approving the Fisheries Control Regulation). Table 1 outlines the most important regulations on fisheries.
TABLE 1: MAJOR ANGOLAN FISHERIES LEGISLATION Designation Law Description Observations Environmental law that defines the concepts and basic Law nº 5/98 of June 19 principles of protection, Preservation and conservation of the environment, promotion of the quality of life and Rational use of natural resources in accordance with Article 24 (1), (2) and (3) and Article 12 of the Constitutional Law of the Republic of Angola. LAW OF AQUATIC BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES This law establishes the norms that aim at New fisheries Law Law no. 6A / 04 of 8 October guaranteeing the conservation and sustainable use of (Published in the aquatic biological resources existing in the waters Republic Diary nº under the sovereignty of the Angolan State, as well as 81, i series, the general bases of the exercise of related activities, supplement) especially fishing and aquaculture activities. Decrete Nº. 41/05 of 13 June General Fisheries Regulation (D.R. N°70) 2005 Decrete Nº. 14/05 of 3 May Regulation on Fisheries and Licensing Rights (D.R. N°65) 2005 Decrete Nº. 38/05 of 3 June Regulation on Fisheries Research (D.R. N°66), 2005 Decrete Nº 39/05 of 6 June Regulation on aquaculture (D.R. N°67). 2005 Decrete Nº. 40/06 of 30 June Health and hygiene regulations for fishery or aquaculture products Presidencial Decrete 226/12 of 3 December Organic Statute of the Ministry of Fisheries
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Designation Law Description Observations Presidential Decrete Nº. 139/13 - President Regulation of Continental Fisheries. Republic Diary Iª of the Republic Series nº 183 of The purpose of the Regulation is to establish the rules September 24, 2013 governing the practice of inland fishing in the inland (Page 2510) waters of the Republic of Angola. President of the Republic Presidential Decrete Nº. 15/14 - President of Approves the Marine Fisheries Management, Republic Diary Iª the Republic Continental Fisheries and Aquaculture Management Series nº 7 of Measures for the year 2014 and entrusts to the January 10, 20 14 Ministry of Fisheries the coordination and oversight of the implementation of the aquatic biological resources policy. Presidential Decrete Nº. 284/14 - President Approves the Regulation on Measures to Prevent, Republic Diary Iª of the Republic Combat and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Series nº 188 of Unregulated Fishing. - Repeals all legislation contrary October 13, 2014 to the provisions of this Diploma. (Page 4442) Decrete Nº 43/05 of 20 June Fisheries Control Regulation Decrete Nº 82/13 of 18 March Licensing for the sport and recreational fishing
In addition, Angola is subscribed to several multilateral environmental agreements to safeguard best practices for the conservation of the environment (Table 2). These international agreements ensure that the Angolan Constitution and the national law of biological resources are aligned with the environment and the international agreements (Table 2).
TABLE 2:MAJOR ENVIRONMENT MULTILATERAL REGULATION Multilateral Agreement Signed Ratified Application possibilities Convention on Combating 14.19.1994 03.06.1997 The objective of this Convention is to combat desertification Desertification in countries and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing affected by severe drought serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, and / or desertification, through effective action at all levels, supported by particularly in Africa (CCD) international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas. Biodiversity Convention 12.06.1992 01.04.1998 The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in (CDB) accordance with its relevant provisions, are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding. The United Nations 14.06.1992 17.05.2000 The UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention”, one of three adopted at Framework Convention on the “Rio Earth Summit” in 1992. Its sister Rio Conventions are Climate Change (UNFCC) the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. The three are intrinsically linked. It is in this context that the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost cooperation among the three Conventions, with the ultimate aim of developing synergies in their activities on issues of mutual concern. It now also incorporates the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Preventing “dangerous” human interference with the climate system is the ultimate aim of the UNFCCC. The Convention on 31. 12. 2013 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered International Trade in Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international Endangered Species of Wild agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that Fauna and Flora (CITES) international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
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Multilateral Agreement Signed Ratified Application possibilities Convention on the 15.04.2003 The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Conservation of Migratory Wild Animals (CMS) is a global treaty that aims to conserve Species of Wild Animals avian, marine, freshwater, and terrestrial migratory species throughout their range. International collaboration across range states is vital in order to conserve shared migratory species as they cyclically and predictably cross one or more national jurisdictional boundaries each year. BCC The Benguela Current Commission is a multisectoral and intergovernmental initiative of Angola, Namibia and South Africa, whose objective is to promote the sustainable management and protection of the Great Marine Ecosystem of the Benguela Current, i.e. BCLME. SEAFO 04. 2001 Cooperation with the coastal States and with all other States and Organizations having a real interest in the fishery resources of the South East Atlantic Ocean to ensure compatible conservation and management measures - 26.08.16 Are listed four sites in Angola Coast, namely, Chiloango Ramsar Mangrove Lagoon (Cabinda); Saco dos Flamingos na Mussulo Lagoon (Luanda); Santiago Beach (Bengo) and Lobito Lagoon Mangrove (Benguela) United Nations Convention 10.12.1982 Ratified Customary international law for waters beyond territorial on the Law of the Sea, 1982 UNCLOS in waters (UNCLOS) 2009
It is therefore critical that national laws be framed in the international context and complement these international treaties, conventions or protocols. The universal use of the instruments generated by this legislation has been repeated in the various areas of intervention of human activities on the environment. In Angola, the Ministry of the Environment is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the various legal provisions that are under the responsibility of sub-sectors. The fisheries sector is one of those sub-sectors which, despite having specific legislation, aims to apply an ecosystem approach to promote sustainable fisheries.
2. Main threats affecting conservation status of vulnerable marine species other than seabirds, turtles, current initiatives and proposed interventions The primary drivers are those direct and indirect impacts that fundamentally influence the survival of other species in the marine environment shared by seabirds and sea turtles. This section discusses some of the apex predators and grazers in the marine system, where changes and impacts can be monitored as these species are like a magnifying glass, concentrating the sum of all energy/impacts at one point. The main threats affecting the conservation status of vulnerable marine species like sharks, fur seals and seabirds whose ecological or biological importance are linked to human activities along the coastal and marine areas are outlined in Table 3.
TABLE 3 MAIN THREATS AFFECTING THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF OTHERS VULNERABLE MARINE SPECIES. Main threats Successful Current Proposed Species group of population 1 = not, 2 = Comments initiatives interventions decline partly, 3 = very Pollution No cohesive Incidental Holistic Sharks N/A 1 implementation plan mortality by Management plan exists fisheries
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Climate change Artesanal, semi- Needs NPOA Seabirds industrial and N/A 1 developed and There is no NPOA industrial implemented Fisheries; Project Climate Stable Community. INIP Fur seals Counting and 1 Management Plan changes Project (MINPESCAS) Monitoring N/A – no application A number of cross-sectorial programmes have been developed in the context of the inter-sectorial nature of environmental matters. Several ministries (i.e. Oil Ministry, Fisheries Ministry and Environment Ministry) also implement long-term projects, which are arising from international partnerships either through international companies operating in Angola or through regional agreements. There are some initiatives by ministries that manage the sectors that are linked to the sea. Some projects are from the BCC, namely the MARISMA Project2, and very important to planning uses of marine and coastal resources in the Angolan region. The Ministry of the Environment has an Environmental Education programme for the conservation of Manatee. This program works with the populations of Kwa Lagoon, a tributary of the Kwanza River. There are indications that the manatees are hunted accidentally by the fishing nets but are also directly hunted because the riverside populations are known to consume the meat of manatees.
2.1. Marine mammals The IUCN has listed several species of marine mammals being at risk of survival (Table 4). However, many of these species along the coast and in the coastal zone are an attraction for tourists.
TABLE 4: IUCN STATUS OF MARINE MAMMALS SPECIES ALONG THE ANGOLAN COAST. Species Vulgar name IUCN Status conservations Balaenoptera edeni Bryde's Whale CR (Critically Endangered) Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale LC (Least Concern) Peponocephala electra Melon-headed Whale LC Globicephala macrorhynchus Short-finned Pilot Whale, Pacific Pilot Whale DD (Data Deficient) Unidentified whales - - Balaenoptera musculus Blue Whale EN (Endangered) Balaenoptera borealis Sei Whale EN Balaenoptera physalus Fin Whale, Fin-backed Whale, EN Physeter macrocephalus Sperm Whale, Cachelot, VU (Vulnerable) Kogia breviceps Pygmy Sperm Whale DD Kogia sima Dwarf Sperm Whale DD Balaenoptera acutorostrata Common Minke Whale, Minke Whale, LC Ziphius cavirotris Cuvier's Beaked Whale LC Orcinus orca Killer Whale, Orca DD Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville's Beaked Whale DD
Feresa attenuate Pygmy Killer Whale, DD
2 Marine Space Management and Governance (MARISMA BCC-GIZ) is a project of the Great Marine Ecosystem of the Benguela Current (BCLME) began at 2014 until 2020. The main goal its marine space management and governance all entire marine and coastal line from Angola. A second objective of this project is to establish criteria for determining Ecological or Biologically Important Marine Areas, to map the interests on the coast taking into account the respect for environmental preservation.
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Species Vulgar name IUCN Status conservations Cephalorhynchus heavisidii Heaviside's Dolphin, South African Dolphin, DD Benguela Dolphin Pseudorca crassidens False Killer Whale Delphinus delphis Short-beaked Common Dolphin LC Steno bredanensis Rough-toothed Dolphin LC Sousa teuszii Atlantic Humpbacked Dolphin LC Grampus griseus Risso's Dolphin LC Stenella frontalis Atlantic Spotted Dolphin LC Stenella attenuata Pantropical Spotted Dolphin, Bridled Dolphin, LC Stenella longirostris Spinner Dolphin, Long-beaked Dolphin LC Stenella clymene Clymene Dolphin, Helmet Dolphin, Atlantic DD Spinner Dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser's Dolphin, LC Stenella coeruleoalba Striped Dolphin, LC Tursiops truncatus Common Bottlenose Dolphin LC Lagenorhynchus obscurus Dusky Dolphin DD
Fur seals According to Kirkman et al., 2007, the population of fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) in the BCC region is estimated at about 2 million animals and appears to be stable. Some stakeholder groups are actively promoting the full protection of these species, and questioning Angola’s capacity to establish a sustainable use system. Tamura (2003), considers fur seals an essential resource and as competitors to humans, pointing to the very large quantities of fish they consume. MINPESCAS as the supervisory body for fisheries policy is concerned about the conflict between this species and fishermen, notably in the coastal waters of Namibe province. However, it should be pointed out that this is a resource that appears stable along the coast of Namibia, which allows Angola to establish some parallelism. The occurrence and stabilization of fur seals in the southern region of Angola seems to be related to the conditions of the region and it should be noted that this population is probably a descendant of the resident population in Namibia. (INIP, recent data personal communication). Cetaceans Although there are only a few studies done on cetaceans, there is already an acquired knowledge about the distribution of cetaceans in Angolan waters. Much of this knowledge was acquired during an Environmental Impact Assessment for the oil companies and contributed to the already existing knowledge of cetaceans from the Gulf of Guinea to Angola. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) face a series of threats including: entanglement in fishing gear, ship strikes, whale watch harassment, habitat impacts and harvest. The species occurs along the coastline and is therefore of concern for oil and gas exploration and exploitation, fishing activity and even for commercial vessel routes. Weir et al., 2017, report that Atlantic humpback dolphin (Sousa teuszii) occurs only in very nearshore waters (often <1 km from the coast), and consequently experiences high exposure to anthropogenic pressures including fishing, habitat degradation and loss and hunting. The limited available data suggest that by-catch in fishing gear and deliberate hunting are significant causes of mortality. In recent years, these concerns have resulted in the Atlantic humpback dolphin being upgraded to the
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Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) Appendix I and assigned vulnerable status on the IUCN Red List3. 2.1.1. Ecosystem changes
Ecosystem changes are identified as changes in precipitation, salinity, ocean acidification, food provision, artisanal fishing opportunity, natural products, tourism and recreation, coastal livelihoods and economies. Regarding the ocean observations of some countries (e.g. South Africa) on ecosystem changes, there should be a substantial effort to improve oceanographic observations, including improvements to meet the needs of developing a monitoring plan. The main concern is that short- term data collection programs for research and the transfer of research programs to ongoing operational efforts have a negative impact on the quality of observations and data, and in particular on the continuity. 2.1.2. Food Web interactions
We found very few quantitative descriptions of diet for cetaceans, especially in tropical areas such as Africa where these whales are generally breeding (vs. feeding). 2.1.3. Pollution
There are two decrees on waste administered by the Ministry of Petroleum: Petroleum Activities Waste Management, Removal and Disposal, Decrete No. 8/05 and Operational Discharge Management during the Petroleum Activities. The second Decree no. 05/05 - has demanded that oil companies have a plan to deal with the garbage. In addition, Presidential Decree 194/11, which regulates liability for environmental damage, defines that "The quality standards in force in Angola are those defined by the International Organization for Standardization ..." The Monitoring Plans for the Elimination of Hazardous Waste by Government are carried out by sector by the Ministry of Fisheries through INIP and some pre-lime companies. There is currently no information on the amount of hazardous waste produced as a result of the absence of a National Monitoring Programme.
2.1.4. Habitat loss and disturbance
Habitat destruction is one of five global ecological pressures affecting the ocean, along with fishing pressure and climate change. These pressures are linked to ocean acidification, water pollution and the introduction of alien species. However, measures are being adopted to preserve marine ecosystems wherever petroleum activity takes place. It is important to design strategies for the exploitation of this resource, and keep on encouraging operators to improve their environmental protection and preservation practices, by giving priority to the control of oil spill and operational discharge based pollution, as well as to reduce, recycle and adequately dispose waste. Paragraph 1 of Article 24 of Law No 10&04, of November 12 stipulates that in performing their activities, licensed companies, the national concessionaire and their associates should take precautionary measures in view of the environmental protection to ensure its preservation, notably with regard to health, water, soil, air, preservation of biological diversity, flora and fauna, ecosystems, landscape, the atmosphere, cultural, archaeological and aesthetic values.
3 https://www.ketosecology.co.uk/cetacean-research/atlantic-humpback-dolphins/. Accessed on December 2016.
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2.1.5. Climate Change
Climate change is affecting a wide range of physical and biological aspects of the ocean sea levels and ocean acidification. The Initial National Communication (INC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for Angola (GoA 2012)3 4 recognises the country’s high levels of vulnerability to climate change, but at the same time recognises the relationship between climate change and development. Climate change is also provided for in the National Development (Lotz- Sisitka, 2014) in this context, the BCC's NASCLIM project is an initiative that best fits.
The climate impacts and vulnerabilities to Angola are mostly linked to sea level rise, which is projected to have significant impacts on coastal settlements, where 50 percent of the country’s population lives, as well as on road networks, industrial and commercial infrastructure. Sea level rise is also expected to reduce the potential for agricultural activities in coastal areas due to salinization. As a result of uncertainties in rainfall projections, it is not clear what the impact of climate change on food security in Angola will be (Lotz-Sisitka, 2014). National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) provide a process for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify priority activities that respond to their urgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate change – those for which further delay would increase vulnerability and/or costs at a later stage. The NAPAs are oriented to use existing information considering that there is no new research is needed. They must be action-oriented and country-driven and flexible and based on national circumstances (UNDP, 2009). Under this guideline, Angola were selected programmes by MINAMB5 that may not yet be implemented. Identify solutions to the urgent needs for adaptation at the local and central level, including the development of adaptation capacities in Angola. The fundamental objectives of these NAPA’s coastal projects are (i) to reduce vulnerability; (Ii) enhancing adaptive capacity; and (iii) transfer of adaptive technology. BCC's objective is to assess the resilience of populations throughout the Convention member countries (FAO/BCC, 2013) that aims to build resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change of the Benguela Current marine fisheries systems through strengthened adaptive capacity and implementation of participatory and integrated adaptive strategies to ensure food and livelihood security. Guiding principles are required for the pursuit of this objective and the tasks that should be scheduled and implemented. Among these tasks is the need for integrating climate change into fisheries policies and planning and into broader inter-sectoral policies and programmes.
3. Overview: Main threats affecting conservation status of vulnerable seabirds and turtles The main threats identified affecting vulnerable seabird and turtles include: i) Fishing methods or activities resulting from fishing using destructive fishing techniques (explosives, trawling, overexploitation); ii) Pollution of fish processing facilities; and iii) Dumping solid debris (i.e. plastics, gear or fishing nets, synthetic ropes and moorings) into the sea. Together these events pose a great danger to the oceans and the conservation of its biodiversity.
4 GoA. 2012. Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 5 NAPA’s projects are localized on, Mouth of the Chiloango (Cabinda), Bar of Dande (Bengo), Bar of Kwanza (Luanda) e Mouth of the Bero (Namibe).
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Fishing may result in changes in resource productivity if it is not carried out sustainably. Fishing for only one resource as well as over-exploitation may adversely affect other marine species because of the ecological interdependence between species in ecosystems. Seabirds and turtles that occur along the Angolan coast for feeding or nesting become vulnerable because there is a strong presence of human activity where fishing is the prior activity and is consequently one of the greatest dangers to these animal groups.
3.1. Seabirds According to Roux et al., 2005, Cape Gannet (Morus capensis), White Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), Wilson's Storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), Southern Black-backed Gull (Laurus dominicanus vetula) and Cape Cormorant (Phalacrocorax capensis) are the most representative seabird species along the Angolan coast. Data were obtained during a cruise exercise of counting seabirds in 2015 by Fridjof Nansen (Table 5).
TABLE 5:SPECIES OF SEABIRDS OBSERVED IN 2005 ABOARD N / I DR FRIDTJOF NANSEN (REPORT ON THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT). Species Common name IUCN Status conservations Morus capensis Cape Gannet VU Procellaria aequinoctialis White Petrel VU Oceanites oceanicus Wilson's Storm-petrel, Wilson's LC Storm-Petrel, Wilson's Storm Petrel Laurus dominicanus vetula Southern Black-backed Gull LC Phalacrocorax capensis Cape Cormorant NT Thalassarche chlororhynchos Black-browed Albatross EN Sterna hirundo Common Tern LC
Catharacta antartica LC Brown Skua Phalacrocorax lucidus Cormorant, White-breasted LC Cormorant Ardena grisea Sooty Shearwater NT
Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed Gull, Grey-hooded LC Gull,
Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich Tern LC Daption capense Cape Petrel, Pintado Petrel LC Chlidonias niger Black Tern LC Puffinus puffinus Manx Shearwater LC Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross EN
Xema sabini Sabine's Gull LC Pterodroma mollis Soft-plumaged Petrel LC Stercorarius pomarinus Pomarine Jaeger, Pomarine Skua LC Sterna maxima Royal Tern LC Stercorarius parasiticus Arctic Jaeger, Arctic Skua LC
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Species Common name IUCN Status conservations Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross, LC
Puffinus gravis Great Shearwater LC
Cape cormorants concentrations are very significant and form large flocks in the coldest months, from May to July. In the same period, Great Shearwater is sighted along the Angolan coast, notably in the Namibe area, and appears to be one of the species most vulnerable to artisanal fishing. Flamingo species occur regularly on the Angolan coast in shallow bodies of water, and are most likely to be seen feeding at bays and lagoons.
3.1.1. Ecosystem changes
Pollution of marine and terrestrial environments and increased production of waste lead to a degradation of Coastal Ecosystems, including inter alia changes in temperature, precipitation, salinity and ocean acidification. The increased construction of infrastructure such as without taking care of the impacts results in the alteration of the habitats for seabirds. An example of this is the growth of the city of Luanda, both in the North and in the South, where the coastline is heavily occupied with the construction of houses without adequate planning and associated services to consider the habitat for seabirds.
3.1.2. Food Web interactions
The impact of fisheries on the environment such as overfishing that transforms a stable, mature ecosystem into an immature and stressed state, has been well documented. Birds are secondary consumers, and their threatened status not only undermines the existence of the tertiary consumers that depend on them for their survival, but is also likely to encourage an excessive abundance of their prey and consequently compromises the ecological balance. More studies should be carried out for the coast of Angola, but the pyramid in Figure 1 shows a simplified interaction between food chains in the region.
FIGURE 1: FOOD PYRAMID
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3.1.3. Pollution
Pollution is here associated with environmental degradation of the coastline due to human activity. Currently, solid waste, in particular plastic, is the main focus of environmental degradation together with the greenhouse gas emissions produced by industries and transport in the city. The rainy season experiences more dispersion of solid waste because the bins bring large amounts of garbage from the high areas to the lower areas of the coastline along the channels as a result of water runoff.
3.1.4. Habitat loss and disturbance
Seabirds respond to changes in habitat, by changing behaviour. Maximizing the suitability of birds (and prey) depends on two factors: i) A birds' ability to compensate for displacements taking into account the location, quantity, quality and availability of prey; and ii) Abiotic environmental indicators for habitat quality for seabirds sensitive to variations such as sediment type, water depth, current flow, etc.
3.1.5. Climate change
As water temperatures warm at a large spatial and temporal scale, the timing of ecological events or phenology may change. Specifically, spring may arrive earlier and fall may arrive later. Many organisms time their migrations and spawning to changes in temperature. As temperature, salinity, and hydrography change, organisms will likely shift the timing of the spawning and migration. Drivers The most important drivers to climate change are: i) anthropogenic climate change as people increase the pressure on the environment through population and economic growth; ii) increased demand for natural resources; and iii) natural conditions of the environments. The first two drivers are the most important as these cause major changes in ecosystems. Mitigation measures The mitigation measures are different for each driver but mostly entail a better planning through National actions and Provincial / State actions. Stakeholders such as the artisanal fishermen who are critical to the success of any plans about mitigation were identified. The mitigation measures are behavioural change, technological development and environmental education.
3.1.6. Predators
The predators for seabirds are sharks and marine mammals like whales. On land, seabirds are most vulnerable in the nesting season when they are an easy prey for raptors, jackals and wild dogs. There is limited information on this subject, but it is expected that most of the species of seabirds that occur along the coast are part of the range of migratory birds that do not nest in large colonies along the coast. Instead, these are birds feeding on shoals that are concentrated due to the presence of zooplankton. There are also species of seabirds that nest in mangrove areas and on which further detail can be added later. 3.2. Turtles and other reptiles
There are seven species of sea turtles in the world with Angola having five, namely: Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coreacea), Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) and Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (Weir et. al,
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2017) (Table 7). Of the five turtle species documented to occur within Angolan waters only the green, olive ridley and leatherback turtles are confirmed to breed (Hughes et. al. 1999).
TABLE 6: TURTLE OCCURRENCE ALONG ANGOLAN COAST. Species Common names IUCN Status Observations There is information that turtles nest on beaches along the coast Chelonia mydas Green Turtle Threatened of Angola. There are records, (Endangered) however, of turtles nesting on the inland coastline of the peninsulas that correspond to the bays and lagoons. Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback turtle Critically There is information that turtles Endangered nest on beaches along the coast Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill Turtle Critically of Angola. There are no records, Endangered however, of turtles nesting on Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley turtle (Endangered) the inland coastline of the Vulnerable peninsulas that correspond to the Caretta caretta Loggerhead sea Threatened bays and lagoons. turtle (Endangered)
In Angola, the Kitabanga Project6, operating since 2003, has sought to foster knowledge through research and training on turtles, to promote the conservation of sea turtles. They aim to achieve this not only at the places where the project operates but also through National campaigns, such as campaigns for environmental education, lectures, dissemination of information for knowledge and conservation in the national press and social media, as well as providing basic information to the authorities for the proper Decision.
3.2.1. Ecosystem changes
Being reptiles, sea turtles use both the sandy beaches to nest and the open ocean where they live. This makes them particularly vulnerable to changes in ecosystems. The coastal beaches receive the females that come there to nest, which increases the need to keep the beaches for nesting free and ecologically healthy. Other aspects are the soil physical conditions and the changes that influence the terrestrial soil temperature that will have an impact in determining the sex of the sea turtles. This determination becomes one of the main threats as changes in the ecosystem through climate change, for example, will greatly alter the sex ratio of the turtle population.
3.2.2. Food Web interactions
Sea turtles are predators in the marine food web. They are omnivores and eat both plants and animals, such as jellyfish, sponges, clams, shrimp, squid and seagrass. Unfortunately, during breeding, turtle eggs are highly vulnerable and can serve as a food source for predators such as genets, wild dogs, eagles and other seabirds. In their adult life, turtles may be the target of predation by other animals
6 Kitabanga project has as fundamental objective the systematic bioecological analysis based on terrestrial surveys, and conservation, on the process of the coasting of the sea turtles to the beaches until the nesting. This project covers most of the sandy beaches of the Angolan coast and the works are carried out by the Faculty of Sciences of Agostinho Neto University with the partnership of several companies and national institutions.
20 | P a g e such as sharks, birds and humans. Fishing communities consume turtles that come in fishing gear such as gillnets or fixed nets.
3.2.3. Pollution
There is still a great mortality of sea turtles caused by ghost fishing and turtles being caught in debris thrown into the sea by humans. This has implications in the interactions between the various actors in the environment.
3.2.4. Habitat loss and disturbance
One of the main anthropogenic threats that impacts sea turtle populations is accidental capture in fishing nets, trawls and on long-lines throughout the world’s oceans (Weir, 2007). In Angola, this is common along the coast and no specific regulations or a framework with guidelines exist to encourage fishermen to release live turtles caught in their fishing gear, release them from netting and remove hooks from their mouths. Although activities such as oil drilling contribute to the local economy by providing employment opportunities, income to local contractors, and revenues flowing back to the local economy. The construction of such oil fields causes considerable disturbance to sea turtles.
3.2.5. Climate Change
Fish populations respond strongly to climate-driven changes in marine systems, owing to the short lifespans and rapid reproductive turnover of these species, and strong coupling to phytoplankton and zooplankton production. Previous studies have detected global synchrony in the low frequency (20– 30 years) cycles in commercially important small pelagic species of anchovy and sardine within upwelling and oceanic systems (Lluch-Belda et al., 1992; Schwartzlose et al., 1999; Tourre et al., 2007). Mitigation measures The need for education and awareness is critical to resolving the issue of unsustainable fishing and should target fisheries observers, managers, compliance officers and the fishing industry. Further engagement with the industry is imperative as their involvement is vital to ensure the implementation of solutions. There is also a major need for further development and demonstration of mitigation measures to reduce sea turtle bycatch.
3.2.6. Predators
The loggerhead turtle population is currently in decline. Humans play a very large role in this drop. The leading threat to the turtles are them accidently getting caught in fishing gear (NOAA Fisheries, 2013). The activities of man constitute a threat to the population of sea turtles. Turtles play a role as predators and as prey in the food chain, so this dual function exposes the degrading balance that will cause the disappearance of these species.
3.2.7. Stakeholders
Table 8 lists the relevant stakeholders pertaining to activities in and along the ocean.
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TABLE 7: OVERVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS Stakeholders Ministry of Environment Ministry of Fisheries Ministry of Hotels and Tourism Ministry of Transport (maritime transport) Educational institutions civil society groups artisanal fishermen beach users Entities with a socio-economic interest Entities with a protecting the environment interest FCUAN
3.3. Mangroves Compared to other parts of the world, the Atlantic coast has fewer mangroves due to its lack of fringing reefs that protect mangroves from strong waves (Saenger et al. 1995). Mangroves are also limited by both temperature and latitude. Ellison, 2000, Andrews et al. 1984 report that at an isothermal latitudinal limit of 16 oC when air temperatures are cooler and where the water temperature does not exceed 24 oC, photosynthesis does not occur. This means that mangroves actually become more efficient when temperatures are greater than the range 28-42 ° C. This justifies the fact of mangroves being concentrated along the northern warmer parts of Angola and occurring mainly in estuaries. Only four mangrove species have been recorded in Angola, namely Rhizophora racemosa, R. mangle, Avicennia germinans and recently Conocarpus spp. has been spotted in the south (UNEP 2007). The highest diversity and abundance of mangroves is found towards the North on Lubinda estuary and the River Zaire, as well as the mouths of the rivers Chiluango, Bambongo, Longa, Cuanza and Loge, totally covering about 1,250 km2. In these regions, it should be noted that estuaries are the areas where mangrove are most present, for example in the estuary of the Congo River where a dense forest is formed and the mangrove trees can be categorized by the size the present species reach.
3.3.1. Ecosystem changes
Mangroves provide ecosystem services that consequently impact on human well-being (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The services are provisioning (timber, fuel, etc.), regulating (shoreline protection), cultural (amenity) and supporting (habit, breeding ground, etc.
Mangrove ecosystems are altered by upstream human activities, such as irrigation and the damming of rivers, and natural causes, such as diseases and invasive species. Since mangroves require fresh water to survive, activities such as irrigation and damming of rivers are reducing the amount of fresh water flowing into estuaries, which consequently leads to an increase in salinity. This in turn causes diebacks and stunted growths in mangroves. In addition, upstream pollution coming from agricultural chemicals and industrial effluent may also negatively impact on mangroves and depending on severity, lead to the termination of the entire ecosystem. Incidences of diseases and presence of invasive species have also been observed to alter mangrove ecosystems, though with little impacts (Bosire et al. 2006). Changes in ocean currents occurring naturally or as a result of the construction of seawalls that affect sand movement thereby impacting negatively on mangroves. In view of these causes,
22 | P a g e mitigation measures targeting human activities can largely ameliorate impacts and determine the survival and sustenance of mangroves.
3.3.2. Habitat loss and disturbance
Mangrove Cutting Similar to terrestrial forests, mangroves provide direct and indirect provisioning services to humans. Direct uses are higher where poverty is high due to dependence on natural resources. Almost every part of mangroves trees is of use: the trunk and branches provide poles for construction of houses, boats, fish traps and fuel wood; the bark and/or leaves are used for medicine, tannings and fodder; and aerial roots are used as floaters for fishing nets. In Angola, where poverty levels remain high, mangroves are continually felled for wood fuel, uncontrolled tourism activities, collection of timber for construction, and pollution. Mariculture development The practice of mariculture, mainly intensive farming, has a double effect on mangroves. First, the clearing of trumps to create space for farms and second, the effect of chemicals and sludge generated by these farms. Although currently mariculture is not a concern in Angola, it could be a potential threat in future. Infrastructure development Infrastructural is required to cater for transport of people, goods and services. The need to construct roads, sea ports and other sea access structures along coastal forests compromises survival of mangroves. Construction of the main road in Chiloango (Cabinda province) has not only led to destruction of mangroves but also obstructions of water follow a factor that could interfere with inundation and eventual death of mangroves. Oil extraction Oil is a major Forex earner for Angola. Extraction is done in the Northern Province of Cabinda, north of Ambrizete and Zaire Province (Soyo) where mangroves are concentrated. Since production is done at the sea, the effects of this activity are probably localized and not easily visible. However, the oil industry is committed to meeting high standards of quality in the technologies they employ. To ensure compliance, legislation has been put in place to compel oil industries to monitor their activities and adhere to international best practices. Overall, it seems that the major threats to mangroves in Angola and East Africa are similar. In Angola, the laws for the protection of mangroves are general, and there is no platform for the protection of these ecosystems, specifically, specific methodologies for the management of mangrove areas. This issue can be addressed in the different sectors that use the services of these ecosystems.
3.3.3. Government frameworks
The presence of adequate legal and institutional frameworks is imperative in protecting and guiding sustainable resource utilisation. However, this is highly compromised by lack of political goodwill, poor enforcement and lack of compliance. In Angola, resource utilisation is safeguarded by law No. 6 on Biological Resources that guarantees preservation of natural habitats like mangroves. Under this law, implemented by the Ministry of Environment, the mangroves are integrated into estuaries. The gaps identified are related with the use by fishermen and land occupation to construction. In looking at legislation we understand that it is necessary to regulate the use of mangroves to address biodiversity services and to establish environmental education programs to communities.
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As has already been said, there is a need to regulate the law of environmental bases, in relation to the Coastal Zone and consequently its habitats and ecosystems. One of the main gaps is precisely to establish rules and limits for the expansion and construction of urban cities, leisure or even industrial areas along the terrestrial strip of the coastal zone.
3.3.4. Climate change
According to information posted on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) website, sea level has been rising at a rate a rate of 3 mm per year since 1980, the highest rate in three centuries. This rise is largely due to thermal expansion, loss of ice by glaciers and ice sheets and reduction of liquid water storage on land. Although seal level rise poses the greatest climate change threat to mangroves, other related events such as extreme high water events, storms, precipitation, adjacent ecosystem responses and human responses to climate change (e.g. building sea walls disrupts encourages erosion) have an impact on mangroves (Gilman in press). Sea level rise causes landward shift of mangroves and diebacks due to stress while storms and increased high water events have similar impacts of altered sediment elevation and sulfide soil toxicity among others (Bosire et. al, 2003; Lewis III, 2005). Currently, no evidence is available to indications of mangrove degradation that can be attributed to climate change. But it is true that increase of temperature can be influential to environmental conditions. So, we have a natural boundary distribution along of coast namely from Cabinda to Cuanza Sul. That fact already gives a great abundance to the north that diminishes until the beginning of the South Region of the country. This stable presence of mangroves in estuaries of the rivers of this region reflects the development of mangroves plants that roam per se.
3.3.5. Current and proposed mitigation measures
The analysis of the information and studies about the mangroves in Angola, shows that there is a need for studies directed to the different areas of occurrence. In the meantime, because it is a worldwide concern to preserve these tropical ecosystems and development promotes the use of these spaces as biodiversity services, we are strengthening the proposals for a set of mitigation measures that must be generally implemented in Angola (Table 9).
TABLE 8: Overview current and proposed mitigation measures for mangroves Threat Existing Mitigation measures Proposed Mitigation Ecosystem Change • Coastal management • Regulate irrigation schemes plans; • Control use and discharge of agricultural • Development of inputs infrastructures for small- scale fishing Habitat loss and • Restore degraded areas • Restore degraded areas disturbance from estuaries; • Planting alternative fuel wood • Environmental Impact • Encourage use of subsidised LPG for Studies and their cooking dissemination by coastal • Encourage use of renewable sources of communities energy for cooking, e.g. biogas • Environmental • Ensure feasibility and environmental assessment for the salt Impact assessments are done before industry and aquaculture. start of projects
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• Employ modern engineering technology in mining and infrastructure development Climate change • Adequate measures of • Increase protected area coverage mitigation national plans; • Mangrove rehabilitation and restoration • National communication to • Establish a mangrove monitoring network align all sectors • Carry out outreach and education • Formulate climate financing mechanism (Green Climate Fund, REDD++, etc.) Inadequate • Adequate Government • Enactment of adequate and relevant Government Frameworks to ecosystem legislation, policies and management Frameworks conservation by INBAC; plans • Alignment of sectoral • Ensure proper enforcement and strategies through processes of compliance good environmental practice • Increase public participation in mangrove management and governance • Allocate adequate funds to conserve and protect mangroves
3.4. Bays and Lagunas Along the coast there are some bays, lagoons and estuaries, including the mouth of the Congo River in the region north; Laguna Mussulo and the mouth of the Cuanza and Longa rivers in the province of Luanda, the centre of the country; and the tip of St. José, in Benguela province, and tip Brava and the Bay of Tigers in Namibe province, both in southern Angola. These bays and lagoons are in different sizes but are very important in terms of ecological matters. That geomorphological structure of larger size and ecological relevance for the species concerned in this report are briefly described per Region: North Region a) Chiloango Estuary, Cabinda province, localized in the northern part of the country is representative for mangrove cover and very special to birdlife. b) Soyo Area, Zaire province, represented Mouth of the Congo River in the region north, all entire south boarder of river. That area is particularly rich in mangroves and seagrass bed around the channels and Sereia Peninsula. The main threats is the man-made infrastructure such as the development projects and the oil platforms at the coast. Center Region a) Luanda Bay, Luanda province, whereas the sand barrier known as the Ilha de Luanda, which shelters Luanda harbour. The Luanda Bay has been restructured and there have been interventions to cancel the two large effluents that came from the upstream city. This issue is important because the bays and lagoons around this region of Luanda are used to catch bivalves (mostly Senilia senilis L.) and shellfish as an activity of artisanal fishing communities. b) Chicala and the Mussulo Lagoon are components of a single dynamic spit/lagoon complex. The Mussulo Peninsula is an extremely active peninsula, with a high occupancy rate that needs to be addressed through the implementation of building rules, service placement for the community, whether they are tourism-oriented or not. The requirements framework was presented as a strategic plan for land use planning Mussulo whose implementation framework falls within the Plan General Director of Luanda (PDGL). The Mussulo lagoon complex has a vast diversity of coastal aquatic ecosystems, namely mangroves and seagrass and areas without vegetation. In lagunar complex
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Mussulo_Chicala, the preferential species are Dunker (Dosinia orbignyi), Gmelin (Venerupis corrugate) and Mactra glabrata L.
Sea turtles (C. mydas e L. olivacea) and seabirds are noticeable and ecologically valuable species. Due to the presence of different habitats on the islands, varying from white sand, areas of mangrove swamps and areas with seagrass, several seabirds frequent the area for different purposes. The artisanal and recreational fisheries are very developed and constitute a very important business to the coastal communities. Cuanza Estuary, Luanda province, is the second largest estuary in the Estuary Congo River, and is a very important ecosystem. The Cuanza Delta delivers the sediment to the open ocean that will constitute the northwestern direction sand shafts very characteristic of the Angolan coast. In terms of biodiversity, few studies exist to describe the species in the Cuanza Estuary. However, there is some information regarding the use of the estuary for fishing activities where cacusso (Tilapia spp. and Oreochromis spp.) and catfish (Clarias spp.) fishes are mostly identified.
Southern Region a) Lobito Bay, in Benguela province, whereas the sand barrier known as the Restinga do Lobito, which shelters Lobito harbour. The port is of economic importance and the second in the country as a result of intensive commercial marine traffic. The Bay of Lobito is also known for the ecosystem composed of several lagoons and channels where mangroves still occur, although scarce and constituted by small trees. The flamingo is an icon of the city due to the occurrence of numerous flocks of this seabird. The major threats to the bird are the construction of infrastructures carried out on the coastal habitats that on the one hand have altered the hydro dynamism of the circulating water in the zone and on the other the availability of habitats. However, artisanal and sport fishing are classic activities of the coastal communities. b) Bay of Tigers, in Namibe province, on which Guilcher et al. (1974) defined the creation and sense of development of the restingas (coastal lighthouses) of the coast of Angola, describing at the time the formation of the Bay of Tigers with its restinga that is still open. Geomorphologically, there is an island isolated from the mainland but providing an ecosystem protected from the open sea. The continental side is the Yona National Park, which has existed since 1964 and covers an area of 15,150 km2. It is considered the largest park in the country, located about 200 km from Namibe between the Atlantic Ocean and the Cunene rivers border with the Republic of Namibia) and Curoca. The Bay of Tigers and the surrounding area is one of the most productive areas of the southern coast of the Angolan coast and represents an important nursery area for biodiversity. Along the coast of the province of Namibe there are several groups of crustaceans, including Crabs (Calappidae, Gecarcinidae, Geryonidae, Homolidae, Majidae and Portunidae) (Chaceon maritae, Manning & Holthuis, 1981) and some groups of lobsters (Palinuridae and Scyllaridae). The species composition of the Bay of Tigers catches is different from the composition found in the northern and central zone of the Angolan coast, mainly in terms of high densities of the mullet (Lisa richardsonii) and the spathe (Diplodus sargus sp). Demersal catches are dominated by the spatula (Dentex macrophthalmus) contributing more than 80%, followed by hake (Merluccius polli and M. capensis), catfish and cephalopods, squid and cuttlefish (Vaz Velho, 2012). After this generalized description of particular ecosystems, species can finally be differentiated, whose biological and ecological importance is considerable and at the same time vulnerable to human activity in the region where they occur at some stage of their lives (Table 10).
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TABLE 9:MOST VULNERABLE ANIMAL GROUPS AROUND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS Successful Key driver of Current 1 = not, 2 = Species group population Proposed interventions Comments initiatives partly, 3 = decline very
Human pressure for housing construction Pollution, in water-line areas, Human Environment Holistic management plan sand mining for Flamingos activities in 2 Ministry to seabirds construction, bays and insufficient or non- lagunes existent management of solid waste.
o Population Consultative forum monitoring; to increase public o Civil society and awareness on Environment governmental wildlife manatee Capture are Ministry management authorities conservation, Manatee prohibited 1 River with a visible impact on mitigation plan and
sanctuary poaching; identification of key o Habitat stakeholders such as conservation; hunters, traders, o Safeguards. farmers etc. Climate Stable Community. Fur seals Monitoring 1 Management Plan changes The INIP Project Polution EBSA criteria to Angola Mollusk Human No initiatives 1 coast MARISMA-BCC-GIZ activities
Seabirds It is understood that the migratory and semi-migratory seabirds that occur in the bays and lagoons are treated in the previous point but it is important to emphasize the flamingos because they are very sensitive to the biophysical alterations of the ecosystem. Flamingos species are gregarious and commonly occur in flocks of 100 or more outside of the breeding season, with thousands often flocking together in areas rich in food or at freshwater inlets of saline or alkaline lakes to drink and bathe. In sub-Saharan Africa, the species may also join large flocks of non- breeding Lesser Flamingo. (BirdLife International, 2016). This habitats like Lagunas and salt lakes formed along the Angolan coast, particularly in Lobito and Namibe are preferential areas to these seabirds breed irregularly following the rains, often in mixed colonies with Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias ruber Linnaeus, 1758 and greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas, 1811. Manatee Trichechus senegalensis belongs to the Family Trichechidae (Mammalia: Sirenia) and is present in coastal and estuary habitats, coastal lagoons and lower reaches of most river systems, from Mauritania to Angola. The Wetlands International Afrique and individual scientists referred that the population is continuously declining, particularly due to the loss or modification of significant portions of its habitat, poaching, fragmentation of water courses by dams, diverse pollution and accidental catch in fishing nets and dams valves (Powell, 1996; Wetlands International Afrique, 2010). It is known that in the Cuanza and the Longa rivers, on the final portion of estuaries, manatees occur Anon (2006), a species considered vulnerable as per the IUCN Red List. It existence is threatened as a
27 | P a g e result of hunting and incidental catches, which continue to increase with locally high rates and near extirpation in some regions7 (Fischer et. al.,) Morais et. al. (2006) recommend several measures of protection that include an evaluation of the population of manatee, education of human populations, fight against poaching, conservation of habitats and the application of international environmental protection laws.
3.4.1. Ecosystem changes
The change in the mangrove ecosystem due to tree cutting also results in drastic changes in certain areas of Angola's coast. The list of threats increases when other human activities are identified such as infrastructure construction, unsustainable tourism, or even solid waste pollution.
3.4.2. Habitat loss and disturbance
Commercial ports are most often located in sheltered areas such as bays and lagoons that also have become important biodiversity areas. As a result, conflicts exist between humans and wildlife in the use of these areas. All bays and lagoons along the coast of Angola are potentially under pressure from human activities either because they represent sensitive ecosystems or because they are areas of great economic and financial interest of various kinds.
3.4.3. Government frameworks
A substantial area of the coastal plain including wetlands along the Cuanza and Longa Rivers, is protected in Quiçama National Park, since 1957. The flood plains of two intermittent rivers, the Bero and dos Flamingos, are protected in the Namibe Partial Reserve. However, it is necessary to apply the best management practices in these areas and all areas that are ecologically sensitive or of biological interest. This integration should have as basic premises the following aspects: • The enactment and enforcement of laws, policies, management plans become necessary in these particular areas: o Specific Legislation; and o Platforms with narrow rules for use • Integrated Coastal and Marine Planning: o Environmentally sustainable management; o Integrated and synergistic management plans; o Dissemination of Municipal Management Plans for better use; and o Monitoring the impact of human activities on the ecosystem. • Adequacy of institutions; coordination among institutions; funding; partnerships: o Environmentally responsible institutions; o Sectoral Monitoring Plans; and o Increased environmental monitoring.
7 Lack of protein and continued poverty for human populations, and limited enforcement of national laws, are expected to drive increasing illegal hunting levels. Destruction of coastal areas due to development, mangrove harvesting, siltation and dams are resulting in reduced habitat. We infer a high probability that a 30% or greater reduction in population size will result within a 90 year three generation period (Vulnerable A3cd). IUCN
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3.4.4. Climate change
Climate change causes a rise in seawater temperature. In addition, increased temperatures create conditions conducive to the increase of algae, which reduce the availability of oxygen for fish and other water animals.
3.4.5. Stakeholders
Using a definition of integrated coastal and marine management we find the following “ICZM involves the comprehensive assessment, setting of objectives, planning and management of coastal systems and resources, taking into account traditional, cultural and historical perspectives and conflicting interests and uses; it is a continuous and evolutionary process for achieving sustainable development” (see WCC, 1994). So, the stakeholders of Bays and Lagunas and marine zones are very complex and laborious but provide a possibility for achieving a compromise for concerted action. Synergies can be found to incorporate the results of the MARISMA Project that is currently being implemented.
4. Relevant Fishery Sectors affecting seabirds, turtles and other vulnerable marine species Background of the fishing sector in Angola There are three fisheries in Angola where seabird mortality is likely to occur, namely in i) coastal artisanal subsistence fishing (vessels smaller than 10 m) targeting line fish such a groupers (Epinephelinae); ii) semi-industrial vessels (11-25 m) also targeting line fish; and iii) industrial longline fishing (larger than 25 m) targeting tuna, swordfish and pelagic sharks. Four types of line gear are used, namely: line fishery for tuna (trolling), pole and line fishery (720 tonnes per day and approximately 240 days per year), and handline (mainly used by artisanal fishers) and commercial longlines (Duarte, 2005 and Petersen, 2007). Petersen (2007) referred there are two line fisheries operating in Angola that may impact sea turtles, the artisanal coastal subsistence line fishery and the industrial pelagic longline fishery. Currently, no recent data are available for Angolan industrial longline fishery. Artisanal fishers use surface longline to target seabirds and gill nets and handlines to target seabream species (Sparidae), grouper species (Serranidae), Angola Croakers (Miracorvina angolensis), Angola (dentex Dentex angolensis), hake (Merluccius species) and pelagic fish such as sardine (Sardinella) and horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) (Petersen, 2007). Bianchi (1986), referred 32 shark species and 23 rays’ species are considered commercial fishes been part of Angolan marine resources fisheries. Today the information about the shark’s species from the coast still needs data information. Economic contribution In 2012, fisheries represented about 2% percent of Angola’s GDP, and is after oil and mining an important sector to the national economy. In that year, fisheries production was estimated at 277 000 tonnes. The southern coastal provinces Namibe and Benguela represent the majority of the catches as these provinces benefit from the Benguela current. Inland water catches are estimated at about 10 000 tonnes per year. Since then, specific corrective and management measures have been adopted for each fishery and target species. As an example, for horse mackerel that applied the severe measure
29 | P a g e of the lock. In addition, the Government of Angola has declared strategies that go through the fundamental objective is the development of sustainable marine artisanal fisheries and aquaculture in inland water bodies to increase food safety with the protein. Of the total fish production in Angola, 90% is sold in the domestic market. Most of the consumption concerns small pelagic fish which is an important domestic food supply. Some of the fish caught is processed for fish meal and into canned fish. However, despite the above, Angola relies on imports of fish and fish products to supplement domestic production.8 Fisheries interactions Fishing equipment can accidentally catch protected species such as marine mammals, seabirds and sea turtles. Countries are now concerned with working with the fishing industry to develop or modify fishing gear and to improve practices and procedures to minimize this by-catch and its impact on the ecosystem. In the course of this report (see point 4) we will deal more fully with issues related to the impact of fishing on seabirds, turtles and other ecologically important species. Thus, reducing by- catches is one of the main problems in sustainable fisheries management. As a way of describing the importance of interactions we can refer to what happens between marine mammals and commercial fishing. In general, legal provisions for the Protection of Marine Mammals have been introduced at the international level to allow regulations regulating the incidental capture of marine mammals during commercial fishing operations. In Angola, there is Insufficient data on the incidental capture of marine mammals, but there is knowledge and finding of by-catch of the sea lion A. pusilus in the Namibe area of southern Angola. These catches can also be considered as problems of man-animal conflict, since this species seems to actively interfere in the fishing process to feed. In fact, they are fish predators and act like that who will discuss in point 3.1.7. Accidental fishing operations or by-catches are one of the most serious threats to the recovery and conservation of sea turtle populations. Several countries are attempting to reduce this threat through strategies with fisheries monitoring programs to document by-catches of protected species, such as sea turtles, as a basic form of knowledge to establish good fishing practices where by-catch is zero.
TABLE 10:DATA ABOUT SAME RESULTS OF FISHERIES IN ANGOLA FROM FAO 2014 (SOURCE: FAO FISHERY AND AQUACULTURE STATISTICS). Description 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 Capture Inland 7.5 8.0 7.0 10.3 10.4 10.5 Marine 77.6 125.1 232.4 270.0 263.0 267.0 Aquaculture Inland 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.5 Marine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.1 133.1 239.4 280.0 273.0 277.0 PRODUCTION (thousand tonnes) 85.1 133.1 239.4 280.3 273.4 277.5 TRADE (USD million) Import 0.0 53.4 16.3 119.2 180.0 252.0 FLEET (thousands boats) ...... 6.2 7.8 … … APPARENT FOOD CONSUMPTION Fish food supply (thousand tonnes in live weight 65.1 200.6 167.9 287.4 … … equivalent)
8 http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/AGO/en.
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Per Capita Supply (kilograms) 8.5 19.4 12.1 14.7 … … Fish Proteins (grams per capita per day) 3.5 6.0 3.5 3.8 … … Fish/Total Proteins (%)UAE (David Currie, FAO, 7.6 15.6 8.9 7.2 … … volunteered)
4.1. Pelagic Longline
4.1.1. Introduction
There are currently two longline fisheries operating within the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME): A demersal fishery targeting hake Merluccius spp. (South Africa and Namibia) and a pelagic longline fishery targeting tuna Thunnus spp., swordfish Xiphias gladius and pelagic sharks (South Africa, Namibia and Angola).
The pelagic longline fishery on Angola waters is, for primarily targets swordfish, yellowfin tuna, or bigeye tuna in various areas and seasons. Bycatch occurs in all fisheries as a consequence of fishing techniques and their gears. Generally speaking, longline fisheries are those gear that most species of turtles, seabirds and marine mammals are caught and die in the fishing gear.
4.1.2. Current information Current fisheries management strategies in Angola are based on the ICES approach, which integrates the precautionary approach, maximum sustainable yield (MSY), and an ecosystem approach under a single advisory framework. In this context, the fisheries management are doing with several measures which are regularly determined from DNP and are established by TAE/TAC, number of vessels operating in the fishery etc. This information is summarized in a Table 12 (as below). Each year are the measures are defined with support of scientific research in cruises by fisheries types.
TABLE 11: MEASURES FOR FISHERIES (2014) Number of vessels currently active 90 Current TAE/TAC 266.869 UM Ton Current fishing effort Target species Fishery commenced (year) Typical trip duration
4.1.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing
The human impacts on oceans such fisheries refer to the use of fishing gears in ways or in places such that one or more key components of an ecosystem are obliterated, devastated or ceases to be able to provide essential ecosystem functions. The partial or complete loss from vessels traps, lines, nets or other equipment constitute a source of mortality in the ocean. The elasmobranchs, turtle, seabirds and determined mammals caught in that apparatus are not considered their mortality like resultant of fishing. The Ghost fishing is one of the major problems we have faced today as more and more nets are placed in unauthorized places or even abandoned by fishermen at sea and ashore. In Angola, to some extent, these events have repercussions without strict control for accountability and mitigation measures. These measures go through a work of education and awareness of the fishing communities and especially involve them in the elaboration and education programs. In the meantime, in a more consensual way, a well-structured national Action Plan.
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Benguela's upwelling system is one of the most productive systems in the world, attracting millions of top predators such as seabirds. It is estimated that around 250 birds may be killed each year by pelagic longline fishing in Angola. The by-catch fisheries include the inshore and offshore trawl, purseine, tuna and swordfish pelagic longline, mid-water trawl, hake longline and prawn trawl fisheries. The target groups with the highest incidences of accidental catches are seabirds and turtles. Seabirds The five migrant pelagic seabird species occurring in the Benguela Current that are most susceptible to the impacts of fishing operations are the Black-browed Albatross Thallasarche melanophris, Shy Albatross T. cauta, Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross T. chlororhynchus and Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross T. carteri and the White-chinned petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis. Of the Benguela endemics, the Cape Gannet Morus capensis is the most susceptible to fisheries’ impacts. The waters of southern Angola are also a key area for the winter goose (Morus capensis), particularly for young birds. Abundance of all these species is the highest along the continental shelf and decreases in a northerly direction (Crawford et al. 1991). It is necessary to set up an information programme so that the deaths are accounted for as indicated by different mitigation measures for these species. Turtles Systemic records over time and at different sampling points show a decrease in the effective nesting of the suitable species along the coast. Associated with this fact, one can consider the numerous anthropic pressures that the coastal ecosystem is targeting, mainly due to the fishing activity, whose indicators resulting from the evaluation of catches in nets and / or offal show alarming values. It was estimated that more than 6000 animals were caught accidentally in gear between 2013 and 2014, and close to 9000 between 2014 and 2015 along the coast of Angola. (Kitabanga Project Source).
4.1.4. Current and proposed mitigation measures and interventions
This section should highlight current and proposed mitigation measures and interventions with a focus on seabirds and turtles. The effectiveness and compliance with current and proposed mitigation and intervention measures should also be addressed.
4.2. Pelagic Longline and tuna pole-line
4.2.1. Introduction
There are two commercial sectors and recreational fishery targeting tuna in Angola, the pole and line fishery, operating predominantly in the Atlantic and the pelagic longline sector, operating in both the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. The highly migratory species targeted by these fisheries include temperate albacore Thunnus alalunga and southern bluefin T. maccoyii, more tropical tunas, such as yellowfin T.albacares and bigeye T. obesus, and billfish, primarily swordfish Xiphias gladius (DAFF 2014). These species occur in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, but are managed as separate discreet stock (although with some degree of mixing does occur). Only southern bluefin tuna, the largest tuna caught in the fishery, is limited to the southern hemisphere9.
9 From Status of the South African Marine Fisheries resources 2014 DAFF (new CCSBT quota of 140 mt).
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Pelagic longline Bigeye tuna, yellowfin tuna and swordfish are the main targeted species in the longline sector with albacore tuna, blue sharks (Prionace glauca) and shortfin mako sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus) the main bycatch species, with negligible billfish catches reported in the longline sector (DAFF, 2014). The vessel participating in this fishery range from converted beam trawlers to small purchased or chartered longliners. The vessels range in size from 30 m to 54 m, and have been rigged for pelagic longlining with American mono-filament fishing gear used in North and South Atlantic longline fisheries (DAFF, 2015). Typically, 20 m long buoylines and 20 m long trace lines are used, so the gear effectively fishes at a depth of 40 m. The lines are typically deployed in a single night set in each 24- hour period, and hauled the following day. Traces are baited with squid and light sticks and clipped to the main line during the set. The length of line deployed averages between 35 nautical miles (nm) and 40 nm per night, and the number of hooks ranges from about 750 to 1 500 per set (DAFF, 2014). Pole and line/rod and reel
The tuna pole-line (also known as baitboat fishery) fleet is primarily targeting albacore. The availability of albacore follows a fairly consistent annual cycle, fish being most available in the austral summer and autumn months from October/November to May and practically disappears during winter (Penney et al.1992. Tuna occurs in mixed shoals but catches of bigeye tuna and skipjack are in low numbers in comparison to albacore (DAFF, 2014). The pole and line fishery catches predominantly juvenile and sub-adult albacore and, to a growing degree, yellowfin tuna. The tuna is lured to the surface by sprayers simulating baitfish in the water and bait (usually sardines) are chummed in the water. The baited barbless hook on a short monofilament leaders, tied to a bamboo pole is dipped in the churning water, tempting tuna to strike at it. The whole tuna is stored packed on ice during the trip.
4.2.2. Current information
Because large pelagic resources are highly migratory and fished by many nations, these resources are managed by Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs). The country is a Co-operating Non-contracting party of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). ICCAT and CCSBT have quota controls or a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for individual species. There is a range of of conservation and management measures prescribed by the regional management forum, from Observer deployment to sea bird mitigation measures.
TABLE 7: LARGE PELAGIC SECTORS Sectors Pelagic longline Pole /rod & line Number of vessels currently active NA NA Current TAE/TAC
Current fishing effort NA NA Target species Swordfish, Yellowfin, Albacore tuna (longfin) Bigeye and Bluefin Tuna Fishery commenced (year) 1960s 1970s
Typical trip duration
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4.2.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing
Potentially, the most significant impact is from the main lines, which can entangle marine mammals, the bycatch of sharks and the incidental capture of seabirds and turtles. ALDFG and plastic debris associated with this and other fisheries such as box straps, plastic bags, monofilament, ropes and buoys are discussed in Section 1.3.
4.2.3.1. By-catch
Seabirds Fourteen species of seabird have been confirmed incidentally caught by this fishery, ten of which are considered threatened. Data from 1998-2005 shows that birds were caught at an average rate of 0.44/1000 hooks, resulting in an average of 2 900 birds killed per year decreasing from approximately 5 900 in 1998 to 1 800 in 2005 (Petersen et al., 2008). Three techniques for extrapolating total seabird mortality were investigated and little difference between estimates found. Of the ten threatened species identified, White-chinned Petrels Procellaria aequinoctialis were caught most commonly (68.9%) at a rate of 0.30/1000 hooks (1 650 killed each year). Albatrosses made up 30.3% of the by- catch or 0.14/1000 hooks. Three species were recorded in significant numbers: shy-type (mostly White-capped Thalassarche steadi) (0.09/1000 hooks, 600 per year), Black-browed T. melanophrys (0.02/1000 hooks, 125 per year) and Indian Yellow-nosed Albatrosses T. carteri (0.01/1000 hooks, 85 per year) (Petersen et al. 2008). Generalised linear models were used to explain by catch patterns and revealed that individual vessel is the most important explanatory variable, followed by vessel flag, moon phase, season, sea state, the use of a tori line, time of set, area and bathymetry (Petersen et al. 2008). Most birds (88%) were caught by Asian flagged tuna directed vessels of which 72% albatrosses and 97% petrels. Asian tuna directed vessels, using a licence for SA waters, caught seabirds at a rate of 0.51/1000 hooks (0.58/1000 hooks in winter and 0.14/1000 hooks in summer) compared to South African swordfish directed vessels which caught seabirds at a rate of 0.23/1000 hooks (0.22/1000 hooks in winter and 0.24/1000 hooks in summer) (Petersen et al., 2008). More birds were caught during full moon (1.07/1000 hooks) compared to new moon (0.09/1000 hooks). Albatrosses were mainly caught on the Agulhas Bank and along the continental shelf, especially in the Atlantic Ocean. Petrels, especially White-chinned Petrels, were caught on the Agulhas Bank, but had a higher catch rate along the east coast of South Africa (Petersen et al., 2008). Although there were subtle differences between species, all species were more likely to be caught in the austral winter and spring (June to October). Estimates of the numbers of birds killed per year are lower than previous studies. The decline improvement is most likely linked to the termination of the foreign bilateral agreements in 2003, as well as improved awareness among fishers linked to ongoing education campaigns. Some of the apparent decrease in catch rate could reflect reduced numbers of birds at sea, as a result of ongoing population decreases in several key species (Petersen et al., 2008). Further analysis of seabird by-catch over the period 2006 – 2013 revealed a marked reduction in seabird mortality on vessels with observers. During this period birds were caught at an average rate of 0.132 birds per 1000 hooks, resulting in the mortality of 2851 birds of 14 seabird species (356 per year). Extrapolation of unobserved South African fishing sets revealed that c. 750 additional birds were likely killed during the study period. White-chinned petrels (Procellaria aequinoctialis) were most frequently killed (66%), followed by shy-type albatrosses (Thalassarche cauta/steadi, 21%), black- browed albatrosses (T. melanophris, 7%) and Indian yellow-nosed albatrosses (T. carteri, 3%). Vessel
34 | P a g e nationality, time of setting, moon phase, year, season and area all influenced seabird by-catch, with by-catch rates lower than 1998-2005, most likely due to increased use of by-catch mitigation measures, increased fisher awareness and improved regulations. There was a marked decrease in by- catch rates in 2008, when by-catch limits were placed on individual vessels. Encouragingly, significant reductions in seabird by-catch have occurred in the Asian fleet in the latter years of the study, concurrent with 100% observer coverage, resulting in a by-catch rate close to the national target (0.05 birds per 1000 hooks). However, by-catch rates probably remain high in the South African fleet, where no observers were deployed during 2011-2013. This outcome highlights the need for independent observer programmes in fisheries. The design and implementation of new mitigation devices are required to reduce further global seabird by-catch by pelagic longline fisheries. It’s important to note that lunar phase played an important role in determining seabird mortality (38% seabird by-catch occurred over 4 days around full moon). Further consideration could be given to limiting fishing effort over this time. Turtles The pelagic longline fisheries are responsible for the highest incidental mortality of sea turtles. There is no specific data for turtles, but in South Africa by-catch monitoring of this fishery between 2000 and 2005 found that loggerhead catches constituted 60% of all turtles caught, at a rate of 0.02 turtles per 1000 hooks (Petersen et al., 2009), whereas leatherbacks were the second most frequently caught sea turtle species at ¬34%, at a rate of 0.01 turtles per 1000 hooks (Nel et al., 2013). The capture rate for hawksbill and green turtle was for 0.001/1,000 hooks which translated to five and three individuals respectively (Petersen et al., 2009). There are significant differences in the bycatch of turtles in the three subsectors of the pelagic longline fishery. The swordfish directed pelagic longline fishery has significantly higher incidental capture, and is responsible for 90% of the sea turtles in the pelagic longline fisheries (Petersen et al., 2009). Ghost fishing There are no estimates for the contribution of ALDFG from this sector on seabird and turtles. Despite the paucity of verifiable mortalities, ALDFG contribute to mortalities for both seabirds and turtles, as well as marine mammals, elasmobranchs (sharks and their relatives) and some bony fishes (Laist, 1995, 1997; Kaiser et al., 1996; Good et al., 2009; IWC, 2013a), through a range of interactions, from entanglement to ingesting of plastic and lead pollution originating from ALDFG. Entanglement in pelagic longline could cause mortalities as well (Meyer et al., 2011) but it is unlikely that interactions with marine mammals are reported, unless observers are onboard. Anecdotal evidence at least some level of interaction with this fishery.
4.3. Line fishery
4.3.1. Introduction
Duarte 2005 refer in Angola four types of line gear are used, namely: line fishery for tuna (trolling), pole and line fishery (720 tonnes per day and approximately 240 days per year), and handline (mainly used by artisanal fishers) and commercial longlines. Usually the line fishery was used by artisanal fisheries.
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4.3.2. Current information
A section providing current information on the fishery, such as TAE/TAC, management, number of vessels operating in the fishery etc.
4.3.3. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing
According to Petersen et al., (2007) there are three fisheries in Angola coast namely coastal artisanal subsistence fishing (vessels smaller than 10 m) targeting line fish such a groupers (Epinephelinae), semi-industrial vessels (11-25 m) also targeting line fish and industrial longline fishing (larger than 25 m) targeting tuna, swordfish and pelagic sharks. This fishery is responsible to accidental mortality to turtles. Turtles Kitabanga Project data refer that which the nesting of the three species was confirmed namely olive turtle, leatherback and green turtle. On the other hand, the ecosystemic characteristic of the coast of Angola is favourable as habitats for development and feeding of turtles, especially the green turtle. (Kitabanga Project Source).
TABLE 12: BYCATCH SPECIES (EG: SEABIRDS, TURTLES, SHARKS, FINFISH) Scientific name Status (threatened, Direct/indirect impact (common name) vulnerable etc)
White Petrel VU Direct (Procellaria aequinoctialis)
Morus capensis VU Direct (Gannet) Fur seals LC Indirect (Arctocephalus pusillus) Green Turtle VU Direct (Chelonia mydas) Leatherback turtle VU Direct (Dermochelys coriacea) Hawksbill Turtle VU Direct (Eritimochelys imbricata ), Olive Ridley turtle VU Direct (Lepidochelys olivacea) Loggerhead sea turtle VU Direct (Caretta caretta)
4.4. Gillnet fishery
4.4.1. Current information
TABLE 13: Number of vessels currently active NA
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Current TAE/TAC 96,143
Current fishing effort 40
Cachuchu, corvina, roncadores, garoupa, pescada de Target species angola, marionga
4.4.2. Human impact of by-catch and ghost fishing in mangroves
Seabirds The seabird bycatch is substantial in the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem and requires the commitment of all to resolve this matter. This paper has highlighted the paucity of information available for the region. Although this needs to be addressed we do provide sufficient information to encourage the immediate implementation of mitigation measures such as the use of bird-scaring lines for all longline fisheries operating within the region (Teresen et al., 2005)
Turtles The loss or abandonment at sea of fishing nets of non-degradable synthetic material, in particular gill nets, which are continuously being used for fishing. Often this "ghost fishing" causes the involuntary capture and death of turtles that emulate in the nets. In Angola, data on the incidental capture of sea turtles is still scarce. There are several records of turtles trapped in nets abandoned by fishermen along the Angolan coast. However, these communications need to be systematized through a registration and alert mechanism. Ghost fishing interaction is particularly detected among nets abandoned at sea or placed in estuaries illegally. In any case these nets constitute an obstacle to the progression of these animal species, seabirds and turtles.
5. Summary table of primary drivers affecting conservation status of vulnerable seabirds, marine turtles and reptiles, current initiatives and proposed interventions The integrated management of demersal and pelagic stocks needs co-operation about: (a) catch and effort data; (b) results of scientific research; (c) monitoring and surveillance; and (d) proposed management regimes. With regard to the monitoring of commercial landings and discards, the process should be better organized through mandatory catch data and commercial fishing effort should be continuously collected through mandatory logbook programs. Weight / number of target species and by-product. Species are monitored through this program and the logbook program. In reality implementation alignment and compliance is required to monitor logbook submissions. Recreational Landings Recreational fish catch data must be collected to obtain data collection at least through surveys at two-year intervals through a dedicated program.
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5.1. Current mitigation measures Currently no mandatory mitigation measures have been implemented to reduce the incidental bycatch of seabirds in the Angolan longline, trawl, purse-seine or subsistence/artisanal fisheries. Targeting of seabirds for consumption however is illegal.
5.2. Mitigation of Incidental Seabird Mortality
5.2.1. Longline fisheries
Mitigation measures work by either keeping birds away from baited hooks (e.g. tori lines), reducing the time the hook is available to the birds (e.g. line weighting or line setting chutes), avoiding peak periods of bird foraging (e.g. night setting) or making vessels or bait less attractive to the birds. It is vital that these measures are simple, easy to implement and cost effective. A combination of weighted branch lines, bird scaring lines and night setting remains the best practice approach to mitigate seabird bycatch in longline fisheries (Brothers et al., 1999a, 2001; Anderson and McArdle 2002; Baker & Wise 2005; Gilman et al. 2005; Hu et al. 2005; Melvin et al. 2013; 2014; Jiménez et al. 2009). The white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis) is the seabird species most commonly killed by Southern Hemisphere longline fisheries. Recent research has provided insight into the diving ability of this species important for mitigating longline bycatch. This research revealed a maximum dive depth (16 m) was slightly deeper than the previous estimate (13 m), but varied considerably among individuals (range 2-16 m). Males dived deeper than females and birds feeding chicks dived deeper than incubating birds, but dive rate did not differ between the sexes. Time of day had no significant effect on dive depth or rate. These findings will help to improve the design and performance of mitigation measures aimed at reducing seabird bycatch in longline fisheries, such as the calculation of minimum line sink rates and optimum aerial coverage of bird-scaring lines (Rollinson et al. 2014).
5.2.2. Night setting
Setting longlines at night is highly effective at reducing incidental mortality of seabirds because the majority of vulnerable seabirds are inactive at night. “Night” is defined as the time between the end of nautical twilight and before nautical dawn as set out in the Nautical Almanac tables for relevant latitude. However, night setting is not as effective for nocturnal foragers such white chinned petrels which are very common in South African waters. Consequently, night setting should be used in combination with weighted branch lines and bird scaring lines (Klaer & Polacheck 1998; Brothers et al. 1999a; McNamara et al. 1999; Gilman et al. 2005; Baker, 2005; Jiménez et al. 2009; Melvin et al. 2013; 2014). The effectiveness of night setting is reduced during bright moonlight and when using intense deck lights.
5.2.3. “Tori” or bird-scaring line
A tori or bird-scaring line (BSL) consists of a line with a number of streamers attached to it. This line is towed from the stern of the vessel while the baited fishing lines are being set. It runs from a high point at the stern to a device or mechanism that creates drag at its terminus. The streamers are designed to cover the point where the bait enters the water and distracts foraging birds from taking the baited hooks. If longline gear is not sufficiently weighted and remains on or close to the surface beyond the area protected by the tori line it will have a limited effect on reducing seabird mortality. Bird Scaring Lines should therefore be used in combination with weighted branch lines and night- setting (Uozumi & Takeuchi 1998; CCAMLR 2002; Minami & Kiyota 2004; Melvin 2003). This method
38 | P a g e has been demonstrated to reduce bycatch rates by up to 96% (Brothers et al. 1999a). However, the success depends on design and setting conditions as well as crew willingness and input. BSLs should be made from the lightest practical strong fine line. Lines should be attached to the vessel with a barrel swivel to minimise rotation of the line from torque created as it is dragged behind the vessel. Long streamers should be attached with a swivel to prevent them from rolling up onto the BSL. Towed objects should be attached at the terminus of the BSL to increase drag. BSLs are at risk of tangling with float lines leading to lost BSLs, interruptions in vessel operations and in some cases lost fishing gear. Adding short streamers to the in-water portion of the line, can enhance drag while minimising tangles with float lines. Weak links (breakaways) should be incorporated into the in-water portion of the line for safety reasons and to minimize operational problems associated with lines becoming tangled. Given operational differences in pelagic longline fisheries due to vessel size and gear type, specifications of BSLs have been divided into two vessel-size categories: those greater than 35 meters and those less than 35 meters in length.
5.2.4. Bird Scaring Lines for vessels >35 m total length
Simultaneous use of two BSLs, one on each side of the sinking longline, provides maximum protection from bird attacks under different wind conditions (Melvin et al. 2004; 2013; 2014; Sato et al. 2013). The setup for BSLs should be as follows: • BSLs should be deployed to maximise the aerial extent, which is a function of vessel speed, height of the attachment point to the vessel, drag, and weight of bird scaring line materials. • To achieve a minimum recommended aerial extent of 100 m, BSLs should be attached to the vessel such that they are suspended from a point a minimum of 8 m above the water at the stern. • BSLs should contain a mix of brightly coloured long and short streamers placed at intervals of no more than 5 m. Long streamers should be attached to the line with swivels to prevent streamers from wrapping around the line. All long streamers should reach the sea-surface in calm conditions. • Baited hooks should be deployed within the area bounded by the two BSLs. If using bait- casting machines, they should be adjusted so as to land baited hooks within the area bounded by the BSLs.
If large vessels use only one BSL, it should be deployed windward of the sinking baits. If baited hooks are set outboard of the wake, the BSL attachment point to the vessel should be positioned several meters outboard of the side of the vessel that baits are deployed. Bird Scaring Lines for vessels <35 m total length Two designs have been shown to be effective: 1. A design with a mix of long and short streamers, that includes long streamers placed at 5 m intervals over the first 55 m of the BSL 2. A design that does not include long streamers. In this case, short streamers (no less than 1 m in length) should be placed at 1 m intervals along the length of the aerial extent. In both cases, streamers should be brightly coloured. To achieve a minimum recommended aerial extent of 75 m, BSLs should be attached to the vessel such that they are suspended from a point a minimum of 7 m above the water at the stern.
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A number of trials were conducted in South African waters and produced the following specifications as a guideline for a best-design. These specifications have been included in South African fishing permit regulations. A bird-scaring line should achieve 150 m aerial coverage. To achieve this, it should be attached to the vessel at least 7 m above sea level, be at least 150 m long, have at least 28 paired streamers spaced 5 m apart (starting 10 m astern the vessel) and have sufficient drag (e.g. buoy, road cone or sea-anchor) (Figure 2). The bird-scaring line must be deployed on the windward side of the main line, unless two streamers are used, in which case they must be deployed on either side of the main line.
At least 28 paired streamers 5m apart 150m aerial coverage
First streamer should be Ensure adequate drag e.g. road 10m behind the vessel cone The10m line should be at a depth
of 10m, 150 m behind the vessel
Figure 2: Bird-scaring line and longline sink rate specifications The key to an effective bird-scaring line is maximising the portion of the line which is in the air. The best way to achieve this is to make the point of attachment on the vessel as high as possible. An outrigger pole, sometimes referred to as a tori pole, can be mounted to provide this height. Ideally an outrigger pole should be extended from the side of the vessel to keep the tori line away from fishing gear thereby reducing the chance of entanglement. The aerial coverage is also improved by attaching an item, e.g. a buoy, which creates drag to lift the line out of the water. Streamers can be made from plastic strapping or PVC tubing. They should be a bright colour, preferably red. The erratic movement of the streamers increases it efficacy. Attaching light sticks to streamers may increase the efficacy of the bird-scaring line when setting at night.
5.2.5. Line weighting (and reducing setting speeds)
Albatrosses are relatively shallow divers, 0.3-12.4 m (Prince et al. 1994) although some petrels can dive considerably deeper than this depth e.g. Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus can dive to a maximum depth of 67 m (Weimerskirch and Sagar, 1996). By maximising the rate at which the longline sinks, you will minimise the time the hook is within the reach of the birds, and thus reduce the chance of birds being drowned. Various “line weighting” regimes have been investigated and proposed for pelagic longlining (Brothers et al. 2001, Anderson and Mcardle, 2002, Robertson et al., 2003, Moreno et al,. 2006). Although the gear will be configured according to the particular fishery, a line sink rate of 0.3 s-1 is recommended. This sink rate will allow the hooks to reach a depth of at least 10 m while under the aerial coverage of a well-constructed bird-scaring line (150 m).
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Pelagic longlining Branch lines should be weighted to sink the baited hooks rapidly out of the diving range of feeding seabirds. Studies have demonstrated that branch line weighting where there is more mass closer to the hooks, sink most rapidly and consistently (Gianuca et al., 2013; Robertson et al., 2010; 2013), reduces seabird attacks on baits (Gianuca et al., 2013; Ochi et al., 2013) and seabird mortalities (Jiménez et al., 2013). Studies of a range of weighting regimes, including placing weights at the hook, have shown no negative effect on target catch rates (Jiménez et al., 2013; Robertson et al., 2013; Gianuca et al., 2013). Increased weighting will shorten but not eliminate the distance behind the vessel in which birds can be caught. Line weighting has been shown to improve the effectiveness of other mitigation methods such as night setting and bird scaring lines, in reducing seabird bycatch (Brothers 1991; Boggs 2001; Sakai et al., 2001; Anderson & McArdle, 2002; Gilman et al., 2003, Hu et al., 2005; Melvin et al., 2013; 2014). Line weighting is integral to the fishing gear and, compared to bird scaring lines and night setting, has the advantage of being more consistently implemented, hence facilitating compliance and port monitoring. Current recommended minimum standards for branch line weighting are as follows (ACAP, 2016a): (a) 40 g or greater attached within 0.5 m of the hook; or (b) 60 g or greater attached within 1 m of the hook; or (c) 80 g or greater attached within 2 m of the hook.
Lumo leads Lumo Leads provide a line-weighting technique for seabird bycatch mitigation that works without compromising fish catch, fishing operations efficiency or crew safety. Unlike conventional weighted swivels, Lumo Leads are attached to monofilament lines in such a way that they can slide up and down the line and simply slip off the line during a bite-off. Studies of lumo leads revealed no significant reduction in target fish catch for bluefin tunas, did not compromise crew safety, and did not seriously affect fishing operations. Lumo leads appear to be an effective seabird bycatch mitigation measure (Rollinson et al., 2016). Further trials conducted in 2015 in the Brazilian pelagic longline fishery to compare catch rates of seabirds, target fish species and sink rates using two different configurations of sliding weights (60 g Lumo Lead 1 m from the hook and 60 g Lumo Lead 3.5 m from the hook) and the traditional weighting system (60 g weighted swivel 3.5 m from the hook). All fishing took place at night, without bird-scaring lines. There was no difference in catch rates of target species among the three treatments. The sink rate of the 60 g Lumo Lead placed 1 m from the hook was faster than the other two treatments, and resulted in significantly lower seabird bycatch rates (0.11 birds/1000 hooks, as opposed to 0.33 and 0.85 birds/1000 hooks treatments with Lumo Leads 3.5 m from the hook, and weighted swivels 3.5 m from the hook, respectively) (ACAP 2016). The recommendation is 60 g lumo leads (or any other kind of sliding lead) be used one metre form the hook. Preliminary research findings in the Uruguayan swordfish fishery demonstrated that a reduction in leader length from 4.5 m (75 g) to 1 m (65 g) reduced seabird mortality by about 50 per cent in the absence of other mitigation (night setting, bird-scaring lines). The authors noted that the faster sink rates of the proposed weighting regime safeguard against any non-compliance in the use of bird- scaring lines or night setting (ACAP, 2016a).
5.2.6. Frozen versus thawed bait
Thawed baits sink more rapidly than frozen baits. In experiments conducted on Japanese pelagic longliners, Brothers et al. (1999b) found that on average 1.1 birds per 1000 hooks were caught using
41 | P a g e frozen bait, compared to 0.6 birds per 1000 hooks using partly thawed and 0.3 birds per 1000 hooks using thawed bait demonstrating the effectiveness of this measure.
5.2.7. Setting lines at night
Albatrosses generally feed during the day, but lower numbers may forage at night. Therefore, by setting lines between dusk and dawn, the danger of catching these birds is greatly reduced (Harper, 1987). However, the smaller petrels e.g. White-chinned Petrel, may feed at night and are therefore less protected (Harper, 1987). Although this measure is effective in reducing seabird bycatch especially the capture of albatrosses, in isolation it is unlikely to sufficiently reduce seabird bycatch. Seabirds will be especially vulnerable on clear, bright nights such as those during full moon periods. Gilman et al. (2005) showed a 97-100% reduction in the capture of Laysan Phoebastria immutabilis and Black-footed Phoebastria nigripes Albatrosses in the Hawaiin longline fishery and Klaer and Polacheck (1998) a 91% reduction in the capture of all seabird species in the Japanese pelagic longline fishery when setting took place at night as opposed to during the day. In a study conducted in South African waters, it was found that the pelagic longline fishery, which sets a high proportion of their sets during daylight, catch approximately 0.2 birds per 1000 hooks while the demersal longline fishery which sets their lines primarily at night only catch 0.04 birds per 1000 hooks. This difference can in part be accounted for by the difference in setting time (Petersen et al., 2006). There is further evidence from a pilot study conducted in Namibia which revealed higher catches of 0.3 birds per 1000 hooks between full and half moon compared to no birds caught during between quarter and new moon periods (Goren, 2007). Analysis of fisheries observer data and the use of generalised linear models indicate that the time of setting and moon phase were important indicators of sea bird mortality in South Africa and therefore by limiting fishing to night setting and/or outside of full moon periods seabird mortality could be substantially reduced (Petersen et al., 2008a) (Figure 3). The tuna directed fishery is required to set their lines at night, but not the swordfish directed sector. This decision is based on the premise that Swordfish Xiphias gladius catches are highest at dusk. Evaluation of observer data (1998–2005) confirms that Swordfish catch rates are the highest when setting takes place at dusk (6.56/1000 hooks). There was no effect on catch rates of Swordfish or tuna over full moon. Limiting fishing effort during full moon could therefore be considered as an additional management option without a disproportionate effect on the fishery.
1.2 1
0.8 0.6 0.4
Birds/1000 hooks Birds/1000 0.2 0 New Waxing 1st Waxing Full Moon Waning Last Waning Moon Crescent Quarter Gibbous Gibbous Quarter Crescent
Figure 3: The effect of moon phase on seabird mortality, 1998–2005.
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5.2.8. Offal management
Albatrosses and petrels are opportunistic scavengers and fishing vessels processing at sea and discarding offal provide a feeding opportunity for these birds (Ryan and Moloney, 1988). Therefore, by minimising or eliminating discards seabirds will not be attracted to fishing vessels. Seabirds are most at risk of being caught during setting (Brothers et al. 1999a) therefore discarding should not take place during this time. If discarding is necessary during hauling, crew should be instructed to do so on the opposite side thereby reducing the risk of capture to the birds.
5.2.9. Hook shielding devices
Hook-shielding devices encase the point and barb of baited hooks to prevent seabird attacks during line setting until a prescribed depth is reached (a minimum of 10 m), or until after a minimum period of immersion has occurred (a minimum of 10 minutes) that ensures that baited hooks are released beyond the foraging depth of most seabirds. 1. ‘Hook Pod’ – 68 g minimum weight that is positioned at the hook, encapsulating the barb and point of the hook during setting, and remains attached until it reaches 10 m in depth, when the hook is released. 2. ‘Smart Tuna Hook’ – 40 g minimum weight that is positioned at the hook, encapsulating the barb and point of the hook during setting, and remains attached for a minimum period of 10 minutes after setting, when the hook is released.
5.2.10. Smart hook
This method uses a modified tuna longline hook which accepts a specially designed shield that disarms the hook once it has been baited, preventing ingestion and making it impossible for any seabird to be hooked. The shield is released within 15 minutes after the hook has been immersed in salt water, allowing fish to be caught after the baited hook has passed beyond the normal diving and feeding depths of most seabirds. After release from the hook the shield sinks to the seafloor where it corrodes within 12 months, leaving no pollution or toxic residue. The byproduct is iron oxide and carbon.
Experimental work was conducted on pelagic longline vessels targeting tuna and swordfish out of Cape Town, South Africa during the spring of 2014. Seabird bycatch was high and a total of 13 birds were caught across the three trips. Eleven of these birds were caught on the control treatments and 2 birds on the STH treatments. The use of the Smart Tuna Hook led to a reduction in the bycatch of seabirds of between 81.8% – 91.4%. Importantly, there was no detectable difference between setting methods in the catch rates of commercially valuable species, indicating no detectable detrimental effect on fish catch for any species. Given this fishery has a high seabird bycatch rate and a regulation in place where the capture of more than 25 birds by a vessel each season leads to a suspension of fishing activity for that vessel, the Smart Tuna Hook provides a significant deterrent to seabirds attacking baits, and offers a feasible option for pelagic fishers to significantly reduce the level of interactions with seabirds and hence remain active in the fishery. Some initial concerns raised by stakeholders includes the issue of space to store the caps (which are not reusable) and the time needed to attach the cap to the hook. Therefore, this solution is likely to only work for some fisheries. No operational issues were however experienced when using the smart hooks in the South African fishery during this study. This is partly because the South African vessels set hooks every 12-15 seconds and use bins to house the branchlines, instead of coils and so can easily
43 | P a g e attached the cap to the hook before setting. They also only setting c. 1500 hooks per set and undertake trips of 2-3 weeks means that they have sufficient storage to take caps onboard. A further consideration would be to only use the caps when fishing in high seabird abundance/bycatch areas and/or the few days either side of full moon when high bycatch rates are observed. Conclusion There is no one magic solution, but rather a suite of measures that should be used in combination to mitigate seabird bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries. The choice may differ from fishery to fishery depending on gear configuration, preferred operation and species complexes involved.
5.3. Mitigation measures that are not recommended ACAP considers that the following measures lack scientific substantiation as technologies or procedures for reducing the impact of pelagic longlines on seabirds: • Line shooters: No experimental evidence of effectiveness in pelagic longline fisheries. • Olfactory deterrents: No evidence of effectiveness in pelagic longline fisheries. • Hook size and design: Changes to hook size and design may reduce the chance of seabird mortality in longline fisheries, but have not been adequately studied. • Blue dyed bait: No experimental evidence of effectiveness in pelagic longline fisheries. Insufficiently researched. • Bait thaw status: No evidence that the thaw status of baits has any effect on the sink rate of baited hooks set on weighted lines. • Net jackets: Free-floating panels of net attached to the most dangerous mesh sizes.
5.3.1. Demersal Trawl
The FAO Best Practice Guidelines for IPOA/NPOA-Seabirds have been amended to include trawl fisheries in addition to longline fisheries. ACAP has reviewed the scientific literature dealing with seabird bycatch mitigation in trawl fisheries (ACAP, 2016b). The mitigation measures presented below are taken directly from these recommendations, which address both cable-related mortality (including collisions with net-monitoring cables, warp cables and paravanes) and net-related mortality (which includes deaths caused by net entanglements) in trawl fisheries. Offal and discards In all cases, the presence of offal and discards is the most important factor attracting seabirds to the stern of trawl vessels, where they are at risk of cable and net interactions. Managing offal discharge and discards while fishing gear is deployed has been shown to reduce seabird attendance. The following management measures are recommended: 1. Avoid any discharge during shooting and hauling. 2. Where practicable, convert offal into fish meal and retain all waste material with any discharge restricted to liquid discharge / sump water to reduce the number of birds attracted to a minimum; and 3. Where meal production from offal and full retention are impracticable, batching waste (preferably for two hours or longer) has been shown to reduce seabird attendance at the stern of the vessel. Mincing of waste has also been shown to reduce the attendance of large albatross species.
Cable strikes
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Warp cables 1. Deploy bird scaring lines while fishing to deter birds away from warp cables. BSL are recommended even when appropriate offal discharge and fish discard management practices are in place. It is recommended that for every meter of block height, 5 m of backbone be deployed and 1.2 kg of terminal object drag weight be used.
Net monitoring cables Net monitoring cables should not be used. Where this is impracticable: 1. Deploy bird scaring lines specifically positioned to deter birds away from net monitoring cables while fishing; and 2. Install a snatch block at the stern of a vessel to draw the net monitoring cable close to the water to reduce its aerial extent.
Net entanglement 1. Clean nets after every shot to remove entangled fish (“stickers”) and benthic material to discourage bird attendance during gear shooting; and 2. Minimise the time the net is on the water surface during hauling through proper maintenance of winches and good deck practices. Net weighting on or near the cod end increases the angle of ascent of the net during hauling operations, and thus reduces the time the net is on the water’s surface during both shooting and hauling operations.
Further measures include avoiding peak areas and periods of seabird foraging activity. It is important to note that there is no single solution to reduce or avoid incidental mortality of seabirds in trawl fisheries, and that the most effective approach is to use the measures listed above in combination. Net entanglements during the haul remain the most difficult interactions to mitigate.
6. References ACAP (2016a). Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Advisory Committee. La Serena, Chile. http://www.acap.aq/en/documents/advisory- committee/ac9/2845-ac9-report/file. ACAP (2016b). ACAP summary advice for reducing impact of pelagic and demersal trawl gear on seabirds. Reviewed at the Ninth Meeting of the Advisory Committee La Serena, Chile, 9–13 May 2016. Anderson, S. and McArdle, B. (2002). Sink rate of baited hooks during deployment of a pelagic longline from a New Zealand fishing vessel. New Zealand Journal of Mar. and Freshwater Res., 36: 185–195. Baker, B and Hamilton, S. (2016). Seventh Meeting of the Seabird Bycatch Working Group La Serena, Chile, 2 - 4 May 2016, Impacts of purse-seine fishing on seabirds and approaches to mitigate bycatch. Bianchi G. (1986). Fichas FAO de identificação de espécies para propósitos comerciais. Guia de campo para as espécies comerciais marinhas e de águas salobras de Angola. Preparado com o apoio da NORAD e da FAO (FIRM) Programa Regular. Roma, FAO, 184 pp.
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