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13. Fossilization, Permineralization, Есголƥегцлсрǡ Carbonization

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13. Fossilization, Permineralization, Есголƥегцлсрǡ Carbonization 13. Fossilization, permineralization, Ƥ ǡ carbonization and wet wood conservation 13.1 Fossilization When remains or traces of organisms are preserved in sediments Ń Conclusions about the seasonality of past climates are pos- they are called fossils. The process of fossilization (syn. WL[YPÄJH- sible on the basis of the presence or absence of growth rings. tion or permineralization) begins when organisms, e.g. stems, )HUKLKHNH[LZJHUYLZLTISLNYV^[OYPUNZPUWL[YPÄLK^VVK are buried and remain in anaerobic conditions. Most WL[YPÄLK but they represent periodic mineral deposits, e.g. in stalac- stems are therefore in a horizontal position. Many fossil stems tites. ^LYLWYVIHIS`KYPM[^VVK[OH[^HZI\YPLKI`Å\]PHSZLKPTLU[Z Ń Diagenetic processes (alteration during fossilization) can be Stems in upright position were more likely embedded in vol- reconstructed on the basis of the preservation of tissue and canic ashes. When supersaturated groundwater penetrates the cell-wall structure, and the crystalline composition of miner- wood, the minerals precipitate within cellular spaces and crys- als. Hyphae, barrier zones and coprolites indicate a decay talize. Most frequent are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or silicate under aerobic conditions, while cell-wall degradation, cell minerals (SiO2). Fossilization occurs mainly in association with deformation and root inclusions indicate decay under anaer- marine or volcanic hydrothermal water. Characteristic for fos- VIPJJVUKP[PVUZILMVYLWL[YPÄJH[PVU+PMMLYLU[JVSVYZVUWVS- sils is the conservation of microscopic structures that can be ished discs are related to different minerals, e.g. red is related observed on polished disks or on micro-sections. Observations to iron, blue and transparent to silicate, green to copper and VUMVZZPSPaLK^VVKSLHKZ[VMV\YWYPUJPWHSÄUKPUNZ! WPUR[VTHUNHULZL4PULYHSJVTWVZP[PVUJHUILX\HU[PÄLK Ń ;H_VUVTPJJSHZZPÄJH[PVUZHYLZ[PSSWVZZPISLVU^LSSWYLZLY]LK on a microscopic section under polarized light. fossils. Ń (ZZLTISHNLZVMMVZZPSZWL[YPÄLK^VVKHUKWVSSLUPUZ[YH[P- See also Taylor et al. 2009 and Selmeier 2015. graphically uniform layers allow a limited reconstruction of past vegetation types. 13.1 Stem disc of a Triassic Araucar- ioxylonZ[LTMYVTHWL[YPÄLKMVYLZ[ in Arizona, USA. © The Author(s) 2018 183 F. H. Schweingruber, A. Börner, The Plant Stem, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73524-5_13 Ƥ 13.2 ,YVKLK WL[YPÄLK Z[LTZ MYVT 13.3 Broken and dislocated petri- 13.4 Reconstruction of the Arau- 13.5 Modern Araucaria araucana Å\]PH[PSL ZLKPTLU[Z VM [OL <WWLY ÄLKZ[LTZMYVTÅ\]PH[PSLZLKPTLU[Z caria forest at the Chinle Formation forest in Patagonia, Chile. Triassic, approx. 200 million years Upper Triassic, approx. 200 million (Trias). Display at the Visitor Center HNV7L[YPÄLK-VYLZ[(YPaVUH<:( `LHYZHNV7L[YPÄLK-VYLZ[(YPaVUH VM[OL7L[YPÄLK-VYLZ[ Photo: V. Markgraf. USA. Photo: V. Markgraf. Macroscopic aspect of polished disks 13.6 Quercoxylon sp. with distinct 13.7 Conifer with indistinct annual 13.8 Palmoxylon sp., of unknown 13.9 7L[YPÄLKliana of unknown age annual rings. Miocene, approx. rings. Miocene, approx. 20 million age and locality, with distinct vas- and locality. 20 million years ago, Great Basin, years ago, Great Basin, Idaho, USA. cular bundles. Idaho, USA. Ƥ Ƥ 250 μm 100 μm 50 μm 50 μm 13.10 Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii, 13.11 Cross section of Paradoxylon 13.12 Tangential section of Para- 13.13 Radial section of Paradoxy- a herb with a central stele. Lower leuthardii, one of the Cordaitales doxylon leuthardii with biseriate lon leut hardii with multiseriate Devonian, approx. 400 million years without annual rings. Upper Trias- rays. Upper Triassic, approx. 220 bordered pits on tracheids. Upper ago, Scotland. sic, approx. 220 million years ago, million years ago, Vosges Moun- Triassic, approx. 220 million years Vosges Mountains, France. Slide: R. tains, France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. ago, Vosges Mountains, France. Buxtorf. Slide: R. Buxtorf. 184 Ch 13. Fossilization, permineralization, coalization, carbonization and wet wood conservation Ƥ Ƥ v 500 μm 250 μm 500 μm 500 μm 13.14 Sequoia sp. with distinct and 13.15 Mimosoideae, Fabaceae, 13.16 Celtixylon cf., Ulmaceae, 13.17 Palmoxylon, Arecaceae, with indistinct rings. Early Oligocene, without annual rings, with para- with distinct annual rings. Oligo- KPZ[PUJ[ SPNUPÄLK WHY[Z VM ]HZJ\SHY approx. 34 million years ago, Floris- tracheal parenchyma. Oligocene, cene, approx. 28 million years ago, bundles. Oligocene, approx. 28 sant, Colorado, USA. approx. 28 million years ago, Vosges Vosges Mountains, France. Slide: R. million years ago, Vosges Moun- Mountains, France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. Buxtorf. tains, France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. Ƥ 1 mm 1 mm 500 μm 13.18 Cross section of Paradoxylon 13.19 Cross section of Paradoxylon 13.20 Lauraceae cf. with growth 13.21 .YV^[O YPUNZ PU H WL[YPÄLK leuthardii, without growth rings, leuthardii, with growth rings, indi- rings, seasonal climate. Oligo- ring-porous oak stem in Miocene indicating tropical rain forest as hab- cating seasonal climate. Upper Tri- cene, approx. 28 million years ago, deposits, approx. 15 million years itat? Upper Triassic, approx. 220 mil- assic, approx. 220 million years ago, Vosges Mountains, France. Slide: R. ago, Oregon, USA. lion years ago, Vosges Mountains, Vosges Mountains, France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. Buxtorf. Indicators of Ƥ 500 μm 13.22 )HYYPLY aVULZ PU H WL[YPÄLK 13.23 Barrier zones in a stem of 13.24 Hyphae in a vessel of a Meli- 13.25 Coprolites of a beetle in a stem of a eucalypt tree. Australia, a Lauraceae cf. tree. Oligocene, aceae tree. Reprinted from Selmeier Lauraceae tree. Reprinted from Sel- age unknown. approx. 28 million years ago, Vosges 2015. meier 2015. Mountains, France. Slide: R. Buxtorf. 185 Indicators of Ƥ 50 μm 500 μm 500 μm 13.26 Decayed cell walls in Para- 13.27 Radially compressed dicoty- 13.28 Heavily tangentially com- 13.29 The root of a herb squeezed doxylon leuthardii. Preserved are ledonous wood. Slide: R. Buxtorf. pressed wood of Paradoxylon leu- the soft, anaerobically decayed the thick primary walls and thin ter- thardii. Slide: R. Buxtorf. xylem tissue. Reprinted from Sel- tiary walls. Slide: R. Buxtorf. meier 2015. Permineralization under polarized light 100 μm 100 μm 100 μm 100 μm 13.30 Single crystals in individual 13.31 Many crystals in large early- 13.32 Irregular crystallization of 13.33 Crystallization of different tracheids in Paradoxylon leuthardii. wood vessels in Ulmaceae wood. silicates without any wood ana- minerals relating to groups of tra- Slide: R. Buxtorf. Slide: R. Buxtorf. tomical context in Ulmaceae wood. cheids in Paradoxylon leuthardii. Slide: R. Buxtorf. Slide: R. Buxtorf. 13.2 Permineralization of archaeological artifacts Permineralization also takes place on metallic archaeological HUH[VTPJHSZ[Y\J[\YL:WLJPLZPKLU[PÄJH[PVUPZ[OLYLMVYLWVZZPISL artifacts. The scabbards and handles of iron swords, bronze dag- If highly concentrated liquids of iron, copper or sulfur soak the gers and axes often contain small mineralized remains of wood. wood, minerals precipitate on cell walls and preserve their struc- Transverse and longitudinal breaks of particles clearly show the ture. Permineralization of archaeological artifacts 13.34 Wooden scabbard perminer- 13.35 Wooden scabbard perminer- 13.36 Microscopic structure of archae- 13.37 Microscopic structure of archae- alized by dissolved iron. Photo: W. alized by dissolved copper. Photo: ological Quercus sp. wood, perminer- ological Alnus sp. wood, permineral- Tegel. W. Tegel. alized by iron. Photo: W. Tegel. ized by sulfur. Photo: W. Tegel. 186 Ch 13. Fossilization, permineralization, coalization, carbonization and wet wood conservation ͙͛Ǥ͛Ƥ *VHSPÄJH[PVU PZ H ]LY` ZSV^ WYVJLZZ PU ^OPJO ^VVK PZ [YHUZ- Remnants of wood (xylite, lignite) with well-preserved structures formed into coal at geological time scales. The anaerobic decay are frequently found in brown coal layers (Eocene to Oligocene). VMVYNHUPJZ\IZ[HUJLZPZ[OLÄYZ[Z[HNLVMJVHSPÄJH[PVUZLL*OHW- .LULYHVYL]LUZWLJPLZJHUILPKLU[PÄLKHZSVUNHZ[OLLHYS`- ter 12.2). The ratio of carbon increases during anaerobic decay wood zones are not too much distorted (Dolezych 2005). processes, and the wood loses its stability. The process starts with soft wood, which under high pressure and high temperatures Tertiary wood is often so well preserved that even stages of cell turns into brown coal, IP[\TPUV\Z JVHS HUK ÄUHSS` anthracite. wall decay can be recognized. However, in most cases the early- (UPUJYLHZLPUJHYIVUJVU[LU[KLÄULZ[OLZLNYHKLZ·^VVKJVU- wood zones are compressed, and the corresponding ray features [HPUZ IYV^UJVHS HUKHU[OYHJP[L JHYIVU>OLU HYLKPMÄJ\S[[VVIZLY]L+VSLa`JO softened logs come under mechanical pressure by sediments or ice, the thin-walled earlywood cells collapse, and the stems get KLMVYTLK,HYS`Z[HNLZVMJVHSPÄJH[PVUHYLRUV^UMYVTZ[LTZPU medieval glacier deposits and late glacial clays (subfossil wood). Fossil tree stump Taxonomically and climatologically relevant features in cross sections of conifers 500 μm 500 μm 100 μm 13.38 Stumps from a brown coal 13.39 Conifer Taxodium taxodii cf. 13.40 Conifer Sciadopityoxylon wett- 13.41 Conifer Doliostroboxylon bed. Photo: Elbwestfale 2003, via without growth zones. Oligocene, steinii without resin ducts and dis- priscum with resin ducts. Eocene, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA approx. 34–23 million years ago. tinct earlywood and latewood zones. approx. 56–38 million years ago. 3.0. Material: M. Dolezych. Miocene, approx. 25–5 million years Material: M. Dolezych. ago. Material: M. Dolezych. Taxonomically relevant features in radial and tangential sections of conifers pit r r r pit r 50 μm 50 μm 50 μm 50 μm 250 μm 13.42 Conifer Larix decidua 13.43 Fenestrate vessel-ray 13.44 Small round pits 13.45 Large round pits in 13.46 Uniseriate rays with with biseriate tracheid pits. pits in the earlywood of in the latewood of Taxo- the early- and latewood of three to ten cells in Taxo- Interglacial period, Italian Sciado pity oxylon wettstei- dium gypsacum. Miocene, Do lio stro boxylon priscum. dium gypsacum. Miocene, Alps, >50,000 years ago. nii. Mio cene, approx. 25–5 approx.
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