Implications for Clean Water Act Implementation

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Los Angeles

Protecting and Restoring our Nation’s Waters: The Effects of Science, Law, and Policy on Clean Water Act Jurisdiction with a focus on the Arid West

A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree

Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering

Forrest Brown Vanderbilt

2013

Forrest Brown Vanderbilt

2013

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION

Protecting and Restoring our Nation’s Waters: The Effects of Science, Law, and Policy on Clean Water Act Jurisdiction with a focus on the Arid West

Forrest Brown Vanderbilt

Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering

University of California, Los Angeles, 2013

Professor Richard F. Ambrose, Chair

Since its initial passage in 1972, the Clean Water Act has attempted to restore and protect our

Nation’s waters. The definition of ‘our Nation’s waters’ has undergone periodic debate and scrutiny as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Supreme Court have defined and redefined the standards for determining CWA jurisdiction.

The Supreme Court’s most recent set of standards, including the “significant nexus” test, appear to both increase the uncertainty in what is regulated and increase the burden of proof for determining CWA jurisdiction. The Arid West was singled out in the most recent EPA and

Corps joint jurisdictional guidance as a problematic area. Focusing on the Arid West, my dissertation evaluates the CWA jurisdiction process from three perspectives: law, policy, and

ii science, and explores an understanding of the past, present, and potential future path of CWA jurisdiction.

I analyzed Corps jurisdictional determinations from their national database. The data showed that the Corps has reversed their trend of issuing the complex and often time intensive Approved

Determination to the expeditious Preliminary Determination that affords the same protection to an aquatic resource with reduced effort, and showed that the number of determinations disclaiming jurisdiction have returned historical levels. Also, the data showed that some local

Corps offices do not mirror the national trends. In exploring the current state of stream research, the data showed a parallel in the timing of the Supreme Court Cases and subsequent guidance to increases in the number of articles published. In addition, the data showed that research on Arid

West streams have focused on a smaller set of functions and services as compared to all potential stream functions. Using readily available tools and peer reviewed methods, I have proposed a delineation process that would bring transparency and consistency to the Approved JD process.

Data showed that these tools and methods produce meaningful results in an Arid West watershed. The current CWA jurisdictional guidance can still meet the primary objective of the

Act within the current policy framework and through the incorporation of existing tools into the determination process.

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The dissertation of Forrest Brown Vanderbilt is approved.

Ann E. Carlson

Terri S. Hogue

Philip W. Rundel

Richard F. Ambrose, Committee Chair

University of California, Los Angeles

2013

DEDICATION

I dedicate my dissertation to wife, Bethany, and my son, Malcolm.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ...... ii LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... xiv VITA ...... xv

Chapter 1 ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 CWA Jurisdiction and Rapanos v. United States ...... 1 Corps CWA jurisdictional implementation ...... 4 Literature Review and Scientific Tools for the JD process identified by Justice Kennedy .. 4 Objectives ...... 7 References ...... 9

Chapter 2 ...... 14 Past, Present, and Future of Clean Water Act policy, legal interpretation, and guidance on defining ‘waters of the United States’ ...... 14

Introduction ...... 14 Clean Water Act ...... 16 Clean Water Act Jurisdictional Regulation ...... 18 Supreme Court Rulings ...... 20 Discussion ...... 35 Tables ...... 38 References ...... 41 Appendix A – Summary of lower court decisions post-Rapanos ...... 47 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011 ...... 64 Appendix C – Bibliography and relevant section from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011 .... 103

Chapter 3 ...... 113 A Review of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Clean Water Act Jurisdictional Determinations post-SWANCC through post-Rapanos: Implications for Clean Water Act Implementation ...... 113

Introduction ...... 113

Data Sources and Methods ...... 119 Results and Discussion ...... 122 Corps HQ data ...... 122 Los Angeles and Portland Data ...... 123 Savannah and Jacksonville ...... 124 Charleston, Wilmington, and Baltimore ...... 126 Conclusion ...... 127 Tables ...... 130 Figures ...... 146 References ...... 161

Chapter 4 ...... 164 A review of published stream research, 1939-2010: Functions, Services, and Values, focusing on the Arid Southwest ...... 164

Introduction ...... 164 Bibliometric methods ...... 169 Methods and Data Sources ...... 170 Results and Discussion ...... 171 Characteristics of publications ...... 171 Distribution of Journals and Databases ...... 172 Distribution of search terms in article title, keywords, and abstract analysis ...... 173 Conclusions ...... 175 Tables ...... 178 Figures ...... 187 References ...... 190 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography ...... 196 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West ...... 837

Chapter 5 ...... 868 Improving the Clean Water Act Jurisdictional Determination Process Post- Rapanos: The integration of policy and the science for Arid West determinations ...... 868

Introduction ...... 868 Methods ...... 876 Study Location and Literature review ...... 876 vii

Reach Delineations and Determination Support ...... 878 Modeling parameters HEC-HMS 4.0 beta ...... 880 Analysis and Discussion...... 883 Conclusions ...... 886 Tables ...... 889 Figures ...... 895 References ...... 897 Appendix F - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Approved Jurisdictional Determination Form ...... 903 Appendix G- ERDC-CCREL-TR-08-12 Data Form ...... 910 Appendix H - Data Form for LaMotte AM-12 kit and Stream Discharge ...... 913

Chapter 6 ...... 914 The Future of CWA Jurisdiction and the USACE Delineation/Determination Process: Protecting All of Our Nation’s Waters ...... 914

Introduction ...... 914 Has the Corps met its obligations under the CWA to ‘restore and maintain … our Nations waters’? ...... 917 Have the Corps and EPA provided consistent, transparent, and reasonable guidance on CWA approved JD? ...... 918 Is there any assistance from non-government agencies to the Resource agencies in the determination process? ...... 920 Is the current guidance functional? ...... 921 References ...... 925

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LIST OF TABLES Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Overview of the post-Rapanos lower court decisions. Page 38

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Number and percent of Jurisdictional determinations by Page 130 type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012. Table 3.2 Number of Approved and Preliminary Jurisdictional Page 131 Determinations in the ORMv2 database versus District reported numbers. Table 3.3a Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 132 2003 to 2012 for SPL. Table 3.3b Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 133 2003 to 2012 for NWP. Table 3.4a Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 134 Jurisdictional Determinations in SPL. Table 3.4b Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 135 Jurisdictional Determinations in NWP Table 3.5a Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 136 2003 to 2012 for SAS. Table 3.5b Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 137 2003 to 2012 for SAJ. Table 3.6a Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 138 Jurisdictional Determinations in SAS. Table 3.6b Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 139 Jurisdictional Determinations in SAJ Table 3.7a Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 140 2003 to 2012 for SAC. Table 3.7b Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 141 2003 to 2012 for SAW. Table 3.7c Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year Page 142 2003 to 2012 for NAB. Table 3.8a Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 143 Jurisdictional Determinations in SAC. Table 3.8b Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 144 Jurisdictional Determinations in SAW Table 3.8c Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Page 145 Jurisdictional Determinations in NAB

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Selection of Articles and Books on Stream Functions Page 178 and Services.

Table 4.2 Research database list and source material for scientific Page 179 peer reviewed literature search. Table 4.3 Distributions of the subject categories for top 25 Page 180 journals. Table 4.4 The top 25 most active journals with the number of Page 181 articles, impact factor, ISI subject category of journals, and the position of the journal in its category in 2010. Table 4.5 Summary of the database and it contribution to the total Page 183 number of articles and the percentage of its articles represented. Table 4.6 The number and percentage of identified first and Page 184 second tier search terms for the entire set of articles. . Table 4.7 The number and percentage of identified Page 185 functions/services/values for the subset of Arid West articles. Table 4.8 The top 5 most active journals with the number of Arid Page 186 West articles, impact factor, ISI subject category of journals, and the position of the journal in its category in 2010.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Storm dates for HEC-HMS model calibration Page 889 Table 5.2 Information collected on substrate and biological Page 890 characteristics from the Arid West procedures. Table 5.3 Field measured metrics for the five study sites. Page 891 Table 5.4 HEC-HMS input parameter summary (Sub-basin and Page 892 Reach). Table 5.5 HEC-HMS summary information for Wet and Dry Page 894 season runs.

LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 USACE Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Page 146 Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-2012. Figure 3.2a SPL Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 147 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.2b NWP Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 148 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.3a SPL Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 149 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.3b NWP Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 150 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.4a SAS Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 151 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.4b SAJ Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 152 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.5a SAS Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 153 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.5b SAJ Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 154 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.6a SAC Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 155 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.6b SAW Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 156 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.6c NAB Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Page 157 Years 2003-2012. Figure 3.7a SAC Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 158 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.7b SAW Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 159 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012. Figure 3.7c NAB Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type Page 160 and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003- 2012.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Example of database search using 2 parameters paired Page 187 with focused search of third parameter: “First Order” + “Services” +”Sediment Transport, Storage, and Deposition”. Figure 4.2 Number of unique articles from 1939-2010. Page 188 Figure 4.3 Number of unique Arid West articles from 1948-2010. Page 189

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Map of the five study sites within Devil Canyon. Page 895 Figure 5.2 Example summary report of sub-basin 7 from Page 896 NHDPlus.

xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS ANPRM Advanced Notice of Proposed Rule Making CWA Clean Water Act (Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972) EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Fed.Reg. Federal Register GAO Government Accountability Office HEC Hydrologic Engineering Center HEC-HMS Hydrologic Engineering Center – Hydrologic Modeling System H.R. House Resolution HQ Headquarters JD Jurisdictional Determination NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service OHWM Ordinary High Water Mark ORM OMBIL Regulatory Module RAMS Regulatory Analysis and Management System RGL Regulatory Guidance Letter S Senate Bill SC Supreme Court SWANCC Solid Waste Agency of North Cook County TNW Traditional Navigable Water USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S.C. United States Code USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture USGS U.S. Geologic Survey

xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is my pleasure to acknowledge and thank Dr. Rich Ambrose for his wisdom, patience, and support during my many years at UCLA. I would also like to thanks my committee members who have shown invaluable adaptability and knowledge. Many thanks goes to Professor Ann

Carlson, who gave me great insight into our environmental laws and policies, Dr. Terri Hogue, who expanded my environmental engineering skills, and Dr. Philip Rundel, who showed me the unique ecosystems of Southern California, all in helping me to improve my dissertation. I am grateful for the amazing group of people at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Los Angeles,

Savannah, and DC Offices: David Castanon, Aaron Allen, Jae Chung, Dan Swenson, Matthew

Vandersande, Tiffany Troxel, Elizabeth Moriarty, Kelly Finch, Kim Garvey, Mark Sudol, Stan

Walker, Karen Mulligen, and the great staffs with which I have worked. I also want to thanks those who helped me in the field: Curtis Green and the California Department of Water and

Power staff at the Devil Canyon facility, and my talented field crew of Shanti Santulli, Amir

Morales, and Melanie Stalder. There are also folks who helped me on specific sections of the paper: Kristen Johnson, Jennifer Downs, Alicia Kinoshita, Matt McClerren, and William

Scharffenberg. To my UCLA family and especially Myrna Gordon, thanks for looking out for me. I want to thank my parents, Doug and Sharon, for providing me and my family with love and support during this time and my brother, Douglas, for always begin the best big brother anyone could ever ask for. Finally, to my wife Bethany, thank you for being by my side this entire journey. You have given me such love and understanding, shown me so much patience, and always supported me. I really couldn’t have done this without you and Malcolm.

xiv

VITA 1978 Born, Alexandria ,Louisiana

2000 Bachelor of Arts, Environmental Studies Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri

2002 Master of Science, Environmental Science University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, Tennessee

2005-2006 Graduate Student Researcher UCLA ESE Program University of California, Los Angeles

2006-Present Project Manager/Regulatory Specialist Regulatory Division United States Army Corps of Engineers

Chapter 1

Introduction This dissertation addresses the problem of determination jurisdiction associated with the

Clean Water Act (CWA). To frame the scope of the problem, I will discuss the current CWA

Jurisdictional Determination (JD) process, the Rapanos Supreme Court decision, and the Corps

implementation of that process. Then, I will describe current scientific methods for analyzing

existing research literature and for conducting field studies on streams. Finally, I will describe

my research objectives and each of the four studies that comprised my dissertation research.

CWA Jurisdiction and Rapanos v. United States

The CWA, initially signed into law in 1972, was and is today a pivotal piece of

legislation to combat water pollution of our ‘Nation’s waters’ at the Federal level (33 U.S.C. §

1251 et seq). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has final determination on

Section 404 CWA jurisdiction, but the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was identified as the day- to-day executor (Civiletti 1979). Section 404 of the CWA regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into ‘waters of the United States.’ Therefore, the Corps was charged with identifying the reach of the CWA by performing JDs. JDs are the keystone of the CWA because they identify what waters and wetlands will be under the purview of the Act. JDs have far reaching effects on programs administered by not only the Corps under Section 404 but also by the EPA and, if delegated to the states, Sections 401 and 402. For example, if a wetland is not determined to be jurisdictional then it is not afforded oversight specified by the different sections of the CWA and could be filled or impacted. These JDs were further explained in the Corps’ 1

1986 regulations (51 Fed.Reg. 41206, 41217), which laid the foundation for the CWA Section

404 program (33 U.S.C. § 1344), provided information on the types of JDs that could be conducted and identified the statutory authority that the Corps possesses to make such determinations.

The Supreme Court decision commonly referred to as Rapanos v. United States is actually a consolidated case of two similarly natured challenges. The first case concerned Mr.

John Rapanos, who had areas delineated as wetlands on his property. He was informed that those wetlands were regulated under the CWA, and a permit would be required to discharge fill material into those wetlands. He filled those wetlands on his property and a CWA enforcement action was brought against him. The pivotal question was: what is the jurisdictional status of wetlands having a surface hydrologic connection to a man-made ditch that drains into traditional navigable waters? In the second case, Ms. June Carabell and others owned property and submitted a CWA permit application to fill wetlands. The permit was denied and subsequently appealed. After exhausting all non-litigative procedures, the Carabells brought suit against the

Government. The pivotal question here was: what is the jurisdictional status of “adjacent” wetlands that are separated by a man-made berm from a tributary (i.e., a man-made ditch) that drains into traditional navigable waters?

The Supreme Court issued its 4-1-4 split decision in 2006 and remanded the case back to the lower courts. The three opinions spanned from stating that only waters that are "permanent, standing or continuously flowing" would be ‘waters of the US’ to stating that the existing regulatory standard is acceptable. The third decision, written by Justice Anthony M. Kennedy, called for a "significant nexus" test to be developed by the regulating agencies to claim

2 jurisdiction under the CWA. Kennedy’s “significant nexus” test would require a "case-by-case" review of a water’s physical, biological, and chemical effect on a downstream traditionally navigable water (TNW).

In response to the decision the EPA and Corps implemented joint guidance titled “CWA

Jurisdiction Following the US Supreme Court’s Decision in Rapanos v. United States and

Carabell v. United States” dated June 5, 2007 (EPA/USACE 2007), subsequently updated

December 2, 2008 (EPA/USACE 2008). The Corps also issued Regulatory Guidance Letter

(RGL) 07-01, which contained additional information as to the current standard operating procedures concerning federal jurisdiction under the Corps CWA regulations (2007).

In the post-Rapanos regulatory environment only some waters of the United States are able to be regulated or considered jurisdictional under the CWA. From the Corps and EPA joint

2008 memorandum (EPA/USACE 2008), the agencies will assert jurisdiction over those permanently flowing waters and their abutting wetlands; decide jurisdiction over those water that don’t have permanent flow and a subset of adjacent wetlands based on a fact-specific analysis

(significant nexus) with a TNW; and generally not assert jurisdiction over erosional features and a subset of ditches.

The joint memorandum also provides the information on the significant nexus test discussed by Justice Kennedy in his opinion. Information pertaining to a water’s hydrologic and ecologic factors, such as frequency and duration of flow and the presence of aquatic species protected under the Endangered Species Act, would be evaluated. Lastly, the guidance provides an exception for “certain ephemeral waters in the arid west”. It states that these types of features

3 should be distinguishable from those features generally not regulated because they should have a significant nexus to TNW.

Corps CWA jurisdictional implementation

The Corps issues two types of JDs, Approved and Preliminary. Prior to the Rapanos decision, the Corps predominantly issued Approved JDs. However, the increasing complexity of that type of determination, as further explained in the Corps JD Guidebook (2007b) and

Approved JD form from RGL 07-01 (2007a), may have contributed to an increase in the number of Preliminary JDs being issued. By 2012, the Corps saw a complete reversal in the type of JDs issued at the national level. As a result of two Government Accountability Office studies that documented inconsistencies in the Corps documentation and determination processes, all of the

Corps actions are now documented in a national database system that was implemented in 2007

(2004; 2005). This new database system allows for increased oversight and accountability of the

Corps decisions.

Literature Review and Scientific Tools for the JD process identified by

Justice Kennedy

Justice Kennedy in his Rapanos opinion introduced a new regulatory process to identify what waters and wetlands would be jurisdictional under the CWA. He described a process by which an aquatic feature’s biological, chemical, and physical functions and services would be evaluated. Before the regulatory agencies could evaluate these functions and services an assessment of what potential functions and services exist and methods used for their identification should be undertaken. A comprehensive literature review can be used to assess what exists within the scope scientific literature. Literature reviews have been limited in the past 4 due to the lack of digital archives. With the advent of on-line digital databases, reviews of historical or available literature have been vastly improved to include larger time spans and more diverse pool of sources. A cursory bibliometric search in the field of aquatic research reveals ten

(10) overview articles of stream functions and services since 2005, none of which were funded or tied to government agencies (Butcher and Jeffrey 2005; Gattuso et al. 2005; Fourqurean et al.

2008; Ho 2008; Hu et al 2010; Wang et al. 2010; Zhang et al 2010; Wang et al. 2011; Yi and Jie

2011). A bibliometirc approach allows for a targeted focus on a set of functions and services identified from current stream research. A clear set of the potential functions and services a stream may contain can help target those areas to study when implementing Justice Kennedy’s significant nexus analysis. In addition the approach would allow for geographical variations to be identified from a much larger volume of literature that might otherwise be missed.

In comparison, a traditional search of aquatic research focusing on an overview of general stream functions and services over the last ten years reveals seven articles with five being published in conjunction with or by the EPA (Alexander et al. 2007; Freeman et al. 2007;

Meyer et al. 2007; Wipfli et al. 2007; and Levick et al. 2008). The other two articles were not tied to a U.S. government agency (Gomi et al. 2002; Lowe and Likens 2005). In reviewing the five EPA supported articles, all reference that certain categories of streams have a significant nexus as described by Justice Kennedy. However, none of the articles explicitly discuss the methods for identifying that significant nexus or the potential for different functions and services to exist in the different geographical regions of the United States. The Corps has understood that different physiographic regions of the country may affect how a resource is identified (Wakeley

2002). They created supplemental manuals to their 1987 Wetland Delineation Manual to assist the field offices in identifying the different types of wetlands within 10 regions of the U.S. 5

(USACE 1987). Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that other aquatic features may function and appear differently depending upon where they are located, not only regionally, but also within the landscape. However, currently, the Corps only has one supplemental manual for stream identification (Lichvar and McColley 2008). This manual does not include information about the functions and services of a stream and only applies to one region (the Arid West) of the ten referenced above.

The CWA JD process has become more difficult in the post-Rapanos environment.

Another step to address the issues is finding and applying tools to the determination process.

These tools need to be readily available, peer reviewed, and accepted by the scientific community. This would allow for robust determinations that take less time, reduce the uncertainty of the determination, create consistency, and, if an appeal or subsequent legal challenge of the JD occurs, allow the Corps to defend its determination. Within the Corps there are two organizations, the Institute for Water Resources and Engineer Research and

Development Center, whose missions are to provide support challenges in water resources and trends. These organizations, while they are within the Corps, do not directly oversee the CWA

Regulatory program. These organizations have provided support in the form of hydrology and hydraulics modeling, field data gathering methods for wetland and stream identification, and developed guidebooks on quantifying the functions and services of a wetland. However, not all of these methods are implemented by the Corps Regulatory office. Likewise, EPA in coordination with the USGS have developed a geospatial tool that, with the addition of a readily available testing kit, could be used to provide scientific support to the approved JD form and the procedures as outlined in RGL 07-01. However, these methods are not approved or directed for

6 use by the Corps Regulatory program, despite the fact that they have gone through testing and academic review.

Objectives

The four objectives of this dissertation are:

• To provide insight into the future direction of CWA jurisdiction

Since the passing of the CWA in 1972 and subsequent issuance of the implementing regulations by the Corps and EPA, CWA jurisdiction has been dynamic. Past judicial cases and the resulting guidance, clarification guidance on regulations, and regional interpretation have all shaped the current state of jurisdiction. I attempt to assimilate past and present practices of jurisdiction and discuss the most recent draft guidance set forth by Corps and EPA in order to predict where potential problems may arise and suggest solutions to those problems.

• To analyze trends in current CWA jurisdictional practices

The Corps Regulatory program is the only regulatory agency with a national database used to track final agency actions. I will use this database (ORM) to understand the trend in JD issuance at the national and district level. This will allow me to qualify the effects of the

Rapanos Supreme Court case and the subsequent jurisdictional guidance on JDs. JDs are the key to unlocking the oversight of the CWA through permitting, compliance, enforcement, and mitigation.

• To illuminate the current range of research on a stream’s functions and services

with a focus on the Arid West region of the United States

Justice Kennedy’s significant nexus test from the Rapanos Supreme Court case saw the regulatory agencies attempting to quantify an aquatic resource’s functions and services. While the current jurisdictional guidance document provides a limited set of functions and services to evaluate, a thorough list of a stream’s potential functions and services would facilitate the JD process by addressing all effects on the downstream TNW. The applicability of this dissertation is for all geographical areas covered by the CWA; the Arid West was chosen as a focus area for several reasons. This area was singled out in the current EPA/Corps jurisdictional guidance

(2008), and this area of the county is projected to see huge economic growth that would potentially require CWA oversight.

• To propose a transparent and consistent CWA jurisdictional process.

Two Government Accountability Office (GAO) reports indicated that the Corps JD process lacked consistency and transparency (2004; 2005). The Corps attempted to address these concerns by creating a standardized form and requiring districts to post final decisions on their website, but no guidance was issued for the process behind those decisions. Therefore, I researched and implemented current methods developed by the Corps and EPA that are not part of the standard process for identifying CWA jurisdiction, but that could provide consistent and transparent implementation of CWA jurisdictional guidance.

Within the six chapter of the dissertation, I draw from law and policy generated from the

CWA, the Corps Regulatory Database (ORM), a bibliometric analysis, and existing scientific

8 practices. Chapter 1 (this chapter) presents the issues addressed in the subsequent chapters.

Chapter 2 consists of a review of the past, present, and future law and policy decisions and guidance that has impacted CWA jurisdiction. Chapter 3 presents analyses of Corps national and local district CWA jurisdictional decisions in light of the Supreme Court Rapanos and other lower court rulings. Chapter 4 identifies stream functions, services, and values with a focus on the Arid West of the United States for use in the Kennedy’s significant nexus analysis of the

Approved JD process. Chapter 5 evaluates existing vetted scientific methods that would provide a more consistent and transparent approach to the Approved JD process. Although the field work identified in chapter 5 occurred in the Arid West, these methods could be applied to all areas of the United States. Finally, chapter 6 concludes with a discussion of the effectiveness of the current CWA jurisdictional guidance in both its implementation and applicability, as well as a recommended path forward for the regulatory community to continue to be successful in meeting the objective of the CWA to “to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s water.”

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Headwater Channels. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43, DOI:

DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00007.x

Yi H, Jie W (2011) A bibliometric study of the trend in articles related to eutrophication

published in Science Citation Index. Scientometrics 89(3):919-927

Zhang L, Wang MH, Hu J, Ho YS (2010) A review of published wetland research, 1991–2008:

Ecological engineering and ecosystem restoration. Ecological Engineering 36(8):973-980

Chapter 2

Past, Present, and Future of Clean Water Act policy, legal interpretation, and guidance on defining ‘waters of the United States’

Introduction

The Clean Water Act (CWA), initially signed into law in 1972, was and is today a pivotal

piece of legislation to combat water pollution at the Federal level of our ‘Nation’s waters’. In its

early years, the scope of what should be defined as ‘‘waters of the US’’ was debated by the

agencies responsible for implementing the act, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the US

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and in the judicial system. Eventually the exploration

of the outer limits of CWA jurisdiction was explored with the 2001 Solid Waste Agency vs. US

Army Corps of Engineers (SWANCC)(531 US 159) and the 2006 Rapanos vs. United States (547

US 715) Supreme Court Cases. These legal challenges to the scope of water protected under the

CWA appear to have increased the gaps or uncertainty in federal protection, and the subsequent policy decisions have attempted to provide greater flexibility to the regulators charged within overseeing the CWA; reduce the uncertainty; and ease the burden of proof on determining a water’s jurisdictional status. Federal agencies have several options to close the gaps and decrease the uncertainty by undergoing rule making, issuing joint guidance, or for the Corps issuing Regulatory Guidance Letters (RGL). As neither agency has been successful in completing the rulemaking process, they have issued joint guidance documents to help assist employees make CWA jurisdictional decisions.

In this chapter, explore the history of the CWA; pivotal Supreme Court and lower Court

CWA Jurisdictional decisions; the Agencies’ reactions to such decisions; and the ramifications on CWA jurisdiction. The goal of the review is to determine if clear national guiding principles for determining what waters are jurisdictional under the CWA were developed in the years post-

Rapanos. Specifically, I review the current Corps driven guidance document; the lower court decisions that have attempted to incorporate the opinions of the Supreme Court with the current

CWA jurisdictional guidance document; and summarize key points of the EPA’s proposed guidance document. I will evaluate my goal by determining if the current guidance provides flexibility to the field; reduces the uncertainty of jurisdiction; and eases the burden of proof on determining a water’s jurisdictional status. To date, there has not been a peer reviewed discussion of the current guidance document published jointly by the Corps and EPA in 2007 and 2008 (EPA/USACE 2007; 2008). Those guidance documents have only been discussed in the lower courts. EPA in February of 2007 published a series of sponsored articles in the Journal of American Water Resources Association (Volume 43, Issue 1) to discuss their current state of science in light of the Rapanos decision, but avoided a discussion on the guidance documents as it was initially released in May of 2007. A comprehensive assessment of the current peer- reviewed scientific literature, discussed later in this dissertation (4th Chapter), has not been compared to the current or proposed guidance documents, which would be necessary to understand the complexity of determining CWA jurisdiction post-Rapanos.

Clean Water Act

Section 13 of the Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA) of 1899 was the initial federal statute

responsible for preventing discharges into navigable waters of the United States, but a growing

social movement began gaining traction in the 1960s (33 USC § 401 et seq.). In 1972, the

Federal Water Pollution Control Act was enacted to “… restore and maintain the chemical,

physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters” (33 USC § 101[a]). In 1975, the

District Court for the District of Columbia heard Natural Resource Defense Council vs. Howard

H. Callaway, the Secretary of the Army (392 F. Supp. 685). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

had issued a permit for dredging in the Thames River for a new submarine base. The Court held

that Congress intended Federal Water Pollution Control Act jurisdiction to extend ”… to the

maximum extent permissible under the Commerce Clause of the Constitution.” The Court also

ordered the Corps to publish new regulations clearly defining “the waters of the United States,”

which would now include wetlands adjacent to navigable waters and tributaries to navigable

waters (Natural Resources Defense Council v. Calloway. 1975. 392 F. Supp. 685). In response

to that decision, by 1977 Congress passed several amendments (404(e-l) and 404(q)) and the

Corps released new regulations confirming the expansion of jurisdiction found in NRDC v

Calloway and the more familiar name of the Clean Water Act appeared. This more encompassing statute still retained Section 101(a), “The objective of this Act is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters …” and identified two national goals and five national policies through which this objective would be met. This section of the statute was still the only location that the term “Nation’s waters” was used and the act failed to define the “Nation’s waters”. The term “navigable” replaced the term

“Nation’s” throughout the rest of the act (CWA 1972). The act defined “navigable waters” at

16 section 502(7) as “the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.” In addition, the

Act authorized a number of activities in its six sections, including research and related programs such as pollution control in the Great Lakes, grants for construction of publicly owned treatment works and to States for water pollution control, standards for point and nonpoint source pollutants and enforcement for effluent standards, and permits and licenses for ocean discharge of dredged sediments as well as permits for dredged or fill material. In addition, the CWA sets forth the procedure for citizen suits and judicial review.

The CWA gives primary control of overseeing the act to the Administrator of the

Environmental Protection Agency (Administrator) (section 101(d)) to ensure that the national goal of eliminating the discharge of pollutants into navigable water is met. The act also provides that authority through Section 404 to the Secretary of the Army (Secretary), acting through the

Chief of Engineers, to issue permits for the discharge of dredged or fill material into navigable waters (33 USC 26 § 1344). The Secretary had previously been authorized by Congress in the

Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 to issue permits that affect the “navigable capacity of any of the waters of the United States” (33 USC 9 § 403). In a previous section of the CWA the Secretary is charged to perform a study in “all navigable waters, connecting channels, tributary streams, other waters of the United States and waters contiguous to the United States…” (33 USC 26 §

1293 (i)). This provides an interesting preview into the scope of federal jurisdiction as to how navigation is to be used for interpretation of this Statute. Since the Act failed to identify which federal agency was responsible for establishing geographic jurisdiction and making exemption determinations found at Section 404(f), Attorney General Civiletti in 1979 determined that the

EPA has final determination on Section 404 CWA geographic scope and exemptions, but the

Corps would be the day-to-day executor (Civiletti 1979). 17

Clean Water Act Jurisdictional Regulation

As authorized by the CWA, the Corps at 33 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) § 328.3 and EPA at 40 CFR § 230.3 codified their regulations defining ‘waters of the US’ as the following:

(1) All waters which are currently used, or were used in the past, or may be susceptible to use in

interstate or foreign commerce, including all waters which are subject to the ebb and flow of

the tide;

(2) All interstate waters including interstate wetlands;

(3) All other waters such as intrastate lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent streams),

mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa lakes, or natural

ponds, the use, degradation or destruction of which could affect interstate or foreign commerce

including any such waters:

(i) Which are or could be used by interstate or foreign travelers for recreational or other

purposes; or

(ii) From which fish or shellfish are or could be taken and sold in interstate or foreign

commerce; or

(iii) Which are used or could be used for industrial purpose by industries in interstate

commerce.

(4) All impoundments of waters otherwise defined as waters of the United States under the

definition;

(5) Tributaries of waters identified in paragraphs (a) (1) through (4) of this section;

(6) The territorial seas;

(7) Wetlands adjacent to waters (other than waters that are themselves wetlands) identified in

paragraphs (a) (1) through (6) of this section.

(8) Waters of the United States do not include prior converted cropland. Notwithstanding the

determination of an area's status as prior converted cropland by any other Federal agency, for

the purposes of the Clean Water Act, the final authority regarding Clean Water Act

jurisdiction remains with EPA.

These regulations were initially promulgated in December 1980 by the EPA and

November 1986 by the Corps. They clearly illustrate the idea that ‘Nation’s waters’ and thus

‘navigable waters’ are ultimately inclusive of ‘waters of the US’.

The Corps further defined the lateral limits of non-tidal ‘waters of the US’ at 33 CFR

328.3(e) as the Ordinary High Water Mark (OHWM). This lateral limit of jurisdiction is extended in the presence of adjacent wetlands. The OHWM is defined as “…that line on the shore established by the fluctuations of water and indicated by physical characteristics such as a clear, natural line impressed on the bank, shelving, changes in the character of soil, destruction of terrestrial vegetation, the presence of litter and debris, or other appropriate means that consider the characteristics of the surrounding areas” (33 CFR 328.3[e]). In tidal waters, the shoreward extent of ‘waters of the US’ is defined at 33 CFR 328.3(d) as the High Tide Line

(HTL). This limit of jurisdiction is also extended in the presence of adjacent wetlands. The

HTL is defined as “…the line of intersection of the land with the water’s surface at the maximum height reached by a rising tide. The high tide line may be determined, in the absence of actual data, by a line of oil or scum along shore objects, a more or less continuous deposit of fine shell or debris on the foreshore or berm, other physical markings or characteristics, vegetation lines,

19 tidal gages, or other suitable means that delineate the general height reached by a rising tide.

The line encompasses spring high tides and other high tides that occur with periodic frequency but does not include storm surges in which there is a departure from the normal or predicted reach of the tide due to the piling up of water against a coast by strong winds such as those accompanying a hurricane or other intense storm” (33 CFR 328.3[d]).

As previously noted, the Corps has been given authority under the RHA to permit work that affects navigability of a ‘water of the US’ and explicitly defines those waters as ”waters that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide and/or are presently used, or have been used in the past, or may be susceptible for use to transport interstate or foreign commerce” (33 CFR 329).

The Corps has been given authority to define ‘waters of the US’ and ‘navigable waters’ through two distinct statutes, and as noted in the regulations there is some overlap between navigable waters and ‘waters of the US’. However, it is clear from the regulations that Corps intended for jurisdiction to extend beyond those ‘navigable waters’ and to encompass a broad spectrum of waters that directly or indirectly flow into navigable waters. For example, the Corps claimed jurisdiction over wetlands that were adjacent to an identified ‘navigable water’ under 33 CFR

328.3(a)(7), but the wetlands themselves weren’t navigable. This Corps final agency action led to the first of three pivotal Supreme Court rulings.

Supreme Court Rulings

There have been three pivotal Supreme Court Cases deciding CWA jurisdiction or rather providing clarification to 33 CFR 328.3: United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. (1985.

474 US 121), Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. United States Army Corps of

Engineers. (2001. 531 US 159), and Rapanos v. United. (2006. 547 US 715. These decisions

were pivotal because they resulted in either an expansion or restriction of federal jurisdiction or

additional complexity to the determination process. After each decision the agencies responsible

for jurisdiction, the EPA and Corps, made major changes to the determination process. The

jurisdictional determination process is authorized by 33 CFR 325.9 giving the District Engineer

the authority to determine the area defined by the terms ‘navigable waters of the US’ and ‘waters

of the US’ as identified above.

United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc.

A development company owned land outside of Detroit, Michigan, adjacent to Black

Creek. The developer had been previously informed that a 404 permit would be required to discharge fill material onto the land. Using the Corps regulations, the land in question was identified as a freshwater wetland adjacent to a navigable water. The developer began work on the property and the Corps issued a cease and desist order, but work continued. At that point the

Corps asked the United States Attorney to bring an enforcement action against Riverside

Bayview Homes, Inc. (United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. 1985). Eventually the case was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court. Their decision upheld the interpretation of the

Corps’ regulation such that the following definitions of ‘‘waters of the US’’ are not arbitrary and capricious (33 CFR 328.3[a]) (Note: 33 CFR 328.3[a][3] waters were not under review in this court case):

"(1) All waters which are currently used, or were used in the past, or may be susceptible to

use in interstate or foreign commerce, including all waters which are subject to the ebb and flow

of the tide";

"(2) All interstate waters including interstate wetlands";

“(3) see note above

"(4) All impoundments of waters otherwise defined as waters of the United States under the

definition [except subsection (a)(3) waters]”;

"(5) Tributaries to waters identified in paragraphs (a)(1)[, (2), and] (4) of this section";

"(6) The territorial seas"; and

"(7) Wetlands adjacent to waters (other than waters which are themselves wetlands) identified

in paragraphs (a)(1)[(2), (4), (5), and] (6) of this section".

In response to the Supreme Court’s ruling, the Corps and EPA amended their regulations.

In the amendments the agencies provided additional clarifying guidance on which waters are considered jurisdictional waters in what was known as the "Migratory Bird Rule". This rule, adopted in the preamble to the 1986 Corps regulations (51 Fed.Reg. 41206, 41217)and 1988

EPA regulations (53 Fed.Reg 20764, 20765), came from a 1985 EPA General Counsel memo.

The memo stated that waters of the United States at 33 CFR 328.3(a)(3) would also include the

following waters: waters that are habitat for birds protected under the Migratory Bird Treaties;

waters that are habitat for supporting migratory birds crossing state boundaries; waters that are

habitat for Endangered Species; and waters that are used for irrigation of Crops sold interstate 22 because a link to interstate commerce could be established. This rule was never promulgated as such in accordance with Section 553 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 USC § 500 et seq.) and was never tested by the public notice and comment procedures. Nevertheless, this guidance rule was used to make CWA jurisdictional determinations by both the Corps and EPA after the case.

Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

A consortium of Chicago-area municipalities applied for a 404 permit to discharge fill material into abandoned gravel pits that had naturalized into ponds. The Corps, on the basis of the ponds and their use by migratory birds (The “Migratory Bird Rule” discussed above), asserted jurisdiction under section 404 and denied a permit. It was well documented that blue herons, a bird that migrates over state lines, used the aquatic features as habitat. However, the

Supreme Court ruled that the CWA implied some connection to navigability (531 US 159).

Since the ponds weren’t navigable themselves, connected in some way to a navigable water, or found to have a nexus to foreign or interstate commerce, a requirement under the regulation at

33 CFR 328.3(a)(3)(i-iii), jurisdiction could not be extended to those aquatic features. In addition, the Court stated that their ruling did not invalidate the agencies’ existing regulations.

Immediately following the ruling, the Corps and EPA Counsel issued guidance

(EPA/USACE 2001) that stated all interstate waters, and all tributaries to such waters, and adjacent waters are still clearly regulated, but basing jurisdiction of isolated intrastate non- navigable waters solely on use by migratory birds is not supported by the regulations. The ruling

23 had implications for all CWA programs because of the shared regulations concerning jurisdiction under the CWA.

In January of 2003 in response to the Supreme Court’s decision, the Corps solicited public comments on issues surrounding CWA jurisdiction as part of an Advanced Notice of

Proposed Rule Making (ANPRM). The notice generated approximately 130,000 comments, with a majority of them opposing rulemaking. In December of 2003, the Corps announced it would discontinue the rulemaking process. In response to SWANCC and the ANPRM, two

Representatives, Congressman Doug Ose, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Energy Policy,

Natural Resources and Regulatory Affairs, and Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, Ranking Minority

Member of the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, requested the

Government Accountability Office (GAO) to conduct studies on CWA Post-SWANCC implementation procedures (GAO 2004; 2005).

Congressman Ose’s request concerned the consistency of asserting CWA jurisdiction, and GAO reported that the Corps jurisdictional practices were inconsistent and lacked sufficient documentation. They recommended that the Corps require more documentation on a district’s decision, survey all districts’ jurisdictional determination practices, and evaluate whether differences are present and if so how to resolved those differences to ensure consistency. The

Corps responded to GAO’s 2004 report by partially concurring with the findings and agreeing to conduct the survey and began to develop a plan to provide guidance to the Districts on jurisdictional determination practices. The Corps surveyed all 38 Districts qualitatively in May of 2004 identifying District’s jurisdictional determination procedures, examining district level case studies, and identifying rulings in litigation cases. The results of the initial survey prompted

the Corps to survey the Districts a second time. This second survey was intended to define the

nature and extent of the regional variation for tributaries, connections, and adjacency by defining

and identifying District jurisdictional practices and reviewing their legal applications. Since the

second survey was not intended to provide guidance or replace existing regulations, the Corps

identified the collected information of over 3800 pages as a data inventory tool. Thus, the 2

documents generated from the second survey, “Draft Technical Findings on CWA jurisdiction”

and “Technical Manual on CWA jurisdiction” (GAO 2004) are not releasable or covered under

the Freedom of Information Act.

The 2004 GAO study prompted by Congressman Ose was then followed by Senator

Lieberman’s 2005 request for the GAO to examine the consistency of the Corps non-

jurisdictional determinations. The 2005 GAO study mapped and identified data collection

efforts to support the Jurisdictional Determination process, summarized actions taken under 33

CFR 328.3(a)(3), and reviewed data collection efforts taken to comprehensively characterize the

aquatic resource losses associated with SWANCC. The GAO report documented that the Corps

does not adequately document non-jurisdictional determinations, District offices did not have the

required EPA and Corps HQ guidance for making jurisdictional determinations decisions over

(a)(3) waters, and EPA and Corps are unable to accurately quantify the impact on wetlands due

to the SWANCC decision. The report recommended that EPA and Corps finalize guidance

establishing a process for HQ approval of jurisdictional determination calls based solely on

(a)(3), and that Corps require detailed rationales for non-jurisdictional determination decisions.

Unfortunately, none of these recommendations were completed due to the Rapanos Supreme

Court case (GAO 2005). What did arise from the reports were the creation of standardized

jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional determination forms, and the requirement for districts to post final actions on each District’s webpage (33 CFR 325.2[a][8]).

Consolidated Rapanos and Carabell v. United States

Mr. John Rapanos had areas delineated as wetlands on his property near Midland,

Michigan in 1988. He was informed that those wetlands were regulated, and a permit would be

required to discharge fill material into those wetlands. Mr. Rapanos began to fill wetlands on his

property without a permit from the Corps, and continued to fill the delineated wetlands on his

property after EPA issued a cease and desist order. EPA began enforcement procedures and

pursued civil penalties against Mr. Rapanos under the CWA. In question was the jurisdictional

status of wetlands having a surface hydrologic connection to a man-made ditch that drains into

traditional navigable waters.

Ms. June Carabell and others owned property in Macomb County, Michigan that was part

of historic Lake St. Clair. In preparation for building a housing development, the Carabells

submitted an application to the Corps Detroit District. The permit was denied in 2000 based on a

review of the public interest factors under National Environmental Policy Act. That denial was

appealed though the Corps’ administrative appeal process and upheld. At that point, the

Carabells filed suit in district court. In question was the jurisdictional status of “adjacent”

wetlands that are separated by a man-made berm from a tributary (i.e., a man-made ditch) that

drains into traditional navigable waters.

The two cases of similar nature were consolidated and heard by the Supreme Court in

2006 (547 US 715). The Court issued its 4-1-4 split decision on June 19, 2006 to remand the case back to the lower courts. In a plurality opinion, written by Justice Scalia and joined by

Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Alito and Thomas, only waters that are "permanent, standing or continuously flowing." would be ‘waters of the US’ Justice Anthony M. Kennedy’s opinion, citing that the plurality opinion is "inconsistent with the Act's text, structure and purpose" called for a "significant nexus" test to be developed by the regulating agencies. Kennedy’s “significant nexus” test would require a "case-by-case" review for claiming jurisdiction on "wetlands based

on adjacency to non-navigable tributaries." The dissent, written by Justice Stevens and joined by

Justices Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer, upheld the lower courts' decisions that the Corps and EPA

had appropriately applied the regulations concerning what is a water of the U.S.

In response to the Rapanos Supreme Court decision, the two federal implementing

agencies, EPA and Corps, implemented joint guidance titled “US Army Corps of Engineers

Jurisdictional Determination Form Instructional Guidebook” dated May, 30 2007 (USACE

2007) and memorandum titled “CWA Jurisdiction Following the US Supreme Court’s Decision

in Rapanos v. United States and Carabell v. United States” dated June 5, 2007 (EPA/USACE

2007), subsequently updated December 2, 2008 (EPA/USACE 2008). These guidance

documents provide information as to the current standard operating procedures concerning

federal jurisdiction under the Corps CWA regulations (33 CFR 328.3[a]). In addition, there are

referenced (RGLs), Memorandum of understanding/agreement, and Field memos that provide

guidance on federal jurisdiction.

In the Post-Rapanos regulatory environment only some waters of the United States are able to be regulated or considered jurisdictional under the CWA. From the Corps and EPA joint memorandum on CWA jurisdiction dated December 2, 2008 (EPA/USACE 2008), the agencies will assert jurisdiction over the following waters:

a. Traditional navigable waters (TNWs);

b. Wetlands adjacent to TNWs;

c. Non-navigable tributaries of TNWs that are relatively permanent where the tributaries

typically flow year-round or have continuous flow at least seasonally (e.g ., typically

three months); and

d. Wetlands that directly abut such tributaries.

The agencies will decide jurisdiction over the following waters based on a fact-specific analysis to determine whether they have a significant nexus with a TNW:

a. Non-navigable tributaries that are not relatively permanent;

b. Wetlands adjacent to non-navigable tributaries that are not relatively permanent; and

c. Wetlands adjacent to but that do not directly abut a relatively permanent non-

navigable tributary.

Lastly, the agencies generally will not assert jurisdiction over the following features:

a. Swales or erosional features (e .g., gullies, small washes characterized by low

volume, infrequent, or short duration flow); and

b. Ditches (including roadside ditches) excavated wholly in and draining only uplands

and that do not carry a relatively permanent flow of water.

Of the ten wetland supplemental geographical regions, the only area singled out in the guidance document is the Arid West. It appears that the paragraph dedicated to this region is to assure districts regulating in that area that “certain ephemeral waters in the arid west are distinguishable from the geographic features described above where such ephemeral waters are tributaries and they have a significant nexus to downstream traditional navigable waters.” The point to illustrate from this section of the guidance document is that the use of the term “certain”

indicates that there would be some ephemeral waters that do not have a significant nexus, and it

would be up to the district to prove that a significant nexus exists.

The joint memorandum also provides the following information on the significant nexus

test discussed by Justice Kennedy in his opinion: "A significant nexus analysis will assess the

flow characteristics and functions of the tributary itself and the functions performed by all

wetlands adjacent to the tributary to determine if they significantly affect the chemical, physical

and biological integrity of downstream traditional navigable waters. Significant nexus includes

consideration of hydrologic and ecologic factors”. Therefore an aquatic feature must display an

OHWM or HTL, or be a Corps defined wetland, then meet one of the definitions of a ‘water of

the US’, and finally pass the guidance found within the joint Corps and EPA memorandum on

CWA Jurisdiction (EPA/USACE 2008) before the agencies can assert jurisdiction under the

CWA. This fundamental process of determining jurisdiction is a pivotal first step in the permitting process under the CWA.

District and Circuit Court of Appeals cases

The EPA legal counsel has identified 29 lower court decisions post-Rapanos that have shaped how CWA jurisdiction is applied (EPA 2010). The added layers of complexity have caused general confusion among the regulated and regulating entities on the national scope.

Seven guidance deriving opinions have been generated within the 9th Circuit, which oversees

three Corps wetland regions (Arid West; Western Mountains, Valleys, and Coasts; and the Great

Plains), three Corps Divisions (Pacific Ocean Division, South Pacific Division and North West

Division), and eight Corps Districts (Portland, Seattle, Walla Walla, Sacramento, San Francisco,

Los Angeles, Honolulu, and Alaska). Of the 11 Circuits and the District Court of Columbia,

only the 10th Circuit, which overseas three Corps wetland regions (Arid West; Western

Mountains, Valleys, and Coasts; and the Great Plains), three Corps Divisions (South Pacific

Division, North West Division, and Southwestern Division), and three Corps Districts

(Albuquerque, Tulsa, and Kansas City) has not weighed in on the post-Rapanos jurisdictional

debate. Thirteen of twenty-nine circuit court decisions state that the Kennedy test is the holding

decision, two indicate the Plurality test with specific caveats, seven indicate either test would

suffice, and seven decided not to address the jurisdictional issue. Of the circuits court cases

involving non-perennial waters, the 5th circuit court made a point to single out these features and

state “as a matter of law in this circuit, the connection of generally dry channels and creek beds

will not suffice to create a ‘significant nexus’ to a navigable water…” This circuit overseas the

Great Plains and Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain supplemental regions, but, nevertheless, seems

to support the guidance document’s position that for non-perennial waters a significant nexus

30 analysis of the features biological, chemical, and physical functions and services must be addressed. Hydrologic connectivity in and of itself for non-perennial waters is not enough to satisfy Kennedy’s test. The circuits generally fall within two camps: those using Kennedy’s test

(1, 2, 6, 8, and 9); and those using either test (3, 4, 5, 7, and 11). The District Court of Columbia has mainly heard rulings on the definition of navigable waters, not directly addressed in the

Rapanos case. An overview of the decisions is identified in table 2.1, and a summary of the cases are presented in Appendix A.

Proposed Jurisdictional Guidance

In light of the additional guidance provided by the lower courts and the lack of a single holding opinion, EPA has drafted a new joint guidance document dated April of 2011 (Appendix

B). Unlike the current guidance document whose scope is to provide guidance on utilizing either the Kennedy or the Scalia test for certain type of waters, the proposed guidance expands to include all categories of ‘waters of the US’. The proposed guidance states that more waters would be protected, but less than what was protected prior to the SWANCC and Rapanos decisions. The proposed guidance draft is provided in Appendix C.

There are five major differences between the proposed and exiting guidance documents.

They are in no particular order: the default state of the water; the inclusion of interstate waters; the addition of new terminology; the use of a literature review; and the Arid West focus. These differences are meant to provide additional clarity to the field to reduce uncertainty in determination a waters jurisdictional status under the CWA.

In identifying whether or not a water or wetland is regulated under the clean water act,

the proposed guidance document indicates that the water is “generally expected” to have a

significant nexus and thus jurisdictional. This is given that, as discussed before, it displays an

OHWM, HTL, or meets the three parameters of a wetland. The current document addresses

waters being evaluated under the Kennedy test will undergo a case-by-case analysis “whether” the water has a significant nexus.

The current document does not directly address Interstate waters or waters whose boundary cross state or international boundaries. The proposed guidance would classify them with the same jurisdictional status as a traditional navigable water (TNW). As stated above all,

TNWs are jurisdictional under the CWA and are used as the downstream waterbody to which a significant nexus analysis is applied for a given upstream water. This would expand the number of downstream TNWs and allow some non-navigable waters such as Ivanpah Lake, a dry lake on the border between California and Nevada, to be used as a TNW.

The Rapanos decision introduced new terms such as ‘significant nexus’ and ‘relatively permanent waters’ that the current guidance attempts to define. The proposed guidance adds one new term while refining three others. The new term used in the proposed guidance is “physically proximate” and it is coupled with redefining the subset of waters addressed in the SWANCC guidance. Currently, the “other” waters (33 CFR 328.3[a][3]) definition uses the existing

SWANCC guidance. The proposed guidance now classifies “other” waters as “non-wetland waters that would satisfy the regulatory definition of adjacent” if they were wetlands adjacent to

“other waters” or those waters in “close physical proximity to traditional navigable waters, interstate waters, or their jurisdictional tributaries, and that alone or in combination with

similarly situated proximate ‘other waters’ in the region significantly affect the chemical,

physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters”. This would

allow for ponds, such as the pond whose jurisdiction was discussed in the San Francisco Bay

Keeper v. Cargill Salt Division 9th Circuit case, to be evaluated in the same manner as a adjacent

wetland (2007. 481 F.3d 700). Also from the revised guidance on “other” waters, the idea of

physically proximate waters is created to assist in identifying the geographical scope of waters

that fall within the term “similarly situated” that Justice Kennedy coined in applying his

significant nexus. The current guidance identifies “similarly situated” to apply only to wetlands

and means those wetlands that fall within the geographic scope of the tributaries’ Strahler stream

order reach drainage area. The proposed guidance expands the geographic scope to include all

“waters in the region” and not only adjacent wetlands. These new “physically proximate other waters” beside now being able to be evaluated for jurisdictional status like a wetland are now able to be combined like wetlands to evaluate their affects cumulatively on the downstream

TNW. The new geographic scope would be expanded from the Strahler drainage area to single

point of entry concept. This concept is approximately the 10 digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC)

that encompasses the downstream TNW or Interstate water. The proposed guidance directs field

staff to not use a smaller watershed (i.e. 12-digit HUC) than a 10-digit HUC for a finding of no

jurisdiction. This would allow for all water within an average of 227 square miles or within a

range of 40,000–250,000 acres to be part of a cumulative effects analysis when determining a

significant nexus (USGS/USDA 2012). This would mean for the State of California it would be

feasible to perform a jurisdictional determination by delineating all waters using within the 1119

10-digit HUCs.

The current guidance mentions that shallow subsurface connections can be used to

establish that a water is not geographically isolated, but it is not defined. While the current

guidance does not provide clarity on the depth of shallow sub-surface flow that field staff can use to determine whether a water is geographically isolated, the proposed guidance defines the term as “ lateral water flow through a shallow subsurface layer, such as may be found in steeply sloping forested areas with shallow soils, soils with a restrictive horizon, or in karst systems”.

This would allow headwater tributaries of the Mojave River without clear surface flow to the river due to the arid environment and non-perennial flow regime to be hydrologically connected because studies on the Mojave River show that the lateral flow of water around the river can be up to 2.5 km wide and up to 80 meters deep (Izbicki et al. 1995, Izbicki and Michel 2004,

Izbicki 2007).

While the current guidance provides general guidance to the field on what ecological and

hydrological features to evaluate the proposed guidance targets specific functions and services to

use. The current guidance cites fifteen resources with one, RGL 05-05, having a scientific focus.

The proposed guidance cites 91 resources with 74 coming from either peer reviewed articles or government publications. These resources are used to support either general jurisdictional guidance or provide general legal support to make jurisdictional statements. For example the book A Basic Introduction to Pollutant Fate and Transport; An Integrated Approach with

Chemistry, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Environmental Legislation by Dunnivant and

Anders (2006), is used to legally defend the jurisdictional determination statements made about a

tributaries effects on its downstream TNW, while an article titled “Pharmaceuticals, Hormones,

and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in US Streams: 1999-2000: A National

Reconnaissance” by Koplin et al.(2002) is used to provide guidance on a tributaries effects on its 34

downstream TNW. For a complete summary of the breakdown of the articles uses see Appendix

Lastly the two guidance documents address the Arid West by different means. The

current guidance states “Certain ephemeral waters in the arid west are distinguishable from the

geographic features described above (non-relatively permanent tributaries without a significant

nexus) where such ephemeral waters are tributaries and they have a significant nexus to

downstream traditional navigable waters.” The guidance document then proceeds to generally

discuss chemical, physical, and biological effects for use in a significant nexus analysis. The

proposed guidance does not provide a separate section to discuss Arid West waters but

incorporates the discussion of those waters into different jurisdictional topics. For example, a

draft guidebook on applying a hydrogeomoprhic approach to vernal pools in Southern California

is used to legally support the “Physically Proximate” concept (Bauder et al. 2009). In addition,

an article by Lisa Ely examining flooding events in the Southwest during the Holocene, is used

to legally support applying the plurality method to Arid West waters (1997). Overall the

proposed guidance cites an additional 4 peer-reviewed or government articles that address the

Arid West with all of the articles appearing in the legal support section.

Discussion

The initial response to the Rapanos decisions has done two things: increased the

uncertainty of what waters are jurisdictional under the CWA for both the regulated and

regulating communities as evidenced by a revised guidance document being issued a year and a

half after the initial document (EPA/Corps 2008), a 2008 joint investigation by the Oversight 35

Committee and the Transportation Committee congressional memo regarding post-Rapanos

CWA enforcement and jurisdiction in the Arid West (Congressional Memo 2008), and subsequent lower court decisions (appendix A); and increased the burden of proof on determining what is jurisdictional under the CWA for the regulated community as evidenced by the transformation of the Approved Jurisdictional Determination Form from its previous two page format post-SWANCC to its eight page format post-Rapanos (USACE 2004, 2007).

It has been over 30 years since the signing of the CWA, and the definition of ‘waters of

the US’ continues to evolve through legal challenges and policy guidance. All three branches of

government have all attempted to shed light on the meaning, but the results at times have only

increased the uncertainty of what is jurisdictional under the CWA, and how to prove that

jurisdictional status (1980 FR, 1986 FR, Riverside Bayview [1985], SWANCC memo [2001],

Rapanos memos [2007, 2008]). The two regulatory agencies, the EPA and the Corps, have

strived to provide guidance at the national level blending the court’s decisions and statutory and

regulatory authority, but is it possible to balance national policy with regional differences? The

current joint guidance document illustrates one approach in providing deference to the Corps

Districts and EPA Regions to assess the jurisdictional status of a water. It provides a framework,

based on the plurality decision of the Rapanos Supreme Court decision. In the years directly after the decision in 2006, EPA had identified 29 policy shaping lower court decisions (EPA

2010). Thirteen cases were decided in the months after the2006 decision before the first guidance document in June of 2007. In between the June 2007 and December 2008 guidance document, there were 11 cases decided. After the 2008 guidance document there were five cases decided with one being a challenge to the activities covered by a Nationwide Permit that discussed a category of ‘waters of the US’ (NAHB vs USACE 2010). This represents more than 36

80 percent of the cases occurring before the second guidance document. In addition, it has been four years since a jurisdictional guidance document has been issued by either agency. Therefore using the metrics of lower court decisions, issuance of guidance documents, and congressional hearings, it appears that the current December 2008 guidance has provided a clear national policy for determining jurisdiction under the CWA. However, for one agency it appears that the

2008 guidance document does not provide the level of clarity needed to ensure appropriate implementation and oversight of the CWA. To date that draft guidance document that was initially thought to have been approved in 2010 still is debated.

Tables

Table 2.1. Overview of the post-Rapanos lower court decisions.

Circuit Case Plurality Kenned Either Comments y DC Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) v. X Kempthorne, 525 F. Supp. 2d 115 (D.D.C. 2007) (Leaning) DC American Petroleum Institute v. Johnson, 541 F. Navigable decision/EPA Supp. 2d 165 (D.D.C. 2008) rule DC National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) v. Navigable decision/NWP46 United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 699 F. Supp. 2d 209 (D.D.C. 2010) 1 United States v. Charles Johnson, 467 F.3d 56 (1st X Cir. Mass. 2006) 2 Simsbury-Avon Preservation Society, LLC v. X Metacon Gun Club, Inc., 472 F. Supp. 2d 219 (D. Conn. 2007) 3 United States v. John Pozsgai, (E.D. Pa. Mar. 8, X 2007) 4 United States v. Sea Bay Development Corp,. (E.D. No decision Va. Apr. 18, 2007) 4 Precon Development Corporation, Inc.(Precon) v. X United States Army Corps of Engineers, 633 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. Va. 2011) 5 United States v. Chevron Pipe Line Co., 437 prior precedent F.Supp.2d 605 (N.D. Tex 2006).

5 United States v. Robert J. Lucas, Jr., 516 F.3d 316 X (5th Cir. Miss. 2008) 6 United States v. Marion L. Kincaid Trust, 463 F. X (Cavaet) Supp. 2d 680 (E.D. Mich. 2006) 6 United States and Ohio v. Ike Parker, (N.D. Ohio Not addressed May 18, 2007) 6 United States v. George Rudy Cundiff, 555 F.3d 200 X (6th Cir. Ky. 2009) 7 United States v. Gerke Excavating, Inc., 464 F.3d X 723 (7th Cir. Wis. 2006) 7 United States v. Gerald Lippold, (C.D. Ill. Oct. 30, X 2007) 7 United States v. Rowland Fabian, 522 F. Supp. 2d X 1078 (N.D. Ind. 2007) 8 United States v. Keith David Rosenblum, (D. Minn. X Mar. 3, 2008) (Caveat) 8 United States v. Gary Bailey, 571 F.3d 791 (8th Cir. X Minn. 2009) 9 San Francisco Baykeeper V. Cargill Salt Division, X 481 F.3d 700 (9th Cir. Cal. 2007) 9 Environmental Protection Information Center v. X Pacific Lumber Company, 469 F. Supp. 2d 803 (N.D. Cal. 2007) 9 Coldani v Hamm, (E.D. Cal. Aug. 14, 2007) No decision but leaning toward Kennedy 9 United States v. Ivan Cam, CR 05-141-KI (D. Or. X Dec. 21, 2007) 9 Northern California River Watch v. City of X In this case but not for Healdsburg, 496 F.3d 993 (9th Cir. Cal. 2007) Circuit 9 United States v. Moses, 496 F.3d 984. (9th Cir. X Idaho 2007) 39

9 John Benjamin v. Douglas Ridge Rifle Club, 673 F. X Supp. 2d 1210 (D. Or. 2009) 11 United States v. Evans, (M.D. Fla. Aug. 2, 2006) X

11 Sierra Club v. United States Corps of Engineers, No decision (RGPs) 464 F. Supp. 2d 1171 (M.D. Fla. 2006) 11 United States v. Charles Robison, 521 F. Supp. 2d X 1247 (N.D. Ala. 2007) 11 United States v. Robison (McWane), 505 F.3d 1208 X (11th Cir. Ala. 2007).

Summary totals 2 13 7

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Natural Resources Defense Council v. Kempthorne (2007) 525 F. Supp. 2d 115 (D.D.C.)

Sierra Club v. United States Corps of Engineers (2006) 464 F. Supp. 2d 1171 (M.D. Fla.)

Northern California River Watch v. City of Healdsburg (2007) 496 F.3d 993 (9th Cir. Cal.)

Precon Development Corporation, Inc. v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (2011) 633

F.3d 278 (4th Cir. Va.)

Rapanos v. United States (2006) 547 US 715

Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA) (1899) 33 USC § 401 et seq.

San Francisco Baykeeper V. Cargill Salt Division (2007) 481 F.3d 700 (9th Cir. Cal.)

Simsbury-Avon Preservation Society, LLC v. Metacon Gun Club Inc. (2007) 427 F.Supp.2d 219,

(D. Conn.)

Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County (SWANCC) v. US Army Corps of Engineers

(2001) 531 US 159

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (2005) Regulatory Guidance Letter (RGL) 05-05:

Ordinary High Water Mark (OHWM) Identiﬁcation

--(2007a) RGL 07-01: Practices for Documenting Jurisdiction under Section 404 of the Clean

Water Act (CWA) and Section 9 & 10 of the Rivers & Harbors Act (RHA) of 1899

--(2007b) US Army Corps of Engineers Jurisdictional Determination (JD) Form Instructional

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United States v. Bailey (2009) 571 F.3d 791 (8th Cir. Minn.)

United States v. Charles Robison (2007) 521 F. Supp. 2d 1247 (N.D. Ala.)

United States v. Cundiff (2007) 555 F.3d 200 (6th Cir. Ky.)

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United States v. Ivan Cam (2007) CR 05-141-KI (D. Or. Dec. 21)

United States v. Johnson (2006) 467 F.3d 56 (1st Cir. Mass.)

United States v. Keith David Rosenblum (2008) (D.Minn. Mar. 3)

United States v. Lippold (2007) (C.D. Ill. Oct. 30)

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United States v. Sea Bay Development Corp (2007) (E.D. Va. Apr. 18) 46

Appendix A – Summary of lower court decisions post-Rapanos

1st Circuit Cases

The 1st Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the USACE Northcentral and

Northeast and Caribbean Islands supplemental regions, and mainly the traditional Northeastern

region of the US( ME, NH, MA, RI) as well as the Virgin Islands.

In the appellate case United States v. Charles Johnson, 467 F.3d 56 (1st Cir. Mass 2006), the United States brought an enforcement action against cranberry farmers alleging an unauthorized discharge of dredged and fill material into wetlands, a section 404 violation of the

CWA . The wetlands are “hydrologically connected” to the Weweantic River, the identified

Traditional Navigable Water, which empties into Buzzards Bay (Atlantic Ocean). The court held that the United States could assert jurisdiction over the sites in question if it could show these sites met either the Justice Kennedy or the plurality test. The Supreme Court declined to review the case. The circuit noted its alignment with the district court case United States v. Evans (11th

Cir.) and distinguished itself from the appellate case United States v. Gerke Excavating (7th

Cir.), both discussed below.

2nd Circuit Cases

The 2nd Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the USACE Northcentral and

Northeast supplemental region, and, like the 1st Circuit, the traditional Northeastern region of the

U.S.( VT, NY, CT)

In the Simsbury-Avon Preservation Society, LLC v. Metacon Gun Club, Inc., 472 F. Supp.

2d 219 (D. Conn. 2007), homeowners sued a gun club alleging 402 violations of the CWA 47

because of the clubs’ discharge of lead shot (a pollutant) into a wetland and vernal pool adjacent

to the Farmington River, the identified TNW. While the court leaned toward the Kennedy

standard, it determined that both the Kennedy and plurality standard should be considered when

analyzing Corps jurisdiction. The Court ultimately found that there was no conclusive evidence

to show that pollutants were being discharged into navigable waterways and found that the

plaintiff had not shown an adequate connection to exist and dismissed the case. The plaintiff has

appealed the case to the Second Circuit.

3rd Circuit Cases

The 3rd Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the USACE Northcentral and

Northeast, Eastern Mountains and Piedmont, Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, and Caribbean

Islands supplemental regions, and portions of the traditional Mid-Atlantic states (PA, NJ, DE) as

well as Puerto Rico.

In United States v. John Pozsgai, (E.D. Pa. Mar. 8, 2007), the defendants were charged

with being in contempt of an injunction from discharging dredged and/or fill material into

wetlands. They argued that Rapanos decision changed the jurisdictional status of their wetlands

such that they no longer needed to comply with the CWA and the restoration plan. The court

referenced the First Circuit opinion in United States v. Charles Johnson that there is CWA

jurisdiction under Rapanos if either Justice Kennedy’s concurrence or the plurality’s test is met.

However, this court stated “[f]or purposes of this litigation, I will apply Justice Kennedy’s test.”

Based on evidence that the stream between the defendant’s property and a canal was flowing

“continuously for most of the year, except during summer and early fall,” the court found that

fairly regular flow between waters alone satisfied this interpretation of Justice Kennedy’s test. 48

The court then concluded that the wetlands in question were jurisdictional under Kennedy’s test, and even if they were not, the defendants had exhausted their appeals and “a change in the law does not absolve them of contempt.” The defendants have appealed the case.

4th Circuit Cases

The 4th Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the Eastern Mountains and

Piedmont and Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain supplemental regions, and the southern mid-

Atlantic and traditionally southern states of the US (WV, VA, MD, NC, SC).

In United States v. Sea Bay Development Corp. (E.D. Va. Apr. 18, 2007), the

Government began an enforcement action concerning excavation of drainage for a new housing development. The court stated that “[g]iven the Court's holding that a decision regarding the breadth of the Corps' jurisdiction over the property in question does not implicate the Court's subject matter jurisdiction, the Court is not presently required to reach the issue of which

Rapanos test or tests to apply”. Therefore, it is unclear which test the court would apply in this situation or in this circuit.

Luckily at the Appellate level, the Precon Development Corporation, Inc (Precon). v.

United States Army Corps of Engineers, 633 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. Va. 2011), decision was reached.

This appeal arose out of a Corps jurisdictional determination over 4.8 acres of wetlands located on the Precon Development Corporation’s property, which is approximately seven miles from the nearest traditional navigable water. The Corps subsequently denied the application for a permit. Precon appealed these determinations to the United States District Court for the Eastern

District of Virginia. The appeals court found the Corps’ administrative record inadequate to

49 support its conclusion that it had jurisdiction over Precon’s wetlands. As such the court vacated the district court’s grant of summary judgment and remand back to the district court with instructions to the Corps for reconsideration of its jurisdiction over the wetlands in question. In reviewing the facts of this case the Corps failed to identify the specific biological, chemical, and/or physical effects the wetlands had on the downstream TNW. Thus they failed to establish a significant nexus per Kennedy’s standard.

5th Circuit Cases

The 5th Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the USACE Great Plains and

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains supplemental regions, and the western Gulf states of the U.S.(

MS, LA, TX).

In the Texas case, United States v. Chevron Pipe Line Co., 437 F.Supp.2d 605 (N.D. Tex

2006), the United States filed an action against an oil pipeline company seeking to impose civil fines under the CWA and the Oil Pollution Act for the discharge of oil from a pipeline leak. The

Chevron pipe spilled approximately 3,000 barrels of crude oil. The court stated that there was a lack of a clear legal standard in the Rapanos case and would look at prior precedent within the

Fifth Circuit. The court found that “as a matter of law in this circuit, the connection of generally dry channels and creek beds will not suffice to create a ‘significant nexus’ to a navigable water simply because one feeds into the next during the rare times of actual flow”. The court found no

CWA jurisdiction exists over features with intermittent flow regimes, and that the discharge of oil did not reach navigable waters of the United States.

In United States v. Robert J. Lucas, Jr., 516 F.3d 316 (5th Cir. Miss. 2008), the United

States brought a violation of the CWA against the defendants for waste discharges to wetlands

caused by septic system failure. USACE, EPA, the Mississippi Department of Health, and the

Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality became concerned that Defendants were

selling house lots and installing septic systems on wetlands and issued several cease and desist

orders against the defendants. The Government claimed the defendants filled wetlands without a

Section 404 permit from the Corps, failed to obtain Section 402 permits for the septic tanks,

committed mail fraud, and conspiracy to commit mail fraud and to violate Sections 402 and 404

of the CWA. The defendants argued that the government had not established a significant nexus

with navigable waters under Justice Kennedy’s concurrence in Rapano, thus CWA jurisdiction.

The court discussed both the plurality test and the Kennedy test of Rapanos, but noted that the

jurisdictional evidence was adequate to meet both tests. The defendants sought Supreme Court

review, which was denied.

6th Circuit Cases

The 6th Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the Corps Northcentral and

Northeast, Midwest, Eastern Mountains and Piedmont, and Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain

supplemental regions, and the line of states from Michigan south to Tennessee (MI, OH, KY,

TN).

In United States v. George Rudy Cundiff, 555 F.3d 200 (6th Cir. Ky. 2009), the

government initiated a section 404 enforcement action against the defendants based on

discharges of dredge and fill material onto wetlands. The wetland had been identified as being

adjacent to Pond and Caney Creeks, both tributaries of the navigable Ohio and Green Rivers. 51

The defendants appealed to the Sixth Circuit and while the appeal was pending, Rapanos was

decided. The case was sent back to the district court to apply the Rapanos decision. The court

looked to the interpretations of other circuits and concluded that the governing standard was

unclear. To that affect, the Corps may establish jurisdiction over the site if either the Kennedy

standard or the plurality’s standard is met. The court determined that the wetlands were

jurisdictional because they possessed a significant nexus. The defendants have again appealed.

In United States v. Marion Kincaid Trust, 463 F. Supp. 2d 680 (E.D. Mich. 2006), the

Government claimed that the defendant violated section 404 of CWA and section 10 of the

Rivers and Harbors Act through un-permitted activities in wetlands adjacent to Saginaw Bay

(Lake Huron). The Government voluntarily dismissed the case, but the Court denied fees and expenses because the court found that the Government was substantially justified in pursuing a

CWA enforcement case. The court applied the law concerning CWA jurisdiction as it existed when the case commenced before Rapanos was decided. However, the court noted that if it were to rule on post-Rapanos CWA jurisdiction, it would have required a continuous surface connection for jurisdiction, the plurality test.

In United States and Ohio v. Ike Parker, (N.D. Ohio May 18, 2007), Mr. Parker entered into a consent decree with EPA in 1995. The enforcement action was initiated due to impacts to wetlands. The decree required defendants to pay a fine and surrender property to the state of

Ohio. The defendants filed a motion for dismissal claiming that the Rapanos decision changed the federal definition of “wetlands,” making the suit improper. However, the court found that while the Rapanos decision may invalidate claims brought under the CWA, it has no impact on the claims under Ohio law. Therefore, since this case was brought in part under Ohio law, the

52 court denied the motion. As such the court did not have to address the holding decision for determining CWA jurisdiction.

7th Circuit Cases

The 7th Circuit court encompasses states that are part of both the Corps Northcentral and

Northeast, Eastern Mountains and Piedmont, as well as Midwest region, focusing on all the states (WI, IL, IN) surrounding Lake Michigan except for Michigan.

In United States v. Gerald Lippold, (C.D. Ill. Oct. 30, 2007), the defendant was charged with discharging pollutants into the Curry stream and Joint stream that flow into the Sangamon

River, a TNW. The court determined that even though the Rapanos decision was deeply divided, all justices agreed that the CWA clearly applies to permanently flowing streams connected to navigable waters. Secondly, in determining whether intermittently flowing streams constitute waters of the United States, the court found that the Kennedy standard controls because it is the narrowest ground to which a majority of the justices would have assented if forced to choose.

The conviction was upheld as the streams were found to possess a significant nexus per the

Kennedy Standard.

In United States v. Rowland Fabian, 522 F. Supp. 2d 1078 (N.D. Ind. 2007), the defendant was determined to have discharged dredged or fill material into7.5 to 10 acres of wetland without a permit. The wetlands were separate by a levee from the little Calumet River.

The Calmut River was determined to be a navigable-in-fact river. Therefore the wetlands were adjacent to a navigable water of the US. Even though the wetlands did not have a direct surface flow to the river, the Corps showed that the wetlands contributed to base flow of the river

53 meeting Kennedy’s significant nexus test. The facts of this case are similar to the Riverside

Bayview Supreme Court decision, that wetlands adjacent to navigable waters are defacto jurisdictional, but the court held that the Kennedy test would apply to this case.

Lastly, in United States v. Gerke Excavating, Inc., 464 F.3d 723 (7th Cir. Wis. 2006), the

United States brought action against Gerke Excavating alleging that Gerke violated the CWA by discharging pollutants into navigable waters without a permit. The court of appeals, following the Kennedy standard, remanded the case back to the district court for finding that there must be a determination as to whether the wetlands possessed a significant nexus with navigable waters.

The appeals court found the Kennedy standard to be the narrowest ground to which a majority of the justices would have assented if forced to choose. In addition, the Supreme Court declined to review the case. This set the standard in the circuit for the other two lower court decisions. Is it interesting to note that in all three court cases, the holding indicates that Justice Kennedy’s opinion is the controlling opinion.

8th Circuit Cases

The 8th Circuit court encompasses states that are part of the Corps Northcentral and

Northeast, Midwest, Great Plain, Eastern Mountains and Piedmont, Western Mountains, Valleys, and Coast, and Atlantic Gulf Coastal Plain supplemental regions, and states that encompass the north central region and western Mississippi River (ND, SD, NE, MN, IA, MO, AR).

In United States v. Gary Bailey, 571 F.3d 791 (8th Cir. Minn. 2009), a developer constructed a road in wetlands without a permit. The wetlands were along the shore of Lake of the Woods, Minnesota. The court upheld the Corps’ enforcement action requiring restoration of

the filled wetlands. The defendant’s argument was that the wetlands were not jurisdictional.

Similar to United States v Rowland Fabian from the 7th Circuit, the wetlands were adjacent to a

navigable-in-fact water. The court held that CWA jurisdiction can be found with either the

plurality standard or the Kennedy standard.

In United States v. Keith David Rosenblum, (D. Minn. Mar. 3, 2008), the defendant discharged industrial wastewater into the state's sewer system, then flowing to a publicly-owned

treatment works, and ultimately discharged into the Mississippi River, a navigable-in-fact water.

The defendant had a section 402 permit authorizing measured wastewater discharges, but the local issuing authority determined that the defendant wasn’t compliant with the permit’s conditions; knowingly discharged more than what was authorized, and tampering with monitoring equipment. As with most of the circuit court case, the defendant Rosenblum argued that his discharges were not into a water of the US, thus no CWA jurisdiction existed. The

Government stated that the discharge "significantly affects" the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Mississippi River, and thus a significant nexus under the Kennedy test.

The court agreed with the use of the Kennedy test, and also indicated that the appropriate framework for evaluating the federal government's power under the CWA to regulate indirect pretreatment discharges into sewer systems and publicly owned treatment works is provided by the Commerce Clause.

9th Circuit Cases

The 9th Circuit court encompasses a majority of the states in the western half of the US

(WA, OR, ID, MT, CA, NV, AZ) and the Pacific Rim (Ak, HI, GU, MP) and that make up the

USACE Arid West region, Western, Valleys, and Mountains, Alaska, and Hawaii and Pacific

Islands supplemental regions.

The court case San Francisco Baykeeper V. Cargill Salt Division, 481 F.3d 700 (9th Cir.

Cal. 2007), involved the alleged unauthorized discharging of a salt production waste by Cargill into a pond adjacent to Mowry Slough, a direct tributary to San Francisco Bay. The court reasoned that a pond adjacent to a navigable water was not jurisdictional given precedent in

Bayview Homes (United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. 1985. 474 US 121) and

Rapanos (Rapanos v. United States. 2006. 547 US715) which both dealt with wetlands.

Therefore only wetlands can be thought of as adjacent. The pond would have to be found hydrologically connected to a navigable water, and then show that it has a significant nexus to that navigable water by having more than a speculative or insubstantial effect on the navigable water, the Kennedy test, before it would be found jurisdictional under the CWA. In this case the pond ended up being non-jurisdictional.

The court case United States v. Moses, 496 F.3d 984. (9th Cir. Idaho 2007), involved unauthorized work that modified the flows of waters of Teton Creek, identified as an intermittent water. The defendant argued that Teton creek was not a water of the US. The court reasoned that Kennedy’s standard is the controlling rule, a body of water does not need to be navigable-in- fact to be a water of the US, and streams with intermittent flow, so long as they meet the

Kennedy test, can be jurisdictional. Thus Teton Creek is a water of the US and jurisdiction under the CWA. The Supreme Court declined to review the case.

The court case Northern California River Watch v. City of Healdsburg, 496 F.3d 993 (9th

Cir. Cal. 2007), involved the jurisdictional status of a basalt pond and its fringe wetlands that 56

receive water from the Healdsburg’s waste water treatment plant. The pond is separated from

the Russian River by a levee. The court reasoned that a pond with wetlands could be considered

adjacent to a navigable water under Bayview Homes and Rapanos. In addition, the circuit court

held that Kennedy was the controlling opinion for this case and the evidence showed

hydrological connectivity, although not from continuously flowing water, as well as more than

speculative and insubstantial effect on the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the

downstream navigable water because the chemicals in the pond were found in similar

concentrations within the adjacent Russian River, and because of a significant ecological

connection through support of substantial bird, mammal, and fish populations found in the

Russian River ecosystem.

The court cases Environmental Protection Information Center V. Pacific Lumber

Company, 469 F. Supp. 2d 803 (N.D. Cal. 2007), involved the discharge of storm water carrying sediment from logging activities into intermittent or ephemeral streams connecting to Bear

Creek, and Coldani v Hamm, (E.D. Cal. Aug. 14, 2007), the discharge of pollutants, nitrates and other large dairy operation pollutants into nearby surface waters that connected to White Slough and ultimately the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta system. The courts held that Kennedy was the controlling opinion. In the Pacific Lumber case the court ruled that one could apply the

Kennedy test to streams that are hydrologically connected, but in Coldani the court stated that since its facts were related to streams not wetlands the Kennedy test wasn’t applicable.

In Oregon two lower court decisions United States v. Ivan Cam, CR 05-141-KI (D. Or.

Dec. 21, 2007), and John Benjamin v. Douglas Ridge Rifle Club, 673 F. Supp. 2d 1210 (D. Or.

2009), provided conflicting rulings. In the 2007 case, the Corps sent warning letters to Mr. Cam

57 indicating that a permit would be needed to excavate wetlands and discharge the resulting dredge and fill material into a tributary of the Pudding River in Marion County. The court upheld the

Corps jurisdictional authority. Mr. Cam was fined $39,000, sentenced to one year in federal prison, with one year probation, and the site restoration. In the 2009 case, the plaintiff alleges that, since 1972, defendant has discharged pollutants into waters of the United States without first obtaining a section 402 permit. At question were the CWA jurisdictional status of an intermittent tributary and its adjacent wetlands. The defendant argues that aquatic features are not a water of the United States because they do not have a significant nexus to the Clackamas

River, a navigable-in-fact water. The court stated that the defendant's reliance on Kennedy’s test is misplaced in regard to the intermittent tributary, because the significant nexus test applies only to federal jurisdiction over adjacent wetlands. Therefore, the court concluded that either the

Kennedy or the plurality test could be used to determine CWA jurisdiction. For this case the tributary met the plurality test and the wetlands met both tests therefore all waters and wetlands onsite were subject to jurisdiction under the CWA.

Up until the amended opinion in the Healdsburg case in 2007, the Kennedy test was the controlling opinion in the 9th circuit as stated in the Douglas Ridge rifle case. The amended decision reflected the 9th circuit court’s attempt to differentiate the facts in the Healdsburg and

Cargill cases. Currently, it appears that either standard could be used to determine CWA jurisdiction depending upon the type of aquatic resource being investigated.

11th Circuit Cases

The 11th Circuit court encompasses a three state region (AL, GA, FL) that fall within the

USACE Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plan and Eastern Mountains and Piedmonts supplemental

regions.

In United States v. Evans, (M.D. Fla. Aug. 2, 2006), the Government brought a criminal

CWA case involving unpermitted human waste discharge from the defendant’s farm labor camp

near Palatka Florida. The defendant argued that Cow Creek, which flows into the navigable-in-

fact St. John’s River, is non jurisdictional in light of the Rapanos decision and as such the search

warrants issued under criminal CWA violations were illegal and the resulting evidence should be

suppressed. The district court held that either the plurality or Justice Kennedy standard could be

used to establish jurisdiction because each articulated a different standard for application and the

court concluded that it was unclear which would control. The court found that Cow Creek was a

water of the US.

In Sierra Club v. United States Corps of Engineers, 464 F. Supp. 2d 1171 (M.D. Fla.

2006), the plaintiffs’ individual cases were consolidated because they both challenged a permit

decision of the Corps. They argued that issuance of the general permit violates section 404 (e) of the CWA because a General Permit cannot be issued for activities that individually and cumulatively will have more than “minimal” adverse effects on the water of the US. Since the

Corps’ Jurisdictional Determination was pre-Rapanos, the court said the Rapanos decision could

decrease the amount of jurisdictional wetlands subject to permitting, which might mean the

permit could have minimal adverse effects. Nevertheless the court did not make a decision on

which Supreme Court opinion was the ruling opinion, but did side with the Corps on the issuance

of the General Permit.

In United States v. Charles Robison, 521 F. Supp. 2d 1247 (N.D. Ala. 2007), the

Government brought a section 402 criminal case against those operating a manufacturing plant in

Alabama. Mr. Robison was included with the defendants in the United States v. Robison

(McWane), 505 F.3d 1208 (11th Cir. Ala. 2007), case discussed below, but dismissed his appeal

in McWane case as part of his resolution of a separate criminal case in Utah involving violations

of the Clean Air Act. As seen below, the court relied on the Kennedy standard for determining

CWA jurisdiction.

The appealed United States v. Robison (McWane), 505 F.3d 1208 (11th Cir. Ala. 2007)

case involved the discharge of toxic pollutants and untreated industrial wastewater covered under

section 402 of the CWA from a manufacturing plant owned by Mr. McWane into Avondale

Creek. The court of appeals held that water can only be covered under the CWA if it possesses a

significant nexus to waters that are or were navigable-in-fact, adopting the Kennedy standard,

even though the court recognized the likelihood that the creek would be found jurisdictional

under the plurality test. As the government failed to present evidence of the chemical, physical,

or biological effect that Avondale Creek’s waters may have on a navigable-in-fact waterway the case was sent back to the district.

D.C. Circuit Court

In American Petroleum Institute v. Johnson, 541 F. Supp. 2d 165 (D.D.C. 2008), the

Institute challenges the substantive and procedural validity of a new regulation promulgated by the EPA. They argue that EPA’s new regulation includes a definition of the statutory term

“navigable waters,” which extend EPA’s regulatory authority beyond the limits established by the CWA and Commerce Clause authority, and EPA was arbitrary and capricious under the 60

Administrative Procedures Act because it failed to offer a rational explanation for its new

definition. The Court concluded that EPA’s promulgation violated the APA, and as such does

not need to address the statutory or constitutional claims. The court further went on to state that

EPA offered no rational explanation for the definition, vacated the new regulatory definition but

reinstated the previous definition, and remand the case to the agency for further proceedings

consistent with their opinion. Of particular interest is that EPA’s regulatory definition of

“navigable waters” under the CWA section 402 and 404 permitting programs shares the same

language as the vacated definition.

Previous definition (1973): “navigable waters” as defined in Section 502(7) of the [Clean

Water Act], and includes:

(1) all navigable waters of the United States, as defined in judicial decisions prior to passage of the 1972 Amendments of the [Clean Water Act] and tributaries of such waters;

(2) interstate waters;

(3) intrastate lakes, rivers, and streams which are utilized by interstate travelers for recreational or other purposes; and

(4) intrastate lakes, rivers, and streams from which fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce.

Vacated definition (2002): Navigable waters means the waters of the United States,

including the territorial seas. The term includes:

(i) All waters that are currently used, were used in the past, or may be susceptible to use in interstate or foreign commerce, including all waters subject to the ebb and flow of the tide;

(ii) All interstate waters, including interstate wetlands;

(iii) All other waters such as intrastate lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa lakes, or natural ponds, the use, degradation, or destruction of which could affect interstate or foreign commerce including any such waters:

(A) That are or could be used by interstate or foreign travelers for recreational or other purposes; or

(B) From which fish or shellfish are or could be taken and sold in interstate or foreign commerce; or

(iv) All impoundments of waters otherwise defined as waters of the United States under this section;

(v) Tributaries of waters identified in paragraphs (1)(i) through (iv) of this definition;

(vi) The territorial sea; and

(vii) Wetlands adjacent to waters (other than waters that are themselves wetlands) identified in paragraph (1) of this definition.

To complicate matters further, the court concluded that it is unclear if the Plurality or

Kennedy test establishes the outer limits of CWA jurisdiction.

In National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) v. United States Army Corps of

Engineers (USACE), 699 F. Supp. 2d 209 (D.D.C. 2010), the Association challenged the

issuance of a General Permit under the APA. They argued that the Corps does not have

jurisdiction over non-tidal upland ditches because they are not navigable waters and as such are

not water of the US under the CWA. At issue was the designation that ditches are defined as a

point source and a water of the US. The court concluded that the plurality opinion did not

establish that the terms “point source” and “navigable waters” are always mutually exclusive and

deference to the Corps interpretation of the CWA is reasonable. Therefore the general permit,

Nationwide Permit 46: Discharges in Ditches is valid. The court failed to address which of the

two opinions is the controlling decision but did indicate that the Corps would be provided

deference in identifying categories of ‘waters of the US’.

In Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) v. Kempthorne, 525 F. Supp. 2d 115

(D.D.C. 2007), the plaintiff sued Dirk Kempthorne (the Secretary of the Department of the

Interior), the Department of the Interior, and the Bureau of Land for violating section 401 of the

CWA by issuing drilling permits. The court stated it is unclear whether the projects would result in a regulated discharge into jurisdictional waters and declined to decide on the jurisdictional status of the waters in question. The court’s decision was based on the fact that the plaintiffs failed to demonstrate that they are likely to succeed on the merits of their claims or that they face irreparable harm if the Court declines to grant a preliminary injunction. In addition, the injunction would be a significant hardship on the defendants and does not further the public

interest in either Wyoming or the Nation. However, the court did identify that the Plurality test

was the controlling opinion.

Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Draft Guidance on Identifying Waters Protected by the Clean Water Act

This draft guidance clarifies how the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)*i and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps)ii will identify waters protected by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 19721 (Clean Water Act or CWA or Act) and implement the Supreme Court’s decisions concerning the extent of waters covered by the Act (Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (SWANCC)2 and Rapanos v. United States (Rapanos)3). This document clarifies how the EPA and the Corps understand existing requirements of the CWA and the agencies' implementing regulations in light of SWANCC and Rapanos and provides guidance to agency field staff in making determinations about whether waters are protected by the CWA.

This draft guidance document is intended to describe for agency field staff the agencies’ current understandings; it is not a rule, and hence it is not binding and lacks the force of law. Once finalized, this guidance will supersede existing guidance to field staff issued in 2003 and 2008 on the scope of “waters of the United States” (also “waters of the U.S.”) subject to CWA programs.iii Although guidance does not have the force of law, it is frequently used by Federal agencies to explain and clarify their understandings of existing requirements. In this case, the agencies believe that field staff across the country will benefit from new guidance that is informed by lessons learned since 2008 and that reflects the agencies’ understandings with respect to CWA jurisdiction, consistent with Supreme Court decisions and existing agency regulations. Each jurisdictional determination, however, will be made on a case-by-case basis considering the facts and circumstances of the case and consistent with applicable statutes, regulations, and case law.

After receiving and taking account of public comments on this document, EPA and the Corps expect to finalize it and to undertake rulemaking consistent with the Administrative Procedure Act. This process is expected to start with a proposed rule, to clarify further via regulation the extent of Clean Water Act jurisdiction, consistent with the Court's decisions. EPA and the Corps decided to begin this process with draft, nonbinding guidance in order to clarify their existing understandings while also considering and receiving the benefit of public comments.

Congress enacted the Clean Water Act “to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters,” and this guidance will help the agencies implement specific provisions of the Act to achieve this objective.4 The CWA has a number of programs designed to protect and restore the Nation's waters. Together, these programs provide effective protection from pollution for waterbodies across the country, including waters that

* To increase clarity of this document, endnotes that primarily provide citations will be indicated with Arabic numerals, and footnotes that provide additional substantive information will be indicated with Roman numerals. i EPA Regions will use this guidance to oversee and implement programs under the Clean Water Act, including those under sections 303, 311, 401, 402 and 404, 33 U.S.C. §§ 1313, 1321, 1341, 1342 and 1344. (See endnote 1 for an explanation of the relevant history of the Clean Water Act.) ii Corps Districts will utilize this guidance to implement Clean Water Act section 404, 33 U.S.C. § 1344. iii Specifically, this memorandum supersedes the “Joint Memorandum” providing clarifying guidance on SWANCC, dated January 15, 2003 (68 Fed. Reg. 1991, 1995), and “Clean Water Act Jurisdiction Following the U.S. Supreme Court’s Decision in Rapanos v. United States & Carabell v. United States,” dated December 2, 2008.

64 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

supply drinking water, filter pollutants, provide water for irrigation, and support hunting and fishing, outdoor recreation, and tourism.

The Clean Water Act, however, applies only to waters that are “waters of the United States.” This draft guidance clarifies how EPA and the Corps will identify waters to be protected under the Act consistent with the statute, regulations, Supreme Court caselaw, relevant science related to aquatic ecosystems, and the agencies' field experience. As noted above, this guidance, once finalized, will supersede previously issued guidance on the scope of “waters of the United States” (also “waters of the U.S.”) subject to CWA programs. However, it is not the agencies’ intention that previously issued jurisdictional determinations be re-opened as a result of this guidance.

Justice Kennedy’s concurring opinion took a different approach from Justice Scalia’s. Justice Kennedy concluded that “waters of the United States” included wetlands that had a significant nexus to traditional navigable waters, “if the wetlands, either alone or in combination with similarly situated lands in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as ‘navigable’” (id. at 780). The four justices who signed on to Justice Stevens’ opinion would have upheld jurisdiction under the agencies' existing regulations and stated that they would uphold jurisdiction under either the plurality or Justice Kennedy's opinion (id. at 810).

The agencies continue to believe, as expressed in previous guidance, that it is most consistent with the Rapanos decision to assert jurisdiction over waters that satisfy either the plurality or the Justice Kennedy standard, since a majority of justices would support jurisdiction under either standard. However, after careful review of these opinions, the agencies concluded that previous guidance did not make full use of the authority provided by the CWA to include waters within the scope of the Act, as interpreted by the Court. This draft guidance provides a more complete discussion of the agencies’ interpretation, including of how waters with a "significant nexus" to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters are protected by the CWA.

2 65 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

In addition, this guidance explains the legal basis for coverage of waters by the CWA in cases that were not addressed by the previous guidance (for example, interstate waters).

The agencies expect, based on relevant science and recent field experience, that under the understandings stated in this draft guidance, the extent of waters over which the agencies assert jurisdiction under the CWA will increase compared to the extent of waters over which jurisdiction has been asserted under existing guidance, though certainly not to the full extent that it was typically asserted prior to the Supreme Court decisions in SWANCC and Rapanos. However, each jurisdictional determination will be made on a case-by-case basis considering the facts and circumstances of the case and consistent with applicable statutes, regulations, and case law.

The agencies understand that decisions concerning whether or not a waterbody is subject to the CWA have consequences for State, tribal, and local governments and for private parties. Consistent with Executive Order 13563, and in particular its emphasis on predictability and certainty, key goals of this draft guidance are to increase clarity and to reduce costs and delays in obtaining CWA permits by reducing the complexity of Corps of Engineers and EPA decisions concerning waters protected by the CWA, thus improving the predictability of the process of identifying waters protected by the Act, and increasing consistency of decisions across the country.

There is only one CWA definition of “waters of the United States.” Thus, this draft guidance, like the earlier guidance it replaces, necessarily will apply to decisions concerning whether a waterbody is subject to any of the programs authorized under the CWA. Although SWANCC and Rapanos specifically involved section 404 of the CWA and discharges of dredged or fill material, the term “waters of the United States” must be interpreted consistently for all CWA provisions that use the term. These provisions include the section 402 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program, the section 311 oil spill program,5 the water quality standards and total maximum daily load programs under section 303, and the section 401 State water quality certification process. However, while there is only one CWA definition of “waters of the United States,” there may be other statutory factors that define the reach of a particular CWA program or provision.6

This draft guidance does not address the regulatory exclusions from coverage under the CWA for waste treatment systems and prior converted croplands, or practices for identifying waste treatment systems or prior converted croplands.7 It does not affect any of the exemptions from CWA section 404 permitting requirements provided by CWA section 404(f), including those for normal agriculture, forestry and ranching practices.8 This guidance also does not address the statutory and regulatory exemptions from NPDES permitting requirements for agricultural stormwater discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture.9

The CWA provisions and supporting regulations described in this document contain legally binding requirements. The agencies emphasize that this guidance does not substitute for those provisions or regulations and is not itself a regulation. It does not impose legally binding requirements on EPA, the Corps, or the regulated community, and may not apply to a particular situation depending on the circumstances. Any decisions regarding a particular water will be

3 66 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

based on the applicable statutes, regulations, and case law. Therefore, interested persons are free to raise questions regarding particular situations, and EPA and/or the Corps will consider whether or not the recommendations or interpretations of this guidance are appropriate in that situation based on the statutes, regulations, and case law. The use of language such as "recommend," "may," "should" and "can" is intended to describe agency policies and recommendations, while the use of mandatory terminology such as "must" and "required" is intended to describe the agencies’ interpretations of controlling requirements under the terms of the CWA, its implementing regulations, and relevant case law.

This draft guidance is divided into eight sections:

• The first two sections address the fundamental classes of waters subject to Clean Water Act jurisdiction: traditional navigable waters (Section 1) and interstate waters (Section 2).

• The next section provides general guidance relating to the “significant nexus” standard described by Justice Kennedy in the Rapanos decision (Section 3).

• The next three sections provide guidance on determining whether various types of waters are subject to CWA jurisdiction, including: o Tributaries (Section 4); o Adjacent wetlands (Section 5); and o Other waters (Section 6).

• The next section provides examples of waters that are generally not waters of the United States under the CWA (Section 7).

• The final section provides guidance on the documentation necessary to support decisions concerning whether waters are protected by the CWA (Section 8).

Additional scientific and legal information concerning these topics is provided in an appendix at the end of this document.

4 67 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Summary of Key Points

Based on the agencies’ interpretation of the statute, implementing regulations and relevant caselaw, the following waters are protected by the Clean Water Act: • Traditional navigable waters; • Interstate waters; • Wetlands adjacent to either traditional navigable waters or interstate waters; • Non-navigable tributaries to traditional navigable waters that are relatively permanent, meaning they contain water at least seasonally; and • Wetlands that directly abut relatively permanent waters.

In addition, the following waters are protected by the Clean Water Act if a fact-specific analysis determines they have a “significant nexus” to a traditional navigable water or interstate water: • Tributaries to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters; • Wetlands adjacent to jurisdictional tributaries to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters; and • Waters that fall under the “other waters” category of the regulations. The guidance divides these waters into two categories, those that are physically proximate to other jurisdictional waters and those that are not, and discusses how each category should be evaluated.

The following aquatic areas are generally not protected by the Clean Water Act: • Wet areas that are not tributaries or open waters and do not meet the agencies’ regulatory definition of “wetlands”; • Waters excluded from coverage under the CWA by existing regulations; • Waters that lack a “significant nexus” where one is required for a water to be protected by the CWA; • Artificially irrigated areas that would revert to upland should irrigation cease; • Artificial lakes or ponds created by excavating and/or diking dry land and used exclusively for such purposes as stock watering, irrigation, settling basins, or rice growing; • Artificial reflecting pools or swimming pools created by excavating and/or diking dry land; • Small ornamental waters created by excavating and/or diking dry land for primarily aesthetic reasons; • Water-filled depressions created incidental to construction activity; • Groundwater drained through subsurface drainage systems and • Erosional features (gullies and rills), and swales and ditches that are not tributaries or wetlands.

5 68 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Section 1: Traditional Navigable Waters

EPA and the Corps will continue to assert CWA jurisdiction over “[a]ll waters which are currently used, or were used in the past, or may be susceptible to use in interstate or foreign commerce, including all waters which are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide.”10 These waters are referred to in this guidance as “traditional navigable waters.” The traditional navigable waters include all of the “navigable waters of the United States,” as defined in 33 C.F.R. part 329 and by numerous decisions of the federal courts, plus all other waters that are navigable-in-fact (for example, the Great Salt Lake, Utah, and Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota). Thus, the traditional navigable waters include, but are not limited to, the “navigable waters of the United States” within the meaning of section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (also known as “Section 10 waters”).11

For purposes of CWA jurisdiction and this guidance, waters will be considered traditional navigable waters if:

• They are subject to section 9 or 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act; or • A federal court has determined that the water body is navigable-in-fact under federal law; or • They are waters currently being used for commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation (for example, boat rentals, guided fishing trips, or water ski tournaments); or • They have historically been used for commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation; or • They are susceptible to being used in the future for commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation. Susceptibility for future use may be determined by examining a number of factors, including the physical characteristics and capacity of the water to be used in commercial navigation, including commercial recreational navigation (for example, size, depth, and flow velocityiv), and the likelihood of future commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation. A likelihood of future commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation, can be demonstrated by current boating or canoe trips for recreation or other purposes. A determination that a water is susceptible to future commercial navigation, including commercial waterborne recreation, should be supported by evidence. v

iv While a traditional navigable water need not be capable of supporting navigation at all times, the frequency, volume, and duration of flow are relevant considerations for determining if a waterbody has the physical characteristics suitable for navigation. v A trip taken solely for the purpose of demonstrating a waterbody can be navigated would be sufficient. See, e.g., FPL Energy Marine Hydro L.L.C. v. FERC, 287 F.3d 1151, 1157 (D.C. Cir. 2002). 6 69 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Section 2: Interstate Waters

EPA and the Corps will assert jurisdiction over all interstate waters, consistent with the agencies’ current regulations defining “waters of the United States” to include “interstate waters including interstate wetlands.”12 Interstate waters, defined by the federal water pollution control statutes prior to the CWA as “all rivers, lakes, and other waters that flow across, or form a part of, State boundaries,” remain jurisdictional waters under the CWA, even if such waters are not traditional navigable waters as described in Section 1 above.13 For purposes of this guidance, lakes, ponds, and similar lentic (or still) water features crossing state boundaries are jurisdictional as interstate waters in their entirety. For streams and rivers, including impoundments, field staff should determine the upstream and downstream extent of the stream or river crossing a state boundary that should be considered the “interstate water.” One method of determining the extent of a riverine “interstate water” is the use of stream order. Thus, for rivers and streams the “interstate water” would extend upstream and downstream of such boundary for the entire length that the water is of the same stream order.14

The agencies will analyze tributaries to interstate waters15 consistent with the treatment of tributaries to traditional navigable waters under Justice Kennedy's standard discussed in Section 4 below. Similarly, the agencies will analyze wetlands adjacent to interstate waters (except wetlands that are adjacent to interstate wetlands)16 consistent with the treatment of adjacent wetlands under Justice Kennedy's standard discussed in Section 5 below. Finally, EPA and the Corps will analyze other waters relative to an interstate water consistent with Section 6 below.

Section 3: Significant Nexus Analysis

The agencies will assert jurisdiction over waters with a significant nexus to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters in accordance with SWANCC and Rapanos. Justice Kennedy stated:

“In Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook Cty. v. Army Corps of Engineers, 531 U.S. 159 (2001) (SWANCC), the Court held, under the circumstances presented there, that to constitute ‘navigable waters’ under the Act, a water or wetland must possess a ‘significant nexus’ to waters that are or were navigable in fact or that could reasonably be so made.”17

Waters have the requisite significant nexus if they, either alone or in combination with similarly situated waters in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters.vi There is one significant nexus standard for waters of the United States, and this section provides general guidance for determining the presence or absence of a significant nexus. Sections 4, 5 and 6 provide more

vi In discussing the significant nexus standard, Justice Kennedy stated: “The required nexus must be assessed in terms of the statute’s goals and purposes. Congress enacted the [CWA] to ‘restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters’ . . . .” 547 U.S. at 779. Consistent with Justice Kennedy’s instruction, EPA and the Corps will apply the significant nexus standard in a manner that restores and maintains any of these three attributes of traditional navigable waters and interstate waters. 7 70 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

specific guidance to field staff for applying the significant nexus standard when determining jurisdiction over:

• tributaries, • adjacent wetlands, and • other waters.

To evaluate the presence or absence of a significant nexus, the agencies intend to, as a general matter, consider:

(1) Waters to be “similarly situated” with waters of the same resource type, specifically (a) tributaries; (b) adjacent wetlands; or (c) other waters that are in close physical proximity to traditional navigable waters, interstate waters, or their jurisdictional tributaries (“proximate other waters”);vii (2) Waters to be “in the region” if they fall within the same watershed. For the purposes of this analysis, the watershed is defined by the area draining into the traditional navigable water or interstate water; and (3) Waters to have a significant nexus if they alone or in combination with other similarly situated waters in the same watershed have an effect on the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters that is more than “speculative or insubstantial.”

Therefore, field staff should first determine whether the water to be evaluated is a tributary, adjacent wetland, or proximate other water under the regulations - waters in the same category should be considered the similarly situated waters.

Next, field staff should determine the watershed, as defined by the area18 draining into the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water, and should identify the “similarly situated” waters in that watershed. The logical and scientifically valid "region" for determining whether similarly situated waters have a significant nexus is the watershed that drains to the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water through a single point of entry. There may be circumstances in which field staff, for efficiency purposes, elect to begin the case-by-case significant nexus analysis utilizing a smaller watershed (for example, in some circumstances, the Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC)-10 "watershed" as identified by the U.S. Geological Survey and the Natural Resources Conservation Service, which are typically between 40,000-250,000 acres in size).19 Field staff should not, however, utilize an area larger than the watershed that drains to the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water through a single point of entry. When a smaller watershed provides sufficient science-based justification to establish jurisdiction, field staff need not unnecessarily expend administrative time and resources analyzing the entire single point of entry watershed. However, field staff should not use a watershed smaller than the single point of entry watershed as the basis for a finding of no jurisdiction.

vii For other waters that are not in close physical proximity to traditional navigable waters, interstate waters, or their jurisdictional tributaries, the agencies will apply the significant nexus standard to each of these waters individually, except in cases where there is a compelling scientific basis for treating a group of such waters as similarly situated waters in the same region (see Section 6).

8 71 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Finally, field staff should determine whether the water they are evaluating, in combination with other similarly situated waters in the watershed, has a significant nexus to the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water. Functions of waters that might demonstrate a significant nexus include sediment trapping, nutrient recycling, pollutant trapping and filtering, retention or attenuation of flood waters, runoff storage, and provision of aquatic habitat. A hydrologic connection is not necessary to establish a significant nexus, because in some cases the lack of a hydrologic connection would be a sign of the water’s function in relationship to the traditional navigable water or interstate water, such as retention of flood waters or pollutants that would otherwise flow downstream to the traditional navigable water or interstate water.

Within a single point of entry watershed, over a period of time there will probably be multiple jurisdictional determinations. While field staff will have to make case-specific determinations, they may use information used in previous determinations, and the agencies would generally expect that if a significant nexus has been established for one water in the watershed, then other similarly situated waters in the watershed would also be found to have a significant nexus, because under Justice Kennedy’s test, similarly situated waters in the region should be evaluated together. However, the documentation for each case should be complete enough to support the specific jurisdictional determination without cross-references to other files, including an explanation of which waters were considered together as similarly situated and in the same region.

Among the most important tasks for field staff is demonstrating that a significant nexus exists between the “similarly situated” waters that are the subject of a case-specific jurisdictional determination and the relevant traditional navigable water or interstate water. Justice Kennedy provides guidance about the nature of the nexus when he concludes that waters are not jurisdictional when their effects on the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of downstream traditional navigable waters are speculative or insubstantial. In the context used by Justice Kennedy, a “significant nexus” includes having a predictable or observable chemical, physical, or biological functional relationship between the similarly situated waters and the traditional navigable water or interstate water. EPA and the Corps should further demonstrate that the similarly situated waters significantly affect the traditional navigable water or interstate water.

Thus, field staff should look for indicators of hydrology, effects on water quality, and physical, chemical, and biological (including ecological) connections or functions when assessing whether a water, alone or in combination with similarly situated waters, has a more than speculative or insubstantial effect on the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters. Examples of ways in which hydrology can significantly affect downstream waters include, but are not limited to, transport of water and materials and compounds carried by the water (e.g., suspended materials, dissolved compounds), water retention, as a medium for the movement of aquatic organisms such as fish and invertebrates, and water discharge (e.g., release of retained water to other waters). Effects on the chemical integrity of downstream waters may include the extent to which the waters have the capacity to carry pollutants (for example, petroleum wastes, toxic wastes, and sediment) or flood waters downstream to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters; the extent to which

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the waters reduce the amount of pollutants or flood waters that would otherwise enter traditional navigable waters or interstate waters; and the extent to which the waters perform physical functions related to the maintenance of downstream water quality such as sediment trapping. Biological functions performed by the waters that may affect downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters include the capacity to transfer nutrients and organic carbon to downstream food webs (for example, macroinvertebrates present in headwater streams convert carbon in leaf litter, making it available to species downstream), and the maintenance of habitat that provides spawning areas for species in downstream waters.

Analysis of the above indicators, whether documented for an individual water or based on scientific literature describing functions applicable to the waters in question, along with an analysis of how the described functions affect a traditional navigable water or interstate water will allow field staff to evaluate whether the water alone or in combination with similarly situated waters in the watershed is likely to have a more than speculative or insubstantial effect on the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of a traditional navigable water or interstate water. It is not appropriate to determine significant nexus based solely on any specific threshold of distance (for example, between a tributary and the traditional navigable water). Watershed ecosystems, and their interrelationships, are constructed of component parts that have relevance when considered collectively. Failure to protect the components can undermine the ecosystem in its entirety. Therefore, the agencies have an obligation to evaluate waters in terms of how they interrelate and function as ecosystems rather than as individual units, especially in the context of complex ecosystems where their integrity may be compromised by environmental harms that individually may not be measurably large but collectively are significant.

It is important to clarify that agency field staff, in conducting a significant nexus analysis, are not required to identify or evaluate every similarly situated water located within a particular watershed being assessed. Staff should evaluate as many waters of the same type as is necessary to support and document the presence or absence of a significant nexus for that type of water (e.g., adjacent wetland, tributary or proximate other water). Staff should be confident that their significant nexus determination based on evaluation of a representative subset of adjacent wetlands, tributaries, or proximate other waters in a particular watershed would be fully consistent with a determination based on an evaluation of all waters of the same type in the watershed. Field staff should look at the best available information to identify the similarly situated waters in the point of entry watershed and their effects on downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters. In many circumstances, a reliable affirmative jurisdictional determination may be based on consideration of a subset of similarly situated waters, since including additional waters in the analysis would only establish a more significant nexus to the traditional navigable water or interstate water. In general, field staff are not expected to develop new information on similarly situated waters (e.g., the identification or delineation of as yet unmapped wetlands or tributaries). In many cases, scientifically credible (e.g., peer reviewed) literature on the functions and effects of similarly situated waters generally will be sufficient, along with site-specific information for the water for which a determination is being conducted, to support a significant nexus jurisdictional determination. This information should be incorporated into a site-specific explanation of how the waterbody and similarly situated waters in the region significantly affect the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of a traditional navigable or interstate water.

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Section 4: Tributaries

EPA and the Corps will assert jurisdiction over tributaries under either the plurality standard or the Kennedy standard, as described below.

For purposes of this guidance, a water may be a tributary if it contributes flow to a traditional navigable water or interstate water, either directly or indirectly by means of other tributaries. A tributary can be a natural, man-altered, or man-made water body. Examples include rivers and streams, as well as lakes and certain wetlands that are part of the tributary system and flow directly or indirectly into traditional navigable waters or interstate waters. A tributary is physically characterized by the presence of a channel with defined bed and bank. The bed of a stream is the bottom of the channel. The lateral constraints (channel margins) are the stream banks. Channels are formed, maintained, and altered by the water and sediment they carry, and the forms they take can vary greatly.

A means of identifying the lateral limits of a tributary, including where there are no contiguous wetlands, is the existence of an ordinary high water mark (OHWM). Corps regulations define OHWM as “that line on the shore established by the fluctuations of water and indicated by physical characteristics such as a clear, natural line impressed on the bank, shelving, changes in the character of soil, destruction of terrestrial vegetation, the presence of litter and debris, or other appropriate means that consider the characteristics of the surrounding areas.”20 In many tributaries, the bed is that part of the channel below the OWHM, and the banks often extend above the OHWM. Channel characteristics depend on variables such as hydrology, lithology, climate, physiography, and gradient,21 among others. A tributary continues as far as a channel (i.e., bed and bank) is present. A natural or manmade break (e.g., rock outcrop, underground flow, dam, weir, diversion, or similar break) in the presence of a bed and bank or ordinary high water mark does not establish the upstream limit of a tributary in cases where a bed and bank and an ordinary high water mark can be identified upstream and downstream of the break. Tributaries that have been channelized by being lined with concrete are still considered tributaries for the purposes of this guidance.

Certain types of erosional features, such as gullies and rills, are not tributaries for purposes of this guidance. Gullies22 are relatively deep channels that are ordinarily formed on valley sides and floors where no well-defined channel previously existed. They are commonly found in areas with low-density vegetative cover or with soils that are highly erodible. Rills23 are formed by overland water flows eroding the soil surface during rain storms. Erosional features that are not tributaries for the purposes of this guidance can also be found in environments where compacted soil and sparse vegetation have increased overland flow significantly. The two main processes that result in the formation of gullies and similar erosional features are downcutting and headcutting, which are forms of longitudinal (incising) erosion. These actions ordinarily result in erosional cuts that are often deeper than they are wide, with very steep banks, often small beds, and typically only carry water during precipitation events. The principal erosional processes that modify streams are also downcutting and headcutting. In streams, however, lateral erosion is also very important. The result is that streams, except on steep slopes or where soils are highly erodible, are characterized by the presence of more defined

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bed and banks as compared to typical erosional features that are more deeply incised. Field staff should consider these factors as they distinguish streams and other tributaries that may be subject to Clean Water Act jurisdiction from other types of erosional features.

Non-tidal ditches (including roadside and agricultural ditches) are also not tributaries except where they have a bed, bank, and ordinary high water mark; connect directly or indirectly to a traditional navigable or interstate water; and have one of the following five characteristics:

• natural streams that have been altered (e.g., channelized, straightened or relocated); • ditches that have been excavated in waters of the U.S., including wetlands; • ditches that have relatively permanent flowing or standing water; • ditches that connect two or more jurisdictional waters of the U.S.; or • ditches that drain natural water bodies (including wetlands) into the tributary system of a traditional navigable or interstate water.

If a ditch is considered a tributary, it will be evaluated in the same manner as other tributaries (i.e., plurality standard or Kennedy standard, as appropriate). Note that tidal ditches are by definition waters of the U.S.

Natural and man-made swales are also not tributaries for purposes of this guidance. In certain circumstances, however, ditches or swales include areas that meet the regulatory definition of “wetlands.” Wetland ditches and swales will be evaluated as wetlands under the plurality or Kennedy standard, not as tributaries (unless the ditch itself is considered a tributary for one of the reasons stated above). Ditches and swales are considered wetlands when they meet the applicable criteria in the Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual or the appropriate regional supplement to that Wetland Delineation Manual.

Even when not jurisdictional waters, these geographic features (e.g., swales, ditches) may still contribute to a surface hydrologic connection between an adjacent wetland and a traditional navigable water or interstate water. In addition, these geographic features may function as “point sources” (i.e., "discernible, confined and discrete conveyance[s]" under CWA section 502(14)), such that discharges of pollutants to waters through these features could be subject to other CWA regulations (e.g., CWA section 402).

Tributaries Covered under the Rapanos Plurality Standard

EPA and the Corps will assert jurisdiction over “relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water” connected to traditional navigable waters.viii Under the plurality standard, relatively permanent waters are jurisdictional without making a significant nexus finding.

viii 547 U.S. at 739. The agencies will not assert jurisdiction over such waters under the plurality standard within the Eleventh Circuit, i.e., waters in the states of Florida, Georgia and Alabama. See United States v. Robison, 505 F.3d 1208 (11th Cir.); reh’g en banc denied, 521 F.3d 1319 (11th Cir. 2007), cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 627, 630 (2008). Instead the agencies will use the Kennedy standard only.

12 75 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Under the plurality standard, a non-navigable tributary is jurisdictional when it satisfies the following characteristics:

(1) The tributary is connected, directly or indirectly through other tributaries, to a downstream traditional navigable water, and (2) Flow in the tributary, except for drought years, is at least seasonal.

A central issue to the plurality standard is what constitutes “seasonal flow.” In this context, a water is “seasonal” when it has predictable flow during wet seasons in most years. The time period constituting “seasonal” will vary across the country. Rather than having distinct, rigid boundaries, stream reaches classified as perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral may more accurately be described as dynamic zones within stream networks. The length or extent of these zones may be highly variable and is dictated by multiple factors such as annual precipitation, evapotranspiration, and land- and water-use practices.24 Thus, determination of whether a water meets the plurality standard for relatively permanent should involve determination of the length and timing of seasonal flows in the ecoregion in question.

Tributaries that are not relatively permanent will be evaluated under the Kennedy standard.

Tributaries Covered under the Rapanos Kennedy Standard

EPA and Corps regulations define “waters of the United States” to include tributaries to traditional navigable waters and to interstate waters.25 Consistent with the agencies’ interpretation of the CWA, these regulations and the relevant case law, EPA and the Corps expect to assert jurisdiction over all tributaries to traditional navigable waters or interstate waters, provided that the tributary, alone or in combination with other similarly situated tributaries in the watershed, significantly affects the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters.

Thus, a tributary is jurisdictional where:

(1) It is a tributary as defined for purposes of this guidance to a traditional navigable water or an interstate water; and (2) The tributary, alone or in combination with other tributaries in the watershed, has a significant nexus with the traditional navigable water or interstate water.

When performing a significant nexus analysis for a tributary, the first step is to determine whether that tributary has a bed and bank and an ordinary high water mark. If the tributary possesses those characteristics, the next step is to determine whether the tributary drains, or is part of a network of tributaries that drain, into a downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water. If it can be demonstrated that the tributary has a bed and bank, and an OHWM, and is part of a tributary system to a traditional navigable water or an interstate water, and, therefore, can transport pollutants, flood waters or other materials to a traditional navigable water or interstate water, then the agencies would generally expect that the tributary, along with the

13 76 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

other tributaries in the watershed (the "similarly situated" waters), can be demonstrated to have a significant nexus with the downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water. This expectation is based on the significant harm that pollutants can have on the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of the downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water.26 The presence of a bed and bank and an OHWM are physical indicators of flow and it is likely that flows through all of the tributaries collectively in a watershed with the above characteristics are sufficient to transport pollutants, or other materials downstream to the traditional navigable water or interstate water in amounts that would significantly affect its chemical, physical or biological integrity.

When considering whether the tributary being evaluated eventually flows to an interstate water or traditional navigable water, field staff should trace the tributary connection using resources such as direct observation or U.S. Geological Survey maps, aerial photography or other reliable remote sensing information, soil survey data or other appropriate information.

Although the agencies generally expect that tributaries will be found to have a significant nexus with downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters, as explained above, it is still important that field staff document such a significant nexus through a site-specific analysis for tributaries that are not relatively permanent. Field staff should document, using available or readily obtainable information wherever possible, the flow characteristics and functions of the tributary or tributaries, and their hydrologic relationship to the nearest downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water. Hydrologic information may include volume, duration, and frequency of flow (if such information is readily available, e.g., through publicly available reports or on-line resources), as well as physical indicators of flow. Field staff may document the flow characteristics of tributaries by using physical indicators of flow, observations of flow considered in the context of local precipitation patterns and recent precipitation events, field reports, local expert statements, and other sources of information. Ordinary high water mark determinations are made by examining recent physical evidence of flow.27 It is not necessary to document actual flow data via stream gages.28 Field staff should also document other functions provided by the tributary, and describe how those functions may significantly affect the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters.

Flow characteristics and functions of the tributary or tributaries and their hydrologic relationship to the nearest downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water may include topographic maps, gage data, historic records of water flow, statistical data, personal observations/records, and other relevant information. Consideration may also be given to relevant contextual factors that directly influence the hydrology of tributaries, including the size of the watershed, average annual rainfall, and average annual winter snow pack. The significant nexus evaluation should also discuss the potential for the tributaries to transport pollutants to a traditional navigable water or interstate water. Direct observation of the tributary is not necessary if other available documentation is sufficient to establish the significant nexus.

Examples of other functions provided by tributaries that may significantly affect the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters include: distributing sediment29 to maintain stream and riparian habitat; nutrient cycling and removal; providing habitat for amphibians, fish, and other aquatic or semi-aquatic

14 77 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

species living in and near the stream that may use the downstream waters for other portions of their life stages (e.g., spawning areas for recreationally or commercially important species); improving or maintaining biological integrity in downstream waters; and transferring nutrients and organic carbon vital to support downstream food webs (e.g., macroinvertebrates present in headwater streams convert carbon in leaf litter making it available to species downstream).30 Disruptions in these biological processes can significantly affect the functional capacity of the entire downstream system.31 Tributaries help to maintain base flow in the larger rivers downstream, which is particularly important in times of drought. At the same time, a network of tributaries can regulate the flow of water into downstream waters, moderate low flow and high flow extremes, reduce local and downstream flooding, and prevent excess erosion caused by flooding.32

Section 5: Adjacent Wetlands

The agencies will assert Clean Water Act jurisdiction over adjacent wetlands that meet either the plurality standard or the Kennedy standard under Rapanos.

Wetlands Covered Under the Rapanos Plurality Standard

EPA and the Corps will assert jurisdiction over “wetlands with a continuous surface connection to” “relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water” connected to traditional navigable waters.ix

The plurality opinion in Rapanos created a standard for finding statutory jurisdiction under the CWA for wetlands, which is related to the presence of a physical connection between the wetland and the relatively permanent water to which it is adjacent. Under the plurality standard, wetlands with a continuous surface connection to relatively permanent waters are jurisdictional without the legal obligation to make a significant nexus finding.

Under the plurality standard, an adjacent wetland is jurisdictional when it satisfies the following characteristics:

(1) The wetland is adjacent to a relatively permanent, non-navigable tributary, that is connected to a downstream traditional navigable water, and (2) A continuous surface connection exists between the wetland and a relatively permanent tributary where the wetland directly abuts the water (e.g., they are not separated by uplands, a berm, dike, or similar feature). A “continuous surface connection” does not require the presence of water at all times in the connection between the wetland and the jurisdictional water.

Wetlands Covered Under the Rapanos Kennedy Standard

ix 547 U.S. at 739, 742. As noted, the agencies will not assert jurisdiction over such waters under the plurality standard within the Eleventh Circuit, i.e., waters in the states of Florida, Georgia and Alabama. See United States v. Robison, supra, footnote h. 15 78 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

The agencies will assert Clean Water Act jurisdiction over wetlandsx adjacent to traditional navigable waters or non-wetland interstate waters or to another water of the U.S. where such wetlands have a significant nexus with downstream traditional navigable or interstate waters.xi Adjacent wetlands will be considered to have a significant nexus if they, alone or in combination with similarly situated wetlands, have an effect on the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters that is more than “speculative or insubstantial.”33 As a general matter, “similarly situated” adjacent wetlands include all adjacent wetlands located in the point-of-entry watershed. Wetlands adjacent to traditional navigable waters or non-wetland interstate waters are per se jurisdictional and do not require a showing of significant nexus.34

Thus, an adjacent wetland is jurisdictional where such wetland meets the definition of “adjacent” as that term is defined in the agencies’ regulations and is either:

(1) Adjacent to a traditional navigable water or non-wetland interstate water; or (2) Adjacent to a tributary, lake, reservoir, or other jurisdictional water (except another wetland) and either alone or in combination with other adjacent wetlands in the watershed has a significant nexus to the nearest downstream traditional navigable or interstate water.

The regulations define “adjacent” as follows: “The term adjacent means bordering, contiguous, or neighboring. Wetlands separated from other waters of the United States by man- made dikes or barriers, natural river berms, beach dunes and the like are ‘adjacent wetlands.’”35 Under this definition, a wetland does not need to meet all criteria to be considered adjacent. The agencies consider wetlands to be bordering, contiguous, or neighboring, and therefore “adjacent” if at least one of following three criteria is satisfied:

(1) There is an unbroken surface or shallow sub-surface hydrologic connection between the wetland and jurisdictional waters; or (2) The wetlands are physically separated from jurisdictional waters by “man-made dikes or barriers, natural river berms, beach dunes, and the like”; or (3) Where a wetland’s physical proximity to a jurisdictional water is reasonably close, that wetland is “neighboring” and thus adjacent. For example, wetlands located within the riparian area or floodplain of a jurisdictional water will generally be considered neighboring, and thus adjacent. One test for whether a wetland is sufficiently proximate to be considered “neighboring” is whether there is a demonstrable ecological interconnection between the wetland and the jurisdictional waterbody. For example, if resident aquatic species (e.g., amphibians, aquatic turtles, fish, or ducks) rely on both the wetland and the jurisdictional waterbody for all or part of their life cycles (e.g., nesting, rearing, or feeding), that may demonstrate that

x Under normal circumstances, a wetland will meet all three factors of hydrology, hydrophytic vegetation, and hydric soils, as required by agency regulations, and described in the United States, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wetlands Delineation Manual (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,1987) or appropriate Regional Supplement. The regulatory definition of waters of the U.S. includes “wetlands adjacent to waters (other than waters that are themselves wetlands) identified [as jurisdictional].” 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(7); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(7). xi The plurality standard in Rapanos may provide an alternative basis for asserting jurisdiction. See Section 5. 16 79 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

the wetland is neighboring and thus adjacent. The agencies recognize that as the distance between the wetland and jurisdictional water increases, the potential ecological interconnection between the waters is likely to decrease.

An unbroken surface or shallow sub-surface hydrologic connection to jurisdictional waters may be established by a physical feature or discrete conveyance that supports periodic flow between the wetland and a jurisdictional water. Water does not have to be continuously present in this hydrologic connection and the flow between the wetland and the jurisdictional water may move in either or both directions. The hydrologic connection need not itself be a water of the U.S. A shallow subsurface hydrologic connection is lateral water flow through a shallow subsurface layer, such as may be found in steeply sloping forested areas with shallow soils, soils with a restrictive horizon, or in karst systems.36 Shallow subsurface connections may be found below the ordinary root zone (below 12 inches), where other wetland delineation factors may not be present. A combination of physical factors may reflect the presence of a shallow subsurface connection, including, position in the landscape (for example, on a slope directing flow from wetland to jurisdictional waters), stream hydrograph, and soil surveys (for example, exhibiting indicators of high transmissivity over an impermeable layer).

If uplands separating a wetland from jurisdictional water can reasonably be characterized as “man-made dikes or barriers, natural river berms, beach dunes, and the like,” then, under the agencies’ regulations, the wetlands are adjacent even if no apparent hydrologic connection exists. It is important to note that natural river berms are formed by sediment deposits accumulating at or near the stream bank during flood events. Such berms vary in height from inches to feet, and also can be quite wide.37 Similarly, multiple beach dunes may exist between a wetland and jurisdictional water (including primary and secondary dunes), because beach dunes typically function as an interdunal system (particularly on barrier islands).

The link between physical proximity and a physical or ecological (biological) connection is well documented in the scientific literature. A wetland within the riparian area38 or floodplain39 typically has such an interconnection. For example, adjacent wetlands typically help to store floodwaters, pollutants, and sediments that could otherwise reach a jurisdictional water.40 Adjacent wetlands often provide important sources of stored water that augment stream flow during low-flow periods.41 Species, such as amphibians, certain reptiles (e.g., watersnakes), waterfowl, invertebrates, and fish (including anadromous and catadromous fish), move between an adjacent wetland and a jurisdictional water for spawning, nesting, feeding, refuge, and other life stage requirements.42 Species that move between an adjacent wetland and a jurisdictional water are distinguishable from migratory species. Migratory species use the wetland during a journey to a different area43 and are not to be used as a scientific basis for demonstrating an ecological interconnection for adjacency. While it is not appropriate to determine adjacency based solely on any specific threshold of distance, as the distance between the wetland and jurisdictional water increases, the potential interconnection between the waters will decrease and a finding of adjacency is less likely. The distance between a tributary and its adjacent wetlands may vary by region, as well as based on site-specific factors within regions.

All wetlands within a wetland mosaic should ordinarily be considered collectively when determining adjacency. Wetlands present in such systems act generally as a single ecological

17 80 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

unit. A “wetland mosaic” refers to a landscape where wetland and non-wetland components are too numerous and closely associated to be appropriately delineated or mapped separately. These areas often have complex microtopography, with repeated small changes in elevation occurring over short distances. Tops of ridges and hummocks are often non-wetland but are interspersed with wetlands having hydrophytic vegetation, hydric soils, and wetland hydrology.

Under Justice Kennedy’s standard, the following legal test for Clean Water Act jurisdiction applies: If a wetland is adjacent to a traditional navigable water or a non-wetland interstate water, a finding of adjacency is sufficient in and of itself to demonstrate that the wetland is subject to Clean Water Act jurisdiction. On the other hand, a finding that a particular wetland is adjacent to a jurisdictional waterbody other than a traditional navigable water or non- wetland interstate water is not sufficient in and of itself to establish Clean Water Act jurisdiction over that wetland. For the latter category of adjacent wetlands, in order to establish Clean Water Act jurisdiction, field staff, on a case-by-case basis, must determine whether the particular adjacent wetland, alone or in combination with similarly situated wetlands in that watershed, has a significant nexus with traditional navigable waters or non-wetland interstate waters (see discussion below).

A determination of adjacency is based on an evaluation of the relationship between a wetland and the nearest jurisdictional water, which includes consideration of both physical and ecological connections between those waterbodies. In contrast, a determination of significant nexus is a different inquiry, which is based on evaluating whether there is a significant nexus between that adjacent wetland (in combination with similarly situated adjacent wetlands in the watershed) and a traditional navigable water or a non-wetland interstate water.

As discussed in Section 3, the agencies generally consider all wetlands within the watershed that are adjacent to jurisdictional waters to be “similarly situated” waters “in the region.” (Wetlands adjacent to non-jurisdictional waters are considered “other waters.”) The relevant watershed is defined by the topographic area draining into the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water. However, as with tributaries, field staff may utilize a smaller area for a significant nexus analysis where this is sufficient to establish the presence or absence of a significant nexus for adjacent wetlands within the watershed as a whole. When identifying other adjacent wetlands in the watershed to be considered in the significant nexus analysis, field staff may use resources such as direct observation or U.S. Geological Survey maps, aerial photography, or other reliable remote sensing information. Using such information, staff should include in the evaluation as many adjacent wetlands as is necessary to support and document the presence or absence of a significant nexus. Field staff are not required to identify or evaluate every adjacent wetland located within a particular watershed being assessed and are generally not expected to develop new information on the location of such wetlands. As with tributaries, field staff should use the best available information on the adjacent wetlands in the point of entry watershed, which may include scientific literature on the functions and effects of wetlands within the watershed generally and how those wetlands significantly affect the physical, chemical, or biological integrity of the traditional navigable waters or interstate waters. For affirmative determinations especially, consideration of a subset of adjacent wetlands may be sufficient, since including additional adjacent wetlands in the analysis would only establish a more significant nexus to the traditional navigable water or interstate water.

18 81 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

When evaluating significant nexus for adjacent wetlands, field staff should consider the many functions of waters such as sediment trapping, nutrient recycling, pollutant trapping and filtering, retention or attenuation of flood waters, runoff storage, and provision of habitat. In general, tributaries and their adjacent wetlands function as an integrated hydrologic system, and as a unit they may affect the amount of pollutants and floodwaters that reach the downstream traditional navigable waters or interstate waters.

Section 6: Other Waters

The “other waters” or “(a)(3) waters” provision of EPA’s and the Corps regulations includes:

All other waters such as intrastate lakes, rivers, streams (including intermittent streams), mudflats, sandflats, wetlands, sloughs, prairie potholes, wet meadows, playa lakes, or natural ponds, the use, degradation or destruction of which could affect interstate or foreign commerce. . . . 44

The agencies recognize that Supreme Court decisions in SWANCC and Rapanos have identified limitations on the scope of (a)(3) waters that may be determined to be jurisdictional under the CWA. The agencies expect to further clarify the scope of waters subject to CWA jurisdiction, including jurisdiction over (a)(3) waters after SWANCC and Rapanos, as part of a notice and comment rulemaking. In the meantime, the agencies will make case-by-case, fact- specific determinations of jurisdiction under (a)(3) in the manner discussed below.

Physically Proximate Other Waters

EPA and the Corps will make fact-specific determinations of jurisdiction for other waters that are in close physical proximity to traditional navigable waters, interstate waters, or their jurisdictional tributaries, and that alone or in combination with similarly situated proximate other waters in the region significantly affect the chemical, physical, or biological integrity of traditional navigable waters or interstate waters. For purposes of this guidance, proximate other waters are non-wetland waters that would satisfy the regulatory definition of “adjacent” if they were wetlands. They include lakes, ponds, and other non-wetland waters that are bordering, contiguous, or neighboring to jurisdictional waters, including waters that are separated from jurisdictional waters by man-made dikes or barriers, natural river berms, beach dunes and the like. Such waters have many of the same functions and effects with respect to jurisdictional waters as adjacent wetlands. The agencies believe it is scientifically appropriate and consistent with Justice Kennedy’s opinion to evaluate significant nexus for such waters in the same manner as for adjacent wetlands.

For purposes of the significant nexus analysis, all physically proximate other waters in the same point-of-entry watershed should be evaluated together as similarly situated waters in the region. This is appropriate for the same reasons as it is appropriate to evaluate all adjacent wetlands in the point-of-entry watershed together as similarly situated waters.

19 82 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Other Waters that Are Not Physically Proximate to Jurisdictional Waters

Non-physically proximate other waters are isolated, intrastate, non-navigable waters and wetlands that would not meet the regulatory definition of “adjacent” with respect to jurisdictional waters. The agencies note that the (a)(3) provisions of our regulations remain in effect and that the SWANCC decision specifically addressed only the presence of migratory birds as a basis for asserting jurisdiction, and not the validity of the (a)(3) provisions generally. However, the agencies interpret Justice Kennedy’s opinion as suggesting that the same significant nexus standard that he articulated for adjacent wetlands is appropriate for (a)(3) waters, and we have thus clarified above how this standard should be applied in the case of (a)(3) waters that are in close physical proximity to jurisdictional waters. At the same time, we recognize that for other waters that are geographically separated from jurisdictional tributaries, establishing a significant nexus may be more challenging. Thus, at this time, we are not providing specific guidance on making such determinations and are instead directing agency field staff to continue the current practice of referring determinations for non-physically proximate other waters to their respective Headquarters and obtaining formal project-specific approval before asserting or denying jurisdiction.

The general approach for determining significant nexus for such waters would be the same as discussed in Section 3. Because such waters may be widely scattered geographically, and physically remote from jurisdictional waters, field staff should generally conduct significant nexus analyses for such waters individually, unless there is a compelling scientific basis for treating a group of such waters as similarly situated waters in the same region. In accordance with the decision in SWANCC, consideration of use by migratory species is not relevant to the significant nexus determination for such waters.

The agencies emphasize that this document is guidance, which lacks the force of law; the agencies expect to proceed with notice and comment rulemaking to further clarify the regulatory definition of the term “waters of the United States.” As a part of that process, we will further consider, based on a review of the scientific literature, how a significant nexus analysis should be conducted for non-physically proximate other waters.

Section 7: Waters Generally Not Jurisdictional

The scope of “waters of the United States” does not include all waters. EPA and the Corps previously have described in preambles to CWA regulations waters that the agencies generally do not consider to be waters of the U.S.45 The agencies’ position regarding these waters is unchanged. The categories of waters generally not “waters of the U.S.” include:

• Wet areas that are not tributaries or open waters and do not meet the regulatory definition of wetlands.46

• Waterbodies excluded from coverage under the CWA by existing regulations.

• Waters that lack a significant nexus when one is required for jurisdiction.

20 83 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

• Artificially irrigated areas which would revert to upland if the irrigation ceased.

• Artificial lakes or ponds created by excavating and/or diking dry land to collect and retain water and which are used exclusively for such purposes as stock watering, irrigation, settling basins, or rice growing.

• Artificial reflecting pools or swimming pools excavated in uplands.

• Small ornamental bodies of water created by excavating and/or diking dry land to retain water for primarily aesthetic reasons.

• Water-filled depressions created in dry land incidental to construction activity and pits excavated in dry land for the purpose of obtaining fill, sand, or gravel, unless and until the construction or excavation operation is abandoned and the resulting body of water meets the definition of waters of the United States.

• Groundwater drained through subsurface drainage systems.xii

• Erosional features (gullies and rills), and swales and ditches that are not tributaries or wetlands (see Section 4).

Section 8: Documentation

EPA and Corps field staff should document in the administrative record the available information supporting a jurisdictional determination. In addition to location and other descriptive information regarding the water at issue, the record should include a clear explanation of the rationale for the jurisdictional conclusion, and include, as appropriate:

• Information leading to a conclusion that a water falls within a category considered in this guidance to be jurisdictional without the need to demonstrate a significant nexus; • Information used to conclude that a water has a significant nexus when one is required for jurisdiction; • Information supporting a conclusion that a water lacks a significant nexus, when one is required for jurisdiction; or • Information supporting a conclusion that a water falls within one of the categories of geographic features generally considered non-jurisdictional.

In short, both affirmative and negative jurisdictional determinations should be well- documented, to ensure both public transparency and defensibility should a jurisdictional

xii A “subsurface” drainage system is an agricultural practice designed to drain subsurface water through a below ground pipe system in order to maintain the groundwater table below the root zone to facilitate crop production. The construction or maintenance of subsurface drain systems may require a CWA permit, if it involves discharges of dredged or fill material into waters of the U.S. 21 84 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

conclusion be challenged. The level of documentation may be greater for jurisdictional determinations associated with complex projects.

Other sections of this guidance discuss the findings necessary for particular categories of waters to be considered jurisdictional and/or to have a significant nexus. Information relevant to these findings can come from many sources, including but not limited to maps, aerial photography, soil surveys, watershed studies, local development plans, literature citations, and references from studies pertinent to the parameters being reviewed. Such information need not always be specific to the water whose jurisdictional status is being evaluated; regional and national studies of the same type of water or similarly situated waters can help to inform a jurisdictional analysis as long as they are applicable to the water being evaluated. Information derived from field observation is not required in cases where a "desktop" analysis can provide sufficient information to make the requisite findings. However, for more complex or difficult jurisdictional determinations, it may be important to supplement such information with field observation.

An important part of a jurisdictional analysis is the location and type of water under consideration, so as to readily determine if the jurisdictional status of similarly situated waters in the region has been previously determined. If so, the jurisdictional conclusion, rationale, and supporting information for a similarly situated water are directly relevant. As Justice Kennedy noted in Rapanos, where a significant nexus has been established for a particular wetland, “it may be permissible, as a matter of administrative convenience or necessity, to presume covered status for other comparable wetlands in the region.”47 Therefore, once the jurisdictional status for a particular water within a watershed has been established, field staff can apply the significant nexus analysis for that water to any subsequent determinations if they establish (and document) that the water at issue is the same type and in the same watershed as the jurisdictional water.

22 85 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

APPENDIX

DISCUSSION OF LEGAL AND SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR GUIDANCE SECTIONS

The U.S. Supreme Court has addressed the scope of waters of the United States protected by the CWA in three cases. In United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. (474 U.S. 121 (1985)), the Supreme Court held that wetlands adjacent to a traditional navigable water were properly considered to be “waters of the United States.” In SWANCC, the Court addressed the question of CWA jurisdiction over isolated, non-navigable, intrastate ponds, and concluded that CWA jurisdiction could not be based solely on the presence of migratory birds. In Rapanos, the Court addressed CWA protections for wetlands adjacent to non-navigable tributaries, and issued five opinions with no single opinion commanding a majority of the Court. The plurality opinion, authored by Justice Scalia, stated that “waters of the United States” extended beyond traditional navigable waters to include “relatively permanent, standing or flowing bodies of water.”48 The plurality went on to clarify that relatively permanent waters ”do not necessarily exclude” streams, rivers, or lakes that might dry up in extraordinary circumstances, such as drought, and seasonal rivers, which contain continuous flow during some months of the year but no flow during dry months. The plurality opinion also asserted that only wetlands with a “continuous surface connection” to other jurisdictional waters are considered “adjacent” and protected by the CWA.49 Justice Kennedy’s concurring opinion took a different approach than Justice Scalia’s. Justice Kennedy concluded that “waters of the United States” included wetlands that had a significant nexus to traditional navigable waters, “if the wetlands, either alone or in combination with similarly situated lands in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as ‘navigable’” (id. at 780). The four justices who signed on to Justice Stevens’ opinion would have upheld jurisdiction under the agencies' existing regulations and stated that they would uphold jurisdiction under either the plurality or Justice Kennedy's opinion (id. at 810). Neither SWANCC nor the opinions in Rapanos invalidated any of the regulatory provisions defining “waters of the United States.”

Section 1: Traditional Navigable Waters

Legal Basis

The Supreme Court has recognized that navigability is a flexible concept and “[e]ach application of [the Daniel Ball test] . . . is apt to uncover variations and refinements which require further elaboration.”50 EPA and the Corps will be guided by examples of the types of evidence found relevant and sufficient for a traditional navigable waters determination in court decisions, although these will be fact-specific determinations and not every type of evidence will be available or needed in every circumstance. Field staff have sought guidance in particular on how to determine whether a water is susceptible to being used for commercial navigation such that it is a traditional navigable water. The cases discussed below provide specific examples of the types of evidence courts have found sufficient to demonstrate such susceptibility.

23 86 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

In FPL Energy Marine Hydro L.L.C. v. FERC, a case involving the Federal Power Act, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit reiterated the fact that “actual use is not necessary for a navigability determination” and repeated earlier Supreme Court holdings that navigability and capacity of a water to carry commerce could be shown through “physical characteristics and experimentation.”51 In that case, the D.C. Circuit upheld a Federal Energy Regulatory Commission navigability determination that was based upon three experimental canoe trips taken specifically to demonstrate the river’s navigability.52 The navigability determination was affirmed although the stream had five sets of rapids, and all parties agreed that the stream has never been used for commercial traffic, that there was no evidence of recreational use of the stream, and that the only evidence indicating actual use of the stream came from the 53 three trips made for the purpose of litigation.

The U.S Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has also implemented the Supreme Court’s holding that a water need only be susceptible to being used for waterborne commerce to be navigable-in-fact. In Alaska v. Ahtna, Inc., the Ninth Circuit held that current use of an Alaskan river for commercial recreational boating is sufficient evidence of the water’s capacity to carry waterborne commerce at the time that Alaska became a state.54 It was found to be irrelevant whether or not the river was actually being navigated or being used for commerce at the time, because current recreational boating showed that the river always had the capacity to support navigation by the types of boats that were in use at the time of statehood.55 Here, the stream was found to be navigable although the shallowest part of the river is just a foot deep during the low season; the river is customarily used, or is susceptible to use, by watercraft such as powerboats, 12-foot-long inflatable rafts, and motorized freight canoes and double-ended paddle canoes; hunters and fishermen travelled the river by boat in the past; most of the use of the river is recreational; and it is possible to take guided fishing and sightseeing trips on the river.56

Section 2: Interstate Waters

Legal Basis

The language of the CWA indicates that Congress intended the term “navigable waters” to include interstate waters without imposing a requirement that they be traditional navigable waters themselves or be connected to traditional navigable waters. The precursor statutes to the CWA always subjected interstate waters and their tributaries to federal jurisdiction.xiii The text of the CWA, specifically CWA section 303 that establishes ongoing requirements for interstate waters, in conjunction with the definition of navigable waters, provides clear indication of Congress’ intent to protect interstate waters that were previously subject to federal regulation.

xiii See endnote 13. Section 2(d)(1) of the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, 62 Stat. at 1156, stated:

The pollution of interstate waters in or adjacent to any State or States (whether the matter causing or contributing to such pollution is discharged directly into such waters or reaches such waters after discharge into a tributary of such waters), which endangers the health or welfare of persons in a State other than that in which the discharge originates, is hereby declared to be a public nuisance and subject to abatement as herein provided. 24 87 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Other provisions of the statute provide additional textual evidence of the scope of the primary jurisdictional term of the Act. Congress defined “navigable waters” in CWA section 502(7) to mean “the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.” Interstate waters are the waters of the several States and, thus, the United States. While the 1972 Act was clearly not limited to interstate waters, it was equally clearly intended to include interstate waters. Most importantly, there is a specific provision in the 1972 CWA establishing requirements for those interstate waters which were subject to the prior Water Pollution Control Acts. The CWA requires States to establish water quality standards for navigable waters and submit them to the Administrator for review, including “interstate waters.” CWA section 303(a)(1) states:

In order to carry out the purpose of this Act, any water quality standard applicable to interstate waters which was adopted by any State and submitted to, and approved by, or is awaiting approval by, the Administrator pursuant to this Act as in effect immediately prior to the date of enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, shall remain in effect. . . .

(Emphasis added.) Thus, Congress intended continued protection of interstate waters.

While EPA and the Corps believe congressional intent is clear, the agencies also have a longstanding regulatory interpretation that interstate waters fall within the scope of CWA jurisdiction.57 The agencies’ interpretation was promulgated contemporaneously with the passage of the CWA and is consistent with the statutory and legislative history of the Act. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has never addressed the CWA’s coverage of interstate waters, and its decisions in SWANCC and Rapanos do not question the jurisdictional status of interstate waters or impose additional jurisdictional requirements on interstate waters.

As noted above, the precursor statutes to the CWA always subjected interstate waters and their tributaries to federal jurisdiction. While Congress intended tributaries to interstate waters to be subject to the CWA, the statute does not define the extent of tributaries that are covered. In light of Justice Kennedy’s opinion, the agencies believe it is reasonable to assert jurisdiction over tributaries, adjacent wetlands and other waters which have a significant nexus to interstate waters consistent with the framework established by Justice Kennedy in Rapanos for establishing jurisdiction over waters with a significant nexus to traditional navigable waters (see sections 4, 5, and 6 of this guidance for additional information). Justice Kennedy’s standard seeks to ensure that waters Congress intended to subject to federal jurisdiction are indeed protected, both by recognizing that waters and wetlands with a significant nexus to covered waters have important beneficial effects on those waters, and by recognizing that polluting or destroying waters with a significant nexus can harm downstream covered waters.

Section 3: Significant Nexus

Legal and Scientific Basis

25 88 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

In Rapanos, Justice Kennedy provides an approach for determining what constitutes a “significant nexus” that can serve as a basis for statutory jurisdiction.xiv “The required nexus must be assessed in terms of the statute’s goals and purposes. Congress enacted the law to ‘restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters,’ 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a), and it pursued that objective by restricting dumping and filling in ‘navigable 58 waters,’ §§ 1311(a), 1362(12).” Justice Kennedy provided further guidance for determining whether wetlands should be considered to possess the requisite nexus in the context of assessing whether wetlands are jurisdictional: “if the wetlands, either alone or in combination with similarly situated [wetlands] in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as ‘navigable.’”59 While Justice Kennedy focused on adjacent wetlands in light of the facts of the cases before him, it is reasonable to utilize the same analysis for tributaries and other waters such as ponds, lakes and non-adjacent wetlands that are not themselves directly connected to a tributary system but may still have a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water or interstate water.

In determining which waters to consider “similarly situated” for purposes of analyzing whether they have a significant nexus “in combination” with the water at issue, it is reasonable to begin with the categories of waters the agencies identified in promulgating their definition of “water of the United States.” For example, tributaries are similarly situated within the landscape because they are part of a stream network that provides flow to the downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water. Adjacent wetlands are similarly situated within the landscape because the agencies’ definition is focused on their proximity to another water of the United States – “adjacent” is defined in regulations as bordering, neighboring or contiguous (see Section 5 for further discussion). Similarly, other waters (“(a)(3) waters”) that are in close physical proximity to traditional navigable or interstate waters or their tributaries are similarly situated with respect to those waters in much the same way as adjacent wetlands. Justice Kennedy’s standard allows the agencies to analyze whether all similarly situated waters in a region together have a significant nexus to the downstream traditional navigable water. With this standard, Justice Kennedy has recognized that even where it is difficult to demonstrate that a particular individual wetland adjacent to a small headwater tributary has a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water, the destruction of all such adjacent wetlands in a region could have a significant effect on the traditional navigable water and, thus, the CWA must protect those wetlands in order to protect the traditional navigable water. The same logic applies to tributaries and physically proximate other waters.

Waters should generally be considered “in the region” if they are within a watershed that drains to a traditional navigable water or interstate water, defined by the point at which a tributary system first enters a traditional navigable water or interstate water. Using a watershed as the framework for conducting significant nexus evaluations is scientifically supportable. Watersheds are generally regarded as the most appropriate spatial unit for water resource

xiv Again, the four justices who signed on to Justice Stevens’ opinion would have upheld jurisdiction under the agencies' existing regulations and stated that they would uphold jurisdiction under either the plurality or Justice Kennedy's opinion. Justice Kennedy concludes that Riverside Bayview and SWANCC “establish the framework for” determining whether an assertion of jurisdiction constitutes a reasonable interpretation of “navigable waters” - “the connection between a nonnavigable water or wetland and a navigable water may be so close, or potentially so close, that the Corps may deem the water or wetland a ‘navigable water’ under the Act”; “[a]bsent a significant nexus, jurisdiction under the Act is lacking.” 547 U.S. at 767. 26 89 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

management.60 Anthropogenic actions and natural events can have widespread effects within the watershed that collectively impact the quality of the relevant traditional navigable water or interstate water.61 For this reason, it is more appropriate to conduct a significant nexus determination at the watershed scale than to focus on a specific site, such as an individual stream segment. The watershed that contributes flow to the point of entry to a traditional navigable or interstate water is a logical spatial framework for the evaluation of the nexus. The functions of the contributing waters are inextricably linked and have a cumulative effect on the integrity of the traditional navigable water or interstate water. The size of that watershed can be determined by identifying the topographic area that drains to the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water, and then using that point of entry watershed to conduct a significant nexus evaluation.62

Justice Kennedy’s opinion provides guidance pointing to many functions of waters that might demonstrate a significant nexus, such as sediment trapping, nutrient recycling, pollutant trapping and filtering, retention or attenuation of flood waters, runoff storage, and provision of habitat.63 Furthermore, Justice Kennedy noted that a hydrologic connection is not necessary to establish a significant nexus, because in some cases the lack of hydrologic connection would show the significance of a water to the aquatic system, such as retention of flood waters or pollutants that would otherwise flow downstream to the traditional navigable water or interstate water.64 Finally, Justice Kennedy was clear that the requisite nexus must be more than “speculative or insubstantial”65 in order to be significant.

Section 4: Tributaries

Legal and Scientific Basis

Tributaries Covered Under the Rapanos Plurality Standard

As noted above, jurisdictional determinations based on the plurality standard would have the support of the four justices joining the plurality opinion as well as the four dissenting justices. The plurality concluded that the agencies’ regulatory authority should extend only to “relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water”66 connected to traditional navigable waters, and to “wetlands with a continuous surface connection to” such relatively permanent waters.67 “Relatively permanent waters” were described as waters that typically flow year-round except in times of drought, or waters that have a continuous flow at least seasonally. The plurality opinion emphasized that relatively permanent waters do not include tributaries “whose flow is ‘[c]oming and going at intervals . . . [b]roken, fitful.’”68 Therefore, “relatively permanent waters” do not include ephemeral tributaries which flow only in response to precipitation and intermittent streams which do not have continuous flow at least seasonally.xv

xv Note that under the Kennedy standard, such waters may be jurisdictional where they have a significant nexus. 27 90 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Moreover, waters that have had at least seasonal flow on a historic basis remain jurisdictional despite the fact that man-made diversions for irrigation, water supply or other reasons have caused a tributary, or portion thereof, to flow less than seasonally.xvi

Field staff have flexibility to determine what seasonal flow means in each particular case.69 Seasonal flow can be the result of snow melt, seasonal patterns in precipitation, and seasonal fluctuations in ground water levels. In the arid west, stream discharges are driven by three large-scale weather patterns.70 Precipitation produced by these weather patterns varies greatly for any given locality, but generally, precipitation shifts from winter in the north to summer in the south. The variation of precipitation in time, coupled with the highly variable topography of the arid west, results in spatially variable precipitation patterns.71 For example, seasonal flow in most of New Mexico and large portions of Arizona and Colorado would be during the period of two months, July and August, when they normally receive between 30-50 percent of their annual precipitation as rain.72 In some areas, snow melt drives stream flow, and seasonal flow is typically in the spring.73 Seasonal patterns of flow may be less pronounced in the semi-arid Midwest, perhaps because of less seasonal precipitation patterns and relatively more vegetative cover.74 In the east precipitation is more uniform but increased evapotranspiration during the growing season can reduce ground water levels and surface flows to create seasonal and ephemeral flows.75

Tributaries Covered Under the Rapanos Kennedy Standard

Justice Kennedy rejected the plurality’s approach that only “relatively permanent” tributaries are within the scope of CWA jurisdiction. Instead, Justice Kennedy concluded that “Congress could draw a line to exclude irregular waterways, but nothing in the statute suggests it has done so”; in fact, he states that Congress has done “[q]uite the opposite.”76 Further, Justice Kennedy concludes, based on “a full reading of the dictionary definition” of “water,” that “the Corps can reasonably interpret the Act to cover the paths of such impermanent streams.”xvii Even in Justice Kennedy’s rejection of Justice Stevens' opinion it is clear that he was specifically rejecting the broad scope of jurisdiction over wetlands without further analysis, and not specifically addressing jurisdiction over tributaries: “[T]he dissent would permit federal regulation whenever wetlands lie alongside a ditch or drain, however remote and insubstantial, that eventually may flow into traditional navigable waters. The deference owed to the Corps’ interpretation of the statute does not extend so far.”77

Elsewhere, Justice Kennedy suggests that it may be appropriate to assert jurisdiction over all tributaries with an ordinary high-water mark. Justice Kennedy described the Corps’ standard

xvi See S. D. Warren Co. v. Maine Bd. of Envtl. Prot., 547 U.S. 370, 379 n.5 (2006)("[N]or can we agree that one can denationalize national waters by exerting private control over them."). xvii 547 U.S. at 770. First, Justice Kennedy notes that the term “waters” can mean “‘flood or inundation,’” according to the Webster’s Second definition, and that these events are “impermanent by definition.” Id. Second, even looking to the plurality’s preferred dictionary definition of “waters,” i.e., “‘water “[a]s found in streams and bodies forming geographical features such as oceans, rivers, [and] lakes,”’” Justice Kennedy notes that “intermittent flow can constitute a stream.” Id. (alteration in original). And finally, Justice Kennedy notes that the plurality’s reference to the statement by the Riverside Bayview Court comparing “wetlands to ‘rivers, streams, and other hydrographic features more conventionally identifiable as “waters”’ . . . .could just as well refer to intermittent streams.” Id. at 771 (citations omitted). 28 91 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

for asserting jurisdiction over tributaries: “[T]he Corps deems a water a tributary if it feeds into a traditional navigable water (or a tributary thereof) and possesses an ordinary high-water mark . . . .”78 Justice Kennedy concluded that this standard “presumably provides a rough measure of the volume and regularity of flow.”79 In addition, if it is applied reasonably consistently, the Corps’ existing standard for tributaries “may well provide a reasonable measure of whether specific minor tributaries bear a sufficient nexus with other regulated waters to constitute ‘navigable waters’ under the Act.”80 Thus, Justice Kennedy’s opinion may reasonably be read as allowing the agencies to determine that a case-specific significant nexus determination is not necessary for tributaries possessing an ordinary high water mark, though it also indicates that he considers the presence of a significant nexus to be the appropriate test.

The agencies have decided that, given Justice Kennedy’s indication that significant nexus is still the guiding standard, it is appropriate for purposes of this guidance to assert jurisdiction over tributaries utilizing the same standard Justice Kennedy articulated for adjacent wetlands. In establishing the significant nexus standard, Justice Kennedy recognized that upstream adjacent wetlands can have significant effects on the physical, chemical and biological integrity of downstream waters covered under the CWA. As a scientific matter, tributaries can, of course, have similar effects and it is reasonable to utilize the same standard for determining whether tributaries have a significant nexus to downstream covered waters. Through rule making, the agencies will further consider whether the existence of an ordinary high-water mark alone is sufficient to establish a significant nexus to downstream traditional navigable or interstate waters, without requiring a site-specific analysis, as Justice Kennedy invites in his opinion.

As noted in Section 3, it is reasonable to consider all tributaries in a watershed to be “similarly situated” for purposes of a significant nexus analysis because they contribute flow to the downstream traditional navigable water or interstate water and provide similar functions to those downstream waters. Further, Section 3 demonstrated that it is reasonable to consider the region for significant nexus analysis to be a watershed defined by the area draining into the nearest traditional navigable water or interstate water through a single point of entry.

The agencies’ identification of the presence of an ordinary high water mark as one of the factors for considering a water to be a tributary for purposes of this guidance is consistent with Justice Kennedy’s observation that an ordinary high water mark may be a reasonable measure of whether a tributary possesses a significant nexus with a traditional navigable water or interstate water. This observation, in turn, is supported by both the agencies’ scientific judgment in the past and the scientific literature of the present. As the Corps stated in promulgating the definition of “waters of the U.S.” in 1977 to include tributaries, “[t]he regulation of activities that cause water pollution cannot rely on . . . artificial lines, however, but must focus on all waters that together form the entire aquatic ecosystem. Water moves in hydrologic cycles, and the pollution of . . . part of the aquatic ecosystem . . . will affect the water quality of the other waters within that aquatic ecosystem.”81 For more than 30 years, EPA and the Corps have interpreted the CWA to protect “the many tributary streams that feed into the tidal and commercially navigable waters . . . since the destruction and/or degradation of the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of each of these waters is threatened by the unregulated discharge of dredged or fill material.”82 As Congress and the Supreme Court have recognized,

29 92 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

“‘[w]ater moves in hydrologic cycles and it is essential that discharge of pollutants be controlled at the source.’”83

A large volume of scientific literature documents the important functions that tributaries, including headwater streams, provide to downstream waters.xviii Headwater streams, which may include perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams, are the most common streams in the United States. Collectively, they determine the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of downstream waters, and provide many of the same functions as non-headwater streams.84 Headwater streams reduce the amount of sediment delivered to downstream waters by trapping sediment from water and runoff.85 Headwater streams are responsible for most nutrient cycling and removal, and thus transforming and changing the amount of nutrients delivered to downstream waters.86 A close connection exists between the water quality of these streams and the water quality of downstream water bodies.87 Activities such as discharging a pollutant into one part of the tributary system are well-documented to affect other parts of the system, even when the point of discharge is far upstream from the navigable water that experiences the effect of the discharge.88 These streams provide habitat and protection for amphibians, fish, and other aquatic or semi-aquatic species living in and near the stream that may use the downstream waters, including traditional navigable waters, for other portions of their life stages.89 They also serve as migratory corridors for fish. Tributaries can improve or maintain biological integrity and control water temperatures in the downstream waters. Headwater streams serve as a source of food materials such as insects, larvae, and organic matter to nourish the fish, mammals, amphibians, and other organisms in downstream streams, rivers, and lakes.90 Disruptions in these biological processes affect the ecological functions of the entire downstream system.91 Headwater streams help to maintain base flow in the larger rivers downstream, which is particularly important in times of drought. At the same time, the network of headwater streams can regulate the flow of water into downstream waters, mitigating low flow and high flow extremes, reducing local and downstream flooding, and preventing excess erosion caused by flooding.92

Section 5: Adjacent Wetlands

Legal and Scientific Basis

Adjacent Wetlands Covered under the Rapanos Plurality Standard

Under the plurality standard, wetlands that have a continuous surface connection with a relatively permanent, non-navigable tributary are jurisdictional without the need for a significant nexus finding. The plurality opinion indicates that “continuous surface connection” is a “physical connection requirement.”93 A continuous surface connection does not, however, require surface water to be continuously present between the wetland and the tributary.

Adjacent Wetlands Covered under the Rapanos Kennedy Standard

xviii For purposes of applying the current body of scientific literature to the questions created by the Rapanos Supreme Court decision, traditional navigable waters can be considered analogous to downstream waters. This is because the vast majority of traditional navigable waters are downstream of headwater streams. 30 93 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Because the question in Rapanos was whether particular adjacent wetlands were “waters of the U.S.,” Justice Kennedy’s opinion focused on the standard for determining whether wetlands have the requisite nexus:

With respect to wetlands, the rationale for Clean Water Act regulation is, as the Corps has recognized, that wetlands can perform critical functions related to the integrity of other waters—functions such as pollutant trapping, flood control, and runoff storage. 33 CFR § 320.4(b)(2). Accordingly, wetlands possess the requisite nexus, and thus come within the statutory phrase “navigable waters,” if the wetlands, either alone or in combination with similarly situated lands in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as “navigable.” When, in contrast, wetlands’ effects on water quality are speculative or insubstantial, they fall outside the zone fairly encompassed by the statutory term “navigable waters.”94

With respect to wetlands adjacent to traditional navigable waters, Justice Kennedy concluded that the agencies’ regulation “rests upon a reasonable inference of ecologic interconnection, and the assertion of jurisdiction for those wetlands is sustainable under the Act by showing adjacency alone.”95 The agencies will apply Justice Kennedy’s reasoning to conclude wetlands adjacent to non-wetland interstate waters are similarly jurisdictional without the need of demonstrating a significant nexus.

For wetlands adjacent to tributaries that have a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water or interstate water, however, absent more specific regulations, the agencies must establish that the wetland alone or in combination with other adjacent wetlands in the watershed has a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water or interstate water. Justice Kennedy provided some guidance as to the analysis necessary to conclude that a water has a sufficient nexus. Justice Kennedy’s concern was that neither the Corps nor the reviewing courts applied the proper legal standard.xix Although evidence was presented in one of the consolidated cases that the wetlands were providing habitat, sediment trapping, nutrient recycling, flood peak diminution and reduction, and flow water augmentation, the Corps did not marshall this evidence to conclude that the wetlands had a significant nexus to downstream traditional navigable waters.96 The administrative record in the other case noted the wetland’s connection to wildlife habitat and water quality and “also noted that the project would have a major, long-term detrimental effect on wetlands, flood retention, recreation and conservation and overall ecology.”97 Justice Kennedy did not indicate that this evidence was irrelevant, in fact, he concluded that “[m]uch the same evidence” previously analyzed by the Corps could establish a significant nexus with traditional navigable waters, particularly with additional evidence about the connection between the wetlands and the navigable water.98

A hydrologic connection is neither determinative of nor required to show a significant nexus. Justice Kennedy noted that a “mere hydrologic connection should not suffice in all cases;

xix Justice Kennedy thought that in both the consolidated cases before the Supreme Court, “the record contains evidence suggesting the possible existence of a significant nexus according to the principles outlined above. Thus the end result in these cases and many others to be considered by the Corps may be the same as that suggested by the dissent, namely, that the Corps' assertion of jurisdiction is valid.” 547 U.S. at 783. 31 94 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

the connection may be too insubstantial for the hydrologic linkage to establish the required nexus with navigable waters as traditionally understood.”99 On the other hand, Justice Kennedy was also clear that a hydrologic connection between a wetland and a tributary is not required to establish a significant nexus: “Given the role wetlands play in pollutant filtering, flood control, and runoff storage, it may well be the absence of hydrologic connection (in the sense of interchange of waters) that shows the wetlands’ significance for the aquatic system.”100

Section 6: Other Waters

Legal and Scientific Basis

Other waters are those for which jurisdiction was previously asserted under section (a)(3) of the Corps’ regulations, which provide for CWA jurisdiction over “[a]ll other waters . . . the use, degradation, or destruction of which could affect interstate or foreign commerce. . . .” These include isolated, non-navigable intrastate waters. This provision of the regulations was the focus of the SWANCC decision. In that case, the Court was considering the validity of the Corps’ assertion of jurisdiction over ponds and mudflats under (a)(3). In rejecting the assertion of jurisdiction in that case, the Court held that “[i]t was the significant nexus between the wetlands and ‘navigable waters’ that informed our reading of the CWA in Riverside Bayview Homes.”101 Justice Kennedy further explained the SWANCC decision – and his understanding of when EPA and the Corps could assert jurisdiction over “other waters” – in his concurring opinion in Rapanos: “In Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook Cty. v. Army Corps of Engineers, 531 U.S. 159 (2001) (SWANCC), the Court held, under the circumstances presented there, that to constitute ‘navigable waters’ under the Act, a water or wetland must possess a ‘significant nexus’ to waters that are or were navigable in fact or that could reasonably be so made.”102 Because the Court in SWANCC was considering the validity of the Corps’ assertion of jurisdiction over ponds and mudflats under (a)(3) of the Corps’ regulations, it is reasonable to conclude that Justice Kennedy intends his significant nexus standard to apply to the “other waters” of this regulation.

An “other water” is jurisdictional only if it both has a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water or interstate water and meets the regulatory definition. One of the ways of demonstrating that a water is one “the use, degradation or destruction of which could affect interstate or foreign commerce” is through demonstration that the water has a significant nexus to a traditional navigable water or interstate water. If a water meets Justice Kennedy’s significant nexus standard, the degradation or destruction of that water could harm the traditional navigable water or interstate water and therefore could affect interstate or foreign commerce.

While all adjacent wetlands are reasonably proximate to a jurisdictional water by regulation and, therefore, “similarly situated,” the other waters provision of the regulations encompasses a wide-range of waters. For purposes of this guidance, the agencies have decided that it is appropriate to divide other waters into two classes, those that are physically proximate to traditional navigable or interstate waters or their tributaries, and those that are not. For the first group, it is reasonable to treat these in much the same manner as adjacent wetlands, since they stand in the same relationship to and serve many of the same functions as such wetlands with respect to the aquatic systems that they are near. For instance, physically proximate waters

32 95 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

can function to retain floodwaters, recharge groundwater, provide habitat for waterfowl and other species, and process and retain nutrients and pollutants that may otherwise enter tributaries; they may even be connected to a river during high floods and provide a protected habitat for eggs and young of many fish species, as well as provide refuge for spawning for some species.103

For the reasons articulated in Section 3 of this guidance, the agencies will interpret “in the region” for such proximate other waters to be the watershed boundary defined by the geographic area that drains to the nearest downstream traditional navigable or interstate water through a single point of entry.

In applying the significant nexus standard to such waters, it is important to note that Justice Kennedy concluded that a water may have a significant nexus even if it does not have a hydrologic connection to the traditional navigable water or interstate water: “Given the role wetlands play in pollutant filtering, flood control, and runoff storage, it may well be the absence of a hydrologic connection (in the sense of interchange of waters) that shows the wetlands’ significance for the aquatic system.”104 This statement applies equally to proximate other waters. Thus, effects that should be considered include circumstances where proximate other waters trap pollutants such as nutrients or sediment, for example, or where they hold precipitation or snow melt, thereby reducing contamination or flooding of traditional navigable or interstate waters.

In contrast, applying the significant nexus standard to geographically isolated other waters is more challenging. Justice Kennedy recognized that physical proximity can be an important factor in the analysis of significant nexus.xx In light of the challenges in applying the significant nexus standard to geographically isolated other waters, the agencies have identified physical proximity as an important factor when conducting a significant nexus analysis for such waters.

The agencies believe that the significant nexus test articulated by Justice Kennedy is the right theoretical approach for assessing all other waters, isolated and proximate, but because of the greater practical difficulty of applying this standard to geographically isolated other waters, we are directing field staff to continue for now the current practice of referring determinations for non-physically proximate other waters to their respective Headquarters and obtaining formal project-specific approval before asserting or denying jurisdiction. Because such waters are often geographically dispersed and isolated from each other, as well as from other jurisdictional waters, it is also not clear at this time how such waters should be grouped for purposes of considering them “similarly situated” and “in the region.” For this reason, until the agencies are able to further consider this issue through rule making, significant nexus determination will generally evaluate such waters individually, unless there is a compelling scientific basis for treating a group of such waters as similarly situated waters in the same region. In accordance with the decision in SWANCC, consideration of use by migratory species is not relevant to the significant nexus determination for such waters.

xx "Through regulations or adjudication, the Corps may choose to identify categories of tributaries that, due to their volume of flow (either annually or on average), their proximity to navigable waters, or other relevant considerations, are significant enough that wetlands adjacent to them are likely, in the majority of cases, to perform important functions for an aquatic system incorporating navigable waters.” 547 U.S. at 780. 33 96 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

ENDNOTES

1 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-500, 86 Stat. 816. The 1972 legislation extensively amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), which was originally enacted in 1948. Further amendments to the FWPCA enacted in 1977 changed the popular name of the statute to the “Clean Water Act.” See Pub. L. No. 95-217, 91 Stat. 1566; 33 U.S.C. 1251 note. The current FWPCA is codified at 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1387. This guidance will refer to provisions of the current act by relevant “CWA section.” 2 531 U.S. 159 (2001). 3 Carabell v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng’rs, 391 F.3d 704 (6th Cir. 2004); United States v. Rapanos, 376 F.3d 629 (6th Cir. 2004). After certiorari was granted, these cases were consolidated, and the resulting opinion cited as Rapanos v. United States, 547 U.S. 715 (2006). 4 CWA section 101(a). 5 While section 311 uses the phrase "navigable waters of the United States," EPA has interpreted it to have the same breadth as the phrase "navigable waters" used elsewhere in section 311, and in other sections of the CWA. See United States v. Texas Pipe Line Co., 611 F.2d 345, 347 (10th Cir. 1979); United States v. Ashland Oil & Transp. Co., 504 F.2d 1317, 1324-25 (6th Cir. 1974). In 2002, EPA revised its regulatory definition of “waters of the United States” in 40 C.F.R. part 112 to ensure that the actual language of the rule was consistent with the regulatory language of other CWA programs. Oil Pollution & Response; Non –Transportation-Related Onshore & Offshore Facilities, 67 Fed. Reg. 47,042 (July 17, 2002). A district court vacated the rule for failure to comply with the Administrative Procedure Act, and reinstated the prior regulatory language. American Petroleum Ins. v. Johnson, 541 F.Supp. 2d 165 (D. D.C. 2008). However, EPA interprets "navigable waters of the United States" in CWA section 311(b), in the pre-2002 regulations, and in the 2002 rule to have the same meaning as "navigable waters" in CWA section 502(7). 6 For example, the CWA section 402 program regulates discharges of pollutants from “point sources” to waters of the United States, whether these pollutants reach jurisdictional waters directly or indirectly. The plurality opinion in Rapanos noted that “there is no reason to suppose that our construction today significantly affects the enforcement of §1342. . . . The Act does not forbid the ‘addition of any pollutant directly to navigable waters from any point source,’ but rather the ‘addition of any pollutant to navigable waters.’” 547 U.S. at 743. Clean Water Act section 311(b)(1) provides: "[I]t is the policy of the United States that there should be no discharges of oil or hazardous substances into or upon the navigable waters of the United States [or] adjoining shorelines . . . or which may affect natural resources belonging to, appertaining to, or under the exclusive management authority of the United States." (Emphasis added.) "Discharge" is broadly defined in CWA section 311(a)(2) to include "any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping," with certain enumerated exceptions, and is not limited to point source discharges. 7 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(8); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.”). 8 CWA section 404(f); 40 C.F.R. § 232.3; 33 C.F.R. § 323.4. 9 CWA section 402(l)(1) ("The Administrator shall not require a permit under this section for discharges composed entirely of return flows from irrigated agriculture. . . .”); CWA section 502(14)("[The] term [point source] does not include agricultural stormwater discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture."); 40 C.F.R. § 122.3(f) (return flows from irrigated agriculture are excluded from the NPDES program); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (The term "point source" "does not include return flows from irrigated agriculture or agricultural storm water runoff."). 10 See, e.g., 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(1); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(1); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.”(a)); 40 C.F.R. § 110.1 (“navigable waters” (a)). 11 Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899, § 10, 33 U.S.C. § 403. 12 See, e.g., 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(2); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(2); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.”(b)), 40 C.F.R. §110.1 (“navigable waters” (b)). 13 Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, § 10(e), 62 Stat. 1155, 1161. 14 Field staff generally should use the Strahler method. In Strahler’s method, a first-order stream has no tributaries, a second-order stream is formed by the joining of any two first-order streams, and a third order stream is formed by the junction of any two second-order streams. Arthur N. Strahler, "Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Geomorphology," American Geophysical Union Transactions 38 (1957): 913-920. 15 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(5); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(5); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.”(e)). 16 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(7); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(7); 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.”(e)). 17 547 U.S. at 759.

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18 James M. Omernik, “The Misuse of Hydrologic Unit Maps for Extrapolation, Reporting and Ecosystem Management,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39.3 (2003): 563-73. 19 The country is divided and subdivided into successively smaller watersheds, and the U.S. Geological Survey has developed a standardized watershed classification system--the Hydrologic Unit System--to organize watershed boundaries in a nested hierarchy by size. A unique hydrologic unit code (HUC) consisting of two to twelve digits (based on the level of classification) identifies each watershed in the country. The system divides the country into 21 regions, and progressively smaller sub-regions, accounting units, cataloging units, watersheds, and sub-watersheds, with the Natural Resources Conservation Service delineating the boundaries for the smallest two levels. The 10-digit HUC, for instance, is the "watershed" level in the classification system. See United States, Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, "Overview and History of Hydrologic Units and the Watershed Boundary Dataset," Natural Resource Conservation Service. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.; United States, United States Geological Survey, USGS Water-Supply Paper 2294, Hydrologic Unit Maps (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Paul R. Seaber, F. Paul Kapinos, and George L. Knapp, 1987). 20 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(e). 21 Luna B. Leopold, M. Gordon Wolman, and John P. Miller, Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1964). 22 Nyle C. Brady and Ray R. Weil, The Nature and Properties of Soils, 13th Edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall). 23 Luna B. Leopold, A View of the River (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994) 3. 24 United States, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-06/126: Field Operations Manual for Assessing the Hydrologic Permanence and Ecological Condition of Headwater Streams (Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ken M. Fritz, Brent R. Johnson, and David M. Walters, 2006) 5. 25 See, e.g., 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(2), (5); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(2)(5). 26 Richard B. Alexander, et al., “The Role of Headwater Streams in Downstream Water Quality,” Journal of the American Water Resource Association 43.1 (2007): 41-59; Stephen R. Carpenter, et al., “Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorous and Nitrogen,” Ecological Applications 8.3 (1998): 559-68; Dana W. Kolpin, et al., “Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams: 1999-2000: A National Reconnaissance,” Environmental Science and Technology 36.6 (2002): 1202-1211. 27 United States, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERDC TR-04-1: Review of Ordinary High Water Mark Indicators for Delineating Arid Streams in the Southwestern United States (Hanover, NH: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Robert W. Lichvar and James S. Wakeley, 2004). 28 Generally, only the very large streams and rivers in the U.S. are monitored with stream gages for flow and the U.S. Geological Service maintains a network of only 7500 stream gages. United States, USGS, Fact Sheet 2009- 3020, National Stream Flow Information Program Implementation Status Report (March 2009). Smaller streams often do not have gages located on them, and not only would it be costly to monitor flow at sites like small headwater streams that are not currently gaged (Ken M. Fritz, Brent R. Johnson, and David M. Walters, "Physical Indicators of Hydrologic Permanence in Forested Headwater Streams." Journal of the North American Benthological Society 27.3 (2008): 690-704), monitoring studies can take one to two years (United States, U.S. EPA, EPA 600/R-06/126, Field Operations Manual for Assessing the Hydrologic Permanence and Ecological Condition of Headwater Streams (Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Fritz et al., 2006)). 29 Joan L. Florsheim, Jeffery F. Mount, and Anne Chin, “Bank Erosion as a Desirable Attribute of Rivers,” Bioscience 58 (2008): 519-29. 30 Takashi Gomi, Roy C. Sidle, and John S. Richardson, “Understanding Processes and Downstream Linkages of Headwater Systems,” BioScience 52 (2002): 905-16 (Gomi, et al.). 31 Louis A. Kaplan, Richard A. Larson, and Thomas L. Bott, “Patterns of Dissolved Organic Carbon in Transport,” Limnology and Oceanography 25 (1980): 1034-43; Robin L. Vannote, et al., “The River Continuum Concept,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37 (1980): 130-37; J. Bruce Wallace, Sue L. Eggert, Judith L. Meyer, and Jackson R. Webster, “Multiple Trophic Levels of a Stream Linked to Terrestrial Litter Inputs,” Science 277 (1997): 102-04; Mark S. Wipfli and David P. Gregovich, “Export of Invertebrates and Detritus from Fishless Headwater Streams in Southeastern Alaska: Implications for Downstream Salmonid Production,” Freshwater Biology 47.5 (2002): 957-69. 32 Id. 33 547 U.S. at 779-80.

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34 Id. at 780. 35 33 CFR § 328.3(c); 40 CFR § 230.3(b). 36 Kevin J. Devito, Alan R. Hill, and Nigel Roulet, “Groundwater-Surface Water Interactions in Headwater Forested Wetlands of the Canadian Shield,” Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996): 127-47; Michael A. O’Driscoll and Richard R. Parizek, “The Hydrologic Catchment Area of a Chain of Karst Wetlands in Central Pennsylvania, USA,” Wetlands 23 (2003): 171-79; Bradley J. Cook and F. Richard Hauer, “Effects of Hydrologic Connectivity on Water Chemistry, Soils, and Vegetation Structure and Function in an Intermontane Depressional Wetland Landscape,” Wetlands 27 (2007): 719-38. 37 Charles H. Wharton, Wiley M. Kitchens, and Timothy W. Sipe, The Ecology of Bottomland Hardwood Swamps of the Southeast: A Community Profile (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-81/37, 1982) 9. 38 As defined by the National Research Council, “riparian areas” are “transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and are distinguished by gradients in biophysical conditions, ecological processes, and biota. They are areas through which surface and subsurface hydrology connect waterbodies with their adjacent uplands. They include those portions of terrestrial ecosystems that significantly influence exchanges of energy and matter with aquatic ecosystems (i.e., a zone of influence). Riparian areas are adjacent to perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams, lakes, and estuarine-marine shorelines.” United States, National Research Council, Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management (Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 2002) 33. 39 A “flood plain” is the relatively broad and smooth valley floor that is constructed by an active river and periodically covered with floodwater from that river during intervals of overbank flow. See also Theodore H. Schmudde, “Floodplain,” The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, ed. Rhodes W. Fairbridge (New York: Reinhold, 1968) 359-62. 40 William J. Mitsch and James G. Gosselink, “The Value of Wetlands: Importance of Scale and Landscape Setting,” Ecological Economics 35.200 (2000): 25-33; Curtis J. Richardson, “Ecological Functions and Human Values in Wetlands: A Framework for Assessing Forestry Impacts,” Wetlands 14.1 (1994): 1-9. 41 Arid West Water Quality Research Project, Habitat Characterization Study Final Report (Phoenix: URS Corporation, 2002); William J. Mitsch and James G. Gosselink, Wetlands, 4th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007) 347. 42 Robin L. Wellcomme, Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Rivers (London: Longman, 1979); Virginia Carter, “Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions,” National Water Summary on Wetland Resources, eds. Judy D. Fretwell, John S. Williams, and Phillip J. Redman (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Water-Supply Paper 2425, 1996) 35-48; Alexander D. Huryn and K. Elizabeth Gibbs, “Riparian Sedge Meadows in Maine: A Macroinvertebrate Community Structured by River-Floodplain Interaction,” Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands of North America: Ecology and Management, eds. Darold Batzer, Russell B. Rader, and Scott A. Wissinger (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 363-82; Victor S. Lamoureux and Dale M. Madison, “Overwintering Habitats of Radio-Implanted Green Frogs, Rana clamitans,” Journal of Herpetology 33 (1999): 430-35; Leonard A. Smock, “Riverine Floodplain Forests of the Southeastern United States: Invertebrates in an Aquaticterrestrial Ecotone,” Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands of North America: Ecology and Management, eds. Darold Batzer, Russell B. Rader, and Scott A. Wissinger (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999) 137-65; James H. Harding, Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2000); Ted R. Sommer, Louise Conrad, Gavin O’Leary, Frederick Feyrer, and William C. Harrell, “Spawning and Rearing of Splittail in a Model Floodplain Wetland,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131 (2002): 966-74; Daniel D. Magoulick, and Robert M. Kobza,“The Role of Refugia for Fishes During Drought: A Review And Synthesis,” Freshwater Biology 48 (2003): 1186-98; Joseph L. Ebersole, et al., “Juvenile Coho Salmon Growth and Survival Across Stream Network Seasonal Habitats,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135 (2006): 681-1697. 43 United States, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Semipalmated Sandpiper Habitat Model (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2001). (.) 44 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(3); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(3); see also 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.” (c)). 45 51 Fed. Reg. at 41,217; 53 Fed. Reg. at 20,765. 46 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(b); 40 C,F.R. § 230.3(t), 40 C.F.R. § 122.2 (“waters of the U.S.” (b)). 47 547 U.S. at 782. 48 Id. at 739. 49 Id. at 742.

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50 United States v. Appalachian Elec. Power Co., 311 U.S. 377, 406 (1940). 51 FPL Energy Marine Hydro L.L.C. v. FERC, 287 F.3d at 1157 (internal quotation omitted). 52 Id. at 1157-59. 53 Id. at 1157. 54 Alaska v. Ahtna, Inc., 891 F.2d 1401, 1405 (9th Cir. 1989). 55 Id. at 1404. 56 Id. at 1402-03. 57 The term "waters of the United States" is defined by regulation to include "all interstate waters including interstate wetlands." 33 C.F.R. § 328.3(a)(2), (5); 40 C.F.R. § 230.3(s)(2)(5). 58 Id. at 779. 59 Id. at 780. 60 See, e.g., United States, EPA 841-B-08-002: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Handbook for Developing Watershed Plans to Restore and Protect Our Waters: Planning & Implementation Steps (Washington D.C.: U.S. EPA, March 2008); James M. Omernik and Robert G. Bailey, “Distinguishing Between Watersheds and Ecoregions,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33.5 (1997): 939-40; David R. Montgomery, “Process Domains and the River Continuum,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35 (1999): 397-410; Thomas C. Winter ,“The Concept of Hydrologic Landscapes,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 37 (2001): 335-49; Jill S. Baron, et al., “Meeting Ecological and Societal Needs for Freshwater,” Ecological Applications 12 (2002): 1247-60; J. David Allan, “Landscapes and Riverscapes: The Influence of Land Use on Stream Ecosystems,” Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 35 (2004): 257-84. United States, U.S. EPA and USDA/ARS Southwest Watershed Research Center, EPA/600/R-08/134, ARS/2330462008: The Ecological and Hydrological Significance of Ephemeral and Intermittent Streams in the Arid and Semi-arid American Southwest (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA and USDA/ARS Southwest Watershed Research Center, Levick et al., 2008) (Levick, et. al.). 62 Peter E. Black, “Watershed Functions,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33.1 (1997): 1-11. 63 547 U.S. at 775, 779-80. 64 Id. at 775. 65 Id. at 780. 66 547 U.S. at 739. 67 Id. at 742. 68 Id. at 732-33 n.5 (alteration in original). 69 United States, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Memorandum to Assert Jurisdiction for NWP-2007-945 (Marks Creek)” (Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 23 January 2008). 70 United States, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERDC TR-04-1: Review of Ordinary High Water Mark Indicators for Delineating Arid Streams in the Southwestern United States (Hanover, NH: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Robert W. Lichvar and James S. Wakeley, 2004); Lisa L. Ely, “Response of Extreme Floods in the Southwestern United States to Climatic Variations in Holocene,” Geomorphology 19 (1997): 175-201. 71 Ian Reid and Lynne E. Frostick, “Channel Form, Flow and Sediments in Deserts,” Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process, Form and Change in Drylands 2nd Edition, ed. David S.G. Thomas (Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1977) 205-29; William L. Graf, “Definition of Floodplains Along Arid-Region Rivers,” Flood Geomorphology, ed. Victor R. Baker, R. Craig Kochel, and Peter C. Patton (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988) 231- 242. 72 Levick, et al. 14-15. (See endnote 60.) 73 “Memorandum to Assert Jurisdiction for NWP-2007-945 (Marks Creek).” (See endnote 69.) 74 N. Leroy Poff and James V. Ward, “Implications of Streamflow Variability and Predictability for Lotic Community Structure: a Regional Analysis of Streamflow Patterns,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 46 (1989): 1805-18, 1809. 75 Matthew J. Czikowsky and David R. Fitzjarrald, “Evidence of Seasonal Changes in Evapotranspiration in Eastern U.S. Hydrological Records,” Journal of Hydrometeorology 5 (2004): 974-88. 76 547 U.S. at 770. 77 Id. at 778-79. 78 Id. at 781. 79 Id. 80 Id.

37 100 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

81 42 Fed. Reg. 37,122, 37,128 (July 19, 1977). 82 Id. at 37,123. 83 474 U.S. at 133 (quoting S.Rep.No. 414, 92d. Cong., 1st Sess., at 77 (1972)). 84 Gomi, et al.; Tracie L. Nadeau and Mark C. Rains, “Hydrological Connectivity Between Headwater Streams and Downstream Waters: How Science Can Inform Policy,” Journal of the American Resources Association 43 (2007): 118-33.; Levick, et al. (See endnote 60.) 85 Martin Dieterich and Norman H. Anderson, “Dynamics of Abiotic Parameters, Solute Removal and Sediment Retention in Summer-Dry Headwater Stream of Western Oregon,” Hydrobiologia 379 (1998): 1-15; State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2003a); S H. Duncan, R E. Bilby, J W. Ward, and J T. Heffner, "Transport of Road-Surface Sediment through Ephemeral Stream Channels," Water Resources Bulletin 23.1 (1987): 113-19. 86 Bruce J. Peterson, et al., “Control of Nitrogen Export from Watersheds by Headwater Streams,” Science 292 (2001): 86-90; Judith.L. Meyer and J. Bruce Wallace, “Lost Linkages and Lotic Ecology: Rediscovering Small Streams,” Ecology: Achievement and Challenge, ed. Malcolm C. Press, Nancy J. Huntly, and Simon Levin (Orlando: Blackwell Science, 2001) 295- 317, 310; Ken J. Hall and Bruce C. Anderson, “The Toxicity and Chemical Composition of Urban Stormwater Runoff,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 15 (1988): 98-106; David A. Lieb and Robert F. Carline, “Effects of Urban Runoff from a Detention Pond on Water Quality, Temperature and Caged Gammarus Minus (Say) (Amphipoda) in a Headwater Stream,” Hydrobiologia 441.1 (2000): 107-16; Robert E. Pitt, “Receiving Water Impacts Associated with Urban Runoff,” Handbook of Ecotoxicology, eds. David J. Hoffman, Barnett A. Rattner, G. Allen Burton Jr., and John Cairns Jr. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002); Richard B. Alexander, Richard A. Smith, Gregory E. Schwarz, “Effect of Stream Channel Size on the Delivery of Nitrogen to the Gulf of Mexico,” Nature 403 (2000): 758-61. 87 State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2003a); United States, State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Nonpoint Source Impacts on Primary Headwater Streams (Columbus, OH: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 2003) (identified as 2003b) []; Wipfli and Gregovich; Winsor H. Lowe and Gene E. Likens, “Moving Headwater Streams to the Head of the Class,” BioScience 55 (2005):196-97; Mary C. Freeman, Catherine M. Pringle, and C. Rhett Jackson, “Hydrologic Connectivity and the Contribution of Stream Headwaters to Ecological Integrity at Regional Scales,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43.1 (2007): 5-14. (See endnote 31). 88 United States, National Research Council, Committee on the U.S. Geological Survey, Watershed Research in the U.S. Geological Survey (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1997) 4; Frank M. Dunnivant and Elliot Anders, A Basic Introduction To Pollutant Fate and Transport: An Integrated Approach With Chemistry, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Environmental Legislation (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006). 89 Judith L Meyer, et al., "The Contribution of Headwater Streams to Biodiversity in River Networks," Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43.1 (2007): 86-103. 90 Gomi, et al.911. (See endnote 30.) 91 Kaplan. et al.; Vannote, et al.; Wallace, et al.; Wipfli and Gregovich. (See endnote 31.) 92 State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2003a); State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2001); Levick, et al.. (See endnote 31.) 93 547 U.S. at 747. 94 Id. at 779-80. 95 Id. at 780 96 Id. at 783. 97 Id. at 785. 98 Id. at 784. 99 Id. at 784-85. 100 Id. at 786. 101 531 U.S. at 167. 102 547 U.S. at 759. 103 See, e.g., Ralph W. Tiner, “Geographically Isolated Wetlands of the United States,” Wetlands 23.3(2003): 494- 516; Dennis F. Whigham and Thomas E. Jordan, “Isolated Wetlands and Water Quality,” Wetlands 23.3 (2003): 541-49; Charles R. Goldman and Alexander J. Horne, Limnology (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983); Paul H. Zedler, “Vernal Pools and the Concept of ‘Isolated Wetlands,’” Wetlands 23.3 (2003): 597-607; Ellen T. Bauder, Andrew J. Bohonak, Barry Hecht, Marie A. Simovich, David Shaw, David G. Jenkins, and Mark Rains, A Draft Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Vernal Pool

38 101 Appendix B – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

Depressional Wetlands in Southern California (San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, 2009). 104 547 U.S. at 786.

39 102 Appendix C – Bibliography and relevant section from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Draft Guidance Document dated April 2011

USACE Paper Proposed guidance references Section Text Arid West Topic 287 F.3d at 1157. FPL Energy Marine Hydro L.L.C. v. FERC 311 US377, 406 (1940) United States v. Appalachian Elec. Power Co. 33 CFR § 328 33 USC § 403. Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899, § 10, 33 USC 1251. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 376 F.3d 629 (6th Cir. 2004) United States v. Rapanos, 391 F.3d 704 (6th Cir. 2004) Carabell v. US Army Corps of Eng’rs, 40 CFR § 230 42 Fed. Reg. 37,122, 37,128 (July 19, 1977). 474 US at 133 (quoting S.Rep.No. 414, 92d. Cong., 1st Sess., at 77 (1972)). 51 Fed. Reg. at 41,217; 53 Fed. Reg. at 20,765. 531 US159 (2001). (SWANCC) 547 US715 (2006) Rapanos v. United States 62 Stat. 1155, 1161. Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, 87 State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2003a); 891 F.2d 1401, 1405 (9th Cir. 1989). Alaska v. Ahtna, Inc. Alexander, Richard B., et al., “The Role of Headwater Streams in Guidance 26 Trib-K Pollutant effect Downstream Water Quality,” Journal of the American Water Resource Association 43.1 (2007): 41-59;

103

Alexander, Richard B., Richard A. Smith, Gregory E. Schwarz, Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) “Effect of Stream Channel Size on the Delivery of Nitrogen to the Gulf of Mexico,” Nature 403 (2000): 758-61. Allan, J. David, “Landscapes and Riverscapes: The Influence of Legal 60 SN Watershed Land Use on Stream Ecosystems,” Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 35 (2004): 257-84. Arid West Water Quality Research Project, Habitat Guidance 41 Wet-K Hydrology Characterization Study Final Report (Phoenix: URS Corporation, 2002); Baron, Jill S., et al., “Meeting Ecological and Societal Needs for Legal 60 SN Watershed Freshwater,” Ecological Applications 12 (2002): 1247-60 Bauder, Ellen T., Andrew J. Bohonak, Barry Hecht, Marie A. Legal 103 AW OTWA Phys Prox Simovich, David Shaw, David G. Jenkins, and Mark Rains, A Draft Regional Guidebook for Applying the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions of Vernal Pool Depressional Wetlands in Southern California (San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, 2009). Black, Peter E., “Watershed Functions,” Journal of the American Legal 62 SN Watershed/Functions Water Resources Association 33.1 (1997): 1-11. Brady, Nyle C. and Ray R. Weil, The Nature and Properties of Guidance 22 Trib Gullies Soils, 13th Edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall) Carpenter, Stephen R., et al., “Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Guidance 26 Trib-K Pollutant effect Waters with Phosphorous and Nitrogen,” Ecological Applications 8.3 (1998): 559-68; Cook, Bradley J. and F. Richard Hauer, “Effects of Hydrologic Guidance 36 Wet-K Shallow Subsurface Connectivity on Water Chemistry, Soils, and Vegetation Structure and Function in an Intermontane Depressional Wetland Landscape,” Wetlands 27 (2007): 719-38 Czikowsky, Matthew J. and David R. Fitzjarrald, “Evidence of Legal 75 Trib-P Seasonal RPW - East Seasonal Changes in Evapotranspiration in Eastern US Hydrological Records,” Journal of Hydrometeorology 5 (2004): 974-88 Devito, Kevin J., Alan R. Hill, and Nigel Roulet, “Groundwater- Guidance 36 Wet-K Shallow Subsurface Surface Water Interactions in Headwater Forested Wetlands of the Canadian Shield,” Journal of Hydrology 181 (1996): 127-47;

104

Dieterich, Martin and Norman H. Anderson, “Dynamics of Legal 85 Trib-K Sediment (HW) Abiotic Parameters, Solute Removal and Sediment Retention in Summer-Dry Headwater Stream of Western Oregon,” Hydrobiologia 379 (1998): 1-15 Duncan, S H., R E. Bilby, J W. Ward, and J T. Heffner, "Transport Legal 85 Trib-K Sediment (HW) of Road-Surface Sediment through Ephemeral Stream Channels," Water Resources Bulletin 23.1 ( 1987): 113-19. Dunnivant, Frank M. and Elliot Anders, A Basic Introduction To Legal 88 Trib-K Effects (HW) Pollutant Fate and Transport: An Integrated Approach With Chemistry, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Environmental Legislation (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006). Ebersole, Joseph L., et al., “Juvenile Coho Salmon Growth and Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Survival Across Stream Network Seasonal Habitats,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135 (2006): 681-1697. Ely, Lisa L., “Response of Extreme Floods in the Southwestern Legal 70 AW Trib-P Hydrology United States to Climatic Variations in Holocene,” Geomorphology 19 (1997): 175-201. Florsheim, Joan L., Jeffery F. Mount, and Anne Chin, “Bank Guidance 29 Trib-K Sediment Erosion as a Desirable Attribute of Rivers,” Bioscience 58 (2008): 519-29. Freeman, Mary C., Catherine M. Pringle, and C. Rhett Jackson, Legal 87 Trib-K Water Quality (HW) “Hydrologic Connectivity and the Contribution of Stream Headwaters to Ecological Integrity at Regional Scales,” Journal of the American Water Resource Association 43.1 (2007): 5-14.

105

Fritz, Ken M., Brent R. Johnson, and David M. Walters, "Physical Guidance 28 Trib-K Smaller streams often Indicators of Hydrologic Permanence in Forested Headwater do not have gages Streams." Journal of the North American Benthological Society located on them, and 27.3 (2008): 690-704), not only would it be costly to monitor flow at sites like small headwater streams that are not currently gauged ; monitoring studies can take one to two years Goldman, Charles R. and Alexander J. Horne, Limnology (New Legal 103 OTWA Phys Prox York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983) Gomi, Takashi, Roy C. Sidle, and John S. Richardson, Guidance 30; Trib-K Habitat; Functions “Understanding Processes and Downstream Linkages of Legal 84; (HW); C-Cycling Headwater Systems,” BioScience 52 (2002): 905-16 (Gomi, et al.) Legal 90 (HW) Graf, William L., “Definition of Floodplains Along Arid-Region Legal 71 AW Trib-P Hydrology (ppt) Rivers,” Flood Geomorphology, ed. Victor R. Baker, R. Craig Kochel, and Peter C. Patton (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988) 231-242. Hall, Ken J. and Bruce C. Anderson, “The Toxicity and Chemical Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) Composition of Urban Stormwater Runoff,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 15 (1988): 98-106 Harding, James H., Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Region (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2000); Huryn, Alexander D. and K. Elizabeth Gibbs, “Riparian Sedge Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Meadows in Maine: A Macroinvertebrate Community Structured by River-Floodplain Interaction,” Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands of North America: Ecology and Management, eds. Darold Batzer, Russell B. Rader, and Scott A. Wissinger (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 363-82; Kaplan, Louis A., Richard A. Larson, and Thomas L. Bott, Guidance 31; Trib-K Biological Processes; “Patterns of Dissolved Organic Carbon in Transport,” Limnology Guidance 32; flooding; functions and Oceanography 25 (1980): 1034-43; Legal 91 (HW) 106

Kolpin ,Dana W., et al., “Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Other Guidance 26 Trib-K Effects (Pollutant) Organic Wastewater Contaminants in US Streams: 1999-2000: A National Reconnaissance,” Environmental Science and Technology 36.6 (2002): 1202-1211. Lamoureux, Victor S. and Dale M. Madison, “Overwintering Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Habitats of Radio-Implanted Green Frogs, Rana clamitans,” Journal of Herpetology 33 (1999): 430-35; Leopold, Luna B., A View of the River (Cambridge: Harvard Guidance 23 Trib Rills University Press, 1994) 3. Lepold, Luna B., M. Gordon Wolman, and John P. Miller, Fluvial Guidance 21 Trib OHWM - Channel Processes in Geomorphology (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Characteristics Company, 1964). Lieb, David A. and Robert F. Carline, “Effects of Urban Runoff Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) from a Detention Pond on Water Quality, Temperature and Caged Gammarus Minus (Say) (Amphipoda) in a Headwater Stream,” Hydrobiologia 441.1 (2000): 107-16 Lowe, Winsor H. and Gene E. Likens, “Moving Headwater Legal 87 Trib-K Water Quality (HW) Streams to the Head of the Class,” BioScience 55 (2005):196-97 Magoulick, Daniel D., and Robert M. Kobza, “The Role of Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Refugia for Fishes During Drought: A Review And Synthesis,” Freshwater Biology 48 (2003): 1186-98; Meyer, Judith L., et al., "The Contribution of Headwater Streams Legal 89 Trib-K Habitat to Biodiversity in River Networks," Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43.1 ( 2007): 86-103. Meyer, Judith.L. and J. Bruce Wallace, “Lost Linkages and Lotic Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) Ecology: Rediscovering Small Streams,” Ecology: Achievement and Challenge, ed. Malcolm C. Press, Nancy J. Huntly, and Simon Levin (Orlando: Blackwell Science, 2001) 295- 317, 310 Mitsch, William J. and James G. Gosselink, “The Value of Guidance 40 Wet-K Functions (Values) Wetlands: Importance of Scale and Landscape Setting,” Ecological Economics 35.200 (2000): 25-33; Mitsch, William J. and James G. Gosselink, Wetlands, 4th ed. Guidance 41 Wet-K Hydrology (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007) 347.

107

Montgomery, David R., “Process Domains and the River Legal 60 SN Watershed Continuum,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35 (1999): 397-410; Nadeau, Tracie L. and Mark C. Rains, “Hydrological Connectivity Legal 84 Trib-K Functions (HW) Between Headwater Streams and Downstream Waters: How Science Can Inform Policy,” Journal of the American Resources Association 43 ( 2007): 118-33. O’Driscoll, Michael A and Richard R. Parizek, “The Hydrologic Guidance 36 Wet-K Shallow Subsurface Catchment Area of a Chain of Karst Wetlands in Central Pennsylvania, USA,” Wetlands 23 (2003): 171-79; Omernik, James M. and Robert G. Bailey, “Distinguishing Legal 60 SN Watershed Between Watersheds and Ecoregions,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33.5 (1997): 939-40 Omernik, James M., “The Misuse of Hydrologic Unit Maps for Guidance 18 SN Watershed Extrapolation, Reporting and Ecosystem Management,” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39.3 (2003): 563-73. Peterson, Bruce J., et al., “Control of Nitrogen Export from Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) Watersheds by Headwater Streams,” Science 292 (2001): 86-90 Pitt, Robert E., “Receiving Water Impacts Associated with Urban Legal 86 Trib-K Nutrients (HW) Runoff,” Handbook of Ecotoxicology, eds. David J. Hoffman, Barnett A. Rattner, G. Allen Burton Jr., and John Cairns Jr. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, (2002) Poff, N. Leroy and James V. Ward, “Implications of Streamflow Legal 74 Trib-P Seasonal RPW - Variability and Predictability for Lotic Community Structure: a Midwest Regional Analysis of Streamflow Patterns,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 46 (1989): 1805-18, 1809. Reid, Ian and Lynne E. Frostick, “Channel Form, Flow and Legal 71 AW Trib-P Hydrology (ppt) Sediments in Deserts,” Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process, Form and Change in Drylands 2nd Edition, ed. David S.G. Thomas (Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1977) 205-29 Richardson, Curtis J., “Ecological Functions and Human Values in Guidance 40 Wet-K Functions (Values) Wetlands: A Framework for Assessing Forestry Impacts,” Wetlands 14.1 (1994): 1-9.

108

Schmudde, Theodore H., “Floodplain,” The Encyclopedia of Guidance 39 Wet-K Adjacent Geomorphology, ed. Rhodes W. Fairbridge (New York: Reinhold, (Floodplain) 1968) 359-62. Smock, Leonard A., “Riverine Floodplain Forests of the Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Southeastern United States: Invertebrates in an Aquaticterrestrial Ecotone,” Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands of North America: Ecology and Management, eds. Darold Batzer, Russell B. Rader, and Scott A. Wissinger (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999) 137-65; Sommer, Ted R., Louise Conrad, Gavin O’Leary, Frederick Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Feyrer, and William C. Harrell, “Spawning and Rearing of Splittail in a Model Floodplain Wetland,” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131 (2002): 96 6-74 Strahler, Arthur N, "Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Guidance 14 Interstate Relative Reach Geomorphology," American Geophysical Union Transactions 38 (1957): 913-920. Tiner, Ralph W., “Geographically Isolated Wetlands of the United Legal 103 OTWA Phys Prox States,” Wetlands 23.3(2003): 494-516 United States, Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Guidance 19 SN Watershed (10-digit Conservation Service, "Overview and History of Hydrologic Units HUC) and the Watershed Boundary Dataset," Natural Resource Conservation Service. Web. 25 Jan. 2011 United States, EPA 841-B-08-002: US Environmental Protection Legal 60 SN Watershed Agency, Handbook for Developing Watershed Plans to Restore and Protect Our Waters: Planning & Implementation Steps (Washington D.C.: USEPA, March (2008) United States, National Research Council, Committee on the US Legal 88 Trib-K Effects (HW) Geological Survey, Watershed Research in the US Geological Survey (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1997) 4 United States, National Research Council, Riparian Areas: Guidance 38 Wet-K Adjacent (Riparian) Functions and Strategies for Management (Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 2002) 33

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United States, State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Legal 87 Trib-K Water Quality (HW) Nonpoint Source Impacts on Primary Headwater Streams (Columbus, OH: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 2003) (identified as 2003b) []; United States, US Army Engineer Research and Development Legal 70 AW Trib-P OHWM - Hydrology Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERDC TR-04-1: Review of Ordinary High Water Mark Indicators for Delineating Arid Streams in the Southwestern United States (Hanover, NH: US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Robert W. Lichvar and James S. Wakeley, 2004) United States, US Environmental Protection Agency, Legal 69 Trib-P Seasonal RPW “Memorandum to Assert Jurisdiction for NWP-2007-945 (Marks (Deference) Creek)” (Washington D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency, 23 January 2008). United States, US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R- Guidance 28 Trib-K Monitoring studies 06/126: Field Operations Manual for Assessing the Hydrologic can take one to two Permanence and Ecological Condition of Headwater Streams years (Cincinnati, Ohio: USEPA Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory) (Washington D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency, Ken M. Fritz, Brent R. Johnson, and David M. Walters, 2006) United States, USEPA and USDA/ARS Southwest Watershed Legal 60; AW SN; Trib- Watershed; Seasonal Research Center, EPA/600/R-08/134, ARS/2330462008: The Legal 72; P; Trib-K RPW; Flooding Ecological and Hydrological Significance of Ephemeral and Legal 91 Intermittent Streams in the Arid and Semi-arid American Southwest (Washington, D.C.: USEPA and USDA/ARS Southwest Watershed Research Center, Levick et al., 2008) United States, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Semipalmated Guidance 43 Wet-K No MBR for eco Sandpiper Habitat Model (Washington, D.C.: USFish and Wildlife nexus Service, 2001). (

110

United States, United States Geological Survey, USGS Water- Guidance 19 SN Watershed (10-digit Supply Paper 2294, Hydrologic Unit Maps (Washington, D.C.: US HUC) Government Printing Office, Paul R. Seaber, F. Paul Kapinos, and George L. Knapp, 1987). United States, USGS, Fact Sheet 20093020, National Stream Flow Guidance 28 Trib-K Smaller streams often Information Program Implementation Status Report (March 2009) do not have gages located on them, and not only would it be costly to monitor flow at sites like small headwater streams that are not currently gauged Vannote, Robin L., et al., “The River Continuum Concept,” Guidance 31; Trib-K Biological Processes; Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37 (1980): Guidance 32; flooding; functions 130-37; Legal 91 (HW) Virginia Carter, “Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality, and Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat Associated Functions,” National Water Summary on Wetland Resources, eds. Judy D. Fretwell, John S. Williams, and Phillip J. Redman (Washington, D.C.: US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, U SGS Water-Supply Paper 2425, 1996) 3 5- 48; Wallace, J. Bruce, Sue L. Eggert, Judith L. Meyer, and Jackson R. Guidance 31; Trib-K Biological Processes; Webster, “Multiple Trophic Levels of a Stream Linked to Guidance 32; flooding; functions Terrestrial Litter Inputs,” Science 277 (1997): 102-04; Legal 91 (HW) Wellcomme, Robin L., Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Rivers Guidance 42 Wet-K Habitat (London: Longman, 1979); Wharton ,Charles H., Wiley M. Kitchens, and Timothy W. Sipe, Guidance 37 Wet-K Adjacent The Ecology of Bottomland Hardwood Swamps of the Southeast: (Riparian)(Phys A Community Profile (Washington, D.C.: US Fish and Wildlife Prox) Service, FWS/OBS-81/37, 1982) 9 Whigham, Dennis F. and Thomas E. Jordan, “Isolated Wetlands Legal 103 OTWA Phys Prox and Water Quality,” Wetlands 23.3 (2003): 541-49;

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Winter,Thomas C., “The Concept of Hydrologic Landscapes,” Legal 60 SN Watershed Journal of the American Water Resources Association 37 (2001): 335-49; Wipfli Mark S. and David P. Gregovich, “Export of Invertebrates Guidance 31; Trib-K Biological Processes; and Detritus from Fishless Headwater Streams in Southeastern Guidance 32; flooding; Water Alaska: Implications for Downstream Salmonid Production,” Legal 87; Quality (HW); Freshwater Biology 47.5 (2002): 9 57-69. Legal 91 Functions (HW) Zedler, Paul H., “Vernal Pools and the Concept of ‘Isolated Legal 103 OTWA Phys Prox Wetlands,” Wetlands 23.3 ( 2003): 597-607

Legend: Trib-K = Tributary determination using Kennedy test

Trib-P = Tributary determination using the Scalia test

OTWA = Other waters definitions (33 CFR 328.3(a)(3))

SN = Significant nexus analysis

Trib = Tributaries of Traditional Navigable Waters (33 CFR 328.3(a)(5))

Wet-K = Wetland determination using the Kennedy test

Interstate = Interstate Waters (33 CFR 328.3(a)(2))

112

Chapter 3

A Review of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Clean Water Act Jurisdictional Determinations post-SWANCC through post-Rapanos: Implications for Clean Water Act Implementation

Introduction

The Clean Water Act (CWA), initially signed into law in 1972, was and is today a pivotal

piece of legislation to combat water pollution of our ‘Nation’s waters’ at the Federal level (33

U.S.C. § 1251 et seq). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has final

determination on Section 404 CWA jurisdiction, but the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers would be

the day-to-day executor (Civiletti 1979). Therefore the Corps would be charged with identifying

the reach of the CWA by performing Jurisdictional Determinations (JDs). These JDs were

further explained in the Corps’ 1986 regulations (51 Fed.Reg. 41206, 41217) which laid the

foundation for the CWA Section 404 program (33 U.S.C. § 1344), provided information on the

types of JDs that could be conducted, and identified the statutory authority that the Corps

possesses to make such determinations.

Corps jurisdictional determinations have been reviewed at the National level in three

instances. The three pivotal Supreme Court cases deciding CWA jurisdiction are: United States

v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc (Bayview) (1985), Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook

County v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (SWANCC) (2001) and Rapanos v. United

113

States (Rapanos) (2006). These decisions were pivotal because they resulted in either an expansion or restriction of federal jurisdiction or added additional complexity to the determination process. After each decision, and in some instances as a result of oversight by

Congress, the agencies responsible for jurisdiction, the EPA and Corps, made major changes to the determination process. These changes attempted to ensure that the objective of the CWA would still be met.

In response to the1985 Bayview decision, the Corps and EPA amended their regulations. In the amendments the agencies provided additional clarifying guidance on which waters are considered jurisdictional waters in what was known as the "Migratory Bird Rule". This rule, adopted in the preamble to the 1986 Corps regulations (51 Fed.Reg. 41206, 41217) and 1988

EPA regulations (53 Fed.Reg 20764, 20765), came from an internal 1985 EPA General Counsel memo. The memo stated that waters of the United States at 33 CFR 328.3(a)(3) would also include the following waters: waters that are habitat for birds protected under the Migratory

Bird Treaties; waters that are habitat for supporting migratory birds crossing state boundaries; waters that are habitat for Endangered Species; and waters that are used for irrigation of Crops sold interstate because a link to interstate commerce could be established. This rule was never promulgated as such in accordance with Section 553 of the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) and was never tested by the public notice and comment procedures (5 U.S.C. 500 et seq).

Nevertheless, this guidance rule was used to make CWA JDs by both the Corps and EPA after the case.

The Corps regulation at 33 CFR 325.9 established the ability to determine jurisdiction, but the process is discussed at 33 CFR 331.2 in the definitions of the Administrative Appeals Process

Section. These regulations issued in March of 2000 state that an Approved JD is a Corps 114

document stating the presence or absence of waters of the United States on a parcel or a written

statement and map identifying the limits of waters of the United States on a parcel (65 FR

16493). Approved JDs are clearly designated appealable actions because they are final agency

action. The process to perform an Approved JD is outlined in RGL-07-01. A Preliminary JD indicates that there ‘may be’ waters of the United States on a parcel and/or identifies the approximate location(s) of waters of the United States on a parcel. Preliminary JDs are advisory in nature and not final agency action. Therefore, they cannot be appealed under the APA. The

Preliminary JD allows a landowner or individual to waive their right to question CWA

Jurisdiction on their property in order to move more quickly to the permitting process. The

“affected party” may voluntary use a Preliminary JD even where initial indications are that the aquatic resources on a site may not be jurisdictional, if the affected party makes an informed decision that it is within their interest not to request and obtain an Approved JD. This distinction

of assuming CWA jurisdiction would become a focus after the 2006 Rapanos Supreme Court

case.

In the 2001 SWANCC Supreme Court case, the Corps attempted to use the Migratory Bird

Rule as a basis to claim jurisdiction on a series of abandoned gravel pits outside of Chicago, on

the basis of the ponds use by migratory birds. The Corps and EPA issued guidance on January

15, 2003 (68 Fed. Reg. 1991, 1995) stating that the Court’s ruling did not invalidate the

agencies’ existing regulations, thus making the Migratory Bird Rule an invalid means to

determine jurisdiction.

In January of 2003 in response to the Supreme Court’s decision, the Corps solicited public

comments on issues surrounding CWA jurisdiction as part of an Advanced Notice of Proposed

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Rule Making (ANPRM), but due to the amount of comments generated from the notice, the

Corps discontinued the process in December of 2003. In response to the SWANCC decision and

subsequent notice to discontinue the ANPRM, Congress requested that the Government

Accountability Office (GAO) conduct two studies on CWA Post-SWANCC implementation procedures (GAO 2004; 2005).

The 2004 request concerned the consistency of asserting CWA jurisdiction, and GAO reported that the Corps jurisdictional practices were inconsistent and lacked sufficient documentation. They recommended that the Corps require more documentation on a district’s decision, survey all districts’ jurisdictional determination practices, and evaluate whether differences were present and if so how to resolved those differences to ensure consistency. The

Corps responded to GAO’s 2004 report by surveying all 38 Districts qualitatively in May of

2004. The results of investigating districts’ jurisdictional determination procedures, district level

JD case studies, and rulings in litigation cases prompted a more detailed second survey. The second survey hoped to define the nature and extent of the regional variation for tributaries, connections, and adjacency by defining and identifying district jurisdictional practices and reviewing their legal applications. Since the second survey was not intended to provide guidance or replace existing regulations, the two documents generated from the second survey, “Draft

Technical Findings on CWA jurisdiction” and “Technical Manual on CWA jurisdiction”(GAO

2004) are not releasable or covered under the Freedom of Information Act (5 U.S.C. § 552).

The 2005 request asked the GAO to examine the consistency of the Corps non-JDs. The

2005 GAO study mapped and identified data collection efforts to support the Jurisdictional

Determination process, summarized actions taken under 33 CFR 328.3(a)(3), and reviewed data

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collection efforts taken to comprehensively characterize the aquatic resource losses associated

with SWANCC. The GAO report documented that the Corps does not adequately document

non-JDs, district offices did not have the required EPA and Corps HQ guidance for making JDs

decisions over (a)(3) waters, and EPA and Corps are unable to accurately quantify the impact on

wetlands due to the SWANCC decision. The report recommended that EPA and Corps finalize

guidance establishing a process for HQ approval of jurisdictional determination calls based

solely on (a)(3), and that the Corps require detailed rationales for non-jurisdictional determination decisions. Unfortunately, none of these recommendations were completed due to the Rapanos Supreme Court case (GAO 2005). However, the Corps did create standardized jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional determination forms, and began requiring districts to post final actions on each District’s webpage.

In 2005, the Corps also issued a Regulatory Guidance Letter (RGL) 05-02 which reiterated the time limit of JDs that two previous RGLs 94-1 and 90-6 discussed but added a discussion on the difference between the two types of JD the Corps can issue, Preliminary and Approved.

RGLs provide guidance to field offices by interpreting or clarifying policies and procedures.

Most recently, the Corps ability to identify the scope of the CWA was challenged by the

2006 Rapanos Supreme Court decision. In response to the Rapanos Supreme Court decision, the

Corps issued RGL 07-01: which included the EPA and Corps joint guidance titled “CWA

Jurisdiction Following the U.S. Supreme Court’s Decision in Rapanos v. United States and

Carabell v. United States” and the “U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jurisdictional Determination

Form Instructional Guidebook”. The joint guidance was subsequently updated on December 2,

2008 (EPA/USACE 2008). With the “Guidebook” came a new standardized JD form to be used

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for all JDs whether jurisdiction would or would not be claimed. These national guidance

documents provide information as to the current standard operating procedures concerning

federal jurisdiction under the Corps CWA regulations (33 CFR 328.3(a)). The Corps also issued

RGL 08-02, which like its predecessors RGL 05-02, 94-1, and 90-6, reiterated both the differences between the Preliminary and Approved JD and the new coordination requirements due to the post-Rapanos guidance. The use of a Preliminary JD would allow the Corps to avoid

having to follow the new guidance procedures and allow a landowner to assume the waters and

wetland on their property were jurisdictional for the purposes of permitting. Thereby the new

standards created after the Rapanos decision can be sidestepped.

As with the 2001 SWANCC decision, Congress conducted hearings to determine the

potential effects the 2006 Rapanos decision may have on the implementation of the CWA. In a

joint investigation by the Oversight Committee and the Transportation Committee, the

memorandum noted that on April 16, 2008, EPA's Assistant Administrator for Water, Mr. Ben

Grumbles upon being asked ”whether any waters had lost CWA protections”, stated that there

had been only a "slight, not significant, decrease in coverage”. In addition the investigation

stated that the 2007 guidance document had been weakened thus having a negative effect on the

implementation of the CWA (U.S. Congress 2008). These two conclusions were based on either

email communications or testimony between agency staff. The major implication for the

Rapanos decision was that jurisdiction under the CWA was going to be limited. There was a

general fear that only those waters that were identified as navigable waters under the Rivers and

Harbors Act of 1899 would remain jurisdictional under the CWA. This would severely limit the

effectiveness of the CWA in controlling the degradation of the water resources within the United

States. 118

As noted in the SWANCC Supreme Court discussion, the decision began a series of events that uncovered the non-uniformity of jurisdictional decisions across the country. The

Corps had no standard policy when it came to documenting JDs until after the 2004 and 2005

GAO reports. Each district was allowed to use its own method for recording and tracking agency actions. The 38 districts prior to 2007 used Regulatory Analysis and Management

System (RAMS) version I and/or version II to record and document their actions. In 2007, the

Regulatory component of the Corps was internally mandated to transition to OMBIL Regulatory

Module (ORM) version 1.0 and finally converted to version 2.0 by February of 2008. This transition allows for a comparison of decisions between districts, which could be used to identify an effect if any that Supreme Court decisions, Agency guidance, and/or lower court decisions have had on the jurisdictional determination process.

The objective of this chapter is to identify trends in the number and types of jurisdictional determinations issued nationally and within districts that had lower court decisions post-

Rapanos, discuss the perceived consequence of a loss of CWA jurisdiction due to the Rapanos opinions, and determine if the EPA and Corps jurisdictional policy needs to change to meet the objective of the CWA.

Data Sources and Methods

The data were based on the current regulatory database used by the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers called OMBIL Regulatory Module Version 2 (ORM2). ORM2 is designed to provide a single source for all regulatory permit application information through an easily accessible web interface. The ORM2 system allows Corps regulatory project managers to easily view 119 application information and efficiently and effectively manage the permit application process

(Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center 2011). ORM2 was designed as a national database to track all Corps regulatory actions, including Jurisdictional Determinations (JDs).

Districts began using ORM2 in the fall of 2006 with all 38 Districts operational by February of

2008. Prior to ORM2, data were captured using ORM Version 1, mandated to be used for all districts by 2007, and two versions of the Regulatory Administrative Management System

(RAMS I and II). All information from the three previous databases should be migrated to

ORM2. ORM2 collects yearly information on a fiscal year that runs from October 1 to

September 30. Therefore the first year of data provided is from Fiscal year 2003 which runs from October 1, 2002 to September 30, 2003.

Total number of JDs by type, Approved and Preliminary, were obtained from Corps HQ for all 38 districts in the years post-SWANCC through September of 2012, which are Fiscal

Years (FY) 2003-2012. In addition, Corps HQ Nationally reported data for those years were collected. Lastly for seven Districts, the number of non-jurisdictional Approved JDs was captured. The seven Districts are: Los Angeles, Portland, Savannah, Jacksonville, Charleston,

Wilmington, and Baltimore. The districts were chosen because they fall within circuit courts that made subsequent post-Rapanos decisions concerning jurisdiction under the CWA.

Data from the seven districts were compared to the national trend for volume and type of determination issued. In addition, the seven districts were paired to compare trends within a court circuit. Therefore, overall JD number should increase from FY03 in which the SWANCC guidance was issued, decline in FY07 due to the uncertainty of the ramifications of the Rapanos decision and the lack of guidance, and begin to rise again in FY08 during the years in which

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guidance documents began to be issued. The type of JD issued should exhibit a change in FY05

due to the issuance of RGL 05-02 and then shift again in FY09 after the issuance of RGL- 08-02 in the direction of more Preliminary JDs.

The Los Angeles District (SPL) encompasses southern California and Arizona and the

Portland District (NWP) encompasses nearly the entire state of Oregon. Both Districts fall within the 9th Circuit, which due to the initial Northern California River Watch v. City of

Healdsburg (Healdsburg) decision in August of 2006 briefly held that the Kennedy test was

required for Approved JDs. That ruling lasted until the court revised its opinion in August of

2007 and held that its decision was only pertinent in that case. This decision would be expected

to have affected JDs issued in FY07.

The Savannah District (SAS) encompasses the entire state Georgia and the Jacksonville

District (SAJ) encompasses the entire state of Florida. Both Districts fall within the 11th Circuit, which due to the United States v. Robison (McWane) decision issued on October 24, 2007 requires Kennedy’s significant nexus test for all Approved JDs. This decision should demonstrate an effect in FY08.

The Charleston District (SAC) encompasses the entire state South Carolina, the

Wilmington District (SAW) encompasses the state of North Carolina, and the Baltimore District

(NAB) encompasses the state of Maryland, portions of northern Virginia, and the central region of Pennsylvania. All three Districts fall within the 4th Circuit. In September of 2009, the

Precon Development Corporation v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (Precon) decision sharply criticized the Corps ability to perform a significant nexus analysis. This decision was in response to a determination made in the Charleston District decision. Although this decision, 121

unlike the McWane decision in the 11th Circuit, did not determine which of the Rapanos rulings was the holding decision, it should have tempered the three districts usage of the Approved JD in

FY10.

Results and Discussion

Corps HQ data

Table 3.1 shows the Corps HQ provided number at the national level and Table 2 shows

the differences between the ORM2 database and totals reported by the 38 Districts. Figure 3.1

shows the relationship over time of the information presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2.

From the two tables we do see the decline in total JDs reported in FY07 with an increase

in FY08. What is notable from the tables above is that the percentage of approved to preliminary

JDs did not change appreciably from the post-SWANCC guidance to Fiscal year 2008 at the national level. During and after Fiscal Year 2009, we see a dramatic shift at the national level between the two types of JDs. It is interesting to note that this trend appears to more closely mirror the Corps Regulatory Guidance Letter (RGL) 08-02 issued in June of 2008 (the last four months of the FY) than either of the two guidance documents. RGL 08-02 reiterates portions of

RGL 90-6, 94-1, and 05-02, and the difference between the two types of JDs, and states that this guidance does not supersede the previous guidance on what constitutes a water of the U.S.

Table 3.2 shows a discrepancy in what is reported and what is found within the ORM2 database. In discussions with Corps HQ, the first four years of data were obtained from converting the two versions of RAMS. Since the RAMS database was designed for and operated 122

at the District level, not all District level data effectively converted to the national ORM database

structure. Likewise in FY07, ORM was implemented in some districts, but not in others. By

FY08, all districts had been required to convert to ORM2. Then in years post FY09, the National

reported numbers included instances in which no JD type was identified but a permit was issued

per RGL 08-02. It appears from FY2010-2012, an average of 7,130 permit actions are made without a JD. Additionally national numbers dipped in FY10 due to a change in the ORM2 database that allowed for multiple waters to be used on one JD action. Nevertheless, there has been a decline in the number of JDs issued by the Corps nationally and the type of JDs has transitioned from the Approved to the Preliminary.

Los Angeles and Portland Data

As shown in Table 3.3a and 3.3b and Figure 3.2a and 3.2b, both districts saw a decline in

the number and type of issued JD’s, but they occurred within different fiscal years and over

different periods of time. SPL showed a decline in FY07 and FY08, but began to return to pre-

Rapanos levels in FY09. NWP had its decline in FY06 and rapidly returned to pre-Rapanos

levels in FY07. Both districts relied heavily on Approved JDs in the pre-Rapanos Years. After

the Rapanos decision both districts began to shift towards issuing Preliminary JDs, but NWP began their shift in FY07, while SPL’s occurred in FY09. By FY12 both districts have stabilized the percentage of JDs issued, but both demonstrate a decline in the total number of JDs issued, which mirrors the decline seem nationally (figure 3.3a and 3.3b). Tables 3.4a and 3.4b show the differences between the ORM2 database’s labeled and unlabeled determinations. Note: unlabeled determinations beginning in FY10 may contain some of those determinations

123 identified in RGL-08-02. SPL’s conversion of all historical data to ORM 2 appears to have been successful, but a rapid increase in the number of labeled and unlabeled JDs in FY09 can be attributed to the large number of solar power projects the district was processing and the backlog of JDs from the Rapanos decision. NWP shows a steady decline in the volume of unlabeled JDs with a peak in total number of JDs in FY09 that can be attributed to the backlog of JDs generated during the pre-Rapanos guidance documents. NWP’s downward trend is most likely attributed to its conversion from its previous database system to ORM2. There was great concern that districts would no longer be regulating any stream or wetland that wasn’t in and of itself navigable. However as shown in Figure 3.2a and 3.2b, only a small number of JDs disclaimed jurisdiction under the CWA with a considerable jump that corresponds to the initial Rapanos guidance document before issuance of RGL 08-02. Overall both districts non-jurisdictional determination numbers are similar to pre-Rapanos levels.

Savannah and Jacksonville

As shown in Table 3.6a and 3.6b and Figure 3.4a and 3.4b, both districts saw a decline in the number and type of issued JD’s, but they occurred within different fiscal years and over different periods of time. SAS showed a decline in FY10 with an increase in the number of issued JDs during the year’s pre and post Rapanos. The decline continues through FY12. SAJ had its decline in FY07 with its number holding steady for the two years’ post-Rapanos decision, but a steady decline from FY10-12. Both districts used the Approved JDs as their primary method of determining jurisdiction but for different periods of time. SAS began primarily using the Approved JD during FY07-09, but rapidly changed to Preliminary JDs in FY10. SAJ began

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using Approved JDs at its primary method in FY04, the year directly after the SWANCC

guidance, and continued till FY08. By FY09 SAJ began to transition and predominantly used

Preliminary JDs to make their determinations through FY12. By FY12 both districts have

stabilized the percentage of JDs issued, but both demonstrate a decline in the total number of JDs

issued, which mirrors the decline seen nationally (see figure 3.5a and 3.5b). The rapid increase

in the number of Preliminary JDs issued in SAS corresponds to a local guidance document

released to the public on March 4, 2009, which occurred in the final seven months of FY09.

Table 3.6a and 3.6b show the differences between the ORM2 database’s labeled and

unlabeled determinations. Note: unlabeled determinations beginning in FY 2010 may contain

some of those determinations identified in RGL-08-02. SAS’s conversion of all historical data to

the ORM 2 appears to have been relatively unsuccessful in FY03-04, but conversion post FY04

appears to provide reliable information. SAJ’s database trend is similar to SAS’s. There was

great concern that districts would no longer be regulating any stream or wetland that wasn’t in

and of itself navigable. However as shown in Figure 3.4a and 3.4b, SAS had an increase in the

number of non-jurisdictional determination in the two years’ post Rapanos with a decline in

FY09 which corresponds to the issuance of RGL-08-02 to pre-Rapanos Levels by FY10.

However, within SAJ there is no appreciable change in the percentage of non-jurisdictional determination calls made pre and post Rapanos. Regardless, only a small percentage of JDs disclaimed jurisdiction under the CWA.

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Charleston, Wilmington, and Baltimore

As shown in Table 3.7a, 3.7b, and 3.7c and Figure 3.7a, 3.7b, and 3.7c, all districts saw a decline in the number and type of issued JDs, but they occurred within different fiscal years and over different periods of time. SAC showed a decline in FY09 with an increase in the number of issued JDs during the year’s pre and post-Rapanos. The decline continues through FY11 and appears to be stable by FY12. SAW had its decline in FY07 with its numbers holding steady for

FY08, but a steady decline from FY09 to FY12. NAB had its peak of issued JDs in FY07, with resurgence in FY11. SAC post-SWANCC primarily used Approved JDs with a steady decline till

FY07, an increase in the years post-Rapanos, but a decline again in FY11 and FY12. This trend correlates with the Precon decision. SAW post-SWANCC guidance used Preliminary JDs as it primary method to process determination requests but shifted to Approved JDs during FY06. .

In FY03, NAB used the Approved JD as it primary method but by FY05 had shifted to

Preliminary JDs as its preferred method. As Precon would have affected the issuance of

Approved JDs, it had no noticeable effect on NAB. By FY 2012 NAB and SAW have stabilized the percentage of JDs issued with SAC displaying a decline. SAC and SAW demonstrate a decline in the total number of JDs issued, which mirrors the decline seem nationally (figure 3.7a,

3.7b, and 3.7c), but NAB showed an increase in issued JDs trend in FY11 and FY12.

Table 3.8a, 3.8b, and 3.8c show the differences between the ORM2 database’s labeled and unlabeled determinations. Unlabeled determinations beginning in FY 2010 may contain some of those determinations identified in RGL-08-2. SAC’s conversion of all historical data to the ORM 2 appears to have been relatively unsuccessful in FY03 to FY05, but conversion post

FY05 appears to provide reliable information. SAW’s database trend is similar to SAW’s but is extended until FY06. NAB conversion tends to be successful since FY03. As referenced above, 126

there was a concern that districts would no longer be regulating any stream or wetland that

wasn’t in and of itself navigable. As shown in Figure 3.7a, 3.7b, and 3.7c, SAC had an increase

in the number of non-jurisdictional determination in the two years’ post-SWANCC guidance but has stayed consistent through the Rapanos decision and subsequent guidance. SAW displayed an increase during the FY06, the year of the Rapanos decision, but has stayed constant through

FY12. Within NAB, which primarily issued Preliminary JDs, there was a small increase in

FY06 and FY07, a spike in FY08, but a decline in FY09, which corresponds to the issuance of

RGL 08-02, and has held constant through FY12. Of the three districts, SAC has the largest percentage of non-JDs.

Conclusion

After the Rapanos decision was issued in 2006, there was an uncertainty about what was

still jurisdictional under the Clean Water Act. Also there was a genral impression that there

would be a drastic reduction in the protection of “our Nation’s waters” because those non-

perennial, small, headwater streams and wetlands would not have a “significant nexus”. The guidance issued by both the Corps and EPA indicated that a loss of jurisdiction should be expected; this prompted an influx of scholarly articles discussing the value of certain types of waters and making an argument that they remain jurisdictional (Alexander et al. 2007; Meyer et al. 2007; Wipfli et al. 2007; and Leverick et al. 2008). From investigating trends on the national level, a minimum of 67percent of the JD’s issued are claiming jurisdiction by FY12 based alone on the number of Preliminary JDs issued. On the district level, two of the seven districts showed no real change in the percentage of non-JDs. The other five had some response to the decision,

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with all but one district (SAC) still claiming jurisdiction on over 95 percent of their

determinations. Therefore, a snapshot of the seven districts still show that over 90 percent of the

determinations made are claiming jurisdiction under the CWA. Of those issued Approved JD’s

disclaiming jurisdiction, one would have to examine each file to determine if the rationale behind

the decision was based on the SWANCC (non-navigable, intrastate water) or Rapanos (significant

nexus) decision. The Corps transitioned to performing the Preliminary JD, which is voluntary on the part of the regulated community, avoids the resource intensive significant nexus analysis, assumes jurisdiction of any potential aquatic resource, and allows for regulation of the water by expeditiously moving to the permitting process. This transition has helped to ensure that there would not be a significant decrease in the scope of jurisdiction under the CWA.

As noted in the 2004 and 2005 GAO studies, the consistency of reporting of JDs was left up to the individual districts who then reported their numbers to HQ. In the years around the

SWANCC decision, there was no mechanism in place to measure the effect of policy decisions on the day-to-day implementation of Section 404 of the CWA, either on the national or district level. The transition to a centralized database (ORM1 and then ORM2) was a way to capture those trends at a national and district level. These data can then identify district-specific

differences; for example, NAB issues 20% more Preliminary JDs while SAW issues 45% less

Preliminary JDs than the national average in FY12. Also, these data show that different districts

respond to guidance at different rates. For example, NAB transitioned to Preliminary JDs in

FY04/05, SAJ in FY09, and SAS in FY10, but SAW and SAC still use Approved JDs as their

primary method of determining jurisdiction. Therefore, not all districts responded to the national

guidance provided in RGLs 05-02 and 08-02 uniformly. This shows that the Corps 38 districts

are afforded some latitude on when and how to implement the guidance, which may have been 128 the result of lower court decisions, as is the case for the districts identified above. Nevertheless the inconsistency in which the districts implement the national guidance can cause uncertainty in the JD process. The implications to this can be as small as a consultant facing two different standards when working across district lines and as large as the Corps being charged with acting arbitrary and capricious in a court of law. The complex question of policy effectiveness has two opposite answers. If we focus on whether the policy is effective in meeting the objective of the

CWA in terms of the Approved JD process outlined in RGL 07-01, the answer would be no because the Corps previous standard policy of issuing Approved JDs transitioned nationally to

Preliminary JDs within a two years. However, if we examine the same question in terms of the

Preliminary JD as clarified in RGL 08-02, these types of determinations may expand CWA jurisdiction by including some areas that may not be found jurisdictional during the Approved process. Therefore for purposes of computation of impacts, compensatory mitigation, requirements, and other resource protection measures, for a permit issued with a Preliminary JD, all waters and wetlands that would be affected are treated as if they are jurisdictional. Overall, the current policy concerning jurisdiction using the Approved JD process has been sidestepped by clarifying guidance that reflects a historic policy. Neverthelss this policy, appears to be functional in meeting the objective of the CWA.

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Tables

Table 3.1. Number and percent of Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal

Year 2003 to 2012.

AJD PJD % AJD % PJD Event FY03 27,071 11,351 70% 30% SWANCC Guidance FY04 35,325 18,980 65% 35% FY05 48,668 22,190 69% 31% RGL 05-02 FY06 47,954 26,323 65% 35% Rapanos Decision FY07 46,047 26,933 63% 37% Rapanos Guidance FY08 58,694 28,239 68% 32% RGL 08-02 FY09 39,953 41,787 49% 51% FY10 23,821 32,825 42% 58% Database Change FY11 19,416 31,366 38% 62% FY12 16,655 33,505 33% 67%

AJD = Approved Jurisdictional Determination

FY = Fiscal Year

PJD = Preliminary Jurisdictional Determination

RGL = Regulatory Guidance Letter

SWANCC = Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. United States

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Table 3.2. Number of Approved and Preliminary Jurisdictional Determinations in the

ORMv2 database versus District reported numbers.

Total JDs in database Totals Reported Delta Percent Delta Event FY03 38,422 78,000 39,578 51% SWANCC Guidance FY04 54,305 78,000 23,695 30% FY05 70,858 100,000 29,142 29% FY06 74,277 100,000 25,723 26% Rapanos Decision FY07 72,980 56,000 16,980 30% Rapanos Guidance FY08 86,933 86,000 933 1% RGL 08-02 FY09 81,740 81,000 740 1% FY10 56,646 63,000 6,354 10% Database Change FY11 50,782 58,000 7,218 12% FY12 50,160 58,000 7,840 13%

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Table 3.3a. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

SPL.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 1,156 1 >99% <1% 2004 1,079 2 >99% <1% 2005 1,542 6 >99% <1% 2006 1,227 6 >99% <1% 2007 847 40 95% 5% 2008 582 86 87% 13% 2009 1,162 693 63% 37% 2010 563 503 53% 47% 2011 210 608 26% 74% 2012 172 454 27% 73%

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Table 3.3b. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

NWP.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 863 21 98% 2% 2004 930 30 97% 3% 2005 883 8 99% 1% 2006 777 35 96% 4% 2007 540 553 49% 51% 2008 797 286 74% 26% 2009 130 1,236 10% 90% 2010 25 496 5% 95% 2011 13 407 3% 97% 2012 18 400 4% 96%

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Table 3.4a. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in SPL.

Fiscal Total in Percent Year Labeled Unlabeled database unlabeled 2003 1,157 0 1,157 0% 2004 1,081 0 1,081 0% 2005 1,548 0 1,548 0% 2006 1,233 0 1,233 0% 2007 887 83 970 9% 2008 668 176 844 21% 2009 1,855 1,051 2,906 36% 2010 1,066 500 1,566 32% 2011 818 152 970 16% 2012 626 85 701 12%

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Table 3.4b. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in NWP.

Fiscal Total in Percent year Labeled Unlabeled Database unlabeled 2003 884 126 1,010 12% 2004 960 108 1,068 10% 2005 891 110 1,001 11% 2006 812 81 893 9% 2007 1,093 33 1,126 3% 2008 1,083 11 1,094 1% 2009 1,366 0 1,366 0% 2010 521 3 524 <1% 2011 420 8 428 2% 2012 418 0 418 0%

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Table 3.5a. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

SAS.

Fiscal Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD Year 2003 8 10 44% 56% 2004 25 10 71% 29% 2005 770 751 51% 49% 2006 1,076 1,241 46% 54% 2007 1,552 810 66% 34% 2008 2,340 117 95% 5% 2009 1,628 513 76% 24% 2010 186 1,028 15% 85% 2011 199 701 22% 78% 2012 129 670 16% 84%

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Table 3.5b. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

SAJ.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 393 508 44% 56% 2004 5,602 3,058 65% 35% 2005 7,615 2,698 74% 26% 2006 6,100 2,905 68% 32% 2007 4,977 879 85% 15% 2008 3,265 1,020 76% 24% 2009 2,408 2,326 51% 49% 2010 1,021 2,333 30% 70% 2011 819 2,479 25% 75% 2012 744 2,106 26% 74%

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Table 3.6a. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in SAS.

Fiscal Total in Percent Year Labeled Unlabeled database unlabeled 2003 18 916 934 98% 2004 35 989 1,024 97% 2005 1,521 300 1,821 16% 2006 2,317 263 2,580 10% 2007 2,362 203 2,565 8% 2008 2,457 285 2,742 10% 2009 2,141 244 2,385 10% 2010 1,214 6 1,220 <1% 2011 900 7 907 <1% 2012 799 0 799 0%

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Table 3.6b. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in SAJ.

Fiscal Total in Percent year Labeled Unlabeled Database unlabeled 2003 901 5,495 6,396 86% 2004 8,660 3,372 12,032 28% 2005 10,313 2,067 12,380 17% 2006 9,005 3,218 12,223 26% 2007 5,856 0 5,856 0% 2008 4,285 790 5,075 16% 2009 4,734 373 5,107 7% 2010 3,354 106 3,460 3% 2011 3,298 69 3,367 2% 2012 2,850 47 2,897 2%

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Table 3.7a. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

SAC.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 42 5 89% 11% 2004 164 47 78% 22% 2005 203 42 83% 17% 2006 876 387 69% 31% 2007 1,475 790 65% 35% 2008 3,480 594 85% 15% 2009 2,808 437 87% 13% 2010 1,514 375 80% 20% 2011 775 351 69% 31% 2012 713 485 60% 40%

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Table 3.7b. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

SAW.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 15 266 5% 95% 2004 46 182 20% 80% 2005 76 208 27% 73% 2006 1,320 620 68% 32% 2007 2,843 281 91% 9% 2008 3,319 149 96% 4% 2009 2,151 204 91% 9% 2010 1,494 280 84% 16% 2011 1,474 369 80% 20% 2012 1,168 335 78% 22%

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Table 3.7c. Jurisdictional determinations by type from Fiscal Year 2003 to 2012 for

NAB.

Fiscal Year Approved Preliminary %AJD %PJD 2003 485 162 75% 25% 2004 475 410 54% 46% 2005 542 888 38% 62% 2006 435 1,179 27% 73% 2007 556 3,093 15% 85% 2008 569 1,354 30% 70% 2009 162 1,719 9% 91% 2010 167 1,407 11% 89% 2011 451 2,630 15% 85% 2012 326 1,862 15% 85%

142

Table 3.8a. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in SAC.

Fiscal Total in Percent Year Labeled Unlabeled database unlabeled 2003 47 796 843 94% 2004 211 883 1,094 81% 2005 245 911 1,156 79% 2006 1,263 415 1,678 25% 2007 2,265 102 2,367 4% 2008 4,074 84 4,158 2% 2009 3,245 9 3,254 <1% 2010 1,889 0 1,889 0% 2011 1,126 1 1,127 <1% 2012 1,198 3 1,201 <1%

143

Table 3.8b. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in SAW.

Fiscal Total in Percent year Labeled Unlabeled Database unlabeled 2003 281 3,285 3,566 92% 2004 228 3,472 3,700 94% 2005 284 5,299 5,583 95% 2006 1,940 3,079 5,019 61% 2007 3,124 105 3,229 3% 2008 3,468 25 3,493 <1% 2009 2,355 42 2,397 2% 2010 1,774 24 1,798 1% 2011 1,843 13 1,856 <1% 2012 1,503 11 1,514 <1%

144

Table 3.8c. Labeled (Approved and Preliminary) and unlabeled Jurisdictional

Determinations in NAB.

Fiscal Total in Percent year Labeled Unlabeled Database unlabeled 2003 647 63 710 9% 2004 885 53 938 6% 2005 1,430 52 1,482 4% 2006 1,614 183 1,797 10% 2007 3,649 219 3,868 6% 2008 1,923 81 2,004 4% 2009 1,881 40 1,921 2% 2010 1,574 19 1,593 1% 2011 3,081 0 3,081 0% 2012 2,188 7 2,195 <1%

145

Figures

Figure 3.1. USACE Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

80% 120,000

70% 100,000

60%

80,000 50%

Total JDs in database

40% 60,000 Totals Reported

Axis Title % AJD %PJD 30% 40,000

20%

20,000 10%

0% 0 FY03 FY04 FY05 FY06 FY07 FY08 FY09 FY10 FY11 FY12

146

Figure 3.2a. SPL Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

Preliminary 50% Approved Juris Approved Non-juris 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

147

Figure 3.2b. NWP Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

Preliminary 50% Approved Juris Approved Non-juris 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

148

Figure 3.3a. SPL Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 3000

2500 80%

2000

60% Total (AJD + PJD)

1500 Total %AJD 40% %PJD

1000

20% 500

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

149

Figure 3.3b. NWP Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 1600

1400

80% 1200

1000 60% Total (AJD + PJD)

800 Total %AJD 40% %PJD 600

400 20%

200

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

150

Figure 3.4a. SAS Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

Preliminary 50% Approved juris Approved Non-juris 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

151

Figure 3.4b. SAJ Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

Preliminary 50% Approved juris Approved Non-juris 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

152

Figure 3.5a. SAS Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 3000

90%

2500 80%

70% 2000

60% Labeled JDs

50% 1500 Total JDs Approved JDs 40% Preliminary JDs

1000 30%

20% 500

10%

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

153

Figure 3.5b. SAJ Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100%

12000

80% 10000

8000 60% Labeled JDs Total JDs 6000 Approved JDs 40% Preliminary JDs

4000

20% 2000

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

154

Figure 3.6a. SAC Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

80%

60%

Preliminary Approved Juris Approved Non-juris 40%

20%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

155

Figure 3.6b. SAW Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

80%

60%

Preliminary Approved Juris Approved Non-juris 40%

20%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

156

Figure 3.6c. NAB Percentage of Jurisdictional Type from Fiscal Years 2003-2012.

100%

80%

60%

Preliminary Approved Juris Approved Non-juris 40%

20%

0% 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

157

Figure 3.7a. SAC Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 5000

80% 4000

60% 3000 Labeled JDs Total JDs Approved JDs 40% 2000 Preliminary JDs

20% 1000

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

158

Figure 3.7b. SAW Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 6000

5000 80%

4000

60% Labeled JDs

3000 Total JDs Approved JDs 40% Preliminary JDs 2000

20% 1000

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

159

Figure 3.7c. NAB Summary of Jurisdictional Determination Type and Number of Determinations from Fiscal Year 2003-

2012.

100% 4000

3500

80% 3000

2500 60% Labeled JDs

2000 Total JDs Approved JDs 40% Preliminary JDs 1500

1000 20%

500

0% 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

160

References

5 U.S.C. 500 et seq.

5 U.S.C. § 552

33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq.

33 C.F.R. 320-336

51 Fed.Reg. 41206, 41217 (1986).

53 Fed.Reg 20764, 20765 (1988)

65 Fed. Reg 16493 (2000)

68 Fed. Reg. 1991, 1995 (2003)

Administrative Procedure Act (APA) (1946). 5 USC § 500 et seq.

Alexander RB, Boyer EW, Smith RA, Schwarz GE, Moore RB (2007) The Role of Headwater

Streams in Downstream Water Quality. Journal of the American Water Resources

Association 43(1):41-59

Civiletti BR (1979) "Civiletti Memorandum", 430p. Atty, Gen. 197

Clean Water Act (CWA) (1972) 33 USC § 1251 et seq.

Government Accounting Office (GAO) (2004) Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on

Energy Policy, Natural Resources and Regulatory Affairs, Committee on Governmnet

Reform, House of Representatives WATERS AND WETLANDS: Corps of Engineers

Needs to Evaluate Its District Office Practices in Determining Jurisdiction (Vol. GAO-

04-297). Washington, DC: United States

-- (2005) Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Committee on Homeland Security and

Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate WATERS AND WETLANDS: Corps of Engineers

161

Needs to Better Support Its Decisions for Not Asserting Jurisdiction (Vol. GAO-05-870).

Washington, DC: United States Government Accountability Office

Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center (2011) Operations & Maintenance Business

Information Link (OMBIL) Regulatory Module (ORM2) Software User Manual (SUM)

Version 00.29, December 23

Levick L, Fronseca J, Goodrich D, Hernandez M, Semmens D, Stromberg J (2008) The

Ecological and Hydrological Significance of Ephemeral and Intermittent Streams in the

Arid and Semi-arid American Southwest (pp. 116 pp.)

Meyer JL, Beilfuss R, Kaplan LA, Carpenter Q, Newbold D, Semlitsch R (2007) Where Rivers

Are Born: The Scientific Imperative for Defending Small Streams and Wetlands. In M.

N. Jensen & D. Sutton (Eds.): American Rivers and Sierra Club

Northern California River Watch v. City of Healdsburg (Healdsburg) (2007). 496 F.3d 993 (9th

Cir. Cal.)

ORMv2.0 data obtained from database on December 1, 2012

Precon Development Corporation v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (Precon) (2011)

633 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. Va.)

Rapanos v. United States (Rapanos) (2006) 547 U.S. 715

Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA) (1899) 33 USC § 401 et seq.

Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. United States Army Corps of Engineers

(SWANCC) (2001) 531 U.S. 159

United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. (1985) 474 U.S. 121.134

United States v. Robison (McWane) (2007) 505 F.3d 1208 (11th Cir. Ala.)

162

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (1990) Regulatory Guidance Letter (RGL) 90-6:

Expiration Dates for Wetlands Jurisdictional Delineations

--(1994) RGL 94-1: Extension of RGL 90-06, Expiration of Geographic Jurisdictional

Determinations

--(2005) (RGL) 05-02: Guidance on Ordinary High water mark Identification

-- (2007a) RGL 07-1: Practices for Documenting Jurisdiction under Section 404 of the Clean

Water Act (CWA) and Sections 9 & 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA) of 1899

--(2007b) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jurisdictional Determination (JD) Form Instructional

Guidebook

-- (2008) RGL 08-2: Jurisdictional Determinations

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

(2007) Joint Memorandum: CWA Jurisdiction Following the U.S.Supreme Court’s

Decision in Rapanos v. United States and Carabell v. United States, May 30

EPA/USACE (2008) Revised Joint Memorandum: CWA Jurisdiction Following the

U.S.Supreme Court’s Decision in Rapanos v. United States and Carabell v. United

States, December 2

U.S. Congress (2008) Memorandum: Decline of Clean Water Act Enforcement Program,

December 16

Wipfli MS, Richardson JS, Naiman RJ (2007) Ecological Linkages Between Headwaters and

Downstream Ecosystems: Transport of Organic Matter, Invertebrates, and Wood Down

Headwater Channels. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43, DOI:

DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00007.x

163

Chapter 4

A review of published stream research, 1939-2010: Functions, Services, and Values, focusing on the Arid Southwest

Introduction

On June 19, 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court (SC) handed down a decision that has

reshaped how the term ‘waters of the US’ is defined (Rapanos 2006). Within the different

Justices opinions and subsequent guidance from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers several key themes appeared when evaluating a stream’s Clean Water

Act (CWA 1974) jurisdictional status that are of particular interest to the scientific community.

The first theme was a stream’s function and service. The second theme was its hydrological permanence or flow regime, and the last theme was its longitudinal boundaries. What was not of issue after the case was a streams lateral boundaries, which has been defined in the regulations at

33 CFR 328.3(e) and clarified in a Corps Regulatory Guidance Letter (RGL) 05-05 as the

‘ordinary high water mark’ (USACE 2005).

The Corps and EPA addressed the longitudinal boundary of a stream by using the

Strahler stream order (1952) (USACE 2007) although other stream categorization methods used

by the scientific community (Horton 1945; Shreve 1966; Scheidegger 1966; Rosgen1996). The

Corps and EPA have historically used ephemeral, intermittent and perennial to describe the flow

regime of streams. Typically ephemeral streams flow during and after storm events. Intermittent

streams typically flow seasonally. Lastly, perennial streams flow year round. The SC

164

introduced two new terms into the nomenclature of flow regime, non-relatively permanent water

(non-RPW) and relatively permanent water (RPW) (Plurality opinion). Therefore the old three

category system is now two for the purposes of determining a streams flow regime. RPWs

include streams that are perennial and those sub-set of intermittent streams that have continuous seasonal flow (e.g. for 3 months) (EPA/USACE 2008). Those non-RPWs include streams that

are ephemeral in nature and those sub-set of intermittent streams that no not display continuous seasonal flow.

The last major theme was illuminated by Justice Kennedy. He expanded upon the term

‘significant nexus’ that first appears in the 2001 SC case Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook

County vs. United States Army Corps of Engineers (SWANCC). This term more broadly

examines the biological, chemical, and physical functions and services that a stream might

exhibit on its downstream traditionally navigable water. These three terms are part of the

objective of the CWA, but historically have not been a part of the discussion on jurisdiction

under the CWA.

Ecosystem functions are those inherent processes and interactions that occur naturally

within a given ecosystem and, until recently, not been a part of the Corps and EPA jurisdictional

process. The United Nations 2004 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment synthesized the current

knowledge of ecosystem services, those that benefit mankind, and grouped them into 4 distinct

categories (United Nations 2004):

(a) Supporting, services that are needed to provide all other ecosystem services such as

biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention,

nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat; 165

(b) Provisioning, services that are directly obtained from the ecosystem such as food,

water, fuel;

regulation, water regulation, and water purification; and

(d) Cultural, services that are intrinsic such as recreation, aesthetics, educational and

religious.

de Groot et al. (2002) illustrated an interesting point in that an ecosystem service is the anthropomorphized natural ecosystem function. de Groot (2006), adapting work from Costanza et al. (1997) and de Groot (1992), devised a list of 30 functions that ecosystems perform within 5 categories (Regulation, Habitat, Production, Information, and Carrier), which appear similar to the United Nations’. Given the broad spectrum of ecosystem types from tundra and grassland, to oak-hickory forest and California coastal sage scrub, approximately 20 of de Groot’s 30 functions could occur within an aquatic ecosystem (2006). In focusing specifically on streams with the necessary resolution, Levick et al. (2008), Collins et al. (2008), Meyer et al. (2007),

Batzer and Sharitz (2006), Schiefer (2005), Mitsch and Gosselink (2000), and Smith et al. (1995)

provided a more focused list of functions and services, as summarized in Table 4.1. Three of the

seven articles addressed the services provided by streams in arid environments: Levick et al.

(2008), Collins et al. (2008), and Meyer et al. (2007). The Corps and EPA divided the functions

and services down into two categories: those functions that are hydrological in nature and those

that are ecological in nature (EPA/USACE 2007; USACE 2007; EPA/USACE 2008). The

hydrologic factors include, but are not limited to: volume, duration, and frequency of flow;

proximity to the traditional navigable water; size of the watershed; and average annual rainfall

and average annual winter snow pack. The ecologic factors include, but are not limited to,: 166

potential of tributaries to carry pollutants and flood waters to traditional navigable waters;

provision of aquatic habitat that supports a traditional navigable water; potential of wetlands to

trap and filter pollutants or store flood waters; and maintenance of water quality in traditional

navigable waters. These factors must be evaluated for all non-RPWs in determining a streams

jurisdictional status under the CWA. One region of the country that has a large proportion of

streams with ephemeral flow regimes and thus non-RPWs is the Arid West.

The Arid West has been defined by the Corps in their most recent Regional Supplement to the Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual: Arid West Region (Version 2.0) as all or portions of 12 states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico,

Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming (2008). Bailey states that this area has a vast array of landforms and ecosystems, but unique in its predominantly dry climate and long summer dry season with annual evapotranspiration exceeding precipitation (1995). The Arid West has seen a tremendous growth in population and development over the last decade. With the increased number of people the need to balance development and environmental sustainability is ever more a priority, considering that water is a must sought after commodity in arid environments. Southern California for example through a series of canals obtains more than 70 percent of its water from areas outside the identified Corps Arid Region. Due to the vast amount of water being shipped to cities, regional and local agencies are exploring means of reducing water use and increasing the amount of groundwater recharge. In the foreseeable future, threats to local rivers could include hydrological modification, land use changes, nutrient enrichment,

and the increase of exotics. In the Arid West, Field and Lichvar (2007) indicated that the five

most disruptive anthropogenic influences on stream functions and services are land clearance for

167 agriculture, urbanization, gravel mining, channelization, and dam construction. A major contributing factor is the population increase to cities in this arid region.

By the year 2025, the Census Bureau estimates that the rate of population growth in the

West would increase by approximately twice the national average and the first eight of the nation’s fastest growing states are found in the West. California, for example, was projected to contain 15 percent of the total U.S. population by 2025, a three percent increase over a thirty year period. This would be an increase of approximately 18 million people to that state alone. In addition, Arizona would grow by additional 2 million people in that time frame and become the country’s 17th most populous state from 23rd in 1995. This would project, for both California and Arizona, an additional need of 1.5 million gallons of water a year. This increase in water use could cause groundwater drawdown and a lack of groundwater recharge caused by increase in impermeable surfaces from development. In addition, the increase in development would require more materials such as gravel, in which mining typically occurs within arid ephemeral stream systems, an increase in stream channelization and dam construction for flood control protection, and an increase in land clearing for agriculture. With an increase in the uncertainty of what streams have a ‘significant nexus’ and protection under the CWA, a need to develop a comprehensive list of functions and services for all streams is a priority. This would ensure that

CWA determinations are consistent with the current state of scientific research and their implementation.

168

Bibliometric methods

Traditional literature reviews have been limited in the past due to the lack of digital archives. With the advent of on-line digital databases, reviews of historical or available literature have been vastly improved. A cursory search of bibliometric papers in the field of aquatic research reveal ten (10) articles since 2005 (Butcher and Jeffrey 2005; Gattuso et al. 2005;

Fourqurean et al. 2008; Ho 2008; Hu et al 2010; Wang et al. 2010; Zhang et al 2010; Wang et al.

2011; Yi and Jie 2011). In comparison, a traditional literature search of aquatic research over a slightly larger time frame reveals seven articles with five being published in conjunction with or by the EPA (Alexander et al. 2007; Freeman et al. 2007; Meyer et al. 2007; Wipfli et al. 2007; and Levick et al. 2008). The other two articles were not tied to a U.S. government agency (Gomi et al. 2002; Lowe and Likens 2005). This latter group of seven articles was published in response to the SC cases of SWANCC vs United States Army Corps of Engineers (2001) and

Rapanos vs United States (2006), while the former group of ten (10) was created to evaluate trends in research and illuminate potential directions for future research. The bibliometric method allows for a more complete picture of the current state of science for a particular field and creates an easier scientifically defensible opinion.

For this study, the bibliometric method was used over a traditional literature review. This method would allow for quantitative and qualitative analysis of stream research trends from 1939 to 2010. The results could present an unbiased assessment of US stream research.

169

Methods and Data Sources

The data originated from five on-line databases available through the University of

California at Los Angles Library. They were selected by subject from the following categories:

Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Biology, Botany, Chemistry and Biochemistry, Earth and

Space Sciences, Engineering, Environment, Geography, and Zoology. In addition, they were further refined by their historical context and included journals. Since, the initiation of this dissertation, three of the databases has been consolidated. For a complete list of the selected databases see table 4.2. Peer reviewed literature would be gathered from journal articles found in the following five databases: Academic Search Complete, Annual Review of Energy and the

Environment, BioOne, Blackwell Synergy, and Water Resources Abstracts. The reported impact factor (IF) and subject area of each journal found within the databases identified above was obtained from the 2010 Journal Citation Reports (JCR) found in the online version of the

Thompson Reuters, JCR Web multidisciplinary databases. According to JCR, it indexes 8073 major journals with citation references across 174 scientific disciplines in 2010.

All databases would be searched by title, abstract, or keyword using a three tiered approach (Figure 1.). The first tier would include the following terms): (a) ephemeral, (b) intermittent, (c) headwater, (d) first order, (e) second order, and (f) third order. These terms were chosen due to the historical nature of identifying streams by their flow regime, the recent focusing on Strahler’s stream order reach, and the term headwater. Headwater streams make up the largest density of stream types (Meyer and Wallace 2001) and they can be of low order and of any flow regime (Nadeau and Rains 2007). The second tier would further categorize the first tier by adding the terms: (I) functions, (II) services, and (III) values. These terms are used as the scientific proxy for the term ‘significant nexus’ as defined by Kennedy. 170

All articles that address streams during 1926-2010 were assessed by the following

aspects: journal name; search term in title, abstract, or keyword; and online database. In

addition, each article’s title, keywords, and abstract, if available, were reviewed for a

geographical indicator. Those articles that did not identify a geographical area of study would be

removed from the results. This would ensure that the collection of articles could be referenced to

an actual location. A sub-set of those articles based on the geographical area of the Corps

Supplemental Arid West Region was assessed by the following criteria: (1) landscape and (2) hydrologic connections; (3) stream energy dissipation and (4) flood control; (5) surface and (6) subsurface water storage and exchange; (7) ground-water recharge and discharge; (8) sediment transport, storage, and deposition; (9) nutrient storage and cycling; (10) wildlife habitat and (11) migration corridors; (12) support for vegetation communities; (13) water supply and (14) water- quality filtering; (15) cultural and (16) aesthetic; and (17) carbon and (18) particulate cycling and export.

Results and Discussion

Characteristics of publications

The total number of unique articles (5219) consolidated from the five different online

databases were counted and displayed in Figure 4.2. Streams studies began to increase in the late

1980s and early 1990s, double around 1994, again in 2000, and again in 2005. Studies peaked in

2008 and have since declined to 2004 levels in 2010. The Corps in 1986 published its

regulations which originally defined what is a ‘water of the US’ and the 1985 Supreme Court

Riverside Bayview Homes decision. That court case shaped CWA jurisdictional scope. In 2001, 171 another high court decision, SWANCC, shaped the decision on CWA jurisdiction and finally in

2006 the Supreme Court decision Rapanos again re-opened the discussion on CWA jurisdiction.

In 2010, JCR of the Thompson Reuters ISI Web of Science contained 8073 major journals with citation references across 174 scientific disciplines in SCI. The distributions of the subject categories are shown in Table 4.3. It indicates that ecology (929; 20%), marine and freshwater biology (877; 19%), environmental science (508, 11%) geoscience (multidisciplinary)

(476, 10%), and water resources (435, 9%) were the top 5 popular subject categories. The total article output in the top five subject categories, contains 3225 (68%) of the identified stream- related articles.

Distribution of Journals and Databases

Table4. 4 shows the top 25 productive journals including the impact factor (IF), the SCI category of the journal, the position of the journal in its category, the number of articles, and the percentage of total articles. These journals included at least 40 published articles related to stream specific research from 1939-2010. Approximately 50 percent of the total stream related articles are from these 25 journals. The Journal of the North American Benthological Society, ranked first with 309 (5.9%) published articles; Freshwater Biology ranked second with 262

(5.0%) articles; Wetlands ranked third with 220 (4.2%) articles; Hydrological Processes with 157

(3.0%) articles; and The American Midland Naturalist with 140 (2.7%) articles. The IF can be used to evaluate a journal’s relative importance when compared to others in the same field

(Benavent et al. 2004), but as seen from Table 4.3 there are 15 different subject categories, which makes it difficult to compare the relative importance between the journals. The range of IFs for the top 25 journals is repented on the high end by Bioscience with a 5.51 and the Southeastern

Naturalist with a 0.317 on the bottom. The top two journals by total number of publications are 172 the Journal of the North American Benthological Society with an IF of 2.974 and Freshwater

Biology with a 3.082. These two rank respectively 3 and 2 on the list in terms of their IF.

Table 4.5 shows the contributions the five different databases had on the total number of unique articles. Two of the five databases BioOne and Water Resources Abstracts that are focused on the biological and environmental sciences or specifically target water resources contributed more than double the number of articles than the other general scientific databases.

In comparing BioOne and Water Resources Abstracts, BioOne had a third the number of indexed journals (113 to 299) but accounted for approximately the same percentage of articles (42% to

40%).

Distribution of search terms in article title, keywords, and abstract analysis

In this study, all the search terms in the article title, keywords, and abstract were analyzed. Table 4.6 shows the percentage of each search term relationship to the total number of unique articles. Of the six primary search terms, ‘Headwater’ appears in 2521 (48%),

‘Ephemeral’ in 1359 (26%), and Intermittent in1190 (23%) of the articles. Of the three secondary search terms, ‘Value(s)’ appears in 3047 (58%), ‘Function(s)’ in 1920 (37%), and

‘Service’ in 1545 (30%) of the articles. As referenced above the term ‘Headwater’ is a catchall of flow regimes and low stream order reaches. Therefore it is not surprised that that term is the most prevalent of the primary search terms. Likewise the term ‘Value’ has been used interchangeably with ‘Function’ and ‘Service’.

After identifying in the article title, keywords, and abstract a geographical location that could be tied to the Corps Arid West Region, the total number of Arid West articles was 249.

Table 4.7. Shows the top ten of the third tier of search terms to the total number of unique Arid 173

West articles. Of the 18 search items one term, migration corridors was not specially addressed in any of the articles title, keywords, or abstract. Aesthetics, flood control, and stream energy dissipation were all identified on one article each. Cultural, particulate cycling and export, and water supply were identified in 5, 4, and 3 articles respectively and carbon cycling and export was identified in 8 articles. By far the largest percentage of articles identified (34.5%) was wildlife habitat with a substantial decline to the next tier of search terms.

Table 4.8 shows the top 5 productive journals for the sub-set of Arid West articles including the impact factor (IF), the SCI category of the journal, the position of the journal in its category, the number of articles, and the percentage of total articles. Arid West articles were identified in

99 unique journals with a majority of the journals (51) accounting for only one article. The

Journal of the American Water Resources Association, ranked first with 14 (5.6%) published articles; Freshwater Biology ranked second with 13 (5.2%) articles; The Southwestern Naturalist ranked third with 11 (4.4%) articles; Western North American Naturalist ranked fourth with 10

(4.0%) articles; and Wetlands ranked fifth with 9 (3.6%) articles. The IF can be used to evaluate a journal’s relative importance when compared to others in the same field (Benavent et al 2004), but as seen from Table 4.3 there are 15 different subject categories, which makes it difficult to compare the relative importance between the journals. The range of IFs for the top 5 journals is repented on the high end by Freshwater Biology with a 3.082 and the Western North American

Naturalist with a 0.410 on the bottom. The top two journals by total number of publications are the Journal of the American Water Resources Association with an IF of 1.373 and Freshwater

Biology with a 3.082. These two rank respectively 2 and 1 on the list in terms of their IF.

174

Conclusions

In total, 5219 journal articles were identified that contained a combination of search terms and geographically identified their study area in the title, keyword, or abstract during the period from 1939–2010. Specific stream research began to substantially increase in the late

1980s and dramatically increased in the past 10 years. As seen in 2010, it appears that field based studies of streams is declining. The results also indicated that ‘Headwater’ and ‘Value’ were the top two terms in stream research from 1939-2010. Greater than 50% of the total wetland-related publications resided in 25 journals. The most active journal was the Journal of the North American Benthological Society. The five most prevalent subject areas for the stream research from 1939-2010 are ecology, marine and freshwater biology, environmental science, geoscience (multidisciplinary), and water resources.

These trends differ in the Arid West region of the US. In total 249, Arid west articles were identified with articles appearing in journals identified as such beginning in 1948. Arid

West research began to increase around 2000. Similar to all stream research there was a dramatic increase in the past ten years and in 2010 a potential downtrend could be beginning.

The results indicate that wildlife habitat tends to be the most researched subject for the Arid

West over that period of time. The most active journal was the Journal of the American Water

Resources Association, which was ranked number 10 on the list of all stream research. The most prevalent subject areas for Arid West stream research are environmental engineering, geosciences (multidisciplinary), water resources, ecology, marine and freshwater biology, environmental science, and biodiversity conservation.

175

In reviewing overall trends of stream research, we see close ties to the interplay between major policy changes and legal challenges. The increase in overall stream research in the 1980s corresponds to both the EPA and Corps publishing their definition of what a ‘water of the US’ is under the CWA and the Riverside Bayview Homes Supreme Court decision. Likewise, a peak in research appears to coincide with the EPA and Corps publishing their guidance documents in response to the Rapanos Supreme Court Decision (2006-2008). In the Arid West articles began to appear approximately around the time the SWANCC Supreme Court decision and subsequent guidance documents were issued (2000-2001). As referenced above, the majority of the Arid

West articles focused on the wildlife and stream interaction and not one article discussed the migratory corridor function. It is interesting to note that the rationale for the Corps to claim jurisdiction in the SWANCC decision stemmed from the ponds being used by migratory birds and the scientific community, in relation to the Arid West studies, did not research that function.

What the Arid West articles do illustrate are the three historical main areas of study wildlife habitat and support for vegetation communities; sediment transport, storage, and deposition; and streams ability fort for ground-water recharge/discharge and water-quality filtering.

Furthermore, if future research trends mirror the policy and legal issues surrounding the CWA, there might be an increase in the number of articles that focus on downstream hydrologic connections that focus on surface and subsurface connections; a larger role in nutrient storage and cycling as areas become increasingly more developed; and a greater interest in how natural features tie in to the changing landscape.

These articles provide insight into the Approved JD process by highlighting functions and services of streams by geographical area. This would provide needed benefits to the JD process.

Determinations would be able to cite literature of measured stream functions for similarly 176 situated aquatic features and allow for a targeted focus additional studies that might need to occur to support the determination. Increased transparency and consistency of the determinations can be expected if the regulating agencies and regulated communities had access to the same literature that was specific to their area. A third benefit, would be the ability to streamline the Approved JD process by allowing current literature to serve as a proxy for specific aquatic features and by integrating the literature with information obtained from issued JDs

177

Tables

Table 4.1. Selection of Articles and Books on Steam Functions and Services.

2006

Sharitz al. 2008 al.

Functions/Services Collins et Collins 2007 Meyer al. et Schiefer 2005 1995 al et Smith Levick et al. 2008 Levick al. et Batzer amd 2000 Mitsch and Gosselink Landscape hydrologic connections X X X Stream energy dissipation X X X X X Surface and subsurface water storage X X X X X X X

Ground-water recharge and discharge X X X X X X X Sediment transport, storage, and X X X X X X X

Nutrient storage and cycling X X X X X X X Wildlife habitat and migration corridors X X X X X X X Support for vegetation communities X X X X X X X Water supply and water-quality filtering X X X X X Cultural and aesthetic X X X Carbon and particulate cycling and X X X X

178

Table 4.2. Research database list and source material for scientific peer reviewed literature search.

Database Source Material Academic Search Complete Academic Search Complete, designed specifically for academic institutions, is the world's most valuable and comprehensive scholarly, multi-disciplinary full-text database, with more than 5,500 full-text periodicals, including more than 4,600 peer-reviewed journals. In addition to full text, this database offers indexing and abstracts for more than 9,500 journals and a total of nearly 10,000 publications including monographs, reports, conference proceedings, etc. The database features PDF content going back as far as 1865, with the majority of full text titles in native (searchable) PDF format. Searchable cited references are provided for nearly 1,000 journals. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment Bibliographic essays reviewing the year's scholarship in energy and the environment including the following subjects: Civil Engineering; Environmental Science and Engineering; Geography; and Mechanical Engineering BioOne Collection of research journals focused on the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences including the following subjects: Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Life Sciences Blackwell Synergy An electronic collection of most of the journals published by Blackwell. Water Resources Abstracts Provides citations and abstracts to the technical and scientific literature on water-related topics covering the characteristics, conservation, control, pollution, treatment, use and management of water resources. Abstracts are drawn from journals, books, conference proceedings, and technical reports in the physical and life sciences, as well as from engineering, legal and government publications. The database covers publications worldwide, 1967-present.

179

Table 4.3. Distributions of the subject categories for top 25 journals.

SCI subject category in 2010 Articles % Ecology 929 19.7% Marine & Freshwater Biology 877 18.6% Environmental Science 508 10.8% Geoscience, Multidisciplinary 476 10.1% Water Resources 435 9.2% Biodiversity Conservation 340 7.2% Geography, Physical 241 5.1% Zoology 226 4.8% Engineering ,Environmental 184 3.9% Engineering Civil 127 2.7% Fisheries 116 2.5% Biology 75 1.6% Ornithology 67 1.4% Geology 64 1.4% Limnology 60 1.3%

180

Table 4.4. The top 25 most active journals with the number of articles, impact factor,

ISI subject category of journals, and the position of the journal in its category in 2010.

Total Rank Journal Name Percentage IF Subject Area Position Articles Journal of the Ecology; 40/130 North American 1 309 5.9% 2.974 Marine & Freshwater Benthological Biology 10/93 Society Freshwater Marine & Freshwater 2 262 5.0% 3.082 8/93 Biology Biology Ecology; 90/130 3 Wetlands 220 4.2% 1.238 Environmental Science 119/193 Hydrological 4 157 3.0% 2.068 Water Resources 10/76 Processes The American Biodiversity; 25/34 5 Midland 140 2.7% 0.526 Conservation Ecology 115/130 Naturalist Marine & Freshwater 6 Hydrobiologia 134 2.6% 1.964 26/93 Biology Engineering, Civil; 5/115 Journal of Geoscience, 7 127 2.4% 2.514 Hydrology Multidisciplinary; 30/167 Water Resources 3/76 8 Copeia 123 2.4% 0.780 Zoology 93/145 Environmental Science; 169/193 Journal of Geography, Physical; 32/42 9 109 2.1% 0.679 Coastal Research Geoscience, Multidisciplinary 132/167 Engineering, Journal of the 24/45 Environmental; American Water 77/167 10 108 2.1% 1.373 Geoscience, Resources Multidisciplinary; Association 29/76 Water Resources Southeastern Biodiversity; 30/34 11 82 1.6% 0.317 Naturalist Conservation Ecology 125/130 Engineering, 12 Ambio 76 1.5% 1.705 Environmental; 18/45 Environmental Science 86/193 13 Bioscience 75 1.4% 5.510 Biology 7/86 Northeastern Biodiversity; 23/34 14 71 1.4% 0.566 Naturalist Conservation Ecology 112/130

181

Earth Surface Geography, Physical; 15/42 15 Processes and 68 1.3% 2.111 Geoscience, Landforms Multidisciplinary 44/167 16 Waterbirds 67 1.3% 0.575 Ornithology 14/19 Geography, Physical; 12/42 Geology; 3/48 17 Geomorphology 64 1.2% 2.352 Geoscience, Multidisciplinary 35/167 Journal of Ecology; 73/130 18 Wildlife 60 1.1% 1.555 Zoology 40/145 Management Canadian Journal Fisheries; 6/46 19 of Fisheries & 60 1.1% 2.166 Marine & Freshwater Aquatic Sciences Biology 18/93 Environmental Science; 115/193 Journal of Great Limnology; 9/18 20 60 1.1% 1.305 Lakes Research Marine & Freshwater Biology 49/93 Transactions of 21 the American 56 1.1% 1.603 Fisheries 13/46 Fisheries Society Journal of Marine & Freshwater 22 Crustacean 52 1.0% 1.115 53/93 Biology Biology The Biodiversity; 27/34 23 Southwestern 47 0.9% 0.417 Conservation Ecology 120/130 Naturalist Journal of 24 43 0.8% 1.078 Zoology 63/145 Herpetology River Research Environmental Science; 77/193 25 43 0.8% 1.822 and Applications Water Resources 15/76

182

Table 4.5. Summary of the database and it contribution to the total number of articles and the percentage of its articles represented.

Percentage Database Percentage of No of of total Database Total articles journals journals Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 126 2% 13 3% Academic Search Complete 620 12% 163 33% BioOne 2,213 42% 113 23% Blackwell Synergy 888 17% 95 19% Water Resources Abstracts 2,095 40% 299 60%

183

Table 4.6. The number and percentage of identified first and second tier search terms for the entire set of articles.

Total tagged Percent Search Term #1 articles of articles Headwater 2,521 48% Ephemeral 1,359 26% Intermittent 1,190 23% 1st Order 436 8% 2nd Order 287 5% 3rd Order 213 4% Search Term #2 Value 3,047 58% Function 1,920 37% Service 1,545 30%

184

Table 4.7. The number and percentage of identified functions/services/values for the subset of Arid West articles.

Total tagged Percent Search Term #3 articles of articles Wildlife habitat 86 34.5% Sediment transport, storage, and deposition 32 12.9% Support for vegetation communities 26 10.4% Ground-water recharge and discharge 25 10.0% Water-quality filtering 25 10.0% Hydrologic connections; 21 8.4% Surface water storage and exchange 21 8.4% Nutrient storage and cycling 19 7.6% Subsurface water storage and exchange 16 6.4% Landscape connections 14 5.6%

185

Table 4.8. The top 5 most active journals with the number of Arid West articles, impact factor, ISI subject category of journals, and the position of the journal in its category in

2010.

Article Journal count Percentage IF Subject Area Position Journal of the Engineering, Environmental; 24/45 American Water Geoscience, Resources Multidisciplinary; 77/167 Association 14 5.6% 1.373 Water Resources 29/76 Freshwater Biology 13 5.2% 3.082 Marine & Freshwater Biology 8/93

The Southwestern Biodiversity Conservation; 27/34 Naturalist 11 4.4% 0.417 Ecology 120/130 Western North American Biodiversity Conservation; 28/34 Naturalist 10 4.0% 0.410 Ecology 121/130 Ecology; 90/130 Wetlands 9 3.6% 1.238 Environmental Science 119/193

186

Figures

Figure 4.1. Example of database search using 2 parameters paired with focused search of third parameter: “First Order” + “Services” +”Sediment Transport, Storage, and

Deposition”.

Aquatic Resource Type General Category Identified Function/Service/Value a: ephemeral I: functions (1): landscape connections (2): hydrologic connections; (3): stream energy dissipation b: intermittent (4): flood control II: services (5): surface water storage and exchange (6): subsurface water storage and exchange c: headwater (7): ground-water recharge and discharge (8): sediment transport, storage, and deposition (9): nutrient storage and cycling d: first order (10): wildlife habitat (11): migration corridors III: values (12): support for vegetation communities e: second order (13): water supply (14): water-quality filtering (15): cultural f: third order (16): aesthetic (17): carbon cycling and export (18): particulate cycling and export.

Search highlighted above would be [d: first order +II: services+ (8): sediment transport, storage, and deposition]. The first two search items are used in the database search while the last search item is visually identified from within the article

187

Figure 4.2. Number of unique articles from 1939-2010.

600

500

400

300 Number of of Number articles

200

100

Year

188

Figure 4.3. Number of unique Arid West articles from 1948-2010.

15 Number of of Number Articles

1948 1964 1966 1975 1976 1978 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Year

189

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Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Aagaard, T., Hughes, M., Mxller-Sxrensen, R., & Andersen, S. (2006). Hydrodynamics and

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(leptobotia curta) in temporary waters Zoological Science (Vol. 24, pp. 850-853).

Abe, T., Kobayashi, I., Kon, M., & Sakamoto, T. (2007). Spawning of the kissing loach (leptobotia

curta) is limited to periods following the formation of temporary waters Zoological Science

(Vol. 24, pp. 922-926).

Abell, R., Thieme, M. L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., . . . Petry, P.

(2008). Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for

freshwater biodiversity conservation Bioscience (Vol. 58, pp. 403-414).

Abelson, A., & Denny, M. (1997). Settlement of marine organisms in flow Annual Review of

Ecology and Systematics (Vol. 28, pp. 317-339).

Abnizova, A., & Young, K. L. (2008). Hillslope hydrological linkages: Importance to ponds

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309-321).

Achite, M., & Ouillon, S. (2007). Suspended sediment transport in a semiarid watershed, wadi

abd, algeria (1973-1995) Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (Vol. 343, pp. 187-202).

196 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Acker, S. A., Beechie, T. J., & Shafroth, P. B. (2008). Effects of a natural dam-break flood on

geomorphology and vegetation on the elwha river, washington, u.S.A Northwest Science

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Ackerman, D., Stein, E. D., & Schiff, K. (2005). Dry-season water quality in the san gabriel river

watershed Bulletin, Southern California Academy of Sciences (Vol. 104, pp. 125-145).

Ackerman, J. T., Adams, J., Takekawa, J. Y., Carter, H. R., Whitworth, D. L., Newman, S. H., . . .

Orthmeyer, D. L. (2004). Effects of radiotransmitters on the reproductive performance of

cassin s auklets Wildlife Society Bulletin (Vol. 32, pp. 1229-1241).

Acuna, V., Munoz, I., Giorgi, A., Omella, M., Sabater, F., & Sabater, S. (2005). Drought and

postdrought recovery cycles in an intermittent mediterranean stream: Structural and

functional aspects Journal of the North American Benthological Society (Vol. 24, pp.

919-933).

Acuqa, V., Giorgi, A., Muqoz, I., Sabater, F., & Sabater, S. (2007). Meteorological and riparian

influences on organic matter dynamics in a forested mediterranean stream Journal of the

North American Benthological Society (Vol. 26, pp. 54-69).

Acuqa, V., Giorgi, A., Muqoz, I., Uehlinger, U., & Sabater, S. (2004). Flow extremes and benthic

organic matter shape the metabolism of a headwater mediterranean stream Freshwater

Biology (Vol. 49, pp. 960-971).

Adam, P. J. (2004). Monachus tropicalis Mammalian Species (Vol. 747, pp. 1-9).

Adam, P. J. (2005). Lobodon carcinophaga Mammalian Species (Vol. 772, pp. 1-14).

Adams, E. A., Monroe, S. A., Springer, A. E., Blasch, K. W., & Bills, D. J. (2006). Electrical

resistance sensors record spring flow timing, grand canyon, arizona Ground Water (Vol.

44, pp. 630-641).

197 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Adams, J., Takekawa, J. Y., & Carter, H. R. (2004). Foraging distance and home range of cassin's

auklets nesting at two colonies in the california channel islands The Condor (Vol. 106, pp.

618-637).

Adams, J. A., Pecor, K. W., & Moore, P. A. (2009). Dissolved organic matter from elevated-co2

detritus and its impact on the orientation of crayfish (orconectes virilis) to a fish food

source Journal of the North American Benthological Society (Vol. 28, pp. 638-648).

Adams, J. A., Tuchman, N. C., & Moore, P. A. (2005). Effects of co2-altered detritus on growth

and chemically mediated decisions in crayfish (procambarus clarkii) Journal of the North

American Benthological Society (Vol. 24, pp. 330-345).

Adams, M. J., & Bury, R. B. (2002). The endemic headwater stream amphibians of the american

northwest: Associations with environmental gradients in a large forested preserve Global

Ecology & Biogeography (Vol. 11, pp. 169-178).

Adams, R. K., & Spotila, J. A. (2005). The form and function of headwater streams based on field

and modeling investigations in the southern appalachian mountains Earth Surface

Processes and Landforms (Vol. 30, pp. 1521-1546).

Adams, S., Warren, M., & Haag, W. (2004). Spatial and temporal patterns in fish assemblages of

upper coastal plain streams, mississippi, USA Hydrobiologia (Vol. 528, pp. 45-61).

Adams, S. B. (2007). Direct and indirect effects of channel catfish (ictalurus punctatus) on native

crayfishes (cambaridae) in experimental tanks The American Midland Naturalist (Vol.

158, pp. 85-96).

Adams, S. B., Frissell, C. A., & Rieman, B. E. (2000). Movements of nonnative brook trout in

relation to stream channel slope Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (Vol. 129,

pp. 623-638).

198 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Adams, S. B., Frissell, C. A., & Rieman, B. E. (2001). Geography of invasion in mountain streams:

Consequences of headwater lake fish introductions Ecosystems [Ecosystems] (Vol. 4, pp.

296-307).

Adams, S. G., Conly, F. M., Gratto-Trevor, C. L., Cash, K. J., & Bollinger, T. (2003). Shorebird

use and mortality at a large canadian prairie lake impacted by botulism Waterbirds (Vol.

26, pp. 13-25).

Aestroem, M. (2001). Abundance and fractionation patterns of rare earth elements in streams

affected by acid sulphate soils Chemical Geology (Vol. 175, pp. 249-258).

Aestroem, M., & Spiro, B. (2000). Impact of isostatic uplift and ditching of sulfidic sediments on

the hydrochemistry of major and trace elements and sulfur isotope ratios in streams,

western finland Environmental Science & Technology (Vol. 34, pp. 1182-1188).

Agrawal, A. A., Salminen, J.-P., & Fishbein, M. (2009). Phylogenetic trends in phenolic

metabolism of milkweeds (asclepias): Evidence for escalation Evolution (Vol. 63, pp.

663-673).

Aguilar, C., Gonzalez-Sanssn, G., Faloh, I., & Curry, R. A. (2008). Spatial variation in stable

isotopes (?13c and ?15n) in marine fish along the coast of havana city: Evidence of human

impacts from harbor and river waters Journal of Coastal Research (Vol. 24, pp.

1281-1288).

Aguirre-Muqoz, A., Buddemeier, R. W., Camacho-Ibar, V., Carriquiry, J. D., Ibarra-Obando, S.

E., Massey, B. W., . . . Wulff, F. (2001). Sustainability of coastal resource use in san

quintin, mexico AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment (Vol. 30, pp. 142-149).

Ahmadi-Nedushan, B., St-Hilaire, A., Ouarda, T. B. M. J., Bilodeau, L., Robichaud, E.,

Thiemonge, N., & Bobee, B. (2007). Predicting river water temperatures using stochastic

199 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

models: Case study of the moisie river (quebec, canada) Hydrological Processes (Vol. 21,

pp. 21-34).

Ahmadi-Nedushan, B., St-Hilaire, A., Ouarda, T. B. M. J., Bilodeau, L., Robichaud, I.,

Thiimonge, N., & Bobie, B. (2007). Predicting river water temperatures using stochastic

models: Case study of the moisie river (quibec, canada) Hydrological Processes (Vol. 21,

pp. 21-34).

Aikens, C. M. (1978). Archaeology of the great basin Annual Review of Anthropology (Vol. 7, pp.

71-87).

Aitkenhead, M. J., & Cooper, R. J. (2008). Neural network time series prediction of environmental

variables in a small upland headwater in ne scotland Hydrological Processes (Vol. 22, pp.

3091-3101).

Ajao, E. A., & Anurigwo, S. (2002). Land-based sources of pollution in the niger delta, nigeria

AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment (Vol. 31, pp. 442-445).

Akers, E. C., Taylor, C. M., & Altig, R. (2008). Effects of clay-associated organic material on the

growth of hyla chrysoscelis tadpoles Journal of Herpetology (Vol. 42, pp. 408-410).

Akresh, M. E., Dinse, K., Foufopoulos, J., Schubel, S. C., & Kowalczyk, T. (2009). Passerine

breeding and post-fledgling habitat use in riparian and upland temperate forests of the

american midwest The Condor (Vol. 111, pp. 756-762).

Aksoy, H. (2003). Markov chain-based modeling techniques for stochastic generation of daily

intermittent streamflows Advances in Water Resources (Vol. 26, pp. 663).

Al Bakri, D., Rahman, S., & Bowling, L. (2008). Sources and management of urban stormwater

pollution in rural catchments, australia Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (Vol. 356, pp.

299-311).

200 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Al, T. A., & Blowes, D. W. (1996). Storm-water hydrograph separation of run off from a

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Bilton, D. T., Mcabendroth, L. C., Nicolet, P., Bedford, A., Rundle, S. D., Foggo, A., & Ramsay,

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Brady, L., & Cowell, B. C. (2003). Colonization of fine particulate organic matter by invertebrates

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Brady, L. D., & Griffiths, R. A. (2000). Developmental responses to pond desiccation in tadpoles

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Braskerud, B. C. (2002). Factors affecting nitrogen retention in small constructed wetlands

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Britto, M. R., Castro, R. M. C., & Schaefer, S. A. (2002). New corydoradine catfish (siluriformes:

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Brooks, R. T., & Kyker-Snowman, T. D. (2009). Forest-floor temperatures and soil moisture

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Fulmer, T., & Tumlison, R. (2004). Important records of the bird-voiced treefrog (hyla avivoca) in

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G|cker, B., Bokchat, I. G., & Giani, A. (2009). Impacts of agricultural land use on ecosystem

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Gage, M. S., Spivak, A., & Paradise, C. J. (2004). Effects of land use and disturbance on benthic

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Gamble, L. R., Mcgarigal, K., Sigourney, D. B., & Timm, B. C. (2009). Survival and breeding

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Gammonley, J. H., & Laubhan, M. K. (2002). Patterns of food abundance for breeding waterbirds

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Gammons, C. H., Slotton, D. G., Gerbrandt, B., Weight, W., Young, C. A., Mcnearny, R. L., . . .

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Groundwater flow and transport of nutrients through a riparian meadow - field data and

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Hofmann, G. E., Barry, J. P., Edmunds, P. J., Gates, R. D., Hutchins, D. A., Klinger, T., & Sewell,

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Holcroft, N. I., & Propst, D. L. (2007). First record of fundulus olivaceus (atherinomorpha:

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Holecek, D. E., & Walters, J. P. (2007). Spawning characteristics of adfluvial rainbow trout in a

north idaho stream: Implications for error in redd counts North American Journal of

Fisheries Management (Vol. 27, pp. 1010-1017).

Holland, A. F., Sanger, D. M., Gawle, C. P., Lerberg, S. B., Santiago, M. S., Riekerk, G. H. M., . .

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Holland, K. A., Leininger, W. C., & Trlica, M. J. (2005). Grazing history affects willow

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Hollmin, T. E., Franson, J. C., Flint, P. L., Grand, J. B., Lanctot, R. B., Docherty, D. E., & Wilson,

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Holmes, K. L., Goebel, P. C., Hix, D. M., Dygert, C. E., & Semko-Duncan, M. E. (2005).

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Hooke, J. M., & Mant, J. M. (2000). Geomorphological impacts of a flood event on ephemeral

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Hooker, S. K., & Gerber, L. R. (2004). Marine reserves as a tool for ecosystem-based

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Hoover, T. M., Richardson, J. S., & Yonemitsu, N. (2006). Flow-substrate interactions create and

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Hope, D., Palmer, S. M., Billett, M. F., & Dawson, J. J. C. (2004). Variations in dissolved co2 and

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Hope, P. K., Nicholls, N., & Mcgregor, J. L. (2004). The rainfall response to permanent inland

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Hopfensperger, K. N., Wu, J. Q., & Gill, R. A. (2006). Plant composition and erosion potential of

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Hopkins, R. L., & Eisenhour, D. J. (2008). Hybridization of lythrurus fasciolaris and lythrurus

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Hopkins, R. L., Eisenhour, D. J., Hopman, L. J., & Peyton, D. K. (2009). Morphological analysis

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Hopkinson, L., & Wynn, T. (2009). Vegetation impacts on near bank flow Ecohydrology (Vol. 2,

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Hopmans, P., & Bren, L. J. (2007). Long-term changes in water quality and solute exports in

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Horn, K. C., Johnson, S. D., Boles, K. M., Moore, A., Siemann, E., & Gabler, C. A. (2008). Factors

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Horn, S., Hanula, J. L., Ulyshen, M. D., & Kilgo, J. C. (2005). Abundance of green tree frogs and

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Hornberger, G. M., Bencala, K. E., & Mcknight, D. M. (1994). Hydrological controls on dissolved

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Horrocks, M., Nichol, S. L., D'costa, D. M., Augustinus, P., Jacobi, T., Shane, P. A., & Middleton,

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Horvath, T. G. (2004). Retention of particulate matter by macrophytes in a first-order stream

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Hossack, B. R., Adams, M. J., Grant, E. H. C., Pearl, C. A., Bettaso, J. B., Barichivich, W. J., . . .

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herpetofauna of theodore roosevelt national park, north dakota, since the 1920s The

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Hossack, B. R., Newell, R. L., & Rogers, D. C. (2009). Branchiopods (anostraca, notostraca) from

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Hotovy, J., & Petrusek, A. (2007). Resting stage density and hatching of two cladoceran species

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Houghton, D. C., & Holzenthal, R. W. (2010). Historical and contemporary biological diversity of

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Houser, J. N., Mulholland, P. J., & Maloney, K. O. (2005). Catchment disturbance and stream

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Houser, J. N., Mulholland, P. J., & Maloney, K. O. (2006). Upland disturbance affects headwater

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Houston, W. (2006). Development of ecosystem services within a highly modified creek channel

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Howard, J. K., & Cuffey, K. M. (2006). Factors controlling the age structure of margaritifera

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Howden, N. J. K., & Burt, T. P. (2008). Temporal and spatial analysis of nitrate concentrations

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Long-term population trends in american lobster (homarus americanus) and their relation

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Hrachowitz, M., Soulsby, C., Imholt, C., Malcolm, I. A., & Tetzlaff, D. (2010). Thermal regimes

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Hrachowitz, M., Soulsby, C., Tetzlaff, D., Dawson, J. J. C., Dunn, S. M., & Malcolm, I. A. (2009).

Using long-term data sets to understand transit times in contrasting headwater catchments

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Hrachowitz, M., Soulsby, C., Tetzlaff, D., & Speed, M. (2010). Catchment transit times and

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Hrodey, P. J., & Sutton, T. M. (2008). Fish community responses to half-log additions in

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Hrodey, P. J., Sutton, T. M., Frimpong, E. A., & Simon, T. P. (2009). Land-use impacts on

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Hu, D. H., & Richman, D. B. (2010). Effect of lehmann lovegrass (eragrostis lehmanniana)

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Huang, S., Pant, H. K., & Lu, J. (2007). Effects of water regimes on nitrous oxide emission from

soils Ecological Engineering (Vol. 31, pp. 9-15).

Huang, S.-L., Wang, C.-C., Huang, W.-P., & Chou, L.-S. (2010). Indeterminate growth of the fairy

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Huang, Y., Schmitt, F. G., Lu, Z., & Liu, Y. (2009). Analysis of daily river flow fluctuations using

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Huang, Y., Wilcox, B. P., Stern, L., & Perotto-Baldivieso, H. (2006). Springs on rangelands:

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Huang, Y., Yan, Y., & Li, X. (2008). Food web structure of benthic macroinvertebrates in a second

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Hubbard, K. A., Lautz, L. K., Mitchell, M. J., Mayer, B., & Hotchkiss, E. R. (2010). Evaluating

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Huddleston, G. M., Dorn, P. B., Gillespie, W. B., Wong, D. C. L., & Slocomb, J. P. (2009).

Assessment of the ecological effects of arsenic on a southern ohio, USA stream Integrated

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Hudman, S. P., Grose, M. J., Landis, J. B., Skalski, G. T., & Wiley, E. O. (2008). Twenty-three

microsatellite DNA loci for population genetic studies and parentage assignment in

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Hudy, M., Downey, D. M., & Bowman, D. W. (2000). Successful restoration of an acidified native

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Hudy, M., & Shiflet, J. (2009). Movement and recolonization of potomac sculpin in a virginia

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Hughes, A. G., Mansour, M. M., & Robins, N. S. (2008). Evaluation of distributed recharge in an

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Hughes, D. A. (2009). Simulating the hydrology and total dissolved solids (tds) of an ephemeral

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Hughes, D. A., Andersson, L., Wilk, J., & Savenije, H. H. G. (2006). Regional calibration of the

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Hughes, J. D., Khan, S., Crosbie, R. S., Helliwell, S., & Michalk, D. L. (2007). Runoff and solute

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Hughes, J. M., Schmidt, D. J., & Finn, D. S. (2009). Genes in streams: Using DNA to understand

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Hughes, M. G., Aagaard, T., & Baldock, T. E. (2007). Suspended sediment in the swash zone:

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Hughes, N. F. (1999). Population processes responsible for larger-fish-upstream distribution

patterns of arctic grayling (thymallus arcticus) in interior alaskan runoff rivers Canadian

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Hughes, S. J., Ferreira, T., & Cortes, R. V. (2008). Hierarchical spatial patterns and drivers of

change in benthic macroinvertebrate communities in an intermittent mediterranean river

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Hughes, S. J., Santos, J., Ferreira, T., & Mendes, A. (2010). Evaluating the response of biological

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Hughes, S. J., Santos, J. M., Ferreira, M. T., Caraga, R., & Mendes, A. M. (2009). Ecological

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Evaluating the role of different organism groups Freshwater Biology (Vol. 54, pp.

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Hulsmans, A., Vanschoenwinkel, B., Pyke, C., Riddoch, B. J., & Brendonck, L. (2008).

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Humphries, P. (2007). Historical indigenous use of aquatic resources in australia's murray-darling

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Humphries, P., & Winemiller, K. O. (2009). Historical impacts on river fauna, shifting baselines,

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Hunt, C. C., & Hendricks, S. P. (2008). Diatom species composition and environmental conditions

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Hunt, C. W., Loder, T., & Voeroesmarty, C. (2005). Spatial and temporal patterns of inorganic

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Hunter, A., Morris, N. M. B., Lafabrie, C., & Cebrian, J. (2008). Effects of nutrient enrichment on

distichlis spicata and salicornia bigelovii in a marsh salt pan Wetlands (Vol. 28, pp.

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Hunter, D., Osborne, W., Smith, M., & Mcdougall, K. (2009). Breeding habitat use and the future

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Hunter, M. A., Quinn, T., & Hayes, M. P. (2005). Low flow spatial characteristics in forested

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counts of colonial seabirds in south carolina, USA Waterbirds (Vol. 30, pp. 40-51).

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Oxyanion concentrations in eastern sierra nevada rivers - 2. Arsenic and phosphate Aquatic

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Johns, D., Williams, H., Farrish, K., & Wagner, S. (2004). Denitrification and soil characteristics

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Johnson, A. A., & Kleve, M. G. (2003). Strelkovimermis papillosus n. Sp. (nematoda:

Mermithidae), a parasite of chironomid (insecta: Diptera) adults from the headwaters of the

mississippi river in northern minnesota Journal of Parasitology (Vol. 89, pp. 1186-1190).

Johnson, A. A., & Kleve, M. G. (2009). A new genus and species of mermithid (nematoda)

emerging from chironomid imagos eclosing from the mississippi river headwaters area in

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Johnson, B. L., Kaiser, J. L., Henny, C. J., & Grove, R. A. (2008). Prey of nesting ospreys on the

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Johnson, B. R., Cross, W. F., & Wallace, J. B. (2003). Long-term resource limitation reduces

insect detritivore growth in a headwater stream Journal of the North American

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Johnson, B. R., Fritz, K. M., Blocksom, K. A., & Walters, D. M. (2009). Larval salamanders and

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482 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

streams Ecological Indicators (Vol. 9, pp. 150-159).

Johnson, B. R., Haas, A., & Fritz, K. M. (2010). Use of spatially explicit physicochemical data to

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Johnson, B. R., Tarter, D. C., & Hutchens, J. J. (2000). Life history and trophic basis of production

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wetland, west virginia, USA Wetlands (Vol. 20, pp. 397-405).

Johnson, B. R., Wallace, J. B., Rosemond, A. D., & Cross, W. F. (2006). Larval salamander

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Johnson, D. S., & Fleeger, J. W. (2009). Weak response of saltmarsh infauna to ecosystem-wide

nutrient enrichment and fish predator reduction: A four-year study Journal of

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Johnson, J. B., & Gates, J. E. (2008). Bats of assateague island national seashore, maryland The

American Midland Naturalist (Vol. 160, pp. 160-170).

Johnson, J. H. (2008). Seasonal habitat use of brook trout and juvenile atlantic salmon in a

tributary of lake ontario Northeastern Naturalist (Vol. 15, pp. 363-374).

Johnson, J. H., & Dropkin, D. S. (1996). Seasonal habitat use by brook trout, salvelinus fontinalis

(mitchill), in a second-order stream Fisheries Management and Ecology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-11).

Johnson, J. H., Dropkin, D. S., & Shaffer, P. G. (1992). Habitat use by a headwater stream fish

community in north-central pennsylvania Rivers (Vol. 3, pp. 69-79).

Johnson, J. H., Mckenna, J. E., Dropkin, D. S., & Andrews, W. D. (2005). A novel approach to

fitting the von bertalanffy relationship to a mixed stock of atlantic sturgeon harvested off

483 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

the new jersey coast Northeastern Naturalist (Vol. 12, pp. 195-202).

Johnson, K. G., Allen, M. S., & Havens, K. E. (2007). A review of littoral vegetation, fisheries,

and wildlife responses to hydrologic variation at lake okeechobee Wetlands (Vol. 27, pp.

110-126).

Johnson, K. L., & Younger, P. L. (2006). The co-treatment of sewage and mine waters in aerobic

wetlands Engineering Geology (Vol. 85, pp. 53-61).

Johnson, L. B., & Host, G. E. (2010). Recent developments in landscape approaches for the study

of aquatic ecosystems Journal of the North American Benthological Society (Vol. 29, pp.

41-66).

Johnson, L. T., & Tank, J. L. (2009). Diurnal variations in dissolved organic matter and

ammonium uptake in six open-canopy streams Journal of the North American

Benthological Society (Vol. 28, pp. 694-708).

Johnson, L. T., Tank, J. L., & Arango, C. P. (2009). The effect of land use on dissolved organic

carbon and nitrogen uptake in streams Freshwater Biology (Vol. 54, pp. 2335-2350).

Johnson, M. S., Lehmann, J., Couto, E. G., Filho, J. P. N., & Riha, S. J. (2006). Doc and dic in

flowpaths of amazonian headwater catchments with hydrologically contrasting soils

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Johnson, M. S., Lehmann, J., Riha, S. J., Krusche, A. V., Richey, J. E., Ometto, J. P. H. B., &

Couto, E. G. (2008). Co2 efflux from amazonian headwater streams represents a

significant fate for deep soil respiration Geophysical Research Letters [Geophys. Res.

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Johnson, M. S., Lehmann, J., Selva, E. C., Abdo, M., Riha, S., & Couto, E. G. (2006). Organic

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484 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

amazon Hydrological Processes (Vol. 20, pp. 2599-2614).

Johnson, M. W., Powers, S. P., Senne, J., & Park, K. (2009). Assessing in situ tolerances of eastern

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Johnson, P. D., & Brown, K. M. (1998). Intraspecific life history variation in the threatened

louisiana pearlshell mussel, margaritifera hembeli Freshwater Biology (Vol. 40, pp.

317-329).

Johnson, R. K., & Angeler, D. G. (2010). Tracing recovery under changing climate: Response of

phytoplankton and invertebrate assemblages to decreased acidification Journal of the

North American Benthological Society (Vol. 29, pp. 1472-1490).

Johnson, R. L. (2009). A comparison of genetic structuring of yellowcheek darters (etheostoma

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Johnson, R. L., Mitchell, R. M., & Harp, G. L. (2006). Genetic variation and genetic structuring of

a numerically declining species of darter, etheostoma moorei raney & suttkus, endemic to

the upper little red river, arkansas The American Midland Naturalist (Vol. 156, pp. 37-44).

Johnson, R. M., Warburton, J., Mills, A. J., & Winter, C. (2010). Evaluating the significance of

event and post-event sediment dynamics in a first order tributary using multiple sediment

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Johnson, S. L. (2004). Factors influencing stream temperatures in small streams: Substrate effects

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485 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Johnson, T. C., Halfman, J. D., Busch, W. H., & Flood, R. D. (1984). Effects of bottom currents

and fish on sedimentation in a deep-water, lacustrine environment Bulletin of the

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Johnson, T. C., Kelts, K., & Odada, E. (2000). The holocene history of lake victoria AMBIO: A

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Johnson, W. C., Boettcher, S. E., Poiani, K. A., & Guntenspergen, G. (2004). Influence of weather

extremes on the water levels of glaciated prairie wetlands Wetlands (Vol. 24, pp. 385-398).

Johnson, W. C., Werner, B., Guntenspergen, G. R., Voldseth, R. A., Millett, B., Naugle, D. E., . . .

Olawsky, C. (2010). Prairie wetland complexes as landscape functional units in a changing

climate Bioscience (Vol. 60, pp. 128-140).

Johnson, W. P., Baar, L., Matlack, R. S., & Barron, R. B. (2009). Hatching chronology of ducks

using playas in the southern high plains of texas The American Midland Naturalist (Vol.

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Johnsson, M. J., Stallard, R. F., & Lundberg, N. (1991). Controls on the composition of fluvial

sands from a tropical weathering environment: Sands of the orinoco river drainage basin,

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Johnston, C. A. (2003). Shrub species as indicators of wetland sedimentation Wetlands (Vol. 23,

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Johnston, C. A., Shmagin, B. A., Frost, P. C., Cherrier, C., Larson, J. H., Lamberti, G. A., &

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486 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

dissolved organic carbon concentrations in streams Science of The Total Environment

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with sedimentation in headwater riparian forests Soil Science Society of America Journal

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Jones, I. L., Rowe, S., Carr, S. M., Fraser, G., Taylor, P., & Nettleship, D. N. (2002). Different

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Jones, J. B., & Rinehart, A. J. (2010). The long-term response of stream flow to climatic warming

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Jones, J. W., & Neves, R. J. (2007). Freshwater mussel status: Upper north fork holston river,

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Jones, J. W., Neves, R. J., Ahlstedt, S. A., Hubbs, D., Johnson, M., Dan, H., & Ostby, B. J. K.

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Jones, K. L., Poole, G. C., Woessner, W. W., Vitale, M. V., Boer, B. R., O'daniel, S. J., . . . Geffen,

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Jones, M. T., & Smyers, S. D. (2010). Occurrence of pond-breeding amphibians at alpine ponds in

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Jones, R. C. (1998). Seasonal and spatial patterns in phytoplankton photosynthetic parameters in a

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Jones, R. L., Slack, W. T., & Hartfield, P. D. (2005). The freshwater mussels (mollusca: Bivalvia:

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Jones, S. N., & Bergey, E. A. (2007). Habitat segregation in stream crayfishes: Implications for

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Jones, S. R. M., & Hargreaves, N. B. (2007). The abundance and distribution of lepeophtheirus

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salmon in coastal british columbia Journal of Parasitology (Vol. 93, pp. 1324-1331).

Jones, T. A., & Daniels, L. D. (2008). Dynamics of large woody debris in small streams disturbed

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Jones, T. A., Daniels, L. D., & Powell, S. R. (2010). Abundance and function of large woody

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Josefsson, M., & Andersson, B. (2001). The environmental consequences of alien species in the

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Julian, J. T., Snyder, C. D., & Young, J. A. (2006). The use of artificial impoundments by two

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545 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Maisey, J. G., & Moody, J. M. (2001). A review of the problematic extinct teleost fish

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Robinson, C. T., & Buser, T. (2007). Density-dependent life history differences in a stream mayfly

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Robinson, C. T., & Jolidon, C. (2005). Leaf breakdown and the ecosystem functioning of alpine

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681 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Rock, L., & Mayer, B. (2007). Isotope hydrology of the oldman river basin, southern alberta,

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Rockwell, I. P., & Newell, R. L. (2009). Note on mortality of the emerging stonefly pteronarcys

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Rodgers, P., Soulsby, C., Petry, J., Malcolm, I., Gibbins, C., & Dunn, S. (2004).

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Roe, J. H., Kingsbury, B. A., & Herbert, N. R. (2003). Wetland and upland use patterns in

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Romani, A. M., Vazquez, E., & Butturini, A. (2006). Microbial availability and size fractionation

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Skjelkvele, B. L., Andersen, T., Fjeld, E., Mannio, J., Wilander, A., Johansson, K., . . . Moiseenko,

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722 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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723 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Sloan, J., Miller, J. R., & Lancaster, N. (2001). Response and recovery of the eel river, california,

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Sloat, M. R., Shepard, B. B., White, R. G., & Carson, S. (2005). Influence of stream temperature

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Smart, K., & Jackson, C. (2009). Fine scale patterns in microbial extracellular enzyme activity

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724 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Smidt, S., & Oswood, M. (2002). Landscape patterns and stream reaches in the alaskan taiga

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Smiley Jr, P. C., Dibble, E. D., & Schoenholtz, S. H. (2005). Fishes of first-order streams in

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Smiley Jr, P. C., Dibble, E. D., & Schoenholtz, S. H. (2006). Spatial and temporal variation of

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Smiley Jr, P. C., Jr, F. D. S., & Knight, S. S. (2009). Designing impact assessments for evaluating

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Smiley, P. C., Gillespie, R. B., King, K. W., & Huang, C.-H. (2009). Management implications of

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Smiley, P. C., Jr., Gillespie, R. B., King, K. W., & Huang, C. H. (2008). Contribution of habitat

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Smith, A. M., Mao, J., Doane, R. A., & M. F. Kovacs, J. (1995). Metabolic fate of [

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Smith, B. J., Davies, P. E., & Munks, S. A. (2009). Changes in benthic macroinvertebrate

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Smith, D. G., & Gola, A. A. (2001). The discovery of caenestheriella gynecia mattox 1950

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Smith, D. R. (2009). Assessment of in-stream phosphorus dynamics in agricultural drainage

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Smith, F., Brown, A. V., & Pope, M. (2001). Meiofauna in intermittent streams differ among

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Smith, F., Brown, A. V., Pope, M., & Michael, J. L. (2001). Benthic meiofauna responses to five

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Smith, G. C., Covich, A. P., & Brasher, A. M. D. (2003). An ecological perspective on the

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Smith, G. G., Weitz, N., Soltau, C., Viljoen, A., Luger, S., & Maartens, L. (2008). Fate of fine

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726 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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Smith, G. R. (1981). Late cenozoic freshwater fishes of north america Annual Review of Ecology

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Smith, G. R., Iverson, J. B., & Rettig, J. E. (2006). Changes in a turtle community from a northern

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Smith, G. R., Todd, A., Rettig, J. E., & Nelson, F. (2003). Microhabitat selection by northern

cricket frogs (acris crepitans) along a west-central missouri creek: Field and experimental

observations Journal of Herpetology (Vol. 37, pp. 383-385).

Smith, H., & Wood, P. (2002). Flow permanence and macroinvertebrate community variability in

limestone spring systems Hydrobiologia (Vol. 487, pp. 45-58).

Smith, H., Wood, P., & Gunn, J. (2003). The influence of habitat structure and flow permanence

on invertebrate communities in karst spring systems Hydrobiologia (Vol. 510, pp. 53-66).

Smith, H. G., & Dragovich, D. (2008). Improving precision in sediment source and erosion

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Smith, I. M., Hall, K. J., Lavkulich, L. M., & Schreier, H. (2007). Trace metal concentrations in an

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Smith, J. J., & Lake, P. S. (1993). The breakdown of buried and surface-placed leaf litter in an

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Smith, K. L., & Jones, M. L. (2008). Allocation of sampling effort to optimize efficiency of

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Smith, L. C., & Smock, L. A. (1992). Ecology of invertebrate predators in a coastal plain stream

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Smith, L. L., Barichivich, W. J., Staiger, J. S., Smith, K. G., & Dodd, C. K. (2006). Detection

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Smith, L. W., Wirshing, H. H., Baker, A. C., & Birkeland, C. (2008). Environmental versus

genetic influences on growth rates of the corals pocillopora eydouxi and porites lobata

(anthozoa: Scleractinia)1 Pacific Science (Vol. 62, pp. 57-69).

Smith, R. F., Alexander, L. C., & Lamp, W. O. (2009). Dispersal by terrestrial stages of stream

insects in urban watersheds: A synthesis of current knowledge Journal of the North

American Benthological Society (Vol. 28, pp. 1022-1037).

Smith, R. F., & Lamp, W. O. (2008). Comparison of insect communities between adjacent

headwater and main-stem streams in urban and rural watersheds Journal of the North

American Benthological Society (Vol. 27, pp. 161-175).

Smith, R. L., Repert, D. A., & Hart, C. P. (2009). Geochemistry of inorganic nitrogen in waters

released from coal-bed natural gas production wells in the powder river basin, wyoming

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Smith, R. S., Charman, D., Rushton, S. P., Sanderson, R. A., Simkin, J. M., Shiel, R. S., & Marrs,

R. H. (2003). Vegetation change in an ombrotrophic mire in northern england after

excluding sheep Applied Vegetation Science (Vol. 6, pp. 261-270).

Smith, S., Grossman, G. D., & Lannoo, M. J. (2003). Stream microhabitat use by larval southern

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728 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

Smith, S. D. A. (1997). The effects of domestic sewage effluent on marine communities at coffs

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Smith, S. V., & Buddemeier, R. W. (1992). Global change and coral reef ecosystems Annual

Review of Ecology and Systematics (Vol. 23, pp. 89-118).

Smith, T. A., & Crabtree, D. (2010). Freshwater mussel (unionidae: Bivalvia) distributions and

densities in french creek, pennsylvania Northeastern Naturalist (Vol. 17, pp. 387-414).

Smith, T. B., & Skzlason, S. (1996). Evolutionary significance of resource polymorphisms in

fishes, amphibians, and birds Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics (Vol. 27, pp.

111-133).

Smock, L. A., & Gladden, J. E. (1992). Lotic macroinvertebrate production in three dimensions:

Channel surface, hyporheic, and Ecology (Vol. 73, pp. 876).

Smock, L. A., & Roeding, C. E. (1986). The trophic basis of production of the macroinvertebrate

community of a southeastern u.S.A. Blackwater stream Holarctic Ecology (Vol. 9, pp.

165-174).

Snodgrass, J. W., Ackerman, J. W., A. L. Bryan, J., & Burger, J. (1999). Influence of hydroperiod,

isolation, and heterospecifics on the distribution of aquatic salamanders (siren and

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Snodgrass, J. W., Forester, D. C., Lahti, M., & Lehman, E. (2007). Dusky salamander

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Snucins, E. (2003). Recolonization of acid-damaged lakes by the benthic invertebrates stenacron

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Human Environment (Vol. 32, pp. 225-229).

Snucins, E., & Gunn, J. M. (2003). Use of rehabilitation experiments to understand the recovery

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Snyder, C. D., & Johnson, Z. B. (2006). Macroinvertebrate assemblage recovery following a

catastrophic flood and debris flows in an appalachian mountain stream Journal of the

North American Benthological Society (Vol. 25, pp. 825-840).

Snyder, C. D., Young, J. A., Lemarie, D. P., & Smith, D. R. (2002). Influence of eastern hemlock

(tsuga canadensis) forests on aquatic invertebrate assemblages in headwater streams

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (Vol. 59, pp. 262-275).

Snyder, C. D., Young, J. A., & Stout, B. M. (2006). Aquatic habitats of canaan valley, west

virginia: Diversity and environmental threats Northeastern Naturalist (Vol. 13, pp.

333-352).

Snyder, K. A., & Williams, D. G. (2000). Water sources used by riparian trees varies among

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Soininen, J., & Kokocinski, M. (2006). Regional diatom body size distributions in streams: Does

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Soininen, J., Kokocinski, M., Estlander, S., Kotanen, J., & Heino, J. (2007). Neutrality, niches, and

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Solomina, O., & Calkin, P. E. (2003). Lichenometry as applied to moraines in alaska, u.S.A., and

kamchatka, russia Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research (Vol. 35, pp. 129-143).

Solomon, C. T., Hotchkiss, E. R., Moslemi, J. M., Ulseth, A. J., Stanley, E. H., Hall, R. O., &

Flecker, A. S. (2009). Sediment size and nutrients regulate denitrification in a tropical

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Soltan, D., Verlaque, M., Boudouresque, C. F., & Francour, P. (2001). Changes in macroalgal

communities in the vicinity of a mediterranean sewage outfall after the setting up of a

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Sondi, I., Lojen, S., Jura?i?, M., & Prohi?, E. (2008). Mechanisms of land sea interactions the

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Soons, M. B., Vlugt, C. V. D., Lith, B. V., Heil, G. W., & Klaassen, M. (2008). Small seed size

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742 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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830 Appendix D - Unique article bibliography

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838 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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839 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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840 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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841 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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842 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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843 Appendix E - Unique article bibliography, Arid West

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