ISSN 2278-3423 Broadsheet on Contemporary Politics Language, Region and Community Volume 2 No. 4&5 (Quarterly) Bilingual (English and Telugu) December 2014 Donation : Rs. 50/-

Contents EDITORIAL REGION This is My Protest Kaloji Building my Identity… Joopaka Subhadra Language Breathes Life into Sangisetti Srinivas Local railway station sign Telangana, Language and Cinema Sathya Prakash E and Vamshi V Beyond Standard Language D Vasanta POLITICS ‘Chera’: An unfinished task K Srinivas Dalits and English K Ilaiah Language, Political Commons Madhava Prasad English: Dalit Goddess Chandra Bhan Prasad DALIT LITERATURE Language Issues Jayadhir Thirumalarao Vemana and Joshua Katti Padma Rao Gurram Joshua DM Varaprasad Language Flow in Modern Telugu Dalit Literature Gogu -Mother Tongues Sowmya Dechamma Shyamala Mother Tongue in Disguise Prasen Medical School Syed Mustapha Kamal Language and Lifeworlds Deepa Srinivas Persian Gives Place to Urdu Tariq Rahman Swearwords and Dalit Poetry Jilukara Srinivas From OU to MANUU: MA Moid Holy Shit: Book Review R Srivatsan Interview with Junaid Zakhir Grantha’s gaze on Gramyam N Manohar Reddy Interview with Khalid Sayeed TRANSLATION English Language at Madrasas Sajida Sultana Language of Silence: Interview with K Lalita G Shyamala Problems of Urdu at MANUU Md. Mujeebuddin and A Suneetha DEMOCRACY AND STANDARDIZATION World, Force and Concept A Suneetha, MA Moid and R Srivatsan Interview with Vemula Yellaiah N Manohar Reddy & R Srivatsan Disciplines, Interdisciplines and Languages Prathama Banerjee

Center fold - Jyothi Waheed

Editorial Group: N. Manohar Reddy, M.A. Moid and Gogu Shyamala Resident Team: A. Suneetha, R. Srivatsan Advisory Board: Aisha Mahmood Farooqui, Asma Rasheed, D. Vasanta, Gita Ramaswamy, Gogu Shyamala, Kaneez Fathima, Lalita K, Madhumeeta Sinha, N. Vasudha, Sajaya Kakarla, Prasad, Susie Tharu, Swathy Margaret, B. Syamasundari, Uma Brughubanda, Veena Shatrugna Production: A. Srinivas, T. Sreelakshmi Printed by: Anveshi Research Centre for Women’s Studies, 2-2-18/2/A D.D. Colony, Amberpet, Hyderabad 500 013 Opinions and facts in this broadsheet are those of the editors and contributors and do not necessarily reflect those of Anveshi.

Printed at: Rowshni Graphics, Amberpet, Hyderabad-500 013. Cell No: 9246172133. in social movements and so on. Members of Editorial the resident editorial team also found it worthwhile to discuss some of the issues that the broadsheet as a bilingual text poses for the question of translation. We also discovered some fresh talent—first time translators! Also, as you can see, some of us have also anguage as a political issue in modern broadsheet, the focus is on the specific local collaborated in translating when we realized could be traced back to the political issues. Very few articles indeed deal that we possessed the required intellectual Lcolonial period. However, it was in with “pan-Indian” issues such as language resources only in one of the languages the 1940s and 50s, during the consolidation of standardization, dalits and English, the recent involved, and while translating we benefited Indian nationalism and later when the controversy of introducing Sanskrit in central from each other. Translating Joshua’s poetry subcontinent was reorganized on the basis of schools and so on. Even those do not was a challenge but also a pleasure, and it also linguistic identity, massive political energies generalize the issue in an abstract way but made us realize that we need to take were mobilized around the issue of language. make connections with the everyday local translation as a political practice much more From the 1980s through the 90s and after, as issues. Since this focus on the local (with the seriously than we do at the moment. we all know, very different questions such as awareness that the local is not unconnected N. Manohar, M.A. Moid and Gogu Shyamala gender, caste and sub-region have occupied with the outside world) determined our choice The editorial team thanks the writers as well the centre space of politics in India, and such of the writers/articles, understandably as the translators questions have been ably foregrounded by the writings which deal with debates on many respective feminist, dalit and the separate other Indian languages, however important Telangana movements. Considering this they might be, have not been included in this history, it appears as though the language issue. issue in the present could only be of some historical interest. But we believe that it is not Moreover, this issue is brought out at a time really so. That is because the language when efforts are being made by various question has not faded away entirely from the individuals, institutions and the Telangana political domain. In fact, it has resurfaced in State to envision and consolidate what could the form of serious intellectual debates in all be broadly termed as Telangana Telugu. For these above mentioned movements, whether example, a committee has been constituted by it is the question of formation of gendered the state to bring out school text books written subjectivities, or ‘obscenity’ attributed to the in the local idiom. Some newspapers and language of dalit literature, or the domination other media also seem to be interested in of Andhra Telugu vis-à-vis the aspirations for promoting Telangana Telugu. However, a separate Telangana state. Also, the issue of although one could perceive some scattered marginalization of Urdu/Dakkani after the local expressions mixed with Standard accession of the erstwhile to (Andhra) Telugu in the print and visual media, the Indian Union in 1948 and a further a distinctive Telangana Telugu for discursive deterioration of its status after the formation purposes is yet to be created. It is also hoped of in 1956, vis-à-vis the that the state will formulate a new policy survival of Muslims in Telangana has been regarding Urdu/Dakkani. It is precisely this simmering. What this broadsheet has tried to historical moment that makes this broadsheet do is first to recapitulate and consolidate on a significant and appropriate. However, the single platter, these extremely significant and articles do not put forward a single thought provoking debates which have been perspective and, in fact, as you read on, you otherwise scattered. Second, it has tried to get will find differing views on the issues in new writers to contribute, bringing in new question, although by no means they cover perspectives. These two together should the entire diversity of positions. provide the reader a comprehensive picture of Putting together this broadsheet has been a the issues around the questions of language, great pleasure and an extremely fruitful region and community. It is gratifying to see exercise for us. In this process, as editors of that the contributors to this issue are people this issue, we discovered pieces of writing on who have serious investment in the language language which we had never known before, issue and we are glad that all of them revisited some of the old debates in the light responded positively to our request and took of the recent political developments, time to write for the broadsheet. interviewed and elicited the experiences of As one can make out from what is said above people who were/are passionate about and from looking at the contributions to this creating radical literature and/or participated

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-2 may, if today Telugu, Bengali, Marathi and Excerpt from ‘Idi Na Godava’ remain in use, they have an Englishman behind them. In like manner, in Calcutta, (This is my Protest) Gilchrist worked for Urdu. The British worked for tribal languages – as did Haimendorf for Gondi. Similarly, the administrative language, once Persian, slowly changed to Urdu. Kaloji People never wrote poetry in Urdu even a hundred years ago. Just as Telugu was prohibited, so was Urdu. Writing was in Persian. Arabic was written only to praise here were sixteen districts in the Koran was called Kiraat. Azad wrote this in God and pray to Him; any other use was Hyderabad Dominion – eight Telugu, one of his letters from jail: “We brothers prohibited. This was like Vishwanatha five and three . learned the Koran from a Bengali Maulvi T Satyanarayana asserting that praise of the The Telugus were a crore. The eight districts (who, though a native Bengali speaker, was a Lord must be in the language of the Lord. As were together called Telangana. In the teacher of Arabic). When my aunt (father’s Muslims spoke Urdu but wrote poetry in population of the dominion, the Telugus were sister) came from Arabia, she listened to the Persian, a few non-Muslims too (about one in 50%, the Maharashtrians 25%, Kannadigas 11% Maulvi. She called my father and said ‘This a crore) became famous as Persian poets. and the Muslims 12%. All over the dominion teacher is spoiling the children with his wrong Speaking in Urdu was looked down upon. the patels (land owners) and patwaris (land pronunciation – stop these lessons’. She clerks) were present in large number. These insisted that we ‘send the teacher away’”. I I once told Vishwanatha Satyanarayana, people wrote the kavilekattalu (records) in remembered Sripada Subramania Shastry’s “What you write in Telugu, even people like Telugu in Telangana, Marathi in Marathwada autobiography Experiences and Memories. At me cannot understand. Because you write in and in in Karnataka. The strange that time, whatever was written was in Telugu, your stature remains unknown in the thing was that at the beginning of this century Sanskrit, and therefore whatever was read was non-Telugus areas. So, if you kindly stop the administrative language was Persian. This in Sanskrit. When on one occasion Sripada writing in Telugu and write in Sanskrit, your language was spoken by a few families who wrote a poem in Telugu it is said his father merit will be known to people who know came from Persia (present day Iran). In the broke his hand. In Sansrkit drama, women Sanskrit. Those of your standard will Nizam’s dominion, the commoners and the and sudra characters would not speak Sanskrit. understand you. Why should you write in elite too spoke Urdu. But some Muslims, They would speak Prakrit. Sita would speak Telugu? And why indeed should we, without some kayasths (record keeping castes)and Prakrit, and Ramudu garu (Kaloji’s inflection understanding your Telugu, suffer so? some brahmans learned Persian and Arabic – of respect is sarcastic: translators) would speak Further, why should we listen to you say, as some learned English seeking jobs under Sanskrit. It meant that even as characters in ‘what will you understand anyway’? So please colonial rule. As there are Bhasha Praveena the same family, men and women could not write only in Sanskrit!” (In order to make and Vidwan examinations in Hindi, there speak the same language. The plot would Vishwanatha’s merit known to the North, his were examinations called “Munshi Faazil”, have to be related to the divine, to the Puranas Veyi Padagalu [The Thousand Hooded Cobra of “Kabir” in Arabic and Persian. The Muslim and the language was to be Sanskrit only. The ] was translated into Hindi by the courtiers of the nawab sought Persian huge task of freeing the national languages current prime minister PV Narasimha Rao language expertise. Common Muslims did from this hegemonic grip belonged to some under the title Sahasra Phani). Such were not know Persian; Arabic, not at all. Only great Englishmen. Just as Yeats freed Telugu traditional views about the vernacular. First those who came from Arabia spoke Arabic at with these words: ‘Poetry must be written in gods, then goddesses, after them the home. the language of the common man’ [Kaloji is incarnations, and thereafter the great familial referring to J A Yeats, inspector of schools in lineages – filled the Puranas. These were Take for example, Maulana Abul Kalam colonial Andhra, who promoted simple recited in the divine language. This was not Azad’s family – such families came from language], a Britisher did the good deed for the people’s language and was not of their life Arabia several generations ago. There was each national language. Whatever their either. Thus it was in every language. A good command over spoken Arabic in these intention was, the result of this was a benefit descent from the royal language of Persian to houses. These people said that the Koran must to our languages. It is likely that behind these the common language of Urdu was a great be read in Arabic (just as vaidika brahmins men, there were bishops and others who used change was it not? However, this benefited alone must chant the Vedas). Reading the these languages to proselytize. Be that as it only a single class.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-3 […] These scholars became expert in Persian, a language that was not their mother tongue. Building my identity… The language of the rest, even though they couldn’t read and write, was Urdu. Therefore, for people who spoke Urdu at home and for those who knew Urdu, since the official communication occurred in Urdu, learning Joopaka Subhadra that language and gaining expertise in it was easy. A Telugu or a Kannadiga, or any other non-Muslim, however much he learned Urdu, would never be counted as an Urdu expert. here was a primary school up to class pulusu, pachhipulusu, tamarind pickle, fish The Kayastha whose mother tongue was not four close to my house near the curry, bone soup, brinjal dry fish, Urdu, even though he had certificates like TSingareni Collieries. There were four siyyalakuralu, jaggery rice, pashambuvva, Munshi, Munshi Faazil or Kabir etc., could classes in two rooms. Since it was build with bellappappulu, jawari roties, pelalu etc were never be seen appointed to teach Urdu in any bamboo partitions, it was called the “bamboo not part of Telugu cuisine. Why were tongue primary or middle school. Even in poetry partition school”. We had one “sir” teaching splitting words like Subramanyam, Pankajam, reading sessions, if twenty poets participated, all the four classes. We had two classes a week Meenakshi, Subba Rao, Gayatri, Padmanabha one non-Muslim presence was exceptional. for each grade/standard with great difficulty. Sastry found in textbooks. I wished there were “Unless you know Persian, you cannot know Except during these two classes, the boys spent names that we were used to such as Ellana, Urdu! What do these people know of writing their time swimming in the ponds, picking Mallanna, Samakka, Sarakka, Lingayya, Urdu?” they asked. It was like asking, berries and fruits and riding cycles on the Iyllaya, Komarayya, Bhadrakka, Posamma, “Without knowing Sanskrit, how can you ground. However, we girls played games such Uppalamma in our text books. Even our gods write Telugu?” In the Nizam’s Dominions, the as toy house, toy marriage, kitchen toys, were never found in books, never shown in non-Muslims were eighty to eighty five out of carrying water in small containers, washing movies and never mentioned on radio. I a hundred. The remaining were Muslims. dishes and sweeping the house. We also wished our books had Ramesudu, How many of these were educated? These wanted to swim in the ponds, ride the cycles, Buddhiposamma, Kattamaisamma, were only those scholars of Arabic and Persian climb trees and pick fruits with friends. Once Komareelidevudu, Mallannadevudu, among the courtiers who came with the first when I secretly went to a ride a cycle with my Samakka, Sarakka, Possavva, Uppalama and Nizam-ul –Mulk from . It was their friend, my brother found out and he beat us we could pray to them by placing peacock hegemony. Just as the Mughals came from black and blue. Why couldn’t they let us girls feathers in our books. I thought I could have outside the land and ruled these people did play freely like the boys? studied better that way. too. Their family names were distinct, e.g., Siddiqi, etc. Even though they came from I completed my fourth standard in half-taught In Andhra Pradesh geography the names of Arabia twenty generations ago, they would classes, half heard and half studied. I was then the rivers were , Godavari, Penna, boast, “We have come straight from Arabia, admitted into a high school that was two Tungabhadra. I wondered why there was no what will the locals know of our kilometers from my house. Out of the 10-15 mention of our ‘Ganga’ flowing through my pronunciation? How can they speak?” and girls who studied with me till 4th class, only villages and many of our villages. When I look down upon ordinary people – just as three joined high school with me. This school asked my teacher, she yelled “What Ganga? those who came from Bezawada and Sarkar was away from the village in the officers’ That is in Varanasi. Shut up and sit down!” districts would say to us, “What do you know colony. The children of Singareni coal miners killing my enthusiasm for clarity. But the of Telugu?” One says we don’t know Telugu, had to travel four kilometers to school. The ‘Ganga’ flowing in our Mancherial was called the second says we don’t know Urdu, and the residents of the colony, the teachers in my Godavari. I did not know that until much third, that we don’t know English! If so, what school and the children from the officers’ later. I spent all my strength and intelligence language we do know is the question that colony would ‘andi’ and ‘ garu’ at the end of during childhood memorizing and writing remains! every word. I found these words strange and these words that were not agreeable to me, alien. I tried grasping those words and I still were unrelated to my family and my Translated by Shajahana Begum and can’t. environment. R Srivatsan.

From Kaloji’s autobiography, Idi Naa Godava, Andhra cuisine, daddhojanam (seasoned curd Courtesy of 22-12-2013 Andhra Jyoti. Pg.No.15-17, Swecha Sahithi Publications 1995. rice), aavada (dahiwada), gongura, Translated by Tejaswini Madabhushi. pootarekulu, bobbatlu, idly and dosas were Kaloji Narayan Rao (1914-2002), or Kaloji for short talked about as telugu cuisine in our classes, Joopaka Subhadra is a Telangana dalit feminist poet was a poet, freedom fighter, thinker and activist who but I had never heard of them. I don’t know and story writer. was awarded the Padma Vibhushan. why the food from our villages such as onion Tejaswini Madabhushi is a feminist and activist. Shajahana Begum is a Telugu poet and story writer.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-4 Even today the language of Telangana is being Language breathes life branded as a dialect. They have expressed their spite by giving the language of Telangana an inferior status. In hundreds of public meetings Prof Jayashankar the into Telangana ideologue of the separate Telangana movement has stated that the people of Andhra in spite of their belittling the Telugu Sangisetti Srinvas of Telangana, use more Urdu words in their everyday communication. As an example he has highlighted the captions and headlines of newspapers like ‘Jailu nunchi khaidi paraar’ he movement for a separate Telangana cannot be read with ease, unless the words (prisoner escapes from jail) in which except has made language a vehicle for the that are used can be understood easily by the ‘nunchi’ all the other three are Urdu words. identity of the Telangana people. The readers. Just as in English which has special T K. Chandrasekhara Rao, the TRS supremo political movements which culminated in the texts for pronunciation, pronunciation guides formation of a separate state of Telangana are required to read such books in Telugu deliberately spoke the Telangana language in sought inspiration from the distinct cultural which make use of vocal expressions. Both his public speeches and press conferences. Not identity of the Telangana people. Poets and book lovers and school children face similar only did he speak the language but he also writers expressed in their writings and difficulties. made use of the idiom, phrases, riddles and language, the idiom, sarcasm, anger and angst other colorful expressions in the language to In the name of a standardized version of commonly expressed by the people. The convey his message easily to the people. His Telugu, the students of Telangana, studied the poetic use of this played a crucial role in the cheeky humor has also landed him in trouble as it is spoken in the realization of the movement for a separate at times. He called senior TDP leader Godavari, Krishna and Guntur districts. This is Telangana. Writers went in search of the Devender Goud an ‘Ebushi’. The journalists a foreign language to the people of Telangana. earthy flavor in the language of the common who were covering the event interpreted it as The teacher who teaches the text has no people sidestepping literary language which ‘Ebc gadu’ a person who enjoyed the benefits knowledge of this standard version of Telugu. dominates writing and other literary activity. of reservation because of his BC status; From their incomplete comprehension they Many a singer and balladeer rose to sing the apparently a caste insult. The journalists try to inform their students in a purely textual earthy fragrance of the Telangana language in missed the point that ‘Ebushi’ is a tribe in language. The students face a disconnect their songs. The overwhelming facts Telangana. KCR has earned the reputation of because of this peculiar situation. The pronounced by the writers, poets and activists being a good speaker and orator because of language spoken by the student at home is over the years shook the political class and the his felicity not only with the Telugu language different from the language spoken by the movement for a separate state of Telangana but also with . His usage of teacher at school. Balancing these diverse made it to the banner headlines of the media. the common man’s idiom in his speeches expressions, the student manages to write the which were publicised in the newspapers and The Telangana people are blessed with a answers in the examination, which may or the audio visual media like TV influenced the unique language. Their language is may not fetch the required marks. The spoken feelings of the Telangana people. It made grammatically and syntactically correct. What language, the textual language and the them hear and take note of what KCR had to is called gasu nune in Telangana is called language taught need to be harmonized to say and propagated the Telangana movement. kirasanailu in Andhra which is not a Telugu achieve the required permanency. word. In gasu nune there is atleast ‘nune’ After the formation of Andhra Pradesh writers Language differences prevail due to caste and which is a Telugu word. As put by the poet for a very long time were hesitant to employ gender also. However, some intellectuals have Kaloji: “for them, the people of Andhra, ‘road’ the language of Telangana in their works. restricted these differences to Telangana alone is correct, but ‘sadak’ is wrong”. When Power and authority ordered the standard and marginalised the Telugu of the Telangana Devulapalli Ramanuja Rao gave a speech in language to be used and celebrated in the people to the status of a dialect. Noted , some of the audience who had a Telangana region. This situation changed to intellectuals of Telangana like Suravaram strong preconceived notion that the Telangana some extent by 1969 when the separate Pratap Reddy, Adiraju Veerabhadra Rao, people cannot speak Telugu, commented, Telangana agitation started taking shape. Biruduraju Rama Raju. Samala Sadasiva, “Your Telugu is quite good.” Only Kaloji used Telangana Telugu Yashoda Reddy, Ravva Srihari and other consistently across all forums on most Some of the Telangana writers instead of spoke the Telugu of Telangana. They also occasions. The ‘Isitram’ poetry of Pancha making things simple for the people made taught and wrote in the language of the Reddy Lakshmana, ‘Gudise Gunde’ of them more difficult. Some writers made use of Telangana people. When Biruduraju Rama Devaraju Maharaju, the stories of Vidyasagar a large number of words as they are spoken, Raju wrote about ‘tantela’ in his books, they written completely in the language of the in their works. Vemula Yellaiah in his novels (the so called pundits) advised him through Telangana people created a momentous stir. Kakka and Siddi recorded the life and struggle magazines to amend it as ‘metlu’ (steps). Still The former Vice-chancellor of Telugu of the Dalit people in their language as Biruduraju did not change the character of his University Professor N. Gopi has deliberately spoken. This has made the book a difficult language. He also wrote several books in the named his poetry after popular Telangana text. A book making use of vocal expressions Telugu of the Telangana people.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-5 names ‘Tangedu Pulu’ ‘Kuduru’ ‘Yenda Poda.’ with the consciousness of the struggle for a not find a place in this dictionary. As an As long as he lived Samala Sadasiva did not separate Telangana. The magazine ‘Soyi’ example the black Scorpion is called abandon the flavour of Telangana Telugu in became the forum for the expression of these ‘Ingilikam’ in Nalgonda is not found in this his work. Writers like Ilaiah wrote in the sentiments. The Telangana writers association dictionary. There is a need to add more such Telanagana language in Srujana magazine. formed by this magazine enhanced the respect words and make it more comprehensive. Several Telangana writers barring a few and provided publicity to Literature by Bhaskar has made a significant effort and continued this trend after 1990 and they are conducting public meetings in various places. compiled his work in spite of the several continuing to do so. T. Krishnamurthy Yadav’s The language spoken by people of Telangana constraints faced by him. This has shown the ‘TokkuduBanda’ was written in true Telangana may vary from district to district or for that way. While continuing the good work done spirit. ‘Pokkili’ was the first compilation matter between the tahsils within the same there is a need to rework this and produce an published during the Telangana movement. district. However the language spoken by the academically new dictionary. Government The very name of this compilation created a majority of the people in the ten districts of should constitute a committee under the huge sensation. Vemuganti Murali’s ‘ Munum’ the state of Telangana or the language leadership of intellectuals like Ravva Srihari which was published at the height of the understood by a majority of the people in for this purpose. When this cultural change separate Telangana movement also showed Telangana can be principally agreed upon as continues to happen and all the discarded and the path to be followed. Annavaram the standard language of the people of forgotten words of Telangana are brought Devender’s conribution in this aspect is also Telangana. New words and coinages keep back to usage, it will be possible to relish the significant. getting added to this existing stream. sweetness of its native Telugu once again. Poets named hundreds and thousands of their Nalimela Bhaskar’s work, the Telangana word Translated from the Telugu by books with Telangana words. Telangana poet dictionary brought out in 2003 was inspired A. Krishna Mohan and historian Sunkireddy Narayana Reddy by the spirit of the separate Telangana hailed the uniqueness of the Telangana people Sangisetti Srinivas is a librarian, Telangana movement. He created a primary resource by naming his literary research work activist, interested in culture, literature and pool of around 7000 neglected, forgotten ‘Mungili,’ his poems ‘Dali,’ his compilation history. words to marshal them for the separate ‘Mattadi,’ and his essays ‘Ganuma.’ An Telangana struggle. As informed by Nalimela A Krishna Mohan works in government (BC association of writers was formed by the name Bhaskar the words which are in usage in the Welfare commission) and is interested in literature. ‘Singidi.’ Every writer named his or her work districts of Mahabubnagar and Nalgonda did

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-6 compulsive habit of narrating film stories to Telangana and Language people in Telangana dialect. In this film, interestingly, except Kota’s character no one speaks in Telangana dialect, not even his son. Politics of Everybody else speaks the dominant coastal Andhra language. In addition, whenever this character speaks in the film, a donkey’s bray in the background adds to the comic element, by suggesting that the Telangana dialect sounds like donkey’s bray. In another film Sathya Prakash Elavarthi & Vamshi Vemireddy Mondi Mogudu Penki Pellam, plays wife to a police officer. She is portrayed as a bubbly but ‘ignorant house wife’, who speaks Telangana dialect and does not know basic social etiquette. Except her character, no Introduction this encounter, we do find a “secret fascination major character speaks her dialect in the film. of otherness” as cultural studies theorist Stuart he agitation for separate Telangana Her behavior and language are ridiculed and Hall observed (in another related context), state brought to fore the language used to generate comedy. Even though he which subsequently resulted in stereotyping politics associated with Telugu loves her, her police officer husband is always T of the region, its culture and its dialect. The cinema. As part of this agitation, Telugu ashamed of her language and makes sure that constructed “othering” of Telangana cinema, which is dominated by people from she does not speak in front of his colleagues manifested itself culturally and linguistically coastal districts, has come under the active and friends. When she speaks before a on the screen at various levels in the scrutiny of Telangana activists for denigration colleague in the first scene, he feels following decades. All through their prior of Telangana dialect and culture. The most embarrassed and covers it up by saying, ‘she is existence, Telugu films used coastal Andhra serious charge made against Telugu film doing research in Telangana Dialect’. Even a dialects (Godavari and Krishna) as de facto industry is about its cultural insensitivity few months before the bifurcation, Andhra standard and ignored other dialects including towards Telangana. There are quite a few politicians and supporters of unified state that of Telangana. However the representation films in which Telangana dialect and culture were using the analogy of wife and husband of culture and language was not politicized have been ridiculed and denigrated. In many to suggest that the dispute is internal and does until Telugu films started denigrating the Telugu films, Telangana dialect has been used not require outside intervention. The film is Telangana Dialect in the 90s, after which it as a tool to ridicule the nature of a character. suggestive of the strange relationship between snowballed into a huge issue of self-assertion This trend became distinctly visible after the two regions, where one region is ashamed and identity. At this stage Telangana dialect 1990’s with the release of Jayammu of being with the other and wants to reform it ceased to be a question of ‘mere language’, Nischayammu Raa (1990) and Mondi Mogudu to meet its standards. and became an issue of identity and Penki Pellam (1991). This period also coincides representation. As the movement for a These two films introduce the idea of with the increasing migration of people from separate state picked up steam, Telangana Telangana in terms of its language Andhra and Rayalaseema into Hyderabad and activists started projecting their dialect as a cinematically to the other regions for the first the complete relocation of the Telugu film defiant statement of identity in the face of time. The paradoxical anxiety and industry from Madras to Hyderabad. As an standardization and false homogeneity of the simultaneous indifference towards the “other” increasing number of Seemandhra people universal Telugu identity promoted by all is remarkable in these films. Similar came into Hyderabad, their anxieties of using media industries, including cinema. representation continued through various and preserving their own dialect created symbols, codes and metaphors; in fact these complicated situations. Telangana Dialect in the 90s Telugu Cinema extended from Telangana comic characters to

Meanwhile when the Telugu film industry As mentioned earlier, there have been portrayal of evil using the characters that shifted to Hyderabad in 1994 with active consistent attempts to stereotype and to speak Telangana dialect. One finds this trend backing of N.T. Rama Rao’s regime, it was construct Telangana dialect and culture as the with the block buster film Nuvvu Nenu (2001), staring at Telangana as a different cultural “other” after 1990’s in Telugu cinema. In where in it deploys Telangana dialect for an space. Telugu cinema had to engage with Jayammu Nischayammu Raa, the actor Kota important character. In this film, the heroine’s Telangana, cinematically - as a distinct Srinivasa Rao speaks Telangana dialect to grandmother (played by Telangana geographical, cultural and linguistic space. In produce comedy. This character has the Shakunthala) speaks Telangana dialect In this

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-7 film, Telangana dialect is used to emphasize links to the political apparatus dominated by aesthetics based on Telangana dialect. her cruel and villainous nature.. Even in this Seemandhra. Activists argued that film These platforms created a huge body of film, except the heroine’s father and her Industry was given prime land at heavily literature of resistance which also critiqued grandmother, not one of the characters subsidized prices, besides production the media industries. Faced with this creative including his daughter who is the heroine of subsidies, soft loans and tax incentives by resistance, the standard language had started the film speak the same dialect. Many other successive governments to facilitate the shift showing signs of weariness. Once Telangana Telugu films deploy characters with of the industry from Madras to Hyderabad. based print and television news media Telangana dialect to generate two extreme Telangana activists pointed out that by using organizations started using the dialect, the de emotions i.e., comedy and villainy. Telangana these subsidies some coastal Andhra facto power of the standard language started dialect is the primary premise on which the filmmakers not only increased their assets crumbling. The film industry too could not idea of ‘othering’ is constructed in all these manifold but also discriminated against the continue in the same mode, while under attack films. Besides being the ‘other’, several traits locals by denying equal opportunity. The from the Telangana activists. Whenever the like lack of manners and etiquette, newspaper, Namaste Telangana ran a series of Telangana activists felt misrepresented, or unsophisticated language and expressions accusatory articles (titled “Bomma-Borusu”, when they felt the members of the industry have been attributed to the characters that November, 2012) on the handful of big were supporting United Andhra, they speak Telangana dialect. Such characterization Andhra families that dominate Telugu film protested. These activities ranging from of Telangana dialect and culture by Andhra industry. The articles charge that film stars burning of the film reels, gheraoing film stars filmmakers seems to stem from their and studio owners close to political parties on location, vandalizing the film theaters and perception that it is an inferior version of have made more wealth by acquiring real offices of film companies, burning of effigies, Telugu language and culture. estate in Hyderabad than through film police complaints, to demonstrations put a lot business. The articles also make very specific Questioning the ‘Telugu’ in Telugu Cinema of pressure on the film industry. allegations of occupation of valuable government lands in Hyderabad, doing other Mamidi Harikrishna in his article titled This situation pushed the film industry to re- business in lands assigned to build studios, ‘Noorella Therpai Telangana Atma’ (The soul think and re-articulate its position on and getting favorable “Re-use” Government of Telangana on hundred years of Screen) portrayal of Telangana dialect and culture. Orders for the subsidized land assigned for charges that there is no Telangana in Telugu Film industry started looking for positive film studios. The articles also charge cinema. He argues that mainstream Telugu portrayal of Telangana and for providing at vindictive attitude of these film families cinema was not able to reflect and capture the least token representation for Telangana towards Telangana film producers, directors soul, struggles, and diversities of Telangana, artists and themes. As a result film heroes, and artists by controlling the vital aspects of despite speaking the same language. He who were speaking Andhra dialect all through the industry. further argues that the special ways of life and on screen, started speaking in Telangana conditions in Telangana have influenced and dialect. Sometimes the story was set in ‘Dialect’ical challenge to Telugu cinema contributed to parallel and cross-over cinema Telangana regions to suggest that the hero is in India. He lists Ankur (1974), Nishant (1975), The dialect which was denigrated in various from Telangana. Telugu cinema finally Baazaar (1982), Mandi (1983), Susman (1987), ways in Andhra dominated media was yielded to the onslaught. The grand narratives Hyderabad Blues (1998), Angrez (2005), consciously chosen as the language of of Telugu cinema and the hyperbole of the Hyderabad Nawabs (2006) and how despite resistance by Telangana activists. Coded in the Andhra hero were easy target for the vibrant being made in non-Telugu languages, they ‘ethno-aesthetics’ of Telangana, this dialect and people centered Telangana movement. reflect the region, its uniqueness and flavor. produced cognitive dissonance in the speakers The movement seems to have deconstructed of ‘standard’ language. Through constant use every idea of Teluguness (culture, language, The Telangana movement problematised the in the movement, Telangana dialect was aesthetics). Political resistance centered on issue of representation and language not only aesthetisized positively to a great extent. Dialect had been raised to the form of an art in cinema but at various levels. Student groups, cultural troupes constantly during Telangana Movement, while Telugu Discrimination in school text books, state produced new arguments and rhetoric against cinema was found wanting in all ways. Telugu sanctioned cultural festivals, active the alleged cultural aggrandizement of the cinema stood as a sore example for the endorsement of certain kind of Telugu in Andhra Telugu culture. It was developed into cultural supremacy thesis of Andhras. When administrative activities while ignoring the a special art, mostly in song as the movement it was attacked it was hardly in a position to heterogeneous nature of Telugu language progressed. The Dhoom dhams and other defend itself and all it stood for. were raised. Telangana movement primarily cultural festivals gave enough spaces for responded to Telugu cinema by attacking the Sathya Prakash teaches in University of Hyderabad creative usage and development of new hegemonic structures of the industry, and its and Vamshi Vemireddy teaches in NIT, Rourkela.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-8 sharp and well decorated nose that language Dalits and English (Sanskrit) died to a point no return, and that except for the soliloquist priest nobody understands the slokas, she has become goddess of all Indian languages.

While the historically backward were enjoying their new status of proximity to the Kancha Ilaiah mythical Saraswathi, those leaving Saraswathi for the company of her cousin Laxmi (goddess of wealth) shifted her real operative base to ne bright morning in 1960, when I the fact there could be Muslim or a Christian the other world, called colonial English world. was about eight, a newly appointed or other minority students in the schools. The backward class people of India, as of now, Oteacher came to my house. My have no entry into that world so far. mother had already cleaned our courtyard, or It is a known fact that there were several ‘vaakili’, and was sprinkling dung water all Hindu teachers who made humiliating The recent decision of the Central government around. I was about to assist my elder brother remarks about Muslims and Christians, saying to introduce English teaching from class one in untying cattle and going along with them that they do not have goddess of education in all government schools will enable all the for grazing. The teacher asked my mother to like Saraswathi and hence were inferior in lower castes of India to enter a new phase of send me and my elder brother, who was about educational values. Saraswathi Shishumandirs English education. Though this method of 10, to school. What she told him shocks every have cropped up all over the country. In the English teaching does not take the dalit- one of us in retrospect: “Ayyaa — if we send ’70s and ’80s the aggressive ownership of bahujan and minority community children to our children to school to read and write, the ‘matru bhasha’ (mother tongue) theory and the level of convent educated upper castes, it devil Saraswathi will kill them. That devil adoption of Saraswathi as goddess of Indian makes a new beginning in the dream for an wants only brahmins and baniyas to be in that education had acquired a nationalist overtone. egalitarian education in future. business.” So militant would that nationalism become that any opposition to installing Saraswathi’s English education is the key to the modernist For centuries the so called goddess of portrait in the schools and colleges would approach suitable to the globalised India. The education was against dalit learning, reading only invite fist blows. upper castes have handled the contradiction and writing in any language. She was the between English and their native culture quite goddess of education of only the high castes — The right wing student organisations started carefully. But when it comes to teaching mainly of the brahmins and baniyas. The installing her portrait in the university English to the lower castes they have been lower castes who were denied education departments. The regional language proposing a theory that English will destroy treated her as a devil that would kill their departments made Saraswathi an educational- the ‘culture of the soil’. Having realised the children if they went to school. cultural symbol. Unmindful of the secular importance of English the Central constitution of the nation even the university government has taken a right decision. The notion that she kills us was so deep that teachers — mainly of regional language my grandmother fought with my mother for departments sporting a visible saffron tilak on However, the next stage should be the move she was terrified of our imminent death, after the forehead, began to treat others who toward abolition of the gap between the my brother and I — not my sisters at any rate operate outside that cultural norm as inferior. private English medium schools and the — were sent to school. She used to pray to government schools in terms of both Pochamma — our village goddess — that she A walking goddess infrastructure and teaching methods. In the should protect us from Saraswathi. Within a domain of language both the public and With the increase of women teachers in few months after we were sent to school my private schools must be brought under two schools, colleges and universities Saraswathi grandmother died of a future shock that we language formula of teaching 50 per cent of was made almost a walking goddess in the would not survive. the syllabus in English and the other half of nation. Buddha, Jesus, Mohammed, the syllabus in the regional languages across Nanak whose life though revolved around The democratic nation proved that those fears the country. of lower castes were wrong. They went into education to all humans never appeared on regional language education in a big way. The the nationalist map of education. Reproduced with gratitude from the Deccan goddess of Sanskrit education was adopted by Herald, 15th February 2011. Accessed at: http:// While the majority OBCs, some dalits and lower castes as the goddess of regional www.deccanherald.com/content/137777/dalits- tribals began to worship Saraswathi in language education too. Several school english.html regional educational centres, of course on the teachers across the country — many of them real pooja day the priest talked to her only in were OBC teachers — installed the Saraswathi Kancha Ilaiah teaches at Maulana Azad National Sanskrit. In spite of the fact, that under her picture even in government schools, ignoring Urdu University, Hyderabad and is a thinker and activist of dalit bahujan issues.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-9 They still consider it an alien language. Many Hail English, the Dalit Indians despise Lord Macaulay, who forced the English system of education on India. But it was thanks to him that ‘untouchables’ were goddess able to, for the first time, get an education. In the pre-English, indigenous system of education, untouchables were kept out of the educational loop. Often, the schools were either run in temples or in the residence of Chandra Bhan Prasad pandits — places Dalits had no right to enter. Lord Macaulay changed all that. That’s why he is revered by the Dalits who are thus the natural legatees of English. The Goddess English, therefore, belongs to the Dalits. If he road to Dalit empowerment was pronounced degrading, and because they non-Dalit India does not care about English paved by Lord Macaulay If there is a performed those degrading tasks, they were and Lord Macaulay, what right do they have divinity that can take on branded impure and polluting. Therefore, T to monopolise this language? pantheon, it is Lord Buddha. However, being a Dalits could exist only on the margins of great feminist, the Buddha wouldn’t take on society and do the work no one else would. Dalits should, therefore, decide that every the exalted goddesses, , and Dalit child, within minutes of birth, will hear Durga, despite the fact that they have In the past 100 years, though, there have been the English alpahabet as the first sounds of the historically discriminated against the significant changes. Millions of Dalits have new world. Parents or immediate relatives can ‘untouchables’. Who, then, is left to fight this been able to access dignified modes of whisper them into the baby’s ear. Another formidable trinity whose hatred of Dalits is no employment. It is these relatively relative will hold the picture of Goddess secret? emancipated Dalits who have broken free of English for a minute before the newborn. the shackles of caste-based occupations. The Every year, on October 25, the birthday of It is a fact that untouchability has been caste order will be destroyed the day a Lord Macaulay, Dalits will have their propagated in the name of Hindu gods and person’s occupation ceases to be linked to the Bhagawati jagaran — Goddess English… goddesses. The segregation of Dalits was caste he/she is born into. Goddess English. sanctioned by Hindu divinity and carried out in their name. Therefore, the victims of English makes it much easier for all Dalits to Reproduced with gratitude from dna India 28th untouchability have always prayed for the day leave caste-based occupations. Will English- October 2006. Accessed at: http:// when Hindu gods and goddesses would no speaking Dalits, for instance, be asked to skin www.dnaindia.com/analysis/comment-hail- longer exercise such control over their dead cows? Will English-speaking Dalits be english-the-dalit-goddess-1060755 destinies. expected to clean gutters and roads? Will English-speaking Dalits be content to work as Chandra Bhan Prasad is a thinker, journalist and Dalits began looking for a goddess who could menials at landlords’ farms? The Goddess political commentator. overwhelm the powerful Saraswati-Lakshmi- English can empower Dalits, giving them a Durga triumvirate. They understood that the chance to break free from centuries of inhuman practice of untouchability was part oppression. of the Hindu caste system. Over a period of time, they began to realise that only the Today, English has become the lingua franca Goddess English had the power to destroy the of the global village. The non-English caste order. speaking citizens of the world will be at a huge disadvantage. That is why 300 million The pernicious Hindu caste order rests on the Chinese — six times the total population of twin principles of occupational purity and England — are learning English. Everyone — blood purity. There is no caste without a the French, Germans, Italians, Greeks — is rigidly fixed occupation, and vice versa. In learning English. Learning English has Manu’s scheme of things, no one can change become the greatest mass movement the their occupation and none can marry outside world has ever seen. the caste. Historically, castes have been occupational clubs more than anything else. In India, too, well-off Indian parents At the same time, they are marriage clubs as invariably seek an English-medium school for well. The occupations forced on Dalits were their children. Yet many in India don’t wish to acknowledge their desire to learn English.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-10 writings in Kannada and poets like Palakuriki Governments without Vision: Soma, Pothana and Vemana in Telugu have no recognition nationally. They are not even Language Issues recognized as South Indian poets. They are only recognized as poets in their regional languages. Their writings and translations don’t receive prominence. Regional languages like Bengali and Marathi are Jayadhir Tirumalarao recognized on a national level but there is no acknowledgement of great literature in South Indian languages.

The present central government is playing anguage sentiment is more important Occasionally, our national leaders follow the political games using Hindi. The results of to humans than parents, property example of the imperial rulers by re- these of these games will show after a decade. Ldisputes and blasphemy. Hence, introducing ‘national language’ in various Hindi language shows its effect on other language is surrounded by politics and wars. Indian states. Their main aim is not to regional languages without causing slightest Historically, the victors of the war did not compete with English by implementing disturbance to English. This happened many limit themselves to ruling the [conquered] Hindi, but to overpower other local Indian times in history and it’s happening now. land. They worked towards implementing the languages. No national party says ‘Angrezi There is minimal influence of the south in the use of their language. Arabic, Persian, Dutch Hatao’ (remove English) anymore. To central government. The only ones with and English were introduced to India in that continue the domination of northern India on influence are political leaders and those who way. English was forced on the colonized the southern states (in a non-political way as like political games. They place their personal nations and its influence has weakened the well), language is crucial. Hence, they meddle interests above their state’s and regions’ national and local languages. Language in the national affairs on the pretext of Hindi (South) interests. Unless unites in facilitated the submission to others stalling language. They try to intrude through to a common political force, we will remain as one’s growth. The British introduced English language interference and not direct politics. a second class entity. The local and regional education into schools through the Macaulay languages of the South will be suppressed. reforms. English language continues to live In India, this dominance takes the form since then. English language serves as one of ‘Indianness’ against the south and the north- Telugu language has attained some respect east India. The intention behind this is to the reasons why the American imperial owing to the struggle for Telugu language spread the influence of Hindi language and designs such as privatization and development from the past decade. As a globalization were easily imposed on us. culture on other regions. Many wars and result, the government has set up some occupations on India happened through the Indigenous languages were crushed and institutions for the growth of Telugu. Some of English was forcibly imposed in African North India. The first foreign languages have them were brought down by the government nations. Slaves from other languages have to started to spread their influence from the itself. Some were merged with other north. Hence they are familiar with language learn English to serve the white man. For any institutions. Sahitya Academy was dissolved white man, learning an indigenous language dominance. They introduce this dominance and merged with the Telugu University. The through language and culture. This leads to is below his dignity. For this reason, our aim behind setting up Telugu University was rulers have enforced English education. political supremacy. Therefore, our dominant to work in the areas of Telugu higher Rulers always impose their minority language national leaders are from North India, the education, education in Telugu, purity of river Ganga is a national sentiment on a majority population. Some of our language development, dictionary building national leaders don’t know that language has and Kashi becomes the most prominent and research in Telugu history. Later it was religious centre, while Kanchi remains the power to enslave people. Our national converted in to a regular traditional controversial. Similarly, Ganga civilization leaders are imitating the western imperial university to receive aid from UGC. Later, language besides admiring their culture, art, and Sanskrit’s language domination continues. government decided to publish textbooks in Their translations become classics. The food and lifestyle. Dominant nations are science at intermediate, degree and trying to establish modern colonies by classics in regional languages stay invisible. postgraduate levels through Telugu Academy. employing language. By accepting the dollar But, these text books had more Sanskrit than The literatures in languages that have as a standard, we are also accepting their Telugu in them. Instead of helping Telugu, migrated internally and had a strong existence culture and language as a standard. We are this has created a new and complex variety of are also heavily influenced by Sanskrit. The letting in their culture along with the multi- Telugu. The Sanskritized Hindi language North Indian Sanskrit poets are the most national investments. Language is the vehicle practiced in central government’s offices celebrated throughout the country. This for this cultural mobility. served as a model for this. tradition follows till date. Sangam literature in Tamil, Akka Mahadevi and Basavana’s

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-11 The Telugu Academy was formed 1968 with Telugu Academy abject. Students were able to language based institutions. Telugu the funds received from the central get through in their exams with what they University, established more than three government. Similar academies were set up learnt in English from their teacher or in decades ago is also mostly dedicated to in various states to make education accessible another fashion, rather than learning in literature. There was no success in building in regional languages and to write and Telugu from their text books. The creation of dictionaries, updating and modernizing publish textbooks for higher education. They this artificial language has lost its influence in Telugu language. were shut down in many states. The academy a short span. On the other hand, there was survived in Andhra Pradesh. Many opine that effort to gather and research words in various Many government institutions did no justice the academy has failed its function to protect dialects from various districts. These efforts to Telugu language. Every institution has the language. were limited to the study and research in made the language more complex. The linguistics. Hence, it failed in creating a growth of the language is not possible for The academy believed that learning in mother democratic Telugu language. It couldn’t unless the institutions are centered on people’s tongue is necessary to stabilize higher address the practical interests and perspectives perspectives. If there are budgets, there are no education and for this reason translated works of the Telugu language. Though a few jobs. if there are jobs, there are no plans. into Telugu. They also had new text books dictionaries were published by them, these Every institution has limited budgets. The written in Telugu. But, the language used in had no influence on the society. They failed in lack of language centered perspectives is a these books is not Telugu. It is similar to standardizing and modernizing the Telugu curse to the people. Sanskrit. It’s a cloned version of Sanskrit. language. Language should reach the needs of Rulers think that language’s only function is This language has created more Sanskrit the changing society. The government to dominate. Hence, there are so many words than words from any other language. institutions did not cater to these needs. All problems in our state and in our country. We Since English was difficult to understand, they the institutions and employees were not able need a vision to overcome this problem. If created synonyms in Telugu. Unfortunately, to create a standard dictionary in Telugu. not, the issues of language will become grave this aim [of making it easier to read] was not Mini-dictionaries cannot replace a standard in new and old states. achieved. Instead of saying creatures with dictionary. We weren’t able to provide spines and creatures without spines, they say ‘’ dictionaries and reading material to students Translated into English by Akasekarulu” and “Sakasekarulu” increasing in Inter, B.A and M.A. So, we had to depend Tejaswini Madabhushi. the complexity of both language and meaning. on English for higher education. English Creating a complex language instead of education increased in popularity. One of the Jayadhir Thirumalarao is a retired professor, and is simplifying text book language has made main reasons for this is the failure of the interested in literature, language and folk culture.

Gogu Shyamala

At home, I used to snuggle against my mother’s warm body. If I had to go to the bathroom, my mother would wake up. When we went to bed, my grandmother Sangavva and her mother Lasumavva would regale us with stories. When we slept in the yard, we would count the stars in the sky and tell each other stories about the constellations—the Three Plough Spikes, the Golden Bed, the Hen and the Chick- ens, the Scorpion. In the hostel, we told each other whatever stories we knew after dinner. I would tell the girls all the stories my mother and grandmothers told me. After that, we studied for a while, and then spread our mattresses and lay down in a row. When the watchman came and said, “Now go to bed, all of you,” I would cover myself fully with my sheet, but wouldn’t be able to sleep. I remembered events at home with a shudder and my stomach sank in anxiety. I wondered what had happened to my father, what the landlords had said to him, whether they had abused him or beaten him up, and how they might have made him suffer. I thought about how much my mother and Sangavva must have cried, and wept myself. I never knew exactly when I cried myself to sleep. I had nightmares and would wake up suddenly, sitting bolt upright. I missed my family deeply and wanted to go back to see them. In the morning, the mess cook would ask, “What is it, my dear? Your face is swollen, your eyes are red—are you ill?” I would not reply. Not knowing what to say, I would shake my head and my desire to weep would increase. But I couldn’t cry, because I was afraid they would say I wanted to go home and send me back. So I swallowed my tears. One day when the cook saw me all pensive like that, she inquired, “Remembering your mother and father, are you? In a few days, we’ll be having a four-day holiday. Everyone will go home and come back. Why are you so sad? You should go too.” I cheered up. On the day I had to go home, I removed my ribbons, lightly combed the hair plaited the day before and tied it up in a loop. I quickly washed, ate my breakfast and went to school with the other girls. When the evening bell rang, I put the money my brother had given me from his winnings at the game of marbles into my skirt pocket. I put the new books that I had been given in the hostel into my bag, so that I could show them to my father. I slung the bag across my shoulder and started for home. (Translated by R Srivatsan) From the story ‘Radam’ in Father may be an Elephant, Navayana, 2012.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-12 as it is extraordinary. He was indeed a social revolutionary who adapted Guntur dialect The Path Shown into a sweet poetic expression. This is a historical time when we are considering making Guntur-Vijayawada region as the by Joshua capital of the new state; and also a time when we are formulating a language policy. In a time like this, I see a need to pause and study the writings of Joshua whose writings though having appeared nearly a century ago in the Dokka Manikya Varaprasad same language and dialect, have a tremendous relevance and meet the need of the contemporary times.

he new-born Telugu state of Andhra needed boost to the Telugu literature of his Pick any poem from his large body of poetry. Pradesh, even as it is searching for time and helped it in its subsequent evolution. It is delightful and comforting. The Telugu is Tsomething as ordinary as an However, when it came to the language used sweet and is comprehensible to one and all. It appropriate location to build its capital, is during this era, what we see is nothing but a takes you on a journey in the pleasant Telugu equally and profoundly engrossed in finding scholarly diction, which is closely associated land. It was because of Joshua’s poetry that the an appropriate model of the development of with Brahminism, and reminiscent of a socio- Telugu language attained the great the new state. It is also looking for a model religious texture of its time. And regarding description: the Italian of the East. Following for promoting Telugu literature and culture. Srinatha’s profound verse soaked in sensuality Gidugu Ramamurthy, we need to understand The Telugu Desam party which now has the that appeared in the same century, the less the fact that Telugu language gets its greatness golden opportunity to govern the Telugu land said the better. mainly because of its colloquialism. To and its people has the historical responsibility understand why Joshua’s Telugu has that and burden to formulate its language policy - In the subsequent period, i.e., the last phase of aroma and fragrance, and equally its intense in such a way that it ensures uninterrupted the Prabhandha era, even though Telugu was Teluguness, we need to understand that the progress of the Telugu language and used, it has not produced any influential aroma of his language comes from his own community. To do this, it is necessary to take literary work or any major commentary in life’s backdrop – the circumstances under forward the love, hard work and dedication of Telugu language. Further, in the middle ages, which he did his education, the ravages caused the poets and linguists of the past and also of Vemana descended upon the literary by untouchability during his time in the today whose work has enriched the Telugu landscape. Keeping ordinary people in mind, society that he lived in, the insults experienced language. this great philosopher and poet wrote by dalits around him, and so on. The language amazing poetry in people’s language. In my he used burst forth from the sufferings of the In the 11 century, Nannaya Bhattaraka, view, in the history of Telugu literature, he oppressed castes that he witnessed from such considered to be the one of the earliest Telugu was the first people’s poet. closed quarters. poets, attempted to translate the great epic Mahabharatam into Telugu, in order to make In the modern period, the language used by Like Vemana, who was a people’s poet par it accessible to ordinary people. However, the Gurajada had the signature and the flavour of excellence, Joshua in his poetry chose the language he used was the scholarly language the land of Kalinga; and in ’s poetry we linguistic tradition of the ordinary people. He of his day, i.e., predominantly Sanskrit. His witness the mastery over the scholarly believed that literature had a larger purpose contemporary Thikkana Somayaji, in his own Sanskrit, irreverence notwithstanding. In of political and social instruction, and not just translation of the great epic used quite of a bit other renowned poets of the 20th century, we for entertainment and pleasure of a few in the colloquial Telugu and took this process see the regional flavour of the dialect that each society; and that it ought to be used as a further. Even his diction was a blend of both one belonged to. creative tool for a progressive social change. It Telugu and Sanskrit. Thikkana’s Telugu, was within this framework that he mastered It is against this backdrop that we must see admirable though, is eight hundred years old, Telugu language and developed a style of his Gurram Joshua. He stands out as a modern and belonged to a bygone era. To my mind, it own in which he wrote his poetry. This poet who adopted Vemana’s kind of is ill-suited to our modern sensibilities. however does not mean that Joshua did not sensibility and expression, and a pure Telugu learn or use scholarly Telugu. He was indeed a style and diction that brims with utter Then, in the sixteenth century, came the great learned man deeply anchored in humanist Teluguness and the sweetness of Telugu king Sri Krishna Devarayalu who proclaimed philosophy. He was well-versed in the ancient language. The distinct flavour of Guntur Telugu as the sweetest and the most refined of texts such as Ramayanam, Mahabharatam, region where he was born and brought up, his all the languages in the country in his time. Bhagavat Geeta, Puranas, the Holy Bible, and caste background, and his life experiences, Such a proclamation, no doubt, gave a much Koran. And so was he equally well versed in resulted in a language that stands out as sweet

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-13 modern literature. In a literary style that is everything of Telugu land, is but the Telugu of my envious detratctors now known as his own which is unique, he Seemandhra. Today, when the Telugu people who are not worth a penny wrote poetry that demonstrated an now have a separate state, the Telugu surround me as crowding vultures, extraordinary amalgamation and synthesis of language that Joshua used has a great and try to stop me; apparently diverse texts and worlds. significance. What is today used as a standard Or my lady love betraying me; Telugu in journalism, and that of literary I shall not leave this land of mine, At a time when poetry and literature were Telugu of the Seemandhra region, is but the nor shall I stop singing glory of my own language thoroughly and adamantly cast in the language used by Joshua. Telugu traditional and Bramhinical mould, Joshua democratised verse by making it accessible to In these times of globalisation and Among the statues of literary figures in our everyone. By doing so, he proved that it is computerisation when English is touted as the land, certainly Joshua’s statues are more in possible to produce democratic and only language of any significance and value, it number than anybody else’s. I think that is progressive writings in verse. Again, at a time is necessary for us to remind ourselves to because of his contemporary relevance. It when one contemporary poet boasted of pause reflect on the language used by a great shows the proximity of his literature to the breaking the back of Telugu poetry, and universal soul like Gurram Joshua. We need common man. Joshua’s literature will another roared that he would drag Telugu to have a policy, on the one hand of full- continue to interrogate us as long as poetry away from its inappropriate and fledged teaching of English while continuing inequalities exist in our society. exalted place, down to earth, Joshua quietly instruction in the Telugu medium till High wrote his verse that effectively democratised School, and on the other hand, introducing Lately, I see many lovers of Telugu expressing poetry and used it to depict the downtrodden Telugu as the official language in the their desire to preserve the language. My lives of the dalit community. Joshua is indeed government. It is crucial for us, on this matter, appeal to them is that we should take Gurram a true Telugu poet who blended all that was to understand and follow the path shown by Joshua’s literature as much as possible into the good in the old and in the new, and created in Joshua. Telugu community. That would be the only a style that is his own poetry that remains as way we can ensure the continuation and sweet and sublime as nectar. His Telugu is the The new regime in Andhra Pradesh, while preservation of this great language and its Telugu of the community, and of the people. formulating its official language policy, needs equally great literary tradition. to take into account the passion for the Telugu There are many illustrations of Joshua’s language that this great poet expressed. Translated by Sarath Davala devotion to Telugu culture and its great poets. Consider the following verse by him that Dokka Manikya Varaprasada Rao is a politician and His exquisite depiction of Sri Krishna evokes his devotion and loyalty to Telugu legislator, interested in language and literature. Devarayalu in Andhra Bhojudu (1934) is language: unparalleled. In his entire body of work, the Sarath Davala is an independent scholar and Come what may… language and style that he used to describe activist interested in development and welfare.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-14 around 210 languages belong to the north east India. How many of us can even name two On Teaching Sanskrit among these 210 rich, diverse, north eastern Languages? Why should one bother? It is "they" who should know what is "ours", not the other way round. Never in human history and Mother Tongues: has "who has to know what" been naïve and bereft of power. In such a scenario when it would be immensely worthwhile to explore An Open Letter to Smriti Irani ways to study these languages, why Sanskrit? Unlike German, Urdu, Hindi, Telugu and indeed English, these languages do not have the factor of “usability” or a writable history. Sowmya Dechamma If German is foreign, so is English. What do we do with it now? Stretching a little further, Sanskrit is foreign as well to most Indians. But then, languages grow, die, borrow, give, and Dear Ms Irani, Urdu was the medium of instruction for quite evolve constantly. What is somebody else’s some time until the 1956 linguistic now like English will become ours now either any of us are aghast at your reorganisation of states. Urdu implied culture by direct or indirect forces of power. Aren’t decision to remove German from and sophistication, had a “proper” history and we proud of Tamil being one of the official the list of languages that a child culture, and unlike Sanskrit was and is languages of Singapore? Do we not gloat that Mcould have studied in Kendriya Vidyalayas accessible to all. Urdu not only has a cultural Hindi, Bangla, Tamil, Sanskrit, etc are taught (central government schools under the history but also has a popular one so evident in America, Canada, Europe and other places? Ministry of Human Resource Development). in cinema from : it is Urdu cinema we That Hindi / Urdu cinema has an industry of More troubling for me is the decision to make consume not Hindi as has been pointed out so its own in Nigeria is of huge consequence for the study of Sanskrit compulsory. Some have very often. So then, why not Urdu? What does us not only in terms of profit but also in rightly pointed out the incommensurability of Sanskrit suggest that Urdu doesn’t? Let’s matters of cultural-pride. such a decision: the axe on German and the forget Urdu for a little while and ask -- what I am sure you are aware that it was not very active neo-liberal policies that the current about other local languages that are not long ago that Sanskrit as a language, as a Indian Government is pushing forward. They considered worthy enough to be included in carrier of privileged knowledge was denied to have also pointed out how in this global the 8th schedule and modern enough to be a majority of people, even if they wanted to world, studying a foreign tongue would only called modern Indian languages? Telangana, learn it. It is no wonder that a language and increase the skills and worthiness of our where I now live has many such languages knowledge it carried that was so well guarded children, paraded as future citizens. It does not pretty much like elsewhere in India. Banjara, within the still unbreakable walls of caste need to be reiterated it was the German Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuvi, Pengo and Manda practices, died a natural death. Given the Orientalists starting from Wilhelm von are just to name a few. So, if the dominant contemporary situation where a large Schlegel in 1823 who translated, consolidated local in Hyderabad is Urdu and Telugu, the percentage of children of “backward” and and categorised Sanskrit literature as the sole local in Adilabad should be Gondi among “lower” castes attend government schools, claimant of “Indian Literature”. My concerns others. If children learn best in their mother whose histories have no memory of Sanskrit, however, are elsewhere. tongues, why not their own tongue? isn’t it ironical that what was once denied to them is now made mandatory, even when My son goes to a Kendriya Vidyalaya (KV) in I mention these languages because my they do not want it? The upper classes/castes Hyderabad. I was indeed puzzled to know that children do not have a single mother tongue – to whom Sanskrit can be said to have the KV offered Hindi, Sanskrit, and German one is Kodava, a language of Kodagu from belonged once choose between French or but no Telugu or any other living Indian Karnataka and another Telugu. Kodava like German or Spanish in their hip private tongue. Sometime ago, I went to the school the above languages mentioned is oral and schools. authorities and asked them about the absence therefore does not become part of the list of languages desired in modern nation states. of Telugu, especially since the three language May be we need to think as to why the Historically, the idea of mother tongue is a recovery of difference from very “local” formula that they cite does mandate that all recent invention. Sumathy Ramaswamy, Lisa spaces becomes essential. Because it gives each schools need to teach the “local” / “regional” Mitchell and Francesca Orsini have beautifully one of us a space to claim as our own, because language / mother tongue. The answer was shown how mother tongues in the cases of only then there is resistance to the merging of even more puzzling. If students or parents Tamil, Telugu and Hindi respectively have histories and spiritual symbols, because only want Telugu to be taught, there needs to be been built over a period of time, how the then the indifference to histories of “small” request from at least ten parents. What I did construction of a mother tongue is largely an people with small languages can teach us not understand is this – if teaching of a “local” intellectual enterprise and how the idea of many a thing -- in schools or elsewhere. language has to be requested for, how come mother tongue is based on certain the teaching of Hindi and Sanskrit does not exclusionary strategies. More importantly I I am hoping that you will reverse this decision follow the same logic? mention these “small” languages because I and will come up with more innovative ideas think there is a need to recover differences, a as to how and what our children learn. But I have a more complicated question – what need to distinguish between lives practiced indeed is “local”? Or what is one’s “mother and imagined histories that have supposedly EPW Vol - XLIX No. 47, November 22, 2014 bound us together. The People’s Linguistic tongue”? In Hyderabad, given its social Survey of India 2013 mentions that there are Sowmya Dechamma teaches at the University of geography, Urdu is equally local as is Telugu. over 780 languages in India. Of these 780, Hyderabad.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-15 strange that in the same year Urdu was declared to Hyderabad Medical School : be the language of administration by the Nizam Government. Three years latter another advertisement announced that selections will be made for the post of twenty doctors and five An Urdu Medium Institution assistants. The candidates should be English speaking and would have to have the ability to read and write Urdu; the exam would be conducted in history, geography, mathematics and geometry. The knowledge of Persian was preferred. Syed Mustapha Kamal After a few years the use of Latin was allowed along with Persian to write the answer scripts. Till 1885 the Secunderabad Medical Board used to conduct the exams. After the medium of instruction changed to English, the examination papers started coming from Madras or . n the evolution of Urdu as the medium of interested in modern education helped in getting The responsibility for the oral examination was instruction in Hyderabad, the establishment of students. In the school, the students were first allotted to the Secunderabad Medical Board. The Ithe allopathic Medical School in 1846 was the familiarized with English to the extent of reading Syllabus of Hyderabad Medical School since 1885 most important event. As the Hyderabadis were and understanding the names and properties of the was made in accordance to the syllabus of LM&S ( introduced to modern knowledge they started medicines and the diseases. Explanation, lectures, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery) of Madras. shifting it into the Urdu through translations. discussion and note-taking took place in Urdu. The Hyderabad Medical School was shifted to During the process they came to know about the After a few years the basic knowledge of English Saifabad in 1921 from Residency Hospital at developments in modern western medicine and was made compulsory to get the admission. The Chaderghat. In the same year it was affiliated to cure. Till the beginning of the19th century the Hyderabad Medical School started publishing a Osmania University and then came to be known as people of Hyderabad State did not have the public journal from 1851 under the editorship of Dr Osmania Medical College. facilities of modern western medicine. The Unani Smith; Dr Maclain and Dr Mackenzie wrote books Beginning of English Education System of cure was available for the elites and the in Urdu for the students that were published from commoners whereas the British had their own the press owned by Shamsul Umara II. In Hyderabad English education was initiated by doctors. The compiler of ‘Bustan-e- Asafia’(Urdu) the Christian missionaries. In the year 1825 at Saint It was claimed that the standard of teaching was writes about the reason for the establishment of John Church secunderabad, a few children were high in this school, despite the lack of textbooks. Hyderabad Medical College: brought together for the sake of educating them in The exams were conducted in six subjects: European and English. Soon it gained the “In the year 1251F ( 1842) Nawab Naseer ud anatomy, orthopedics, properties of medicines, status of a school. In 1846 this school was shifted Daulah (the 4th Nizam) fell ill because of bowel rules and laws of life, principles of health etc. Dr to Chaderghat. Initially the school was named as inflammation. The Unani doctors couldn’t cure Mackenzie, Dr Walter, Dr Dickson and Dr Reed Protestant English School, and then it was renamed him. One day Mr. Frazer, the British Resident came were the examiners. After the completion of the as Saint George Grammar School. The All Saints to the court and found the king ill. On his inquiry course those students who adopted the medical School began its educational activities in 1855. In the King told him about his disease and said that, profession permanently were considered important the districts the first School was established in the ‘we heard many praises of the doctor’s treatment’. in Hyderabad. The names of the students who year 1874 in city, soon after Anglo The Resident replied that if the king wishes he can passed out in the first eight years were mentioned Vernacular School was opened in . Like send a doctor. The king said that the doctor should in Bustan-e Asafia: “ Md Yakoob, Mohd Baquar wise favorable environment for the English cure his disease without using any medicine, and Ali, Ghulam Hussain, Burhan Shareef, Khaja Medium Schools was created. only by external means, the way Hakeem Alavi Ashraf, Mohd Hussain, Ghulam Jeelani, Syed The language of Arabic and Persian was fighting Khan treated Nadir Shah of his headache. The Omer, Ghulam Mohd, Ain Khan, Faizullah Khan, its last battle of survival as the medium of resident introduced Dr McLain, the residency Mohd Maulana, Fakheer Sahab, Wazir Ali, Shifai instruction, whereas Urdu was positioning itself as surgeon, who then cured the king’s disease within Khan, Mirza Ali, Mohd Ashraf and Shamsuddin”. the strong contender to this claim. With the arrival three months through the control of his diet…The In Hyderabad city the first clinics were established of English, a new front was opened, and intensified king was pleased and ordered to establish a by Mohd Ashraf and Faizullah Khan. the race of linguistic competitions in the madrasa of doctori in the Hyderabad State”. The government conducted the entrance exams for Hyderabad State. A few nobles and jagirdars felt By the order of Naseer ud Daulah the ‘Hyderabad the aspirants to this School. According to an the necessity of English for their children, as the Medical School’ was established in the year 1846 at advertisement published in the government journal medium or subject for the sake of acquiring Gun foundry (a locality) under the supervision of of January 1870, the students should have modern knowledge and to increase contacts with the British…. one Dr Franklin. Here the staff of health proficiency in and familiarity with English. According to another advertisement department and hospital assistants from Berar From Hyderabad mein Urdu ki Tarraqui.. were provided preliminary education. As the of 1878 the knowledge of English was made (The development of Urdu in Hyderabad as ability to gain education in English was not compulsory along with Persian and Arabic. In the announcement of 1885 the working knowledge of educational and administrative language) available in the State, Urdu was made the medium English, good understanding in history, geography Hyderabad: Shagoofa publications, 1990. of instruction. The British already had the and mathematics, and proficiency in Urdu was Pages 226-229. Translated by MA Moid. experience of establishing a medical School in Urdu stressed. When English education started taking in Bengal so they didn’t face any difficulties in Syed Mustapha Kamal is editor of the journal Shagoofa. roots in Hyderabad, the medium of instruction of establishing a similar medical school at the Medical School was changed to English. It was Hyderabad. Shamsul Umara II and other nobles

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-16 held on 28 February 1884. This is in Urdu and the language is simple and understandable. In Persian Gives Place To Urdu 1886 all offices were ordered to work in Urdu.

The summary of the memorandum on this subject (item No.176, June 1886) as presented by the Prime Minister to the Nizam…[s]olicits Tariq Rahman sanction for the use of Urdu instead of Persian in all official correspondence, and adds that it is the Secretaries to Government who use Persian in official correspondence, whereas Urdu was adopted in all the offices. It also speaks of the advantages and facilities he sequence of events relating to the retaining Persian as he had been earlier afforded by the use of Urdu language. The transition from Persian to Urdu in because he gave more concessions to Urdu Nizam sanctions the introduction of Urdu in THyderabad state has been described two days before his death (ibid.,114), though all correspondence carried out by the admirably by Syed Mustafa Kamal [who] his orders for the courts were published after Secretaries to Government. points out that, notwithstanding the influence his death on 8 February 1883. It appears he Urdu and the Royalty of the Hindustani in favour of Urdu, the reasoned that if Marathi and Telugu were transition to that language was pioneered by a allowed for officials to record their decisions, As mentioned earlier, Urdu was taught even blue-blooded Hyderabad aristocrat, Bashir ud then those whose mother-tongue was Urdu when Persian was the official language of the Daulah Sir Asman Jah (b.1839). He was should be similarly facilitated. The formal state. The Census of 1871 recorded that appointed the Chief Justice of the Supreme shift in the language of the state took place in “Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani” as well as Court (Sadr-ul-Maham Adalat) in 1869. In 1871 the time of Mir Laiq Ali Khan Salar Jang II, English are taught. Royalty were also taught he proposed that Urdu be used in place of who was appointed to the prime ministership Urdu in addition to Persian and English. The Persian in the courts of law. Prime Minister Sir on 5 February 1884 and resigned from the post Resident, Mr.Saunders, addressed Salar Jang I Salar Jang I conceded only that ‘the recording in 1887. on 12 January 1871 in ‘Hindoostanee,’ hoping of statements in Urdu, that is, the language in that it was a language that would ‘bear good common use, is enough’.. However, ‘all other The first order, dated 21 February 1884, is fruit at Hyderabad…’ writing would have to be in Persian.’ Bashir about the use of Urdu for all types of work in ud Daulah tried to obtain more concessions the courts. First, the Prime Minister The young Nizam, Mahbub Ali Khan, was for Urdu, but this time the Prime Minister complains about the linguistic confusion educated under the supervision of an English rebuffed him in the following words: prevalent in the courts. Officials use both Urdu and Persian as they please. Then, he advances tutor, but he was taught Urdu and Persian as But this revival [of the pro-Urdu the argument that this state of affairs must be well as English. The overall in-charge of the movement] is not acceptable to His ended by using the most easily understood young Nizam’s education was Captain John Exalted Highness […] because many language namely Urdu. In conclusion, the Clerk, son of G.R. Clerk, Governor of people do not know the skills for Urdu order says clearly: Bombay. He arrived in Hyderabad in January writing (standard) Urdu...(ibid.,47,qtd. 1875. Sarwar Jang, the young Nizam’s Indian in Kamal 1990, 101) Thus Mada ru’l-Muham is pleased to tutor, mentions how the prince was taught by order that as soon as this order reaches elderly, sycophantic courtiers – certainly not Moreover, the Prime Minister clarified that the offices of the court, from that time the best way to teach a child. However, at the Urdu was merely permitted it was not all the work in those offices will be in end of 1879 the prince’s ‘report card showed he necessary … Urdu. was doing well in Geography, Arithmetic and Urdu’. Sarwar Jang also describes how the In 1876 the Prime Minister agreed that the Moreover, the officials are asked to write teaching of Persian was replaced with that of administrators (nazama) and the clerks simple rather than ornate and Persianized Urdu, which was taught until four o’clock in (munshis) had gained competence in Urdu. It Urdu. However, rural offices would continue the afternoon, and calligraphy in its script was was, however, clarified that their Urdu to function in the local languages. The taught for half an hour. writing was not meant to exhibit their talukdars (landed gentlemen) were ordered to mastery of difficult Persian words. By ‘Urdu,’ address higher authorities in Urdu. Local Later, when the question of the education of said the order, a high, literary style was not languages were to be tolerated, but not in Mir Osman Ali Khan came up, by this date, at meant (Urdu-e mu’alla murad nist). urban areas such as Hyderabad, where only least in British minds, Urdu was important Urdu was to be used. Another symbolic event enough to be taught to a major princely ally of By 1883, it appears that the conservative Salar was a speech delivered by Mahbub Ali Khan the empire. The Resident wrote, ‘[He should] Jang I was no longer as adamant about to the first meeting of the Council of State begin with his own vernacular-Urdu’-but also,

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-17 ‘parri passu, learn English’. Accordingly, both associated with Urdu, Maulavi English and Urdu were taught to the future …wrote two pamphlets on letter writing in ruler. For Urdu, Syed Husain Bilgrami was Urdu in 1901. In the second, there is a letter appointed tutor to the young prince in 1895. from a father to a son exhorting him to take an And for English, he had an English tutor – interest in the mother tongue (Urdu). The son Bryan (later Sir) Egerton. In addition there agrees and sets out on this path. These were Indian tutors (ataliq) who taught Arabic, pamphlets were written at the request of Syed Persian, Urdu and English. Husain Bilgrami, probably in his capacity as the Nizam’s tutor. Thus Abdul Haq tried to Others in the royal family, such as Osman Ali sow the seed of love for Urdu in the future Khan’s daughter-in-law Durreshehwar ruler’s breast. (d.2006)-mother of Mir Barkat Ali Khan Mukarram Jah (b.1938), the eighth Nizam, Maulavi Abdul Haq was also one of the who held the title from 1967 until 1971, and pioneers of Osmania University. He presided daughter of Sultan ‘Abdu’l-Majid of Turkey - over the Dar-ul-Tarjuma and invited eminent learned it from Agha Haidar Hasan Mirza. people from North India: Zafar Ali Khan, She became fluent in Urdu in less than a year. Abdul Majid Daryabadi, Abdul Haleem Mukarram’s education was in Madrasa-i-Aliya Sharar, Waheed ud Din Saleem, Syed Sulaiman to begin with, but then he went to Doon Nadvi, Maulana Mirza Mehdi Khan, Ross School and Harrow. Even Mukarram Jah’s Masood, and others. Abdul Haq considered Turkish wife, Esra Birgin, learned to speak Urdu, as he told one of his friends, also called Urdu. However, in keeping with the Abdul Haq, that he considered him a ‘true increasing modernization and Anglicization Muslim’ because one characteristic of a of the Indian elite, the young princes were Muslim was ‘the love of Urdu’(Urdu ki learning more English than any other muhabbat). Thus, while the upper classes were languages through their schooling. switching to English in response to increasing Anglicization, the middle classes were fully The royalty were not the only ones to learn given to education in Urdu. Urdu, of course. The common people, and especially the middle classes, learned it in From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History order to find employment. There were many Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, 2011 Pages 238- institutions and people to promote the 243. Reprinted with kind courtesy of the learning of Urdu. One of the personalities publisher.

Md. Khadeer Babu

Dargahmetta in southern Nellore is a prosperous town on the bank of a lake. It is surrounded by a large lawn and at its very centre lie 12 revered graves—such is the ‘Dargahmetta dargah’! We also call it Barah Shahid Dargah (‘Barah’ means twelve. ‘Shahid’ refers to those who sacrifice their lives in war.) Whenever I looked at Dargahmetta Dargah, I would feel fear and devotion simultaneously. Here whatever you wish for will be realized, my grandmother used to say. There is also a story behind this Dargah that she narrated to me. Many centuries ago, somewhere, a fierce war was fought to save our religion; twelve great warriors fought for our pride. But the enemies sneaked on them by hiding behind bushes and decapitated the warriors. Yet, our warriors fought on, their headless bodies never leaving the sword till they reached what is today called Metta. It is there that they fell and became martyrs. The public then built tombs for these great warriors and laid the foundation for this Dargah. The place where this Dargah is located has since become ‘Dargahmetta.’ The twelve warriors are unknown, the names of their village(s) are unknown, yet people have learnt of their miracles. Hence, Muslims and Hindus, without any religious differences, come in multitudes to the rotte (roti) festival. (Translated by Navadeep and Pranoo Deshraju)

Md. Khadeer Babu is a writer and literary editor of Sakshi. Navadeep is an LGBT activist. Pranoo Deshraju is a PhD student at UoH. From ‘The Dargahmetta Rottula Pandaga’ Dargahmetta Kathalu, Kavali Publication, 1999.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-18 environment in relation to Urdu. Urdu is not FROM OU to MANUU the exclusive language of Muslims but the identity politics in the last century has created affiliations between language and community. The Muslims are forced to take up the issue of Urdu as if it is no one else’s business. This has created strains among Urdu activists. The demands of ‘development’ and ‘identity’ made M A Moid them vulnerable to various confusions. For example the question of English and the urgencies of opportunities force a kind of pragmatism that is leading to all kinds of compromises. The conflicting pulls and push on the Urdu walas create self doubts: that are he journey of Urdu in the Deccan is an were conducted with two personalities who they serving the cause of English as they feel important story from the perspective have different foci as scholars (though both that English is more important to them now Tof language politics in south India. are associated with MANUU). Dr Junaid rather than Urdu itself. Are they followers of Many claims are made about the role of Zakir, whose focus is on OU, tries to help us Macaulay in vernacular garb? The challenge Deccan in the journey of Urdu. The theme of understand the detailed processes that it for them is how to respond to these conflicting this set of writings ‘from OU to MANUU’ will invented and adapted to make Urdu language demands. The politics of Urdu that emerged as show us some issues faced by Urdu in its suitable for scientific discourse and OU into a a result of all these pressures has converted recent journey. The old Urdu medium university capable of teaching modern science the issue of Urdu into a platform from where Osmania University (OU) was established in in a vernacular. This kind of project was also a various related issues are addressed. The 1919. After nearly eighty years Maulana Azad major concern for the Indian nationalists who platform serves the purpose of internal National Urdu University (MANUU) was were concerned with the education of the new criticism, mobilizing, resisting established in 1998. The historical and political generations in independent India. Zakir majoritarianism and State apathy. contexts of both universities are different compares these processes and its outcomes though some aspects of their purposes were with another institution, National Council for The two interviews that follow are about the same and some different. The vision of OU Promotion of Urdu Language (NCPUL) state of Urdu in South India. It also raises was closely related to the concept of ‘progress’ established by independent India - about many questions about the state of other where as that of MANUU with ‘development’. which he is not impressed. This leads to the vernaculars as well which may or may not be OU was established by a princely state which sensitive question about the effectiveness of travelling the same path as that of Urdu, and was on the modernizing mission. MANUU the institutions established by democratic finally asks what happens to vernaculars was established by the independent modern regimes under the demands of the public or under the developmental democratic setup. Indian state which formulated its visions and due to some political compulsions. policies on the ideas of socialism, democracy, secularism and also of Swaraj. OU wanted to The second interview regarding MANUU is make Urdu a scientific language and make it a with Professor Khalid Sayeed whose part of a linguistic identity of the larger perspectives and experiences are shaped by subcontinent. MANUU want to spread the use Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) of Urdu in order to empower and enable its based in Mysore, an institution established by users according to the needs of the market. For the government of modern independent India. OU, the Urdu programme was a means to a Innovative and scientific methods were higher end of the renaissance of Urdu successfully adapted in this institution in language and of the Orient as such, whereas teaching of Indian languages. He has used for MANUU the development of Urdu many of these innovative methods language users is a tool for the national successfully to teach Urdu within the development. Despite these differences both university setup as well as outside. His success universities were established in Hyderabad raises a counter question (to Zakir’s view) which shows the city’s importance from the about the effectiveness of the government various purposes of progress, development established institutions. and identity. These interviews give two perspectives about

In order to understand the historical travel of the state of Urdu in the Deccan in particular Urdu from OU to MANUU, two interviews and in India in general and tell us about the Muslims aspirations in a changing

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-19 their intellectual achievements. They were Md. Junaid Zakir - given hefty salaries and all facilities. The first year saw thorough discussions and debates about how to go ahead, deciding the standards Interview and parameters and ultimately drafted the guiding principles of translation. They also decided that Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit and Hindi words will be used to coin Urdu terms. M A Moid The individual expert in particular disciplines were made in charge of the team of full time and part time translators. These experts were formed into committees. These committees our PhD is considered an important of the activities of Translation Bureau of OU in had not only subject experts but also linguists. contribution to the process of development 1948 immediately after the Operation Polo; When the new disciplines were added new Yof Urdu language. Can you tell us more and the informal ending of the translation committees were formed. These committees, about it? project after the mysterious fire of 1949 keeping in view the syllabus of best English practically destroyed the Bureau along with Universities, decide the text books that need to My PhD topic was ‘ A comparative study of innumerable ready to be printed manuscripts, be adapted and used, and also make a list of terminologies pertaining to humanities and though the Bureau existed nominally till the terms to be translated. Secondly the idea social sciences, translated and coined by the 1960). The objective of Osmania University’s of a vernacular university made much Indian Translation Bureau of Osmania translation was to fulfill the syllabus needs of nationalist support it throughout India and the University(OU) and National Council for the university courses, whereas NCPUL did political will of the Nizam in its favour made Promotion of Urdu Language (NCPUL). My not have such a target. The terminologies it a widely popular and attractive project. concern was the development of Urdu as a coined by NCPUL lacked depth and rigor and scientific language, because Urdu is already Then what were the processes adapted by NCPUL? were not so advanced even though they rich in arts and literature. In my thesis I have coined some new terminologies. examined and analyzed 12736 terms of Social The NCPUL prepares a list of terms to be Sciences and Humanities. As you know every translated and then a workshop of a few days Osmania’s work look advance and organized term has a particular conceptual background with subject experts is conducted. In these from many parameters even now. I found that or meaning. Any language having a high workshops terms are coined, approved and NCPUL has taken many English terms vocabulary is considered a developed changes suggested in the translation. Many without justification and explanation in their language. My research was an attempt to look times they pick up the terms translated by OU glossaries. I also found that many terms that at the terminologies in different academic without acknowledging it. The approved disciplines in Urdu coined by the two were already existing in Urdu were taken as it translations are printed as glossaries on institutions as mentioned from the is but the English term was also taken, for different subjects. These terms are mostly fit to perspectives of principles and methodology. example ‘Accountant’ has been taken as be used in college level and unfit for higher MOHASIB but same word accountant was education and professional purposes. Serious efforts in this direction were made written along side with it in Urdu script. when the ‘Translation Bureau’ was established Similarly ‘Magna Charta’ is taken as it is by It is accused that the Urdu was heavily Persianised in Hyderabad in 1917 with the purpose of NCPUL whereas in Osmania’s translation it and Arabized by OU and so became incapable of translating modern scientific texts into Urdu. appeared as MANSHOOR-E AZAM and everyday use. What is your opinion? Secondly how As part of the project the bureau had to first SANAD-E- AZAM. Also some terms are the terms were disseminated and popularized in translate the scientific terms into Urdu to translated differently by OU and NCPUL, for Hyderabad State. make the translations successful. In its life of example the term ‘Plebiscite’ is translated as There are many scientific terms in English 31 years i.e till 1948, the bureau translated RAI SHUMARI by NCPUL, whereas it is belonging to various disciplines that can’t more than one lakh scientific terms belonging translated as RAI TALBI by Osmania which is to thirty seven disciplines. After independence even be pronounced properly. These terms are much closer to the original meaning. the Government of India established ‘National confined to the subject experts as well as its practitioners. Similar was the case with the Council for the Promotion of Urdu Language’ What was the reason for the better quality of OUs translations by OU. The subject terminology in 1969 and as one of its objective published work? glossaries of terms belonging to twenty was as tough as it is of today’s English. But the translators were aware of this problem. In disciplines. For my PhD I decided to compare We need to look at the processes adapted by, their guiding principle one point was the terms belonging to the disciplines of and the zeal for the project in OU. The specifically about it. It says that the humanities and social sciences as translated by Translation Bureau was established translations should be closer to common the two institutions. deliberately two years earlier so that the language. Also a mechanism was created to books required for different courses can be What were your findings and conclusions? check this problem. After the word is finalized translated. It started with the collection of the it was sent to the Director of religious affairs, best English and Urdu knowing individuals The process of translation by NCPUL started whose duty was to judge the translated terms from all over India who became famous for after a gap of thirty years (i.e., after the decline from the religious perspectives that is it

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-20 offending to the religious sensibilities or not; by adapting and learning from/to higher times. Urdu was the official language of the then it was sent to the Director of literature languages, and of course by serious Nizam Dominion and it was compulsory whose duty was to look at the terms from involvement and hard work it becomes subject from kindergarten to post-graduation. aesthetic and every day usage perspectives. capable of higher purposes as we see in Also a net work of Urdu medium schools and The words were then sent to the concerned Europe where translations went on for colleges existed throughout the Nizam State. government departments for its use in their centuries. The OUs experiment is a successful MANUU’s performance and outcomes are correspondence, meetings, discussions, example that disproves the critics, but this affected by various factors. It responds to the trainings etc. Likewise the terms belonging to experiment was not allowed to continue and existing socio-political and job market the fields of agriculture, irrigation, education, abruptly ended in three decades, ironically by conditions. Its policies are realistic and do the health, law, civil works and general the new political authorities who were in things that are possible. The translation administration were successfully disseminated favor of vernaculars. The people who accuse department of MANUU has played a among the professionals and general public, Urdu as incapable for scientific purpose are significant role in the development of Urdu by and expanded their vocabulary. also accusing other Indian languages of the translating nearly 350 books for the same. They also wanted to be in the good graduation and PG levels of its distance Secondly, the Translation Bureau was dealing education which is the successful and major with a new experiment. It was using trial and books of the new rulers who are thought to program of MANUU. The translation error method also. It replaced many old terms have fewer sympathies for Urdu. department is a full-fledged department and with the new ones. Take the example of the Do you want to say that the loss of Urdu is loss of first translation of the word thermometer and offers MA, M Phil and PhD in translation other Indian languages? How? compare it with the last one, you will easily studies. understand the improvement process. Take two parameters of administrative and What it means to think about the OU experiment The intention of the establishment of OU through higher education language. The Indian now? Urdu medium is seen as causing hindrance in the languages could become the language of Many things can be learnt from it. It can development of Telugu and Hinduism. How do you administration in respective states after a lot encourage the Urdu-walas in coming out of look at this? of effort, but English still exists as the parallel and alternative; whereas the Centre can’t their self doubts and hopelessness and make No. These rumors are deliberately spread by manage without English at all. From the them confident about Urdu—that it has many anti Hyderabad and communal forces. Look at parameters of higher education, even though qualities and can play an important role in the hegemony and popularity of English now. few vernacular universities were established educating a large section of our countrymen English is more in use now than at the time of after Independence, no vernacular could and keeping the country united as it is not British. Is it damaging Telugu or spreading become the language of higher education in fixed to any region. It can teach the language Christianity? Rather, the experiment of OU natural and physical science. The quality of its policy makers and academics about how to created new aspirations in Kannada, Marathi education is also questionable. Now if you rejuvenate and improve a language, how and especially among the Telugu speakers and look at old Hyderabad State, Urdu was made higher education can be provided in gave birth to a new breed of activists and the language of administration and also the vernaculars and why they are not succeeding writers who contributed significantly to it. In language of higher education in every existing in their present objective. Why are they not reality they were not against Urdu—as they discipline. I believe that if the OUs experiment learning from OU? Is it because of the mental are not against English now—since they knew had continued Urdu could have become an blocks about Urdu and Muslims? It also tells that an OU graduate will be proficient in Urdu international language. This would have us the ugly side of communal politics and how as well as in English and so had better naturally benefitted other Indian languages the narrow mindedness can damage a opportunities of employment anywhere in too especially Hindi and would have easily language, its speakers and the country in undivided India and also he will be better replaced English. Presently no Indian general. It tells us about the success of the equipped to go abroad for higher education. language is of international status even Deccan in establishing a university in Urdu They believed the Nizam who promised that and for many other experiments and the many if the OU experiment succeeds, his though its users are quite significant. Not only short comings of North India. It can also tell government will establish similar universities the OUs experiment abruptly ended but no us why it is very important for the in other three languages of the Hyderabad other Indian language tried to learn from its educationist and language activists of the new State. But because of impatience and ill will, experiences and replicate it for its Telangana State. They have to acknowledge and with the help of rumors and false development, sadly just because of biases that the OU was a unique and successful perceptions, hatred and fear Urdu was created towards Urdu. experiment in which Telangana State can take in order to divide the society and destabilize Now you are part of MANUU which is an Urdu pride. the Nizam government. medium university. Keeping in view pre 1948 OU The interview was conducted in Urdu on 13 & A group of Urdu supporters came to the conclusion how do you look at it. 14 October 2014 and translated into English by that Urdu cannot become the language of science? MANUU was established in 1998, i.e., fifty M.A. Moid. In our country there was always a conflict years after the old Urdu medium OU. It will between the supporters of Macaulay’s views be an injustice to MANUU if we compare it Md. Junaid Zakhir teaches at Translation Dept and that of vernaculars. The languages grow with old OU as it was established in different MANUU. He is also an Urdu activist.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-21 of their fondness for . As a teacher it was a challenge for two reasons. Khalid Sayeed - First of all these trainees were highly educated and cannot be treated as college or university students and secondly they are influenced by the aesthetic charm and cultural value of Urdu. Interview I have to take into the account these two factors in teaching them and providing course material. In these two institutions only 20 – 25 classes of forty minutes each were allotted. In M A Moid such a short time I have to teach a language which is an enormous challenge. Therefore I had to keep to the limited time provided, assess the need and temperament of learner ‘ s higher education possible through Urdu’ is a CIIL through a project. The directorate of text and the pros and cons of Urdu script in view, recurring question. What is your opinion? books of Karnataka Government wanted to and design/prepare the course material, I prepare text books for 9th standard with the pedagogy and methodology of teaching. The Your question expresses the emotions of those who believe that higher education is not help of CIIL. I was part of the committee that CIIL experiences came handy and helped me possible through vernaculars. History shows was in charge of this task. This brought me in my tasks and the students as well. I have us that whenever this question was raised into contract with CIIL. collected and published my course material in a book form entitled ‘Learn Urdu’. Urdu has not disappointed its fans whether it CIIL works under ministry of MHRD and is Fort William College, Dilli College, Jamia creates programs for the development of Your book on the teaching of Urdu language has Osmania or MANUU. The purpose of Fort Indian Languages, for example, how to teach become popular with the non Urdu speakers. What William College was to train the British languages, understanding linguistic properties is your view of the challenges of teaching Urdu to administrators and not to serve Urdu, but in of languages, preparation of primers, text the present generation? spite of that it translated books in five or six books of different levels with linguistic My book ‘Learn Urdu’ is not only the result of disciplines like history, geography, law, approach, dictionaries, thesaurus and my experience and knowledge that I gained administration etc. When Dilli College was reference books, determining the areas of while teaching IPS and IAS officers but also its established the task before it was to provide languages through practical surveys and reward. Of course Urdu can be taught in a modern education to Indians through Urdu. conduct various other surveys. It has short duration through this book. I have Earlier the Vernacular Society was formed and converted many Indian dialects into languages divided this book into 12 units and 24 lessons, Lord Macaulay was its important member by providing Devanagari script. each deal with a linguistic characteristic or who said that we need to create Indian babus I was associated with CIIL for 10 years and problem. One method used for teaching the through new disciplines. Macaulay’s intention learnt the methods of teaching languages and sentences was with the help of a few alphabets might be bad but the Delli College translated understood its nature. It enriched me as a through writing processes. The learners feel nearly 120 books on 57 topics. These books teacher for which I am thankful to CIIL in that from the first lesson itself he is writing— were translated into that same language Urdu general and its Research Officer Dr. Shyamala this method was not preferred traditionally. about which many still have doubts. Kumari in particular. Secondly the fact that the students are cognate In this aspect Hyderabad was special as learners—who already knew the language but Regarding Urdu CIIL produced new text Madrasa-e- Fakhriya, Jamia Osmania and cannot read and write was also taken into books on request from state governments, Manuu were established here. Madrasa-e- account. Thirdly all the four skills of audio cassettes as teaching aid, poems, riddles, Fakhriya was unique because it was a personal listening, speaking, writing, and reading were language games for children etc. project of Nawab Fakhrul Mulk, only science simultaneously used. To help in correct books on various topics were translated by it You are teaching Urdu to IAS and IPS trainees, pronunciation Hindi and English were used. in to Urdu and it also established a why they are interested in Urdu, what are your The exercises were made interesting. planetarium to supplement astronomy. Jamia experiences of teaching them? You have designed a short course on appreciating Osmania continued this trend and proved that It was a coincidence that my friend and gazals. Who are your students and why this if there is a will then any vernacular can colleague Dr. Fazlur Rahman suggested my program is liked. What you do in these classes? become capable of dealing with modern name to National Police Academy (NPA) to sciences. Professor Late Syed Sirajuddin (Head During a workshop for the Urdu teachers of an teach the IPS officers from Jammu cadre. The of Department English, OU) had said about NGO (Pratham), its Chairman Mr. Chowhan following year the Marri Chenna Reddy OU that ‘Knowledge was trapped in during an informal talk told me that he is fond Human Development Institute got my name unfamiliar languages until OU liberated it, of listening to gazals but feels that he is not from NPA to teach IAS trainees. Likewise I made it easy and popular’. He also said that able to understand the meaning completely. ‘ got an opportunity to teach both type of ‘an important contribution of Jamia Osmania If somebody designs a course of how to officers. I found that in NPA there are two is that it created a middle class in Hyderabad understand and enjoy gazals, I would like to types of Urdu learners. The first belongs to society’. take it’. He also said that he did not have time that group that has been posted in Jammu and to learn Urdu and without learning it he want You were associated with Central Indian Institute Kashmir where administrative language is to understand gazals. of Languages (CIIL) Mysore for a long time. What Urdu. The second group wanted to learn out was the agenda of CIIL vis-à-vis Indian languages? of interest and liking for Urdu. This idea motivated me and I prepared a What kind of research takes place there? spoken level course as ‘Appreciation of Urdu The IAS trainees want to learn Urdu because of gazals’, liked and approved by my university, It was a coincidence that I got associated with its cultural significance and especially because

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-22 MANUU. I am particularly obliged to Mr many facilities are available; if books cannot communication for example cassettes can be Mohammed Miyan, the Vice Chancellor for be published, CDs can be made and sold made about the correct reading of different appreciating and supporting this innovative which is must cheaper. texts. Audio and video material about the course. discussion on Deccani can be made to You belong to Gulbarga town, a place that has made popularize it. It is strange and sad that today It is a fact that gazals, especially the classical important contributions to the Deccani. Tell us is used only for humor and ones, through their emotions sensibility and more about Gulbarga’s significance for the Deccani. comedy whereas earlier high literature was meaning impress listeners. Many lovers of What are the kinds of research being done on created in it. We need to change our thinking gazals are those who have heard gazals from Deccani. and attitude. Also we need to defend it the singers. It is important to introduce the The areas I belong to i.e., Gulbarga and intellectually from the Hindi speakers and sensibility and affect of gazals to them. played an important role in Deccani literature. Hindi intelligentsia, particularly from Hindi Keeping in view all these things I prepared The first elegy ‘Kadamrao Padamrao’ was teachers, critiques, and writers who want to the course which is becoming popular in the written in Bidar. Miraj-ul-Aashiqeen is claim it as Hindi because of the presence of Urdu and non Urdu speakers and many of the attributed to Saint Hazarath Khaja Banda Prakrit and Bhasha words in it. latter are now getting attracted to Urdu. Nawaz of Gulbarga and is recognized as the Now Telangana State is formed. A future has to be first prose specimen of Deccani literature. Children’s literature in Urdu is also your interest made for Telangana Telugu and Deccani. How both These cities were the capitals of the Bahmani area and you have made some innovations in it. languages can contribute in each other’s What is the nature of books for children in Urdu? kingdom. It was the early phase; the kings development? were busy in consolidating the kingdom My relation with children literature is in two instead of giving attention to literature and When we look at the history of Deccan two capacities-as a teacher and as a creator. My poetry. The progress in Deccani literature things are apparent. One is that area which association with CIIL helped me in writing for happened due to religious personalities and came under the influence of Urdu in the past and another that did not. Telangana belong to children in a scientific way. In CIIL we non-courtier artists. When Bahmani kingdom the earlier group. worked for on programmes to prepare broke into five kingdoms, the two biggest of language games, poems, proverbs etc and in them i.e Adil Shahi and Qutub Shahi Alluddin Hasan, the founder of Bahmani individual projects to prepare text books and kingdoms nurtured literature and arts. The kingdom, was the first one to coin and use the linguistics exercises according to the interest North Indians take pride that Urdu was term Deccani as a particular identity. He used and nature of children. CIIL designed five nurtured in the areas of Ganga and Jamuna; it as a political strategy to fight the programmes for children and made audio we are proud that we used this domination of Tughlak family of North India. cassettes and teaching aid for it. language not only for literature and poetry He also used it to promote a common cultural but also for knowledge and skills. and civilizational value since he found a close The difference between the past and today and special culture affinity among different regarding the children’s literature is that Thus the first prose, poetry quatrains and groups of this region. earlier even the major writers and poets used elegies were written in Deccan. Our literary to write for children. Krishan Chandar, Zafar historians extended the history of Urdu by Apart from this the Sufi saints used the Hindu Payami and Siraj Anwar were well known in 150-200 years by the discovery of Deccani characters to propagate Islam. Shams ul Ishaq prose. In poetry Hamid ullah Afsar, Ismael literature. In this regard the role of Meeran Ji coined the term Krishan Meerthi, Shafiuddin Nayar, Raja Mehdi Ali Hyderabad and OU cannot be ignored. But Mohammed, in the elegy ‘Behram and Hasan Khan etc were popular. But today’s major sadly the scholars of Deccani are declining in Banu’; gopis’ narration were used; Nusrati writers of Urdu are not interested in writing dedication and numbers and except one or two used Vishnu Chakra; and Hazarath for children. The genre of comics is nobody seem to be interested. The reason for Ameenuddin Aala used the five element and completely absent in Urdu. Only Saab lack of research on Deccani is lack of interest 25 guna philosophy of Vedanta in . In presented the story of Mowgli in a book for in old books and manuscripts. The emergence Islamic Sufism only 4 elements are mentioned his daughter. The reason for this gap is that of new disciplines and demands created but the fifth one of space, void or shunya was adopted from Indian philosophy. All this was our writers and artists are not ready to take it interest in the new books. I feel still there are cultural give and take and found especially in up, nor is anybody interested in investing in possibilities of working on Deccani from new those areas which were under the Muslim such projects. Let me say that we Urdu walas perspectives. rule. are not serious about using modern sources of There are some claims that Deccani will always communication for language and literature. remain disadvantaged as a spoken language under Now if we look at Telangana movement and How the children can develop reading habits. the shadow of North Indian Urdu. What is the its leaders statements, what becomes clear is that Deccani and Urdu played an important I produced a book ‘Khel Kahawat’(Games and truth behind such claims? What can be done about role in the formation of its nature. The Deccani to bring it out of its existing predicament? Proverbs) in Urdu for children. Actually it Telangana people now want to retrieve it. It is was inspired from a CIIL project, “India The history of Deccani languages is nearly six the demand for harmonious existence that through proverbs” in which the proverbs hundred years old. In the South it progressed Telangana Telugu and Deccani should were visualized. I used the same technique because of the works and efforts of Mohiuddin contribute in the progress of the state through with their permission to teach children Quadri Zore, Abdul Haq, Abdul Qader mutual and close interaction. through this book. This is the only book in Sarwari, Rafia Sultana,Syeda Jafar, Ghulam The interview was conducted in Urdu on 30 & my publications that was sold out. What I Omer Khan,Ashraf Rafi, Naseemuddin Farees, 31 October 2014 by M.A. Moid and translated want to say is that if the books are prepared Habeeb Nisar etc., but in North India Deccani by him into English. according to the need and disposition of the literature is not part of the syllabus. It is student in an interesting way and with good because of its difficult pronunciation, reading Khalid Sayeed teaches at MANUU. He is also the quality material, the teaching and learning and comprehension. These difficulties could Director of Centre for Urdu Language, Literature will be joyful and then it will sell. Today be overcome through new means of and Culture. (9849359660)

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-23 the initial levels, i.e., by drawing parallels The English Language between English and Arabic grammar. This ‘practical concept’, as the head of the madrasa calls it, is of recent origin, which has been at Madrasas experimented on only two successful batches. The course is divided into four sessions. The first session is allotted for teaching the Nouns, the second for Verbs, the third for Grammar with explanation, and the final session for Sajida Sultana memorizing and learning texts by rote.

For the first three months the course is flexible. The students are allowed to use Urdu or Arabic and they are provided inputs in he madrasa and its education have through interviews with the Head of the English. After three months, Urdu or Arabic is been subject matter of major institutions and their English language not used and the leaners have to speak in discussions in the media since the teachers. T English. It is extensively used and attack on the World Trade Centre. However, conversations also happen only in English. As the discussions ignore the fact that since the A madrasa for girls in Hyderabad, since its part of the teaching, films are screened time of European Enlightenment, there have inception in 2009, provides equal importance followed by a discussion for an hour. The been several rich debates and discussions to the English language along with religious students are also encouraged to make within madrasas on the inclusion of modern knowledge. The English language teachers presentations. This also helps in building subjects as part of their curriculum and these mentioned that some of the students have a their self-confidence. discussions have brought in the conceptual strong notion that it is the language of those distinction between din (religious) and duniya who colonized us, it is not their mother We thus see that the English language in the (secular) within the domain of madrasa tongue, and learning the English language context of madrasa education is viewed as a education. It has also been noted that the may not be useful. However, the girls at this means to develop and spread the language colonial dichotomy of the public and private madrasa aspire to speak in English because and culture of Islam through Dawa (awareness spheres exists in the present day madrasas and they know that it is a universal language and, of the religion); to translate old material they safeguard the private sphere of Muslims at a personal level, they see their cousins published in Arabic and Urdu in to English; to from the external/state intrusions . speak in English confidently and fluently. avail employment opportunities; to fulfill They also want to talk to them in English. The societal needs and aspirations; and to pursue Today, English language teaching at madrasas students consider the additional knowledge of further education in other universities. There is part of the modernization programme English as fun. Also, some of their graduates is a huge demand for English in Arab introduced by the State as an initiative to have moved to other countries after marriage countries for those who want to go abroad. improve the future prospects of madrasa and have communicated to the current The English language is included so as to train graduates. The reasons behind the state students about the ample job opportunities for the madrasa students to understand the recent driven modernization could be political and/ girls/women with a good knowledge of developments in the world. Deoband or social. religion and a fair command over the English madrasa, for instance has an Online Education language. English is increasingly becoming an programme for the foreign nationals to important component of the madrasa The teachers do encourage girls to speak in the pursue their course in Islam. The entire course curriculum not only for the purpose of English language, not only as a means for is administered in the English language. creating more employment opportunities for better employment or for personal reasons, the students, but also to respond to questions but to consider everything they do as ibadat The English language is now part of the related to Islam, and to demystify religion. (in the path of Allah) whether it is eating food curriculum in most of the madrasas and some Parents want their children to be equipped or learning a language like English. One of madrasas have established separate English with the skills required for employment and the teachers also said that language is not Language departments. This in certain ways also gain English language skills in addition related to religion. To spread the religion, we marks the paradigm shift in the madrasa to the proper understanding of their religion. need to speak in the language of the other education system. The system of education person. followed at madrasas is carefully planned to To give a glimpse of the significance of the ensure that those who graduate from a English language in the education system in Similarly, in the boys’ madrasa, which is madrasa are able to face the challenges of the some of the madrasas, let us consider two established by the alumni of one of the oldest world. madrasas in Hyderabad, one for girls and the madrasas in Hyderabad, the management has other for boys. These details were obtained adopted a unique style of teaching English in Sajida Sultana is a PhD Student at EFL University.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-24 discussions, read books – in the language that the university promises to educate them in – English question in Urdu. But, they find that many teachers lecture in English, are not conversant with Urdu and have condescending attitude towards Urdu Urdu University language and students. Right from the moment they enter the classroom, they are told to learn English and do their class presentations, assignments and write their exams in English. Shocked into compliance, Md. Mujeebuddin the students embark upon their own English learning programme – through self-learning books, seniors and English speaking classes in the city. chose MANUU because I could compared to other universities; low fee continue my studies in Urdu… structure; availability of hostel facilities; and It assumes urgency, as without English, they (Sajid, an interviewee from the option to continue education Urdu. cannot follow the classroom lecture or prepare I for the exams. In addition, they also find that MANUU) Politically, MANUU offers a safer option, the library stocks only the English language given the predominantly Muslim student books for their subject. They also cannot find I grew up in a small town near population. Women students feel that it is a Urdu social science journals in the library. Chittoor. It had 300 Muslim safe place for them. This compels them to take on the task of households. My village school was translation – of English language subject housed in a deeni madrasa building. But then we have to listen to lectures in material into Urdu. They get a vague idea of As there was one building for all English. The classes here take place what the lecture is about and build up the classes and students, the classes were mostly in English and initially I could notes on the basis of these ideas and the copy sometimes held under the tamarind hardly understand anything. Teachers of the syllabus in hand, with the help of the tree. Teachers were vidya volunteers could not, so they did not translate for available material in the library. who came to teach for two or three us. Since we are the first batch of months in a year, before the exams. We students, there are no seniors to help us Students have prepared course material for were 150 students and there were two too. The teachers also did not give us themselves in many courses through their collective effort, which they pass on to their teachers. My parents are daily wage any notes. We are five students in class. juniors. While the class assignments can be labourers. They learned a little Urdu So, we set about making our own notes submitted either in Urdu and English, final from local madrasa but we were the for the exams. We divided the course exams have to be written in Urdu. However, syllabi into five parts. We go to the first ones to go to school in the family... as teachers lack knowledge of Urdu language, (Alim, interviewee from MANUU) library, and make notes from the the students lean to mix English and Urdu in relevant English books with the help of the answer sheet. There are many cases where Urdu medium students in MANUU are mostly an English-Urdu dictionary. Once we students were failed in the exams due to this first generation learners. Their parents are complete the note-making process, we problem of the teachers. There is no daily wage labourers in villages, petty photocopy the entire set for five of us. revaluation or improvement exam, and this is businessmen such as teashop or small retail (Sajida, an interviewee in MANUU) a handicap for the students. For thesis shop owners, or craftsmen such as carpenters, submission, the initial copy will be submitted mechanics or ironsmiths. Some of them also Going to the library has become a habit in English to the supervisor. This again is are imams of village mosques. They are for me now. Every day, I spend three done with the help of seniors, supervisor and many good Samaritans. After it is approved, it mostly from Urdu medium government hours in the library reading relevant needs to get translated into Urdu as that is the schools in Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, subject books in English. This has mandate of the University. Karnataka and a few from Kashmir. Most changed me as a person and also improved my English. Now, I am in North Indian students would have studied While students do not oppose English, they second semester and am able to follow Urdu as a language in school and the college are critical of the insistence on English while the class lectures. Even though we while doing the rest of the subjects in Hindi or the university does not provide any resources English medium. South Indian Urdu medium write exams in Urdu, we intersperse and support systems available on the campus students are much better in Urdu, compared to that with English subheadings as many to learn the language. They are left to fend for their North Indian counterparts. teachers don’t understand Urdu. We themselves. At least 50 of them travel 25 kms hope that the teachers at least follow each day to the Ramakrishna Mission campus Students get to know MANUU from the the English sub-headings and mark us in the city to attend English classes at 7 AM lecturers in college as well as from the accordingly. Some people have which are offered free of cost. The students teachers in the Distance Education contact suggested that MANUU also should be attend these classes skipping breakfast. The students ask: Why can’t English classes be held classes of MANUU. Seniors also guide them to converted into an English medium in the university? an extent. Many students join MANUU university. If that happens, most of the programmes in the distance education mode Urdu medium students will suffer. Excerpt from Anveshi Short Term Fellowship Report on and then join as regular students at the PG (Zahir, an interviewee in MANUU) Problems of Urdu medium and Madrassa Students in level. MANUU is preferred among the Urdu Urdu medium students come with the MANUU. medium students due to the following expectation that they can go through the reasons: limited option due to Urdu medium university system – listen to class room Md. Mujeebuddin is a PhD student at UoH. education; relatively easy availability of seats lectures, write their exams, participate in class

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-25 some madigas said the same thing. But the Hamali workers insisted that I write like this. ‘Language is infinite’: They said: why do you write for ten people, there are so many of us, write like this and we will understand. They have all read up to the Interview with Vemula Yellaiah sixth or seventh standard in Telugu. Didn’t your education come in your way of writing?

Y: I did my MA at Osmania University in N Manohar Reddy and R Srivatsan Telugu. I am now doing my PhD. During these years, I have also read Vishwanadha Satyanarayana’s Veyi Padagalu (The Thousand Hoods of Vishnu’s Cobra). I had no problem understanding him. But his language wasn’t ill you published your work, Dalit writing Y: No. Even within the madigas there are related to my work, was it? I made it used standard Telugu, more or less. When subcastes and differences. There is also the secondary to my interest. That’s why it wasn’t Tyou wrote, people often said they didn’t educated madiga and the uneducated madiga. difficult to write in my language, just that I understand. So you actually brought a new There will be differences. For instance, they needed patience. You have to write a draft and practice to writing in Telugu. Could you say why don’t eat liver so they have no relationship to then mark off places where the standard you did this? that word. Whatever we use in our everyday language has come, and correct it in the next lives we use terms for those. Don’t we? malas draft. You need to write often ten, sometimes Yellanna: When I came to academics, I did not don’t slaughter animals–we do. find our language in academic subjects. It was twenty drafts. Occasionally you have to tear to remedy this situation that I began writing— If I look at Telugu literature as a whole, more than the thing up! in my language, i.e., the Telangana language, being a threat to malas, your language is a strong But, why does your writing have to be so difficult? the Telangana madiga language. That is how I attack on the upper caste language. Do you agree? began writing. Y: I must write what my readers understand. Y: Yes. The challenge is more to the latter… There is a difference between your writing What is the significance of this writing? Because till then, the language used in the and mine. I can’t write for ten people, but I can’t not address them either. In addition I Y: It is through language that community is newspapers and journals was mainly that of upper have another thousand to address. What is my created. Those roots of community that are castes. What were the responses you got when you mistake if I write for them? now disappearing depend on language. It is wrote? for this reason I felt that it is necessary to Y: My people are more in number—aren’t Let us put it another way. You have gone through write. they? My own people read this writing and many changes—school , college, university—all gave me inspiration. It is because they inspire these have made you different. A person in your Didn’t the language of dalit literature perform that me that I continue to write. No compromise village who hasn’t gone to school would be very task? on that. Educated people are few -- in different from you. There will be a difference Y: No. The principles of poetry they followed hundreds? We are in thousands! I work in the between his language and yours. What we are were dictated by somebody else. It was not hamalis workers union in the FCI asking is, did you have to undo all this learning to their own creation. So they used less of their godown…360 people in my union. Now write in his language? Wasn’t it difficult for you to own language–they did not understand what Kalyan Rao wrote Antarani as a make this change? was necessary. Now, there is Siva Reddy (an teacher in a school. There will be 20 people Y: It wasn’t. Now take this person who has important leftist Telugu poet), his disciple was there to read his work. But 360 people of my come to me from my village—he wants to Madduri Babu. If you look at even the union read my language. Therefore we create model himself on me. I have to include him titles of Madduri’s poems, they are very close language. in my project. That way, the language he to Siva Reddy’s. Then came Nagappagari All of them read your writing? carries comes back to me, and the language I Sunderraju , who used the title “Madigodu.” carry comes to you. That is how language Y: Yes they did. They read it and they also tell Look at Madduri Nagesh Babu’s use of words: creation occurs—I take it from them and push us something back, don’t they? ‘Something is “ One must live like a crow for many years.” it forward. Language is never one’s own is it? not adequate… something should be “Crow” was also used by the pundits. But the It can’t be—as you change, language changes better’…etc. They read my work even after it term “Madigodu” was used by a madiga, not too. A person is never static—as a person was published. They gave me more feedback by the pundits. moves language moves with him. than the educated readers—so I am able to What about the language used by Sunderraju? write. Otherwise, I can’t write. I don’t get that People criticize your language as abusive—what is kind of help from upper caste people. One your response? Y: That was Rayalaseema madiga language. well known writer kept the script with her for He came after me. I had written Kakka before Y: I don’t have one. I have no relation with three months and returned it saying she he came. I was part of the movement. He them. couldn’t understand it. Now, just because came from academics—Hyderabad Central some established writers couldn’t understand Some say it is not literature! University-and the caste politics there. That it, I can’t keep quiet can I? I asked some was the difference. Y: They say that of people who write good people in my village for money. Kalekuri language too! (laughter) Take Kalyan Rao, Don’t the malas and madigas speak the same Prasad covered the cost of my paper—three who writes good language—Andhra language? In my village, the madiga wada and the thousand rupees. We were friends. In fact, language—other dalit poets ask “What kind of mala wada are adjacent to each other. Won’t they be quite a few Dalits—intellectuals—said that a poet is he?” Now will he stop because of speaking approximately the same language? they didn’t understand my writing—even that?

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-26 Your main argument is that literature shouldn’t Isn’t it true that in Marxism and in standard Dalit need to work in factories, write records, that is the remain in the academy—it should be on the streets. writing too there is the narration of oppression? reason why they say a standard language is Considering the complaint that your language is full Why should it come in your language? necessary. If that has to be achieved, how should of abuses, do you think such language should come these languages be brought in? Do we not want into literature? What is your understanding about Y: This is necessary because even in those standard languages? this? movements, people who die belong to our community. We belong to the lowest cadre, Y: Now, a Dalit like me has come to this Y: Yes it must. Only if it comes, will the don’t we? Now we are progressing and [educated] level [gestures with his hand language become clear. You will then think, becoming professors—when we begin to showing a high level]. Behind him, comes his ‘Why is he talking like this? Why was it speak, we will be able to annihilate caste. brother, bearing his language with him necessary to speak that language?’ You are a There are many of us facing oppression now, [gestures again with his other hand showing a human being and so am I—why am I talking and by not letting us speak, you are stopping low level]. When he is carrying his language this language—am I happy or angry? You our progress aren’t you? There is an and coming to study, he is coming to study must know. opportunity for such a person to become a too. Now for the sake of standardizing for covert (informer) because you don’t let him employment, it would be wrong to stop him Only when abusive language is used, will you speak. That’s what happens. When the person because he cannot speak the standard understand anger? What kind of anger does abuse is not listened to, that hesitation and language. Dalit language must be there for show? indecision provides access to the enemy. This the younger brother to come in. The moment Y: There will be joy. What else, it is coming hesitation, double mindedness is created in the younger brother comes, how can the elder out isn’t it? In literature. For example, I will the cadre. If you don’t listen to me and simply lose all sense of humanity and human say fuck you. You will ask why. I say Fuck you order me to work, I will feel bad. There must connection? Is this fellow not a man, is he an son of a whore. There is something be some fruit of my effort. Also money is not animal? There is a language related to happening there…There is conflict, and there the only motivator in all this—there are many animals too… Step by step, sir. is good too. Without knowing this, you say different motivators. What you are saying is that even in schools, the this is a mean language (Chandalamaina What do you think about the necessity to change the language must be changed step by step. bhasha). How did it become mean? Now, language in schools? there is cow dung on the road—people say it Y: Yes. There is a difference in language stinks. We take this, dissolve it in half a Y: The stories that deal with our castes and within each house too. Now I have an MA bucket of water and sprinkle it on our swept communities must become subject matter. For degree. I have an elder brother, who hasn’t. courtyards. Will it stink then? It will be good, example, the Chindu language must go [into His language will be different. He will come, clean. You should know that it cleans education]. and his children too. They will follow me. shouldn’t you? We think it is bad, but there Now employment is at that higher level. Now will be a hundred good things that happen So the language is carried with the story. if you stop the employment for them, how due to it too… Abuse is language—it is new will that work? You should not break the Y: Now the Dakkali will tell the Jambava language, language creation. Just as you ladder called education. In the name of Puranam, and so will the Chindu. There will think dung is bad, you think abuse is bad too. employability if you break this ladder, they be a difference between them. The way the Good happens due to that and due to this too. can’t make it to a job. Language is unending, Dakkali tells the story will be from a very limitless isn’t it? It changes continuously. We You said that only when you write will people oppressed perspective. What the Chindu tells need to bring that language in. If we don’t and understand. However, many of the readers say that will be closer to us. When they are compared, say instead that that language has no relation they don’t understand your Telugu. How will your a beautiful language emerges. If these to us, what does it mean? purpose be served? languages go into education, the school languages will change. Y: Those who ask me know English. They did One last question, now with this new kind of writing about your caste and community, its not know English earlier. So they learned Now the children from the oppressed castes find it language and culture and so on, the old politics of English, but won’t learn my language? They difficult to understand the school language. If these annihilating caste seems to be replaced by a new can and should. If you don’t learn, why do languages come, will they find it easier? you blame me? kind of affirmation of caste. Now Dalit literature is written to annihilate caste isn’t it. So what are Y: Yes they will—they will learn this. Not That means what you are saying as an author is that your efforts doing? Isn’t there a contradiction English. you must learn about my oppression, and in order between your practice and the goals of Dalit to learn, you must learn my language. If you don’t, But if you need a job after school, you need to learn politics? you cannot understand. May be, you don’t want to English… What to do then? understand. ‘I will not come across and learn your Y: There is no contradiction. Only when we language’—that’s what you are saying isn’t it? Y: The one who gets employment will go to write about ourselves, does everybody know work. But language doesn’t stop does it? about it. When you hear about this writing, Y: Yes. Language creation always takes place. Our you will understand that these people are suffering and you will want to eliminate caste. That means that your oppression in your own terms will go into English. When that If we didn’t write or spoke about this, you words becomes knowledge. happens, that person too will begin to understand. For example what is a Chindu wouldn’t understand would you? We use our Y: Yes, you will then come to a conclusion, maddalam—which is called a drum in English. language precisely to annihilate caste. and you will also be able to argue with a Why is this not seen as employment? All our person who doesn’t believe that this languages must go into schools. Translated from Telugu by R Srivatsan. oppression exists. When we don’t write, you Vemula Yellaiah is a prominent dalit writer from won’t understand the issue. Those who I accept that school languages must change as per Telangana State. His novels Kakka and Sibdhi have oppose this exercise are casteists. We are those your language. The difficulty with schools is that led to a debate on the question of language. who want to eliminate caste. we are talking about modern employment. You

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-27 newspapers reportedly ridiculed these recommendations… “They sneered, they Thinking beyond frothed, they flamed, they raged, they lived off the story for weeks”, was how the media response was described by some scholars. “standard language” Why did media react that way? Because, the home language the board had in mind was the African American Vernacular English (AAVE) used in Oakland, a poor city on the east side of Duggirala Vasanta San Francisco Bay where more than 50% of the population is African-American. Most users of Standard American English (SAE) believe that AAVE is an example of bad English, full of uch has been written in the dictionaries, grammar books, style-manuals mistakes in grammar and pronunciation. An sociolinguistic literature about and so on. The process of standardization editorial in the New York Times referred to it Mwhat constitutes a ‘standard’ considers three different aspects: (1) the as ‘Black Slang’! Many commentators were language and what a ‘dialect/vernacular’. structural properties of a given language, (2) deeply ashamed of the African American Much has also been said regarding the the function it performs in a given society, and speech, and also ignored the most important processes of standardization and the conflicts (3) the attitude it evokes in people. aspect of California school board’s statement around “standard versus dialect” in the West Standardization is either imposed through about the need for a change in educational and in North America in particular. With most official recognition of a language (e.g. both policy. They even ignored the evidence parts of the world gradually becoming French and English in Canada are official demonstrating that college students in bilingual or multilingual, some of the languages) or by tradition (in USA, English Chicago who received instruction concerning received notions about ‘standard’ and ‘dialect’ spoken by White people became the standard contrasts between AAVE and SAE grammar are currently being challenged. The focus is language). This process results in showed improved writing skills in the so- slowly shifting from language(s) to language- ‘normalization’, that is, only the officially called academic (standard) English. The public users and social contexts. I will draw my recognized (codified) variety occupies much of opinion was so hostile that by January 15, arguments in this note from existing debates the public domain, a point often missed by 1997, the board was forced to revise its earlier on the so-called standard American English many linguists. It should be noted that such statement by dropping the reference to versus African American Vernacular English ‘officialization’ need not and most often does imparting instruction in the home language of and the notion called translanguaging used in not symbolize identity for many speech many school children even ignoring the fact the context of school education in Europe. I communities residing in a given nation. The that some of their teachers also speak AAVE will then conclude with brief comments about debate between American English (SAE) and outside the academic context. An earlier, the emerging language education possibilities African American Vernacular English (AAVE) similar case in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1978 in Telangana. in the context of the United States is one of the had succeeded in the courts but had failed in most commonly cited examples to illustrate the classrooms where tests in standardized Standard American English (SAE) versus the dichotomy between standard language language continued to fail Black students. African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and dialect in sociolinguistics. However, I Recently in the year 2012, some researchers concur with a few linguists who have argued have reported that as the number of teachers Standard language is something that is that the motives and processes of language of colour increased in the USA, there has been controlled by the dominant community. It is standardization, and the projected use of the a slight shift in attitude towards AAVE in a used as a medium of instruction in education. standard variety of a given language must be positive direction. They made a It appears in government policies and in print examined in contexts larger than purely recommendation about initiating teacher and electronic media. In order for a language linguistic ones because, after all, language is education programmes that specifically target to be recognized as an official language, it the concern of different groups of language and challenge teacher language attitudes. must be standardized. This is done through users, and not just linguists. Some debates codification. It is only a codified variety of a around AAVE discussed below should help William Labov, a well known sociolinguist language that is considered to serve elaborate the importance of this point. who argued for the ‘logic of non-standard comprehensive communication needs of a English’ in American courts as far back as In December 1996, the Oakland school board speech community. A language gets ‘codified’ early 60’s, recently, in 2010 ventured to shift in California issued a statement to the effect in documents accessible to the speech the terms of the debate drastically. The that it was going to change educational policy community, which may be thought of as a relevant question according to him was not so that the teachers would pay more attention community that has either already achieved which language was standard and which a to the home language of many school modernization or desires to achieve it. dialect or vernacular. He called attention to children. It stated that teachers would be Academic bodies are given responsibilities to the fact that AAVE is not an endangered trained to appreciate the merits of the spoken formulate rules about publishing documents dialect…in fact it is flourishing because of language children use at home and try to by setting up linguistic norms through residential segregation combined with bring aspects of it into classrooms. Other particular agencies such as for instance, the increasing poverty and other features of social recommendations by this board included ministry of education. Codification also takes life in the inner cities of USA. He presented improving parental/community involvement, place through free enterprise in private empirical evidence to argue that one can never increased funding and stepping up efforts to publishing houses and editorial boards, and understand or remedy the problem of (Black) hire teachers who also speak the home through professionals who design children’s failure in learning to read/write language of a majority of children. The

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-28 unless one engages with the endangerment of strategic, affiliative, and sense-making designing different kind of language test AAVE users (rather than the language they process. However this translanguaging facility items – practices in which there should be speak!). Labov went on to state: “AAVE has that many children in multilingual contexts some scope for mixing different varieties of a developed its present form in the framework possess is seldom valued by education given language. However, currently, we know of the most racial segregation that the world systems. Translanguaging calls for new very little about the linguistic resources has ever known…the progress of the civil educational practices such as having dual available to members of different rights movement has given large part of the language classrooms, mixing children with communities for use in socially significant Black population access to education and jobs different language profiles, developing interactions in the multilingual context of along with means to move out of the inner academic language use in more than one India. Research should bring out the cities. If we focus on residential segregation variety…practices that might contribute to translinguistic markers that surface in problem, we could expect AAVE to shift children developing necessary sociolinguistic discourses involving two or more languages. One example of a translinguistic marker is towards other dialects…if Philadelphia security and identity in order to achieve that of a Hindi-English bilingual speaker schools are integrated, maybe we will reach a academic success. This would also require using paDhna to mean ‘to study,’ and study- time when young Black children use elements planning new kinds of teacher education karna to mean ‘to conduct research’. Such of the White Vernacular and take part in the programmes and multicultural lessons in markers tend to occur in the coming together radical sound change that will sweep over the textbooks. of languages with different status. This also White community”. Notice his deliberate use happens in translations involving English and of ‘White Vernacular’, a rare usage in the Conclusion: Need for reflection on Indian languages. Translinguistic markers academic discourse within linguistics. The languaging in Telangana play a role in indicating speaker’s/writer’s point also to be noted is that the conflict identities – whether claimed and emblematic between two different systems of linguistic The contexts in which SAE and AAVE are (accepted with pride) or stigmatized. The values arise between linguistic minorities and debated (institutionalized racism) might not have exact parallels in our context, but I think social meaning of translinguistic markers majorities (not necessarily numerical), but it is they might have implications for the language depend on the context of language practice, the linguistic minorities who exhibit plural struggles the new state of Telangana is likely and are constantly negotiated and defined. verbal repertoires. to face in the years to come in relation to (1) Systematic studies into identification of translinguistic usages in relation to our The concept of translanguaging continued official recognition to “standard” Coastal Telugu and the sidelining of the languages could be one starting point to rewriting textbooks in the new state of In the UK and in Europe, linguists and Telangana “dialect” in social/cultural/ Telangana. educationists have theorized that in the educational contexts, and (2) starting English multilingual context of the globalized world medium education in primary schools. Editors Note: The Telangana government has in the 21st century, there is much fuzziness of appointed a committee to look into text book Across India “standard English”/“Standard language boundaries and fluidity in language production. Members include Sangisetti Telugu” (or some such)/“Standard Hindi” etc. identities. Some sociolinguists have proposed Srinivas, Nalimela Bhaskar and others who have always played a hegemonic role in a notion called translanguaging in the field of have been saying Telangana Telugu should be classrooms, print and electronic media, and used in text books. Small news items have education to refer to the use of multiple official government communication channels. appeared regarding this in Telugu media. languages in formal and informal domains. It However, offering quality education to our This is a step that will counter the sidelining is a form of flexible bilingualism where children need not be seen as teaching them to of Telangana language in the textbooks in the neither language is dominant. read and write only the so-called “standard” new state. Translanguaging focuses not on language but variety of one or two languages. Quality on languaging practices. The term describes education should involve innovative practices D. Vasanta teaches linguistics at OU. hybrid language use that is a systematic, such as new lessons in textbooks and Keshav Reddy It was sunset when they reached the harijanwada. In the temple of chants, they played sacred musical instruments and then left for their homes. Seeing Ramachandra standing under the Sunkeresu tree, Sathanevadu asked, “Which village are you from? I have never seen you before”. Ramachandra responded, “I have come from a kingdom in the east.” Sathanevadu nodded, “I thought so. It is the way you dress, wear your turban. The moment I saw it I guessed you are not from around here.” Saying so, he paused and then asked, “What caste are you?” “Mala” Ramachandra replied. “That I can see! Would a reddy or brahmin come to sing? What I want to know is, what kind of mala you are” Sathanevadu said. “In the kingdoms of the east, there are rampas, are there not? I am one of them”. A man from gunniwadu community who has been sitting behind Ramachandra, spoke, “Why are you still standing?” “Sit over here”, he said pointing to a stone for Ramachandra to sit. “Seeking what work did you leave the east?” he asked. “What is so surprising about rampas wandering around kingdoms?”, Sathanevadu snidely remarked. “I have yet to hear of rampas dying in the village in which they were born. These people speak to reddys with their head high. If the reddys break their backs, they run around clutching their ears—that is the life of a rampa! With this, he turned to Ramachandra and asked, “What do you say, am I right?” (Translated by Pranoo Deshraju and Navadeep) Keshav Reddy is a writer. From ‘Incredible Goddess’ Hyderabad Book Trust, P. 129, 2011.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-29 'Bharati'. Not only did he pay attention to the special features of Telugu sentence, but he also ‘Chera’: An Unfinished Task* examined similarities and differences in sentence structures of other and common features of languages of the world. He was perhaps influenced by K Srinivas Chomsky’s theories on universal grammar that focused on identifying commonalities across all human languages. One of Chera's *This translation of the title does not do justice to the play on words the author was articles in English published as early as 1967 able to achieve in his Telugu original, ‘Chera: oka asamaapaka kriya‘ which can also be dealt with direct and indirect speech in read as ‘Chera: A non-finite Verb’ – Translator. Telugu. In that he argued that direct and indirect speech are universal features because all languages have them. The function of different sentences with verb forms (e.g. n the one hand, we believe that principles. Being a student of literature, he perfective participle, non-finite verbs Telugu language is in danger. On studied the allegoric and grammatical indicating past), the function of quotative Othe other hand, we also feel that traditions of Telugu and Sanskrit. By making a marker ani 'say' in Telugu, the structure of English alone can help us earn our livelihood. thorough use of linguistics for the purposes of speech sounds in Telugu to mention a few We also assert our self-respect by declaring old and modern literary criticism, he examples, Chera made important that our Telugu and our idiom are different. introduced a new mode of literary critical observations on all these and other issues. His We believe that the alphabet and words carry thinking. He brought in literary examples and proposals about poetry relating to rhythm and the fragrance of our identity. We say that, for references into his usual essays on linguistics. meter can be said to be extensions of his our newspapers, textbooks and everything He participated in debates democratically and knowledge of linguistics. His comments on else, we’re going to invent an altogether new made valuable contributions. By rejecting these topics at first seem very ordinary but standard language. In such a context, how does modern misconceptions about language, he each one opens out new ways of thinking. the permanent loss of a linguist affect Telugu continually showed how one should have a Chera was one of the early researchers who societies? What is our future without such rational and scientific attitude towards had made an attempt to identify scientific elderly people, whose scientific explanations language. In practice, through his own principles underlying various dialects of are capable of clearing ‘modern ignorance,’ writings, he demonstrated how the prose in Telugu. However, he was also aware of the who at the same time pay attention to the new scientific writings should be. Outside the field limitations of and obstacles facing aspirations and also have a commitment to of linguistics, no effort has been made to grasp modernization & standardization of Telugu progress? his contributions to linguistics and enter into a language. The responsibility of overcoming dialogue with him at some level. Although his those limitations now lies on future Chekuri Ramarao (Chera) was a well known predominant contribution to critical thinking generations. Chera created the foundation for linguist and Telugu literary critic. He in the field of literature brought him laurels developing a comprehensive Telugu grammar researched the intricacies of Telugu sentence and popularity, the literary world neither that will incorporate all special features of the construction/structure. Besides this, he also adopted his style of criticism nor could it language. In one of the public speeches, he worked extensively on other related areas of grasp his awareness with the right attitude or hesitantly remarked thus: "My field of language which required direct field work and the understanding they required. The new research grew gradually in line with the had immediate social relevance. He worked ideas he introduced, or the ones he left for qualitative developments in linguistic towards creating the necessary tools and others and the future to resolve- are by no theories and ever changing methodologies institutions required to transform and means ordinary. associated with those theories". strengthen Telugu (as with other languages in developed countries) into a language that Chera was one person who had a serious I do not know to what extent the Telugu world could ably meet the requirements of a modern engagement with the idea of how to construct is aware of Chera's contributions I have society. From serving as a ‘collector of words’ a Telugu sentence… In fact one can say he was mentioned so far… may be a little is known, for dictionaries of different dialects/ the first student who chose 'Telugu sentence' but I am sure that many people have not made occupations to developing specialist as a research topic. Embeddings of one an attempt to learn from his contributions. dictionaries for Telugu print media; from sentence as a noun phrase in another sentence With the exception of students and experts of writing lessons in linguistics for distance (nominalization) was the focus of his doctoral linguistics and literature, and a few others education courses to offering useful tips to research undertaken during 1955 to 1968. He interested in language issues, I doubt if trainees in journalism... his services were also studied aspects of sound structure anyone really benefitted from his proposals, many and varied. Chera was a keen observer (phonology) word structure (morphology) intellectual ideas and understandings. I feel of anything to do with language use--its during that period. Soon after completing his our society, maybe I should say societies requirements, its methods, its experiments, its PhD thesis in America, he wanted to share his because I am referring not just to people in platforms, its media, and its people—and in findings with the Telugu readers. Therefore, linguistic or literary circles, but to the process not only changed himself, but also he published a series of articles on governments, policy makers, influential brought in changes and invented new nominalization in the Telugu magazine, people and groups who make up the larger

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-30 society. I know this larger society is not uses, but who wants them? I suppose that is limitations as well… one must never settle concerned with pure linguistics as such, but why one has to beg people to recognize this for one and only one variety. He was vexed they should surely know something about the field and its uses. with the mistaken ideas people expressed, societal usefulness of linguistics. During the whether they belonged to modern or initial years after India gained independence, Even as he recognized the equality of all progressive camps one should never be various newly founded institutions either had languages and language users, Chera had a prescriptive about language pointing with the foresight or were truly concerned with special feeling for Telugu language and rulers which use is right and which wrong. issues relating to history, language and Telugu people. He wanted it to receive all The political superiority peoples’ movements culture, or they were also committed to markers of modernity. Doesn’t loving a attribute to specific dialects will not receive achieving institutional autonomy over language mean loving the users of that support from the scientific discipline of knowledge in general, and educational issues language?. The rise and fall of a language after linguistics. Those ideas might work in the arts in particular, whatever the reasons could be, all depends on the rise and fall of people who and literature but nowhere else he said. When they were responsible for starting linguistics use that language. The governments we engage in academic writing, it may not be departments in many universities. They engrossed in doing daily development- possible or even desirable to stay close to the created an atmosphere that was conducive to mantras, are failing to recognize the fact that colloquial variety. We should not romanticize researching on language related issues. There development of a language at the national or language in knowledge texts… nor should we was a recognition that those language related even at the regional level can be an indicator deploy irony. He stuck to these principles in issues, particularly some of the applied fields of that very development. How can we induct his own writing. He demonstrated how one belonged to the society, even if this Telugu into all scientific and knowledge can state an idea in a straightforward manner understanding was limited to the pure domains without making available some tools without losing its depth. Even when one linguists and linguistics researchers. Projects to pursue research on important questions? chooses to write in third person one can use such as compiling of occupational terms across What are those tools? Dictionaries, glossaries, clear and modest diction without resorting to different dialects received research funding. being able to use machines to translate high sentimentality he argued. Chera's own Gradually however, decline set in as it languages, compiling glossaries are all prose exemplifies these views. Perhaps we happened in most other fields, it became examples of essential tools for modernizing a can call it democratic prose … there are a few evident in the negative attitude on the part of language. Today, Telugu lacks guidelines for others who also use such a style. the government; indifference to societal using systematic spellings of words. There are issues. As a result, a lack of foresight and hardly any stable glossaries. Why are we in Chera insisted that only when one is ready to myopia about the importance of applying this state? The reasons according to Chera are defy prescribed rules will language develop; knowledge for societal good developed. Of partly institutional, partly also arise out of only when we stop worrying about 'wrong' course, official language committees were many misconceptions and misunderstanding uses of language, will it flourish. But in his constituted, but to put it in Chera's words, “a we all harbor. He did not hesitate to add that own prose writing he was constrained by his linguist was never appointed to head such such mistaken views exist even in progressive own principles and rules. While he believed committees”. It was true that language politics camps. that there is nothing wrong in switching from were responsible for many radical protests one language's words to another, in his own According to Chera, a serious study of modern and discussions in the country, but, the use of Telugu, he hardly ever mixed English. Telugu began with Gidugu Ramamurthi. awareness that language can actually be a tool Even the most difficult ideas he could express However, he does not agree with all the for development completely lacked. There in Telugu. His own 'glossaries' are so historically assigned attributes to colloquial was a steep rise in the political class (rulers) specialized that however scientific the terms speech. In fact, according to him who mistakenly assumed that value lies only are in a given language, with their help one colloquialism has brought about more with disciplines that can demonstrate should be able to convey the intended destruction than constructive ideas. It might immediate benefits and that all others are meanings. have been a historical necessity, but Telugu totally useless. Even ordinary people began to society should have taken those arguments That the Telugu used in Telangana should be view Arts and Humanities as useless further. Instead, we have settled for the ideas referred to as the Telangana language was a disciplines. Of course even in its heyday, the that colloquial everyday variety is sacred. He feeling that took root and expressed strongly question of usefulness of pursuing linguistics stated that there will always be differences in during the recent agitation for a separate state existed and Chera too was troubled by that spoken and written varieties of any language of Telangana. Even after the new State of question. In one of his public talks, Chera because they have vastly different uses. He Telangana has been formed, there are tried to literally spell out the material uses of gave many examples in support of this proposals to replace the standard Telugu in the field of linguistics: from designing argument. Old coinages not in use in spoken the print media with Telangana Telugu. The glossaries to offering therapy to people with varieties may still appear in writing and truth is, there is no 'stable’ standard version of speech and language disabilities to offering writers draw not just on current language Telugu today. It doesn't look as though that is counseling towards dispute resolution, he resources but also garner some old ones going to happen in the near future either. listed many uses. Actually, aside from such hidden in their minds. He used to say that it is There is no attempt to standardize the palpable immediate uses, linguistics in my not enough to recognize the usefulness of a spellings of written words; there is no clarity opinion has more foundational long-term modern language, one must be aware of its on what meaning one can attribute to a given

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-31 word… not even the words relating to received much acclaim as well as equal modern political and social issues and amount of criticism. Because his writings dealings. This is not to say that someone under 'Cheraatalu' appeared in one of the should determine the meanings and that once mainstream dailies, and were received very that is done they will be carved on a well by the reading public, it also led to some permanent head-stone for eternity. We need unexpected problems. Although Chera stuck to identify currently used spoken and written to his own special method in his writings he expressions in Telugu and Telangana Telugu felt various pressures and their influence and attempt to codify them so that they are having a negative effect on him… leaving his standardized. Unless we do that, the journey gasping for breath. In the public sphere, there of standardizing Telangana Telugu will not was more discussion on the topics he chose to get off the ground. Without a written version comment on in his column rather than the how can we ever achieve a standard language? content. His good ideas did not come to Colloquial language lacks force and depth. It fruition. There is a need for us to revisit them is not scientific to depend only on spoken now… not just the stylistic differences he version of a language. If we want to marry noted in prose or poetry, but his style of the aspirations of people's struggles to the writing in general. Chera's 'Stylistics' is a field of linguistics, we must first correct our special kind of road to critique. misperceptions about language. Chera's interests and ideological depth are not Chera did not approve of resorting to direct limited to the field of linguistics alone. translation from English in creating technical Clarity, elegance and progressive outlook terms in our languages or even in deciding merged with his disciplined study of literature synonyms. Quick translation is the method of seem to have contributed to his creativity in choice opted by print media which is using language and his struggle to share his oblivious to the damage it creates to knowledge with the outside world in as comprehensibility of intended meaning by the democratic a way as possible. Of course, in all readers. Such quick translations sound this the logic he derived from linguistics and completely empty. Chera's argument was that his constant attempts to critically examine his we must attempt to create in our translations, own proposals (about sentence construction) words filled with meaning, if needed by drawing on ideas belonging to other resorting to detailed descriptions and begin to disciplines… all these are revealed in the list such (expanded) meanings also in our many layers of his complex personality. He dictionaries. This proposal was implemented surely has put in enormous effort into many in the very first print of the press academy's issues; future researchers have many dictionary that Chera was involved in opportunities to expand on them. There are designing. A comprehensive Telugu many other proposals that Chera provided a dictionary or even English-Telugu standard principled account of… identifying and dictionary are still in the making although elaborating them is an unfinished task left for these are some of the most essential tools for the future. There are many tasks Chera achieving standardization of Telugu. These proposed for the good of Telugu people. dictionaries should provide detailed Intellectuals and policy-makers should take explanations in addition to meanings of them up and complete them. If we can make primary lexemes. an attempt to grasp and collate his intellectual ideas and ways of writing meaningfully, both Chera made a great contribution to analysis of linguistics and literary words will certainly prose or poetry by providing us several flourish. It is for this reason we must revisit linguistic tools. He approved of all kinds of Chera's writings again and again with a new poetry, but concentrated more on simple outlook. What we have ignored or failed to fantasy oriented poetry. In a friendly manner, grasp in his lifetime, we must now gather. he suggested to poets the importance of a This task need not be limited to Chera alone, generous attitude and offered them the but many others and their ideas as well. If we vocabulary with several shades of meanings ignore them today, we will be forced to take of words. His style was well received by them up later with much regret. women poets and perhaps that was the reason why he often cited examples from feminist Translated by Duggirala Vasanta poetry. Through his Cheraatalu column, he became a 'star' in the world of poetry. He K. Srinivas is editor of Andhra Jyoti daily.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-32 by capitalism. Not just economic or cultural Language, the political but political meaning may thus be recovered for the commons. In modern nation-states, unity of language seems to be the foundation without which ideologies cannot perform commons their function. In these states, moreover, new structurally invisible but socially effective forms of inequality replace older symbolically sanctioned forms. What secures their unity M Madhava Prasad and ensures the existence of a society, or the society-effect, is in the end a common language. The ‘commons’ dimension of this common language comes sharply into view only in exceptional situations, such as in India hat is the relation between national language(s) would be the language(s) where a constitutional democracy, against language and the nation-state of all the citizens of the respective countries. universally acknowledged common sense, form? A recent essay on a As we know, these revolutions did not abolish W continues to operate in a minority language, somewhat unrelated topic includes this the differences in wealth and status between instead of locating them in the commons passing remark about European history: different social classes. But they established a where participation of all is assured. common ground of political equality and Conducting the affairs of a democratic state in A very long time ago, the elite spoke abolished all privileges that were justified by a minority language is like shifting the Latin, and the vulgar, the rest of the reference to long established tradition or panchayat meeting from its traditional venue people, spoke other languages: English, custom and divine sanction. Everywhere that underthe peepal tree to the interior of the French, and German. The elite ignored this revolution took hold, a side-effect ensued local landlord’s home where entry is the masses. The masses ignored the as if automatically: the two-tier language restricted. elite. order was smashed and a single language became the language of the nation-state. What The necessity of a common language is a How does the Indian situation compare with we need to understand is why this must be so, result of the change in the definition of this? The elite speaking one language and the what is the necessity that finds expression in sovereignty (political authority) which finds rest of the people speaking others is for us not this change in the order of language from a theoretical expression in what is known as a feature of the distant past but of the structural bilingualism (that is, a structurally social contract theory. In summary this theory immediate present. The language of the elite salient linguistic hierarchy) to a monolingual is based on the idea that all the members of a is one, while the languages of the rest can be polity. society agree among themselves to establish a and are multiple. English is the language of new order of governance. In the first place this the elite today. In the past Sanskrit and Persian The idea of the commons, known in India by means that all these members, that is the have occupied this position of the language of various names – eg.,oorottu in Kannada, people in that society, sign the contract as the ruling elite that was reserved for Latin in oorummadi in Telugu – has seen a revival in equals. Sovereignty or political authority Europe. And what were known as the the wake of globalisation, in such terms as ‘the belongs to all of them in equal measure. This ‘prakrits’ or ‘desabhashas’ were many and creative commons’, ‘reclaiming the commons’ marks an end to all previous forms of political constantly changing, and are today known as etc. There are those who believe that the sovereignty in which the king derived his ‘modern Indian languages’, ‘vernaculars’ or restitution of the commons will fix all the authority from a power higher than himself ‘bhashas’. So far the facts of the Indian present problems of capitalism. It is often said that the (authenticated by the priest). In a contractual seem to match those of the European past. commons has been redefined culturally in the society, it is still necessary to delegate Next we come to the relations between the present-day world to refer not so much, or not authority to someone for the maintenance of two sections of society. Here there is a striking only, to economic resources held in common law and order and other necessary duties. This difference. Unlike what the above author says, by a group, such as land or water, but also to is done by different types of delegation or neither the elite nor the masses can afford to the culture of such a group, say a type of representation, the crucial difference being ignore the other in our current set-up. music.Yet water and music are both material that the authority of such a person is only for a resources, ‘separable from a human What happened in Europe ‘a very long time fixed period of time, after which s/he must community’, whereas there is another idea of ago’ was quite similar to what happened in vacate the seat of power for the next person the commons which is relevant to the time of India a very long time ago. But what is who is elected. This is why it is said in capitalism we live in, as it is to all societies happening in India today is only partially political philosophy that in modern marked by inequality (note that the idea of the similar to what happened a very long time democracies, ‘the seat of power is empty’. commons only makes sense in an unequal ago. In Europe, between that time long ago Another fact to be noted here is that in reality society). Language, the medium in which and the present, something intervened which it is impossible for all the members of a alone community interests and values become made it impossible for the elite and the society to gather in one place and actually put available for sharing, is the foundational masses within one country to speak two their signatures to a contract. The most commons, which ensures commonality of different languages. After the revolutions of common form of the contract is the interests and values in the context of the new the late 18th and 19th centuries, it was Constitution, such as the one we have in India, kind of social inequality, brought into being established as a universal rule that the and this is usually drawn up and passed into

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-33 law by a small group of people, who may be kinds of institutions and individuals to potentially existing nations are forced to the leaders who led the movement for change. ‘protect and preserve’ the Telugu language. regress to the pathological status of ethnicities But even though everybody in the society The World Telugu conference that was held in because they cannot help themselves to the does not sign the contract, it is assumed that it Tirupathi a few years ago is a case in point: sublimating powers of a constitution drawn is agreed upon by all, including future these protectors, whether they are in up in their own languages. The contemporary generations. This is why it is called ‘fictive’. government or associated with private world state system discourages and Once it is established, it becomes the law and initiatives, treat Telugu as a part of the state’s pathologizes nationalism as a means to the every member of the society, present and ‘cultural heritage’. Thus they speak of Telugu achievement of human freedom. It is as if the future, is assumed to have agreed to and festivals, Telugu cuisine, Tirupathi laddu, question of freedom is now obsolete and signed the contract. Kuchipudi and Telugu language as if they shelved forever. Meanwhile ethnicities fester were all the same sort of thing, all aspects of and periodically erupt in irrational violence. Contract theory is thus a fictive construct Telugu cultural heritage which must be which nevertheless captures the essence of the protected and preserved! This is an indication These questions of political enablement are great shift in political power brought about by that the political argument for the people’s not unrelated to the question of language in the revolutions of the 18th century. One language as a medium of political enablement education which is currently a hot topic of problem with it is the impression it conveys and authorization is no longer taken seriously debate in India. Education in India has of an absolutely new beginning. It is as if a by anyone in positions of power and evolved into an anarchic system combining new contractual society comes into being out influence. And in the absence of popular government schools teaching in the of nothing, without any relation to anything sovereignty which can only be ensured by a vernaculars and private schools offering that existed before . This is of course language functioning as political commons, it ‘English-medium’ education, mostly of impossible. The philosopher Hegel penetrated is not surprising that social scientists report dubious quality. Quality English education is to the heart of the matter when he asked a the proliferation of all kinds of substitute available to a very small elite while the rest simple but absolutely fundamental question: sovereign figures who claim divine or other are forced to choose between a vernacular in what language is the contract drawn up? sanction for their exceptional status: education which is widely (and not always The question immediately reveals the fact that politicians, sadhus, film stars and so with reason) deemed worthless and an only those who speak a common language can on.Attempts at religious unification are also ‘English-medium’ education that is presumed draw up and sign such a deed. In other words, encouraged by the suppression of vital to ensure employability and access to the society that is constituted as a post- necessities of a healthy democratic society. exclusive privileges. (In the debris left after monarchic state based on popular sovereignty, the accident in which more than 20 school must already exist in the form of a The twentieth century has been the century of children were killed in Medak, a text book of linguistically unified community. This shows the universalization of the nation-state form. ‘Mathmetics’ [sic] stood out.) In fact the fees the ineluctable, constitutive link between In the 19th century there were only some paid to English medium schools is nothing but democracy and the common language. nation-states, mostly confined to Europe, and an aspiration tax which goes directly into the Theories of nationalism suggest that claims to many of them were also imperial powers. pockets of unscrupulous entrepreneurs. national identity are usually based on one or They ruled territories that were scattered all Having actively colluded to bring about this other of a set of criteria like race, religion, over the globe which they possessed as situation, and let it worsen apparently beyond language. This is misleading insofar as a colonies. When independence movements in remedy, the state now provides, instead of common language is a necessity regardless of these colonies led to the withdrawal of education, the ‘right to education’!The central what other criteria might have been invoked European rulers and the formation of governments’ creeping intrusion into the in claiming national identity. As long as the independent states, the force of the idea of the education sector, designed to protect the claim to national identity remains cultural, nation-state was such that all of them either on colonial class’s interests, has managed to turn language might seem like one of the criteria, their own or by the compulsion of historical English into the precious object that all aspire but as soon as the claim is extended to circumstances came to be defined as nation to, the pie in the sky which holds the masses statehood, language detaches itself to become states. This is where the gap between the in thrall and ensures the perpetuation of this the means of attainment of political existence. European norm and the postcolonial actuality form of exploitation and deception.For it is a In a nation-state, language is no longer an in these new states begins to acquire matter of course today for all countries of the ethnic attribute but is sublimated into a importance. Many of these postcolonial world to teach English alongside their own political commons which the ethnie can no nation-states were internally divided into languages, in order to equip their citizens to longer claim as its own inviolable property. many communities -- tribal, religious, racial, function effectively in a globalizing world. ethnic – and they each spoke their own There is no reason to deny the Indian child the But when communities fail to achieve separate languages. This situation gives rise to same access to English that children in most contractual reconstitution in the modern what is commonly referred to as the problem countries of the world today enjoy. But in world where it has become the norm, they of ‘national unity’ but is in fact about the India English has remained the property of a become pathologized in governmental integrity of the state. The unity of the class and the envy of the excluded. The social discourse as ethnicities. Language in such a postcolonial state is being misrepresented as a effectivity of English prevents its wider situation remains an ethnic attribute. In recent problem of national unity. It is as if every availability as a useful skill, a situation that years, all Indian ‘vernaculars’ have begun to state, regardless of its history and territorial cannot be changed without reviving the attract this definition because they have ceased and social character, must compulsorily suppressed question of language and to be politically salient. To take Telugu as an proclaim itself a nation. As a direct democracy. example, one sees efforts being made by all consequence of this compulsion, actually or M. Madhava Prasad teaches at EFL University.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-34 understand the extent to which Brahmins went Vemana and Joshua to prevent the entry of Vemana’s verses into the curriculum.

Vemana lived a movement. Narla, who recognized him as a philosopher, stated his opinions clearly as he established Vemana’s character. One who does not try to fight contemporary social ills, one who cannot fight Katti Padma Rao superstition, can never be a great poet. Society naturally rejects those who love to rebel. It creates several hurdles for them. It constrains them all the time. Vemana exposed emana’s language is one of social The Brahmin class which obstructed the the nature of religious and philosophical revolution, it is the agitation of a spread of Vemana oppression in his time. He acted as an philosophical life, the all consuming advocate of justice. V CP Brown of St. George College published flame of a courageous conversation, the fire of […] people’s rage, a reflection of historical reality, Vemana’s poems in 1829. The printing of a great living struggle of humanity. Vemana Vemana’s work which was a trenchant yet Not only do Vemana’s verses dance off the has been and continues to provide language, humorous critique of Brahmins was disliked tongues of intellectuals and ordinary people, inspiration, consciousness, thought, concern, in those days. there is also a depth of meaning in them. He illumination, confrontation, fullness—to The College Board printed 500 copies of this has given all of them an opportunity to render innumerable social revolutionaries. His book. They gave 50 copies to Brown sahib. these meanings at their own level. Vemana language expresses the life world of the Though the remaining copies had to be made us understand that a poet should possess Telugu people. Vemana spontaneous words distributed across the country, it seems as if not only knowledge of example and analogy, mark him out as the First Telugu Poet (adi they didn’t make it out of the godown. These but also analytical and rational thought. He kavi). published pages were crumpled and thrown nourished contemporary nouns, phrases and verbs. This alone is the inspiration for today’s Why would an idol need a colourful garb? into the dustbin. It’s clear whose handiwork it Telugu dictionary. In the economic life of Would a god ask for temples, spires, pots was. Abbe Dubois has commented about the those days, the coins kasu, veesam, dammidi, Food and clothing? classes who did not allow the work of Vemana taaramu, roka were in circulation. He Beloved of the Bounteous, Vema, listen! and others like it to see the light of day. constantly used all these terms. In this poem he has used the (Telugu) words, Dr. Pope who transcribed Dubois’ book […] ‘stone’, ‘toy’, ‘why’, ‘colour’, ‘ful’, ‘garb’, clearly described the latter’s views. He is ‘temples’, ‘spires’, ‘pots’, ‘food’, ‘clothing’, ‘he’, known to have said that Brahmins refused to Joshua who spoke of caste agony ‘ask’, ‘god’, ‘bounteous’, ‘beloved’, ‘listen’, recite Vemana’s poems; not only were they opposed to him, they also expressed that ‘Vema’. The ability to use so many words in When a man is accused on the basis of his opposition openly. such a short poem marks his genius. color, region or language, a poet can express his agony powerfully… Joshua spoke not The essence of the poem is ‘why does an idol Vemana the people’s poet only of caste discrimination but also of caste require colored clothes, temples and spires?’ Vemana’s poetry is extremely popular among agony. ‘Would god ask for food and clothes?’. His the Telugu public, but this fame is limited to idiom combines the power of the word with In Vyasa’s divine discourse the Sudras. Even among these, those who the power of the imagination. A great poet is That gave birth to the four Vedas, revered Hinduism have no doubt looked one who challenges contemporary society. A Can Madigas be found? down upon Vemana. When his poems were poet must without fail have a philosophical Alas, untouchables in included in government school text books, frame of mind. That philosophy must awaken Flesh and blood are primitives it seems! this opposition was stark. Teachers and a man’s mind. A tiny word must be able to From a black heart needles students tried their best to evade the evoke a great meaning. It should roll Pierce their way out, government’s orders. The inclusion of mellifluously on the tongue. We call a poet How do you bear it O my sister? Vemana’s texts was postponed several times with such qualities a great poet. From a under various pretexts. Even after their philosophical perspective, Vemana is a Vemana taught poem the question. Joshua inclusion teachers would not teach specific materialist (lokayat). His poems bear great brought it strength. Although philosophical verses saying that their criticism of Hinduism challenges. He interrogates contemporary interrogation of everyday issues that confront was distasteful. The reasons the Brahmins society. He embodies a beautiful Telugu a people existed before Vemana, it was he gave for their hatred of Vemana’s poetry was dictionary. We learn Telugu alongside his who brought to it the thickness of Telugu his gramya (lower caste linguistic) style and poetry. Through his poems we understand language. Joshua’s asking if Madigas are obscenity (Prajakavi Vemana p 274). We can social change and economic life. present in the discourse of Vyasa who created

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-35 the Vedas, and also asserting a history where After Telugu are treated as part of a single Malas and Madigas are original inhabitants of Hierarchies of tradition, oppressive religious nationality. Though there are castes and the nation, shows us Vemana’s legacy in him. structures, religions in a nation, the language spoken by In his Kaandiseekudu (A Refugee) he asserts High and low Varnas, untouchability its people helps the unification of that that the nation prospers only when caste and Bring forth the world’s millennial flood, community. religious differences vanish. Why grieve? Will you learn to halt Note: 1. Translators: This verse could be read as a Till the world readies itself for a relentless struggle This drivel and drama of deceit? critical rejoinder to the famous poem “Where the Toward the sense of equality, mind is without fear…” from Tagore’s Gitanjali, which had been translated into Telugu by at least Till the divisive disease of extreme untouchability The language of social revolution has not been accorded the importance that has been given four people including GV Chalam. While Tagore’s Disappears in all its forms, poem calls upon the Father to awaken his country to traditional language in Telugu. If we Till the overweening pride in ones community, in the dream land, Joshua’s poem plants any social disseminate the language of social revolution, place and nation transformation squarely in the realm of critical it will lead to the death of caste and religion human action. Is brought to nullity, and the birth of a united Telugu nation. This Till the light of universal brotherhood spreads the was said by the well known writer Bhoopati Excerpted from “Nadustunna Charitra” sense of one community Narayanamurthy in his Telugu jati – Telugu (Contemporary History) February, 2006. To ends of earth, jatiyata (Telugu community – Telugu nationality). Translated by N. Manohar Reddy and R. Srivatsan. Unless uniform access to knowledge, religion and society is made available A language is like the pulse of a nation’s Katti Padma Rao is a poet, activist, and leader of To one and all, existence. Language is the instrument for the Dalit Mahasabha. The well being and supreme happiness of the India- progress of a people, and for the development to-be of their literature, history and culture. Each Cannot come! man who is born has a nationality. There is a language that is spoken by that nation. There And never will cool the hecatombs of war1. is a land for that nation to stir and grow. A The poet says that lack of uniform access to nation without language cannot survive. As knowledge, and social and religious freedom with each nation, the Telugu nation has a to all, is bad for the nation. From this we can language. This is our national language. This understand how much agony the poet language is the reflection of our nation’s experienced as a result of social oppression. literary life. Pundits say that literature is the The language is of social revolution. Joshua’s great Upanishad (secret doctrine) of Man’s formulation that extreme untouchability is a cultural life. In the modern world, the disease is the pulse of a beating heart. Such boundaries between communities and their language should find its way on to the cultures are changing every day. Even so, a student’s tongue – and into people’s speech. language spoken by a community is treated as This will create an atmosphere in which social an emblem that marks the identity of that reform will occur. This will carry forth community. Whichever region or country Vemana’s language of social revolution. they are in, those whose mother tongue is

Shajahana Begum

Selle, although I am poor, I would even borrow to care for a guest as I would my own life. Send Munni over at least this summer vacation. I have no daughter; I will shower her with whatever I have for a few days and send her back…” Then she said, “But then this is my foolish- ness, why would rich kids like yours visit poor homes like ours…never mind, sister I will leave now…I don’t know when I will see you again.” ... Karim bi adjusted the flowers braided in her hair, sneezed, cleaned her nose with the corner of her sari and looked back repeat- edly with reddened eyes— and left.

After graduating, I have until now only visited relatives on my father’s side, none on my mother’s. I had gone long ago but I remember nothing. This summer vacation I have decided that I will visit Karim badi amma’s house one way or another. I have thought of taking my younger brother with me since older girls are not allowed to go alone. I said as much to my mother and her face bloomed like marigold in a backyard garden.

(Translated by Pranoo Deshraju and Navadeep)

From Silsila from ‘watan’ muslim stories, Nasal Kitab ghar, Nalgonda, 2004.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-36 the verb, Manu became the greatest poet/Fear Language Flow in Modern not, O non-scholars of language/Lines that elope kick away the grammatical families you have built/They migrate to waadas without Telugu Dalit Poetry caste boundaries”. The difference between Dalit and caste Hindu language, or the structure of criticism of the Gogu Shyamala Puranic figures and legends, are clearly seen in Sivasagar’s “History as it Moves”. “With a smile on his lips, Shambuka/Kills Rama/ Ekalavya chops off Drona’s thumb with an istorically, dalits have constantly families whose lives simmer in waadas axe/Bali, with his small feet/stamps waged a battle against the false branded by untouchability and oppression, into hell/Manu stabs needles into his eyes/ epics, literary and art forms and and thus questions the ideology of the Cuts off his tongue/Pours lead into his ears/ propagandaH of Manuvaada. In another agrahara in literature from a fundamentally Rolls on the cremation ground. What is direction, dalit literature has continually different perspective. happening now is the great Chandala exposed Brahminism’s vile lust for dalit (subaltern) history”. blood. In addition, this literature has In this broad context, we can now look at the philosophy, use and expression of language in immediately unmasked Manuvaada in various Dalit history and hegemonic history theories and political practices. Dalit the following example. Endluri Sudhakar literature works in society by constantly writes “Poetry is the secret skin of my It we examine the history of language, as part interrogating the dominant ideology with a community’s occupation/I cannot touch only a rewriting the language of power, as part new consciousness, and thus with its own single object/I cannot stitch only one kind of questioning this language, at the same time as renaissance, drives society in more egalitarian shoe/Oh you bat, to your feet and my poetry I part reconstructing dalit history, we see that directions. Finally, Dalit literature stands as fit a new pair”, and brings his poem “New both in the past and in contemporary times, the foremost among equals representing Bat” into a new flow. language plays a major role. Just as “As time bahujan society as an alternate force to flows, new rhythms follow new paths”, In the process of dalit literary formation, it Brahminical Hinduism’s patriarchy and its language took fresh steps. Mothkuri must be said that language plays a key role. literature. Johnson’s play Maatanga Emperor We also see dalit poets use specific names for Veerabaahu, is a living proof of this process. In modern Telugu literature, dalit poets their literary use of language. As part of this, express the daily diversity of ideological, they call it variously “language of mud”, Johnson’s play is set in the context of the linguistic forms from their own world view. “black language”, “crow language”, “earth kingdoms under the rule of the Maatanga That is why, we may observe that if one language”, “language of the tanning tank”, kings, which have been written about in the literary world describes this as native, “language crackling underfoot”, etc. Thus, it Puranas. Samrat Veerabaahu is one such indigenous or bahujan (peoples’) literature, is necessary to do a comparative study Matanga king. Harishchandra (Translator: the the hegemonic literary world calls it between language and literature of aboriginal mythical king who was hailed as the paragon velivaada (outcaste ghetto), marginalized, people, and caste Hindu language. The most of truth) was in debt-bondage to the sage lower caste, under class, or untouchable important thing to mark is that recent research Vishwamitra. In order to free him, literature. has uncovered oral literature as the basis for Veerabaahu pays the necessary money to modern dalit language, literature and Vishwamitra and purchases Harishchandra. In Dalit Literature and Language expression. It is necessary to conduct research the context of this slave purchase, there on the following aspects of dalit literary develops an interesting conversation between Dalit poetry is full of diversity. In studying language. Harishchandra and Veerabaahu and his this poetry it is necessary to focus on courtiers. One of Veerabaahu’s ministers asks language. These poets have given priority to Rejecting Hindu principles Harishchandra: their respective regions, land, water, If we examine dalit literature, we observe that biodiversity and specificity, production, Minister: Wouldn’t it have been possible to all these poets, reject Brahminical cultural natural resources, occupational implements, rule the people as one unit, rather than principles and standards. This is the reason community and family. They have used, and separate them into castes? continue to use language which reflects this why Pydee Teresh Babu, referring to the priority. Dalit poets, in their literary forms, outpouring of Dalit agony in the grip of the Harishchandra: Oh great minister, it is a have included the perspectives of social, Hindu caste system, says, “the alphabet were matter of survival. We may defeat you with economic, cultural identities of their waadas purified as they fell in the fire that burns in plan, plot, timing, strategy, fraud or modern (locality specific to communities such as our stomachs”. “With a leather knife, will I weapons, but we can’t with our power and the Maala, Maadiga, Begari, Baindla, Chindu, write an epic poem on hide”, swore Madduri strength of our people, can we oh my lord? Dakkali, Manyam, Nethakani, Pambala, Nagesh Babu. In his “Panchama Vedam”, What is our strength against your people’s Budugajangalu, Maasti), and family, as themes Satish Chander challenged the Hindu bhasha strength? in the composition of their poetry. We could praveens (advanced scholars of language), say that the specific idiom of these lived “That the four verses shall not mingle was In Vidheeshaka’s retort to this, “As lumps of practices flows into their poetry. Importantly, yesterday’s grammar/Words that touched the clay in heaps of grain!”, we must examine the poet’s world view reflects the idiom of the fifth tongue were never written/Trampling on specially the language of analogy. It implies

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-37 that Vidheeshaka, belonging to the ruling palm’. In another example, a loafer will be Into her bag, as rich lords do elite as a Maatanga, retained touch with the described by the dalit poet, as ‘one who roams Coming only in springtime common language and metaphor of without labour or lyric (pani paata lekunda To gobble up the tenderest shoots agriculture, because he retained contact with tirugevaadu)’ while the Hindu poet will Puffing with arrogance, the discordant shrieks agriculture as an occupation. describe him as ‘one who roams without of the koel’s songs, studies or salutations (chaduvu sandhya Become poems for your pen. Before buying Harishchandra as a slave in lekunda tirugevaadu). Dalit literature is full Looked at as language or as choice of theme, order to free him from bondage, the Maatanga of such differences in language, if we search or as the difference between the crow and the for them. It is also necessary to speak here King Veerabaahu, his queen, courtiers, koel, Johnson gives us an inescapable analysis, about, Johnson’s poem “Crow”. In this poem ministers, poets and the advisor Videeshaka through which the crow that was once an the poet describes and delineates the main put him in the dock with their questions. object of meanness and disgust for many difference between the crow and the koel. Answering these questions, Harischandra, on people now commands increased respect. his own, reveals and describes the many lies What O poet is the koel’s nature? Beyond this, poets in cine and literary fields he had told, and his reasons for telling them, Giving birth to their young, flinging them at differentiated themselves into ‘crow’ poets and in effect confesses to them too. As a result the nursemaid’s face and ‘koel’ poets. This expression of their of this, the poet Mothukuri Johnson retelling Sikhandish women who crawl pubs coolly difference is no small matter. the tale of the Harischandra the True, turns sans motherhood Dalit writers have created a language which history we know upside down, and shows him Throwing into my nest eggs they cannot rejects untouchability and slavery, and are up as Harischandra the Liar. hatch. putting it to use. They are exploring this The warmth within my feathers, language in their writing and speech. They Crow poets and Koel poets Breathing life into new generations on the are using this language specially in all path into light villages including in Telangana, because When we study examples of the contrasts Is this my nature, or the koel’s? exclusion, untouchability, bondage and between poets who write with brahminical atrocities have been perennial in history and ideology, and those who write with a dalit What O poet is nature? continue in new forms today. perspective, the Hindu poet will describe a tall Ignorant of the field Unacquainted with hardship man as a ‘temple pillar’, while the Dalit poet Translated by Gogu Shyamala and R Srivatsan will describe him as a ‘toddy palm’ or a ‘date Collecting the crop grown by ten others How English language becomes as a tool of discrimination in the University

Mirapa Madhavi

In Central Universities like the University of Hyderabad, English as the medium of instruction becomes imperative as there are students from different regions in the country as well as international students. It is the only link language that enables them to connect. Dalit students face several problems due to their inability to speak in English: inability to mingle with other students; to interact with teachers in the class room, take notes or follow the lectures. However when the ability to communicate in English is taken as a measure of the academic ability of the students many Dalit students end up facing serious problems in their career. Their knowledge of the subject in their native tongue or the ability to articulate responses in the same are hardly considered worthwhile. Often lack of English bars them from articulating their positions. This reinforces the general perception that the Dalit students are without merit, ignorant and unfit for the University. That they could not have reached without 'reservations'. 'English complex' in the academia fosters a phobia about university education among Dalit students. Taking this as the excuse, upper caste teachers continue to treat them with prejudice and even insult them. Such attitudes have infected some Dalit faculty also in the recent times. Even though the UGC mandated remedial classes are run for the students from non-English medium backgrounds, there is a mismatch between the expectation of the students and what is being offered. While the students want the 'remedial English' to help them understand the classroom lectures, remedial classes are oriented towards teaching them 'language'. Students say that these two forms of English are quite different. Further the fear of being 'identified' as Dalits in the campus also prevents students from attending them. Dalit students adopt various strategies to learn English: interacting with only such people who speak in English; reading English newspa- pers and news channels; using dictionaries, taking classes from seniors. Some take learning English as a challenge while some see it as a problem. The former seem to fare better compared to the latter. From the Short Term Fellowship report of M Madhavi on problems faced by Dalit students in the University of Hyderabad. Excerpted and translated by A Suneetha. Mirapa Madhavi is PhD Student at UoH.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-38 Mother Tongue in Disguise

Prasen

hich language, which idiom, Five-six-seven letters roll out as speech sounds. whether classical or colloquial, This new dialect WI have now no doubts! the non-letter that mutters meaning, both answer and question. As I stammered with elastic words What language to speak, and stumbled through alien speech, what idiom to write, unpronounceable terms what rhyme to sing, have cauterized my tongue, haven’t they! there’s not an atom of doubt You have re-scripted my words, I remember being taught to pronounce in your language with a ring “My last rites”. tied to a sacred thread “Feed crows – my ancestral spirits” on a bed of rice, haven’t you! clearly, I also remember Letters written in oil convey nothing. mispronouncing, and I don’t know why my outstretched palm the Pedda Bala Siksha Turning into a bloody flower. is not in my language, Wall sits, nor do I know why welts on my back, my mother tongue has the pandit’s barbarous signature on my cheek, become a distant relative. my broken teeth hailing from between my jaws It’s true all these stand out in memory. my speech cannot differentiate I now don’t care for let’ers and forms geminates, dentals and alveolars, My quarrel is with meaning, isn’t it? stress and syllable collapse in our idiom, A barrel full of errors a sentence does not break where it is I muttered supposed to. wrote Wearing its gaps as symbols of wounds. utter’d feeling good… Mine is a mother tongue that does not score marks. (With apologies to the Marathi Dalit Poet, Arun What letter to trace, Kamble) what dialect to learn by heart, what answer to produce, From “Maatru Bhaasha Maaruvesham”, I have no doubt. Chikkanvutunna Paata Kavitvam Prachuranalu, 1995 pp 151-153 This alien tongue of Teluguized Sanskrit, The language of god brought down Translated by Manohar and Srivatsan to earth forced on my childhood. My initiation to letters is a Prasen works as Journalist with TV5 in khammam. descent into meaningless silence. My tongue doesn’t twist it’s true.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-39 and ask, ‘What is that word?’ If she too didn’t Language and Lifeworlds remember, I would ask her mother-in-law.” Shyamala’s concern is reflected in the use of certain words, such as landha in ‘Madiga Badeyya.’ Landha refers to the pit or tank, traditionally used by the Madiga community Deepa Srinivas to make leather. Walled off by rocks, this pit would contain water, lime, tangedu leaves and the leather under process. Shyamala admits that many people, including some from her his article draws on my experience of mainstream children’s stories uncovered its own community, might not be familiar with working with Anveshi for a project ideological assumptions; its ‘innocence’ was the word today. Modern methods of leather- Ttitled Different Tales. Popularly mediated by an upper caste middle class point making have made the landha obsolete. Yet known as the ‘stories project’, it entailed a of view. For example, a typical narrative for for Shyamala, the word resonates with the search for children’s stories from young children might go something like this: occupational and cultural history of her marginalized communities--stories that one ‘Here is Ramu. Ramu is a carpenter. See that community. She recalls how people from all rarely sees in print. It was a long journey for lovely table at the centre of your living room? communities would come and pay their those of us in the project—often filled with Ramu makes tables like those....On most days respects to the landha in a village. The leather doubts and difficult questions, yet greatly Ramu has to work very hard. But he loves his made in the landha would become part of the enriching and opening out ways of engaging craft and always has a smile on his face!” The potter’s or the ironsmith’s tools, indicating the non-mainstream childhoods. The project led to apparent simplicity of language interdependence between productive castes. the collection and publication of a set of 15 oversimplifies Ramu, reducing him to the stories for older children in a series named service he renders for a privileged class of In ‘Head Curry’, a Telugu story written by Different Tales. Written in Telugu and people. Yet another story, drawing from Mohammed Khadeer Babu, a Muslim writer originally, these stories were Hindu mythology, narrates how Shurpanakha, from Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh, the translated across the two languages as well as Ravana’s sister, is smitten by Rama. language foregrounds the connections into English. Lakshmana must cut off her nose and ears in between food culture and community life. order to restrain her and send her back to This story is woven around his childhood The initiative took shape within a larger Lanka. Strangely enough, while children’s memory of the cooking of the ram’s head at critique of dominant representations of literature must ideally be free of violence, his home, considered a delicacy in his region childhood in children’s literature, textbooks, there is no attempt to camouflage the violence and community. It describes a pleasure rarely consumer culture and popular media as a of Lakshmana’s action by moderating the represented in children’s literature which is period of innocence, neatly separated from choice of words –they are direct and brutal. located firmly within the normative adult anxieties and responsibilities. A survey The story is meant to evoke two kinds of vegetarian culture. The descriptions are from of standard reading material produced in emotions in children: awe at Lakshmana’s the child-protagonist’s point of view—from India since independence reveals that masculine prowess and mirth at the demon- the time he procures the coveted ram’s head narratives are routinely built around the woman’s incongruous and illegitimate desire on a Sunday from the butcher Maabbasha to everyday lives, economic resources, familial for the blue-blooded Aryan male—Rama. the time when the intricate dish is cooked to bonds, beliefs, food habits and emotions of perfection and the family hurriedly sits down children from middle class backgrounds. Writers from dalit and other marginalized to an eagerly awaited, mouth watering meal. Children from non-mainstream settings do communities break away from the language Khadeer Babu’s words capture the taste, sometimes appear in these stories but they embedded in dominant children’s literature. textures and pleasures of the dish: ’Sitting must strive to establish their exceptionality in Let me try to elaborate this point by recalling around in a circle, eating the head curry—so order to be accepted. one of my many conversations with Gogu full of fat that it sticks to the hand, the small Shyamala, a well known dalit feminist and black pieces tasting heavenly—mixing it with This article is a brief discussion of the writer. Two of Shyamala’s stories, ‘Tataki’ and hot rice, with brain fry as a side dish...all the relationship between language and life ‘Madiga Badeyya’ have been published in worlds, a question that emerged as central in headache that plagued us till then disappears, Different Tales. For Shyamala, writing in the Different Tales. We found out early enough leaving us with a feeling that the world is a local register of the Madiga community of that the search for different childhoods in blessed place.’ The language is simple yet it Telangana that she belongs to, is also an act of stories also called for the search for a new slips in images and smells and tastes that are retrieval of the history of that community. As register. The conventional language of unfamiliar in children’s stories. Some critics she puts it, “The stories I wrote are about my children’s stories was tied up to the dominant childhood; about the occupations and have found the language of ‘Head Curry’ to be idea of childhood. This meant that the productive labour of my family and too gory for a children’s story. Their sense of language of a story had to be as simple as the community. When I wrote as an adult, I shock is clearly tied to the normative ‘simple’ minds and hearts of children. It had to myself had become distanced from that perception of minority meat eating practices be direct, uncomplicated and transparent. language. Sometimes I would call up my sister as savage and deviant. However, a close look at the language of

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-40 The sanitization of language in children’s on to speak of how Balamma draws on the stories implies a refusal to engage with the wisdom of the women in her community to difficulties of childhood. Different Tales get out of a difficult situation. The story deals grapples with the truth that the lives of with sexual violence but also focuses on the children—especially of those from resilience of the child and her relationship marginalized communities—are not without with the community. violence. Shyamala’s ‘Tataki’ is about eleven- year old Balamma who gets up at the crack of The stories of Different Tales may be enabling dawn so she can channel the freshly released for children from marginalized communities canal water into her family’s tiny plot. But in because they mirror and validate their lives, doing so she inadvertently violates an work, families, relationships and negotiations. incontrovertible rule—the land-owning, Does this mean they have nothing to offer upper caste karnam’s plots must be watered middle class children? I do believe that before anyone else’s. Outraged at this standard children’s literature restricts the transgression, he calls her lanjamunda imagination of middle class children as well. (whore/bitch) and attempts to rape her. The Stories from non-mainstream contexts open story deviates from standard children’s up new perceptions and enjoyments for all reading in two major ways. First, it depicts children, beyond the clichéd models of ‘We sexual violence which is considered a taboo. are all Indian’ or ‘Unity in Diversity.' Second, it uses words of abuse that are This is by no means an exhaustive account of unacceptable in children’s stories. Shyamala the complexity of the language question as it believes that it is important to retain the abuse emerged through Different Tales. I only hope word. Words such as lanjamunda are routinely it signals how the language of stories from used by the upper castes to humiliate dalit marginal cultures is not determined by a pre- women including young dalit girls. existing ideal of childhood, but is shaped by Balamma’s childhood does not mitigate her lives and contexts. For a children’s literature transgression of the caste hierarchy. aspiring to represent plural childhoods, these Shyamala’s language reflects the realities of stories hold rich possibilities. Balamma’s life but the story does not get locked into violence and victimhood. It moves Deepa Srinivas teaches at Centre for Women’s Studies, Hyderabad University.

Namini Subramanyam Naidu

Illamanthu Naidu doesn’t belong to this village. This is Meturu, his mother in-law’s village. His native village is Rangampeta. Where is Meturu and where is Rangampeta? To reach Rangampeta you need to cross Tirupati, then Chandragiri and finally, the Kalyani dam. Rangampeta is an area of extreme drought. The cultivation is tank-based. The soil is sandy. Only if the tank fills up do you get a crop. [...] This land is as barren as a widow. Illamanthu has no land here, not even the measure of a bare loincloth. He has dragged his family so far somehow, eating shit or picking cow dung cakes. Now, the children have grown. The family cannot cope with the increasing cost of food and has collapsed. Illamanthu’s brother-in-law’s village is also Meturu. One day Gurappa Naidu came to Rangampeta and said “This village has done you no good. No matter how you persevere it is like throwing scented water into ashes. It simply flows out instead of remaining within. Come to my village. Whatever you do here, you can do there. We can take care of each other and lead our lives.” Illamanthu did not accept this proposal. He said “In your village, we have no value. Why should we lose the little respect we get at our in- law’s place? We will labour daily there as we do here. Why take this trouble? Even if we need to live on water alone, it is better to live here.” (Translated by Navadeep and Pranoo Deshraju) Namini Subramanyam Naidu is a writer. From ‘Munnikanadi’s Sedhyam’, Navodaya Publications, Vijayawada, 1990.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-41 Brahminical language of the prabandha era literature presents obscenity in the form of The swearword is not the erotica. Prabandha descriptions of nayikas are appallingly obscene. Critics have been very broad-minded in their reading of these works, last word in Dalit poetry while dismissing jaanu-telugu and accha- telugu(people’s Telugu) as lesser languages. Even the metred couplets of the Telangana poet Palkuriki Somanath have only been Jilukara Srinivas considered as inferior literature. Whether a language is respected or humiliated depends on who speaks it and the grammar that guides it. Literature was evaluated not only on the an profanity be poetry? True, all Whites have committed several atrocities on basis of the language, but also on the subject critics agree that only impassioned the Blacks. They have erased all Black culture. of the text, and the caste class status of the poetry has the power to move the Language is the symbol for culture and hero-heroine. The respect a written work Creader. There are many instances where the civilization. Franz Fanon has famously received was based on the caste of the author. use of intemperate language has been justified argued that by forcefully classifying Blacks as The world of Telugu literature was directed as righteous anger. What is righteous anger? ‘uncivilised’, White culture ensured that Black and ordered by the aesthetics of Manu. These Which caste can rightfully express it? When Sri language would always be different. The dictatorial principles of literature were Sri wrote ‘donga-lanja-kodukulu-asale-mesile difference was marked by the humility, fear, challenged by Dalit politics, and a new (sons of whores) they said it was righteous hesitation, lowered-tone and stammer of the aesthetics were presented through its poetry. anger. When a Dalit poet wrote those same Black voice. Black language spoken amongst Dalit politics has thrust the Brahminical words, they challenged it asking, “How can fellow Blacks takes on a different tone and language of literature aside and brought to you use such language and call it poetry?” content, drawing heavily on the ‘swear words’ light its own similes, metaphors and of their cultural background. These ‘swear There are many ways of expressing anger. symbolisms. words’ are omnipresent in Black poetry. You Anger can be expressed through violence, it never see a Black character in a Hollywood The beginnings of Dalit poetry focussed on can also be embodied in a swear word. Why film who doesn’t cuss or swear. White heroes attacking the enemy, targeting the upper caste does one feel anger? A person feels anger on the other hand speak sophisticated, reader. The Dalit poet had decided that there when she realises she has suffered injustice. ‘conceptual’, language. In most films, it is could be no camaraderie with the (upper caste) On the other hand, she can be unaware of common for Black voices to be loud and White reader. It is an absolute wrong to want to injustice and still be angry. The intensity of voices mellow. We see the same write poetry in the language of the respectable the anger depends on the context and moment representation of upper castes and depressed – in the language of your pindakudu in which the realisation occurs – the communities in literature here. Brahminism – after knowing that the upper realisation of an injustice against one or one’s castes murdered Kanchikacharla Kotesh, that society. The poet searches for words and Dalit politics has rejected classical literary they tortured and paraded Mahadevamma signification that capture the intensity of such principles and poetic devices. This Dalit naked for the sake of 5 rupees, when they anger, but words that can convey these movement cannot be contained within the butchered Dalits like sacrificial animals in emotions with sophistication are hard to find. classical aesthetic framework. Dalit poetry Karamchedu and Tsunduru. Upper caste The poet then draws on her cultural cannot use the poetics of Manu to achieve their society has enjoyed filling Dalit lives with background and chooses ‘swear words’ to goal. Brahminical language can never violence and verbal abuse. When the abuse aptly express her anger. represent Dalit life. If life experiences define was forcefully shot back at them, they were language, Dalit experience alone can define Ferdinand de Saussure said that ‘signs’ are stunned and launched a counter attack – Dalit language. This is why Dalits have drawn cultural constructs. Hegemonic culture has “profanity is not poetry”. They claimed that on their own tone and tenor. The limits imposed several ‘signs’ on Dalits, placing the the Dalit poet’s only goal is to abuse upper imposed by classical literary standards have Dalit body at the centre of these constructs. caste society. No Dalit poet has claimed that been abandoned by Dalit poetics, which Swear words are also cultural constructs, and society can change only through abuse. Dalit desires freedom and self-determination. are often anchored on the human body, poetry has moved beyond its early content, Critics have been unable to understand this particularly the female body. Classical poetry and has acquired a mature perspective. It has shift. Can the language of poetry use ‘swear comprises of descriptions of the female body. presented the world of Telugu literature with words’? Dalit poets have skilfully Descriptions of sexual bodies in Dalit poetry new values. Dalit poetry has broken the foregrounded the dilemma of whether are considered vulgar, profane. The written shackles of classical aesthetics, foregrounded profanity can be instrumental in impacting the language of the ‘cultured’ is the only several ideological issues and created a new reader’s understanding, and bringing about acceptable language for poetry. It is the craft of poetry. The refusal of Manuvadi critics social change. unwritten edict that the language of poetry to engage with the hidden implications of this must be the language of the upper castes. What is the language of poetry? In the middle- new craft, or the aesthetic contributions of Many Dalit poets have demonstrated the ages Sanskrit became the language of poetry, Dalit poetry, amounts to a blatant conspiracy. unparalleled beauty of the Dalit language. and the official language of the Brahmin This Manuvadi perspective cannot contribute The ‘Nishani’ poets, Madduri Nagesh Babu, community. It was also the device of to literary democracy. Paidi Teresh Babu, and Khaja have fittingly ‘cultured’ people, used solely by Brahmin Translated by Diia Rajan responded to upper caste critiques of Dalit priests. What came to be identified as Telugu Jilukara Srinivas is an activist and thinker of dalit poetry. Telangana Madiga writer Vemula was a Sanskritized language created by the bahujan issues. Yellaiah, who has used ‘swear words’ in Brahmins. The Brahminical idiom has creative ways in his novels ‘Kakka’ and dominated language from the time of the Diia Rajan is interested in community, culture and ‘Siddhi’, is continuing the same tradition. Mahabharatam to the present. The language.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-42 man who took the feminine position in sex Melissa Mohr (regardless of whether the partner was a man, a boy or a woman) – e.g., used his mouth to Holy Shit: A Brief provide sexual favours, was cursed with a language of special venom. History of Swearing In the Middle ages (very approximately 2nd Century AD to 1300 AD), use of god’s name, speaking of heaven out of place, calling to Book Review Christ in trivial speech were all sins which carried serious punishment. These were because taking god’s name was a sacred act and using it without that sacredness at heart was a supreme offence. Later on in the Middle R Srivatsan Ages, it was a sin to speak of (God)’s blood (related to the current word ‘bloody’), or (God)’s wounds (later secularized in the English speaking West to ‘zounds’). These forms of swearing were related to the spread ulale, may you enjoy good health with how disease can result in the propensity to be of Christianity. your wife Vera, and good fucking.” abusive: e.g., Tourette’s syndrome where people with a specific disorder tend to be In describing the situation after the Middle E(Graffito found on a Roman wall around the Ages, Mohr generally agrees with the obscene in their speech or gestures. first century Christian Era. Varone, A 2002. historical sociologist Norbert Elias’ thesis on Erotica Pompeiana. Rome: di Linguistically, Mohr argues that swear words the emergence of the concept of civility. In Bretschneider ) tend to hijack meaning – moving away from other words, the birth of a recognizably the exact meaning (denotation) to its modern society gives rise to a set of cultural Holy Shit is a fun filled, erudite and connotation. “This tastes fucking good!” has restraints on what a person may or may not perceptive history of swearing in the West nothing to do with intercourse – it has to do do in public view – and in parallel what a from Roman times to the twenty first century. with how good something tastes (There is no person may or may not say in respectable Given the vast time period covered, it may be specific equivalent of this structure of company. Over the centuries, this becomes expected that the book will be somewhat obscenity in Indian languages). In other something that is codified by the excesses of superficial in its treatment of different aspects words, swearing is a non literal use of a word Victorian morality so that by the nineteenth, of the subject, but it is surprisingly deep in that has a specific undesirable, yet very it becomes unacceptable to even say the word some of its observations. powerful meaning. And yet, what is a ‘legs’ or ‘trousers’ in public. However, ‘powerful meaning’? colourfully obscene language flourishes Mohr’s work brings out the relationship alongside as a cottage industry, as witnessed between the sacred (the holy) and the profane Historically Mohr suggests that swear words by much literature in the nineteenth century. (shit) in the use of English language in derive their extreme power from the opposite Western history. The holy element of of connotation – they are directly and This period and the early twentieth century swearing comes from the sin of using god’s evocatively connected to what they refer to, are also obsessed with the appearance of name in vain – a peculiarly Christian idea: far more than any other words are. Hence the slang, obscenity and vulgarity in literature – e.g., “Good God”, “Jesus H Christ”, etc. exclamation “Shit!” (here too there isn’t an as evidenced by the legal proceedings against Perhaps this is enough to tell us that swearing equivalent in Indian languages) is powerful DH Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover and doesn’t have the same history in India, since because however connotatively it is used, it James Joyce’s Ulysses. we don’t have the holy in it at all. Somehow, remains attached almost physically to what it “He Bhagwan” or “Devuda” or “Kadavale” describes – here, the smelly, repulsive mass of On the whole, evidence does not permit Mohr don’t work in the same way. The profane visceral expulsion. to follow the linear path of historical progress element is there in common between the West and say that swearing is a thing of the past, and in Indian languages– ‘motherfucker’ Swearing, Mohr argues has a very different and that in a civilized world, there is no need almost equated by ‘maderchod’ in Hindi; plus flavour in different periods. For example, in for swearing! On the contrary, abusive, sundry other everyday usages. the Roman Empire two thousand years ago, powerful language is alive and well, swearing was directed at men, describing expressing the inexpressible and shocking the What are the different theories of swearing? them as individuals who had sex in a civil norms of speech and writing today. Mohr outlines the physiological, the linguistic particular way. Sometimes it was in praise, and the historical. Physiologically, she argues For example, when Caesar returned from a Reading Mohr’s book, I was struck by the that swear words actually have a different conquest in 46 BC, he was among other things absence of a concept that would have action on our brain and body which can be called a ‘pedicator’ (butt-fucker) to both explanatory value for many of the effects of objectively measured. On the other hand, she protect him against envy and also show his swearing she describes – shock that seems to describes physiological research that explains virile prowess in war. On the other hand, a be an invariable effect of hearing obscene

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-43 language, discomfort in hearing swear words, bodily response (skin transconductance changes) when swear words are heard. While she uses the term connotation to describe the excessive Abuse in Gurujada’s effects of the swear word, the concept of connotation remains in the realm of meaning and significance. The effects she describes are bodily, physically experienced, effects –Gilles Deleuze called Kanyasulkam: such words ‘order words’, i.e., those words that affect physically rather than communicate meaning. The absence of this concept is Page 27 - The jealous fucker must have told somewhat striking in an otherwise sophisticated study. Page 28 - Our people are just good for nothing.

Another important issue is the context the swear word is used in Page 30 - If he doesn’t give it by the next morning, the mala’s son is and why: in other words, the act being performed in the use of the a dead bastard! word. What is the difference between swearing in one’s active Page 30 - I am at my wit’s end trying to get rid of this demon! speech and reporting its use in speech or writing? How does one Page 32 - This Girisham is a cunning scoundrel. think about the literary reproduction of obscene language – either in a novel or in a theoretical exposition like Mohr’s? In absence of - Brother, the son of a bitch has come at an inappropriate this theoretical anchor, Mohr is unable to differentiate between time! swearing in everyday language and swearing as it appears in - She has devised a strategy so he can’t sleep with her. literature. Page 33 - Oh my God! Maybe this bitch would expose me. Third, I was struck by the fact that Mohr has not dealt with the - For the first time. I am hearing of a widow’s fidelity. problem of intersecting domains in which verbal obscenity is - With you here, how can she be a widow? interpreted – in the domain of gender and that of race or class. While her analysis is able to handle the social class and race Page 34 - Don’t take her in! That howling mad widow bites men domains with some sophistication, she has very little to say - Thieving whore! She has hidden her lover under the bed (except that it makes her more or less uncomfortable) about how abusive language affects (both in meaning, and in its power - If you had asked me, I would’ve given 20 such whores in effects) a gendered response. Put differently is there a response to marriage to you swearing that differentiates men and women as targets, - Brother, never believe this whore respondents and speakers in a given culture and at a specific point Page 35 - I have no husband dead or alive! What have I got to earn by in history? In making this differentiation it is not necessary to hiding? propose that women are universally victimized by swear words and other forms of obscenity, only that there are likely to be - Hey you aggressive bitch! Why are you hitting me? specific historical differences in the reception and expression of - That fool is also under the bed obscenity that need to be taken into consideration in a theoretical discourse1. - Your slut, I will see how she stops me! - Why won’t this bitch come out from under the bed? Finally, I began to think about how we would study the history of abuse in India – what is the equivalent of racial abuse? For Page 38 - Every asshole says I have sold my daughter. example ‘nigger’ is a classically troublesome example dealt with Page 40 - You want me to discuss with bloody women! in detail by Mohr. What are the parallels in India? Would it be the use of a caste name as an abuse? E.g., what is intended when a Page 41 - Just a foolish motherfucker. member of the dominant elite abuses someone by the term Page 42 - This son of a bitch has kissed her I believe. ‘Madiga’? How are verbal caste slurs related to caste-based abuse in general? Further, what is the relationship that emerges Page 43 - These days who needs to study Sanskrit. Only the between caste-based abuse and the new notion of a verbal atrocity wretched will learn it. which is punishable under the SC/ST Atrocities Act? How does Page 44 - Brahminism has gone to the dogs thanks to this damned one then think of obscene language that is used by the productive English curriculum. castes? Is this a ‘vulgar’ way to repudiate the superior claims of upper caste society and standard language with the proliferation Page 45 - The rascal is mute. of terms like ‘dengu’, ‘modda’ etc.? How indeed is the language - I delivered a two hour lecture on National Congress to the used to describe sexual elements (‘mithun’, ‘yoni’, ‘lingam’) in bullock cart driver. Then, the asshole asked me when sacred Hindu texts constructed as ‘polite’ and acceptable? What are Congress would transfer the village constable! the intersectional effects of these language practices on women? - I am happy that the scoundrel Kartaka Shastrulu has left ...

Note: 1. In keeping to these limits I am skirting the debate between - That shameless bitch is ranting! Here I am discussing the Judith Butler and Catharine Mackinnon on the illocutionary effects of matter with important people and she has to cut in with her pornography. See the section titled ‘Anti-pornography paradigm’ in nonsense. Why did you call me! Judith Butler, 1994. “Against Proper Objects. Introduction” in (Selected by T Srilakshmi, Translated by Navadeep, Pranoo Deshraju Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 6.2+3 (1994); 1-26. and A Suneetha) T Srilakshmi is office manager of Anveshi. Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition, 2013.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-44 gramya language in literary works and, Assault of the Grantha worse, prescribing such texts as study material for school children would be a disaster” Gaze on Dalit Bahujan (Andhra Sahitya Parishadvruttantamu, p.5). In addition to grammar books, pundits used dictionaries to define the term gramyam in Gramya Language demeaning ways and thereby contain it. For instance, Sankaranarayana’s Telugu-English dictionary defined gramyam as ‘pertaining to the lower nature in man.’ G.N. Reddy went two steps further and described it as a language of ‘asleelamu’ (obscene), N Manohar Reddy ‘asabhyamagu mata’ (vulgar speech), ‘telivilenidi’ (nonsense) and ‘nagarikata lenidi’ (uncultured), (www.andhrabharati.com). Bahujanapalli Sitaramaiah did not even find it worthy of mentioning it in his Andhra Sabda hen dalit literature emerged with accept gramyam, and described it as the Manjari. full force in the 1980s and 90s, language of abuse, or the language used to Wmany upper caste intellectuals, abuse others (Andhra Bhasha Bhushanamu, While, prior to 19th century, gramyam was starting from orthodox brahmin pundits to p.8). Appakavi, who stated that only brahmins defined as the language of ‘pamarulu’ revolutionaries, attacked it for its “obscene” were qualified to write poetry and is known (illiterate people) or ‘grama janulu’ (village use of language. Jilukara Srinivas’ article in for his high brahminical conservatism, ruled folk), interestingly, in the modern period, this broadsheet discusses that controversy. that words such as Vastandi, Testandi, specific caste names came to be associated However, contempt and disgust for the Chustandi, Istandi, which were with the term. Jayanthi Ramayya Pantulu, language of dalits is not new. When Gidugu understandably spoken by the subaltern who led the pundit group against Gidugu’s Ramamurthy led the Vyavaharikodyamam classes, were apabhramasas (abnormal) and Spoken Telugu movement, stated that (Spoken Telugu movement) in the early were morphologically defective. He further “brahmins and other educated people’s twentieth century, upper caste pundits stated that such words were not only spoken language is different from the spoken protested against it as they believed that unsuitable for literary production, but any language of uneducated masses.’ He further gramyam—the language of malas, madigas, Kavyas which employed those words would added, “while classical Telugu is like a stream shepherds, dhobhis, barbers and so on—was be treated as uncivilized/uncultured of filtered water, gramyam is like the polluted trying to infiltrate education and literature in (Appakaviyam, p.41). Both Ketana and water collected due to repeated rainfall,” and the name of vyavaharikam. Also, serious Appakavi belonged to the premodern period “while the classical language is disciplined criticism was leveled against the Telugu and we do not know if they were contested on and flows steadily between the two ridges, spoken in the Telangana region, which was this issue. However, what we do know is that gramyam moves crazily and loses its way,” denounced as Taurakyandhramu or Turaka writers such as Palkuriki Somanadhudu, and if literature is produced in the latter, Telugu Bhasha. Vemana, Potuluri Veerabrahmam, Molla and “language loses its hygiene, sounds get others broke the rules set by the orthodox corrupt and thus such literary works should Treating the language of dalit bahujans with brahmin pundits. not be used in schools (Adhunikandhra contempt seems to have existed almost a Vangmaya Vikasa Vaikhari, pp.169-199). thousand years ago during Nannaya’s time. One would be surprised to know that the rules Similarly, Vedam Venkataraya Sastri argued Nannaya, who translated Mahabharat into set by Nannaya and others were endorsed by that producing literary works in the language Telugu and known as adikavi or the first poet Chinnaya Suri and Kandukuri Veeresalingam, of saakalollu (washer folk) and mangalollu (of Telugu literature), in his poetical treatise of who included them in their grammar books (barbers) would be like driving away the grammar wrote that words such as Vastadu, written for school children in the Madras sacred cow and fetching a drove of donkeys in Testadu, Potadu—the language of the Presidency in the 19th and 20th centuries. its place. illiterate—were ungrammatical and thus Chinnaya Suri was the foremost pundit of his unsuitable for literary creation (Andhra Sabda time, and Kandukuri is considered the father There were strong reasons why brahmin Chintamani, p. 20). In the successive centuries, of Telugu prose. As late as in the early pundits prohibited/banished the language of writer after writer such as Appakavi, Ketana, twentieth century, gramyam was banished dalit bahujans in education and literature. We Chinnaya Suri and many more well known from classrooms and the literary domain. One know that brahmins had a monopoly over upper caste scholars, grammarians and writers of the leading members of the influential these two fields. Thus the fear of losing their endorsed Nannaya’s position on language. Andhra Sahitya Parishat, Jayanthi Ramayya privileged institutional positions seems to one Ketana declared that Telugu people would not Pantulu, went so far as to state that “including

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-45 of the reasons for their opposition to the Hindu religion. However, we know that shepherds and other illiterate people… gramyam, because gramyam would facilitate Gidugu and Gurajada were secularists. They Sarvesa Ramesam garu, Andhra University the entry of people of other castes into these dreamt of a modern society where all class College president Vissa Apparao garu, the arenas. One of the pundits called Suri Sastri and caste differences would disappear. They well known pundit and poet, Challapilla vehemently opposed Gidugu’s Spoken Telugu wanted pundits and common people to live Venkata Sastri garu, Prabhakara Sastri movement and argued that “empowering together. They believed in equality. They garu, garu, and gramyam would mean unseating the pundits aimed at raising the status of the oppressed by many other elders have delivered radio from their jobs, and besthalu (fishermen), imparting knowledge and using simple speeches. All of them are sishtas. Their eedigalu (toddy tappers), drunkards, yaanadis language to achieve that goal. Their integrity language is sishta jana vyavaharika bhasha” (“Tudi Vinnapamu” in Pratibha, pp. 206-207). (ST), sabarulu (ST) are conspiring to occupy cannot be questioned in this matter. However, when it came to the question of the language these positions (Gramyagramya Vivada of modern Telugu literature and education, or In Telanagana, most people remember Peetika, 1913). the standard language, they proposed sishta Suravaram Pratapa Reddy as the father of Telangana language. However, Suravaram The fear that Christianity would annihilate vyavaharikam (the spoken language of the remarked that “There are boyilu (people Hinduism seems to be another important upper castes) as the most appropriate. They belonging to boya community, a scheduled reason for the pundits’ vehement opposition argued that the pundits mistook their tribe) in . Their language to gramyam. It should be noted that in the proposal for sishta vyavaharikam for gramyam and tried to persuade the pundits is the worst. It is incapable of producing the nineteenth century various Christian that sishta vyavaharikam and gramyam were ‘va’ sound. They say ‘ankaya,’ ‘anta,’ missionaries established schools in the Madras different things. For instance, Gurajada argued ‘acchinanu’.” Similarly, Suravaram was presidency, and one of the significant efforts that it was improper on the part of pundits to ashamed that the language of the Telangana was the establishment of panchama schools say that the language spoken by the shistas people was badly corrupted by Kannada, for the untouchables. One of the main day and night was gramyam. “Thus hereafter Marathi and Urdu. He believed that the problems that the missionaries faced was the it would be proper for the pundits not to language of , which has northern sanskritized Telugu used in the text books, consider the polite/cultured language of the Circars (Andhra) as its border, was a little which the missionaries felt was the main brahmins as gramyam.” Thus he was better (Golkonda Patrika Sampadakiyalu, impediment in imparting education to the disheartened when pundits abused sishta Vol.2. 1936-1945. pp. 178-180). children coming from the untouchable castes. vyavaharikam as gramyam, or ‘the language Thus the missionaries established vernacular It was perhaps to protest against the upper of the children of whores’ (Gurajadalu, pp.555- caste attitude towards the language of dalits, societies and printing presses and brought out 562). books in the language spoken by the students that Gurram Joshua, the famous first at home. Similar efforts were made in case of Similarly, Gidugu Ramamurthy argued that, generation dalit poet, wrote an article titled Bible translation. Thus conversion was very “spoken Telugu means…the language spoken “Tirlika” in the journal Bharati in its August 1936 issue. In a debate that had happened much in the pundits’ mind when they opposed in everyday life and used in the written earlier in Bharati, Sripada Lakshmipada Sastri gramyam. Vedam Venkataraya Sastri wrote communication such as letters by the cultured had argued that the word “tillika” was not a “many people were under the illusion that Telugu people (vaishyas, telagas, blacksmiths, pure Telugu word but it was a corrupt form of Spoken Telugu movement was an attack only kapus, kshatriyas, brahmins and others)…this the Tamil word ‘Tirvalishu.” However, Joshua on language. It is not true. This is an attack on is pure Telugu. Why isn’t this a good protested and argued that the word “Tillika” Hindu religion. It is a movement that is aimed language? Is it the language of malas and was known even to the children of his region. at destroying our religion completely by madigas to be called gramyam? (Telugu Not only this word, but many other words destroying the languages of our country just Translation of the Savara Reader. Part 1 (P.iii).” In the same vein, in his last speech which could not be found in dictionaries and the robbers take off brick by brick and make a given in the office of the journal Prajamitra, unknown to pundits, were in use, he wrote. hole in the wall of the house and rob the run by Gudavalli Ramabrahmam, on 15-01- He made it clear that just because some words entire wealth.” He further argued that if 1940, Gidugu made the following plea: “Our were unknown to great pundits, they would gramyam developed, it would dethrone elders still hang on to the misconception that not die. He further argued that “only those grandhikam (classical Telugu), which will vyavaharikam is gramyam…I would like to who personally observed the life and the result in a situation where no one would have once again insist that they must not do that. cultural practices of people in villages could the skills to understand puranas. Not just that. Estheticians of Sanskrit literature consider the understand the usage of Telugu language in The missionaries are forcing students to read language of shepherds and other such different parts of Andhra country. But, how Bible by force (Gramyadesa Nirasanamu, pp. illiterate people as gramyam. Judged by can the pundits, who don’t even know the 43-45). whatever parameters, vyavaharika bhasha difference between malas and madigas, cannot be labeled as gramyam because the understand?” (Bharati, August, 1936). Thus it is clear that the people I have language I have been campaigning for the last mentioned until this point, who were opposed three decades is the language of sishtajana to gramyam were orthodox brahmins. They vyavaharika bhasha and not the language of were determined to save the caste system and

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-46 Kamalamma’s suffering and maternal grief as she became pregnant and bore children while Language of Silence: underground. “I was pregnant, but I traveled with them. It was time for the child to be born—we had no protection there. No hope Interview with K Lalita of getting a midwife. The Party leaders threatened me, ‘you have to decide to give him away or live somewhere else with him… If you return your body will be slashed with Gogu Shyamala and A Suneetha knives and they will stuff chilli powder in the cuts. You will be raped and killed. It is your decision – think about it.’” When she asked that her husband be called and the baby shown to him, she was told “This is not the as there a discussion about Column), “We read women’s words as they correct proletarian consciousness, my dear”. Telangana idiom when the book are. We powerfully experience their thoughts, Kamalamma says, “My head spun. Did I was first released? their mode of thinking, their method of deserve to be told all this? I didn’t come into W understanding and articulating issues, their The book was published in 1985. It must be the struggle to make a living. My body wasn’t identity that is reflected in that method. said that all the criticism was about the in my control. My mind wasn’t in my control. limitations in perspectives and understanding It becomes clear when we examine these And my tears flowed in an unending stream.” of the editors. The debate centered largely on comments that there was no context or (p 265-266 – translation modified). the limitations of understanding oral history environment for a discussion of the issues of If we have to say how understand the role of women as ‘history’, about the problems language that were raised in the book. language played in their voice, we need to faced in making them worthy of publication, You have launched a radical critique of left look at Priyamvada’s comment: “After the and about the overall failure of Stree Shakti movements on the basis of women’s experiences in parliamentary elections and the Police Action, Sanghatana’s effort. We may examine typical the book. How far did the voice of the women you our dreams were smashed. Crushed like an criticisms that came up in the dailies and a few interviewed contribute to that critique, and what egg. What a blow it was. After the elections, monthlies like Arunatara. was the role played by language in that voice? do you know where we were? Like the Balagopal dismissed the effort in Arunatara as proverbial rug… lying exactly where it was Many of us came from the background of left follows: “I don’t think that many people will thrown.” (p 272-273). Let us look at how movements. We had extensive discussions on understand all these interviews. This is not a Kondapalli Koteshwaramma described the women in revolutionary movements; on the problem of language (Telangana language or difficulties of understanding politics, “It role of women in history from Paris women’s language). If spoken words are seemed as if Avakaya (a hot mustardy mango Commune to the Russian and Chinese transcribed as they are, even those spoken by pickle) was given to a child first being Revolutions, and on the feminist movements a person versed in writing will not be introduced to solid food. They would in the West. We had a context where understood—even less would the speech of expound arcane political concepts. They were innumerable women took upon themselves a people like Palakurti Ailamma, and Dudala like iron pellets – indigestible”. variety of responsibilities and duties in the Salamma”. He thought that there was no historic Telangana Armed Struggle. Our main You have reproduced the language of someone like question of readers understanding the oral objective was to write, with the help of our Ailamma directly. However, there are many histories which are there in the book. He acquaintances who saw the Armed Struggle at differences between her social context and yours considered some of the linguistic issues as first hand, ‘our women’s history’ which was (caste, class and education). Not only this, technical ones, “the editors baulked at not recognized in any recorded history intellectually it seems as if you have applied submitting the women’s spoken word to the hitherto. It was not our primary objective to Western feminism which has nothing to do with the sentence structure of masculine written prose launch a radical critique of the left movement. realities of Indian society. How did you resolve these and left it as it is. Because of this, a situation Some of these things become clear when we various differences? What kinds of discussion took arose in which even those who are familiar examine a few of the oral histories of women place in your group regarding these issues? with Telangana language and the idiom of and their voices. We need to examine what women, could not understand the interviews.” There are many parts to this question. If this Dudala Salamma had to say about the question is to be answered, in is important to There was some definite praise for the book knowledge, strengths and capabilities that she understand the reasons behind this initiative. and its language use—this was not absent. acquired from the struggle, “I wonder how To explore our history as a feminist group was Vakati Panduranga Rao (Newstime, 11 wisdom came to me from all this…. You are the first one. To work with women who had January, 1987) while discussing Palakurti lettered. I have lived tending to buffaloes. participated in the Telangana armed struggle Ailamma’s life story had this to say, “There is All these details are at the tip of my was the second. After the sexual assault on the smell of fresh earth in the language of this tongue“(We Were Making History, p 261). At Rameeza Bee, we had an opportunity to work book… it is the living everyday language of the same time, it is important to mention with some of them (women of the armed people, a language that is not handcuffed to Priyamvada’s criticism of the party, “They struggle) and the idea of understand their past grammar, a language that is free of (women) felt that if they came to the Party experiences arose in that context. If in our unnecessary ornament; this language fresh where men and women worked together group some of us came from families which from green fields intoxicates”. However, freely, their lives would change for the better. took part in movements, others had studied what we see here is his romanticism. Chekuri They could not say all this very clearly, but struggles of women in other countries. For Rama Rao commented thus about the they felt that they could experience another example, the book Sandino’s Daughters, about language, “Bringing out the role of women, life, live as they chose to. But the party could the women in the Nicaraguan Revolution who hold up half the horizon of our desires, in not support them as it did not have a clear came out in 1981. At about the same time in their own words is a priceless gift to language idea of how to tackle the problem of women 1983, the Hyderabad Book Trust brought the researchers”. He didn’t say anything more. who left their husbands and came away. They life story of a Latin American woman, were also not sure whether it was the correct Volga’s comment was close to our Domitila Barrios de Chungara, called Maa thing to take such women away from their understanding (Eenadu, “Silent Music” Katha (Let Me Speak). It is a story of Bolivian husbands” (ibid. p 263). We must see

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-47 women in struggle. We read the English of the Guntur-Krishna districts—how was this Mallepalli Lakshmayya wrote about the oral version in the group. We read many books on principle arrived at? narratives based on everyday lives of women’s history in that context. We ordinary people in a column titled “A hand As mentioned in our foreword, public understood that across the world there were writing for the spoken word”. However, histories are written in a standard language new attempts to reproduce women’s life while these came on the edit or literary pages, and idiom that has universal consent. It is a stories as they were told. This understanding there was and is no instance of an entire rule bound authoritative language and inspired us to undertake this project. We got newspaper being written in Telangana idiom sentence structure. We faced so many the idea to record women’s stories in their then or now. Even in a daily like Namaste obstacles in writing about women whose lives own language and idiom. Different voices Telangana, the Telangana idiom is used in and experiences were hidden behind the may be heard to echo in this book on oral some columns only. The reason for this may borders of mainstream history and written history. In these echoes, you can hear middle be that the language must be accessible to language. We had heated discussions even class women, rural women, literate and everybody. within our group. When we wanted to illiterate women, women who spoke in the understand oppression under feudal We need not even discuss textbooks. There is Telangana idiom, women who spoke a pure landlordism, we heard instead of man-woman no question of their being in Telangana idiom. Brahminical language. Our attempt in this relationships, lives of women underground, It is not that there were no books written in book is to present before the reader these all their responsibilities and their mental agony. this idiom. Vattikota Alwarswamy’s writings of women’s emotions, language, passion, It was a problem to transcribe the tapes came out in the 1940s followed by writings of suffering and political knowledge! exactly. While there were two or three people Dasarathi Rangacharya and Kaloji. Yashoda As far as I remember we didn’t give place to who knew Telangana Telugu, those who had Reddy and Mudigonda Sujata Reddy were considerations such as which is a great the patience to write were scarce indeed. Uma women writers from that period. After the language, which a common language, which Maheshwari worked hard to reproduce 1980s, Kalava Mallayya and Allam Rajayya should be corrected and which should be Telangana Telugu precisely in writing. We were important writers of short stories and omitted. Our first interview was with faced the danger of relapsing into standard novels in Telangana idiom. Readers would be Ailamma. We met her in her house in language time and again. familiar with the wonderful shorts stories and Palakurti village and spoke to her. As we novellas of Gogu Shyamala, Joopaka It must be said that we did not represent recorded her words we felt the weave of her Subhadra, Jajula Gowri and Jwalita. It is my women’s life stories in this book. We wanted poetry and the melody of her speech. opinion that despite all this writing, it is only to make heard women’s experiences in their However to write it was a herculean effort. in the context of the success of the Telangana voice. The main issue was not their answers Stubbornly putting down on paper her exact movement that such literary works were to our questions. The important thing was that words as she spoke them through repeated owned and taken to new heights. These works they spoke; we listened and wrote down hearing, repeated editing—that was our assumed importance in the effort of the new exactly what we heard. This was not as easy as objective. Telangana movement to counter the we thought it would be. As difficult as it was humiliation and insult suffered by the Our primary aim was to present their voices to say things that remained unarticulated in Telangana region in relation to language. to the readers. We only gave second place to any language, and to present the depths of the Telangana language and the politics those women’s experiences which had not We may say that We Were Making History is one of behind it. Even though we recognized the been plumbed by anybody until then, it was the important books that articulated the Telangana issue, it did not assume priority. For example, equally difficult to find a language suited to idiom. How would you look at the importance of the it is possible to look at what we have said that task. It was not only a matter of finding a book in the context of the recent Telangana about Telangana language at the end of the language but of stretching it to its limits. This movement? book: “At one time, it was difficult even to is the ‘language of silence’ mentioned by oral This question deals only with language. The write in Telangana language. However, it too historians. However, it is necessary to cite the answer to this question is evident in all the gradually acquired status as a regional comment of an intellectual who did not issues discussed so far. Language is one of the language. We want to bring the language understand this, “These oral histories many issues raised by We Were Making spoken by one subsection of this region to demonstrate the wrong understanding of Stree History. We can see written language, spoken light—women’s language and issues.” (p Shakti Sanghatana about women’s movements language, language of literates, language of 284—translation modified). and women’s history. The end result of the illiterates, women’s language, caste based book—We Were Making History—is their To say that we drew on “Feminism” language, hegemonic Telugu language unscientific perspective which names some intellectually implies that we were influenced (Krishna-Guntur) in this book. This book has words as ‘language of silence’ and reads non- by the West, which is incorrect. What foregrounded many issues related to existent meanings into them, without influenced our group in this effort were the language. Not only this, it is possible to see comprehending the real truth” (Sudhir, two books on Latin American women’s many issues raised by this book as relevant to Prajashakti 14th December 1986). struggles alone. However, the medium in the character of the new Telangana state. which these books became accessible to us was In hindsight, could you say some more about the Among these, issues related to women, the English language. When looked at thus, differences between Ailamma’s language and the especially to women who played various roles the bridge between two underdeveloped language of the public discourse of those times— in different movements are important. We nations is English. intellectual, journalistic, and in books? need not reiterate the fact that thousands of women played major roles in several Whether it was an unfamiliar idiom or an odd We Were Making History was printed in articulations of the Telangana movement over pronunciation, everybody—the members of Telugu in 1985. We could say that in the 1980s, the last decade. However, where are such the group, those who read the draft and the the writings in Telangana language were few women in today’s political world? What are composers in the printing press tried to indeed. In 1985-6, Namini Subramaniam the reasons for their absence in legislatures, correct it. It took all our talents and more to Nayudu was writing Tattoo as my witness leadership and government structures? Is bring each of the life stories into shape and to (Pacchha Naku Sakshiga) in Rayalaseema history repeating itself? It is time to ask preserve their integrity. We were told that we idiom. Pasham Yadagiri and Devulapalli ourselves these questions again. did not write the letters and words correctly Amar were writing in Telangana idiom. Translated by A Suneetha and R Srivatsan or properly, or that the sentence structure was Telidevara Bhanumurti also wrote a column wrong, and that our editing was wrong. What with the title “Chalne do Balkishan” in K Lalita works at Yuganthar and is a feminist, exactly is standard language? Is it the Telugu Udayam newspaper (Telugu). After 1990, writer and thinker.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-48 Moid: I think that the world is nothing but the World, force and concept world view. The view we have of the world is the world for us – and it is rooted in the experiences around us. What I feel Three aspects of translation challenging and interesting is we have so many world views in the space of our own country and therefore so many languages (A broadsheet team discussion) because each language is supposed to express a particular kind of cultural experience, landscape and the particular world view A Suneetha, M A Moid and R Srivatsan which speakers of it have. Then we get something common as well as something not common, for example Telangana Telugu and Andhra Telugu. The problem is how to hat do you mean by the idea of world into a Telugu world but it is being able translate from one language to the other… ‘translating worlds’? to translate a world which comes from the domain of academic writing, accurately to the translating culture, translating concepts, Suneetha:W When one writes, one is addressing translating experiences, thoughts, emotions Telugu by keeping it comprehensive. There is existing debate; one is trying to write in that actually a world of academic writing also as and all those things. particular domain, context and discourse. opposed to the world of cultural writing, of a Suneetha: I think it is important to stress on These determine the shape of one’s writing, its different complexity, and I felt that there was a what you both said i.e., language-worlds are content and its tone. On one level, there is the precision in her translation of the argument hierarchy between English and regional about the Chinese SEZ into Telugu. I would not self contained but are connected by world- languages and on the other, each language has also like to add a little bit to this notion of the views. And these connections that cut across its own public sphere related to its own world. The world we mean here is not the political issues, academic writings or cultural history, context and politics. The debate in earth -- the world is the large horizon that writing are what facilitate translation. each language is characterized by both these surrounds an individual; it links individual factors. To give an example, Urdu debate has a actions to a context, direction, purpose, Moid: I think our understanding has been pan-national context which also includes meaning, broadly speaking, to a project. A improved because of our effort to keep it Arabic, Persian and Islamic worlds. Academic person writing responds to that project – what bilingual. If it were kept only in English, we debates in English would address multi- a special economic zone is, how it would wouldn’t have faced these problems and we national readerships. With a linguistic state relate to Chinese modernization, how this wouldn’t have understood all this. and an identity that was established over 50 process is to be described analytically, etc. It years, Telugu debates have a profile that is responding to not to an inanimate context, What did you mean by the idea of force in responds more to the political debates within but to a set of questions, a debate in that translation? the state. There is very little attempt to speak domain. If we want to translate this work to a Srivats : I would like to counter pose the to an audience which is not Telugu speaking. Telugu general readership, we are trying to So when we try to translate from English to communicate the sense of that world or concept of the world for translation with the Telugu or Urdu to Telugu one needs to be domain that determines his project. To make it force of the sentence in the first language. It aware of these plural linguistic worlds. clear, the individual’s purpose is determined seems to me while the world suggests an by the world around him, by political and over-all picture of translation, the notion of For instance in the first broadsheet we social context where that person is actually force is actually exerted at the level of finest encountered a problem in trying to translate having a problem… so a person is writing, detail of the word or sentence. In an academic the issues of Hyderabad Muslims. The term intervening in a particular way, for example, translation from English to Telugu, force will has a meaning because Hyderabad Muslims in an academic point on the China. be its precision and the way it relates to terms have an identity that is located in the history Specifically, it is about the relationship around it. If you take a poetry translation of the debate that occurred about Hyderabad, between special economic zones and from Telugu to English, force will have both in English and in Urdu. In Telugu this industrial development there. By translating it different meaning altogether, what the resonance is absent. The concept of the for a Telugu general readership one should be sentence means, how each sentence is stated Hyderabadi Muslim does not have any able to convey the sense of the community in meaning beyond that of ‘minority’. The sense assume importance. In order to grasp the which the writer is placed. Similarly while of history, the sense of culture is not there, so world it is necessary to capture and convey the translating a story or poem from Telugu to how does one translate across this division. force of the statement with rigor and precision English, you have to be aware of these involved in it. And the rigor and precision negotiations, this project and this struggle of Srivats: In fact what I found resonance with, in comes, not simply from an exact use of a word this person writing in Telugu, the debates and the SEZ broadsheet, was the essay which was in English because the connotation would be battles being fought, and try to evoke it in translated by K. Sandhya, on the Chinese SEZ. entirely different, but from an attempt to find English. The problem was not translating a Chinese

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-49 a very precise equivalent for that in the Srivats : Each has to be calibrated … especially from English to Telugu. Even in the language into which you are translating… so SEZ broadsheet we had to address this, to establish that force it means the translator Suneetha: Yes, calibrated… especially when we were trying to translate has to judge the kind of force that person eminent domain or public purpose. The term Srivats: At the level of the sentence and being translated is exerting in her world, and public is translated as people or belonging to sometimes at the level of the word: the better try to figure out what the equivalent should a people in Telugu. But public is a domain that the translation the finer its calibration. be in English in order to convey that to the is not borne out of collective action alone nor does it belong to all people equally. It is a English reader. The Telugu reader reads Moid : There is also this technical view that a product of modernity that has possibilities for directly the force within the world shared good translation becomes possible only if you universal belonging but is not reducible to with the original writer whereas in the reader are an expert in the subject, in the source people. in translation has to be educated to the world language and in the target language. It would in which the text was originally written. So be easier if one is expert in both the languages Moid: I think we have been successful in the translator should be able to convey this. but if you don’t know the subject the decision dealing with these concepts. The person who is reading the translation is will take some more time – it will not be very often opening a window on to the other world automatic, spontaneous … Suneetha: I am not very sure. and so the ability to convey force is what Srivats : Yes, the concept inhabits its own actually gives the translation its life. So if you Srivats : It is very difficult to meet this discourse. It has a set of supporting terms take a text, for a nominal example (and this is demand for double expertise if you also take which give it meaning … it works in relation not a comment on the existing translation!), subject also to be occupation, say agriculture – with these terms and somebody who has Antarani Vasantam and translate it without if you are translating from the Telugu Dalit thought of this concept has elaborated those any life or force in English, it will read as text to English, and I am speaking from my relationships and shows how the concept lifts sentences which are somewhat like close to experience. To know the subject means to something out from the buzz of everyday what that person says—not idiomatically, but know the agricultural vocabulary and very life—but to do that in the translation, means clumsily; whereas if we are able to translate it few people are going to have command over to find out what is the equivalent labor there with verve, with rigor, a certain force, that text English and command over Telugu and for that person who has not facing it as the comes alive in the English. command over the agricultural vocabulary original reader but is trying to figure out what and even the translator is always going to be a the labor of the concept is in the original. Suneetha: Yes, there is a certain economy of mismatch to the demand on many occasions. words which doesn’t mean simply stringing Moid : The reason why I said we were them together. In some instances certain Suneetha : to expand both your points, successful in the concepts is that I have seen phrases require two or three additional translating and conveying the force of the translations in Urdu journals, some sentences to convey what the author means argument, of the language and of the project postmodern texts being translated to Urdu.. I but there are certain phrases in which I have of the person, is not the matter of the often get lost in trying to figure out what is actually resisted from using additional words expertise. I think it’s the matter of trust. And being said. Whereas my experience with the or sentences because I wanted the reader to it is like a craft. Each time it would be broadsheet is that I don’t feel lost -- I feel the tension. I wanted the reader to go to different and not a mechanized kind understand what is being said… the additional effort of finding what the enterprise. Of course, you do have Google author has meant, to think more, and so in translation but it will be only a Google Srivats : Deleuze argues that to manufacture a those contexts I have actually kept the translation. So, it is going to be imperfect … it concept is to lift something out of the flow. translation to a minimum. Conveying force is not going be perfect. The reason why I am saying this is..the therefore requires different strategies. translation is actually bringing into the target Moid : There is a machine translation and language something new – you have to lift Moid: Force is such a crucial thing, especially what we do is a specific translation, you can’t something out in the flow of the target if you want to convey specific kind of compare both! language in order to reflect the problematic in emotions and feelings. In translating a the source language… you are trying to show Srivats: The third issue under discussion is one scientific text, a very technical text this the person the reflection of what is happening of translating concepts. problem perhaps doesn’t arise. Accuracy is there … so you actually need to set up the more important there. When you translate Suneetha : Yeah! Concepts bring back the reflection of the concept as a mirror. cultural material, such as experiences, I think world again actually in a much more concrete force becomes very important. I think there is Moid: That was the original intention of the manner. I think we have faced issues in a classical problem here is…do you need to be broadsheet, wasn’t it? We put together each rendering some concept or the other in each of loyal to text or to the meaning? What do you issue with a focus in a related contextual and the broadsheets, haven’t we? Right from choose? And it’s a difficult choice. If one is conceptual field. In each broadsheet we try to finding words like ‘sphurana’ for connotation, loyal to the text you may lose the grip of the provide a broad spectrum of perspectives and for eminent domain, public purpose in the meaning and if you want to be loyal to the related concepts. Not all are politically correct SEZ broadsheet, various terms in the meaning your translation will not be loyal to but they all provide the frame of reference for Aarogyasri and sexual harassment source text. the argument in the target language. The idea broadsheets. We had to coin new words is to convey what’s happening.

Anveshi Broadsheet - December 2014-50 interdisciplinarity question – because in the Disciplines, inter-disciplines context of social sciences, translation is a matter of both conceptual and linguistic translation, of transactions both across and languages disciplines and across language domains.

Second, we can also reverse the above question. That is, we can ask if interdisciplinarity itself should be seen Prathama Banerjee through the prism of the language question. In other words, when we put two disciplines such as history and economics face to face, are we actually also looking at two languages of […] have impacted social sciences positively. Yet, articulation, which can only speak to each what this has also done, paradoxically, is other through translation or through the The third set of questions I have in mind create an image of the Indian languages as mediation of an altogether different third relates to language. The issue of language has primarily ‘literary’, i.e. structurally resistant language, which gets produced out of the most commonly been raised in India in to academic articulation – and this, despite the event of coming face-to-face? In other words, contexts of teaching. Here, language is seen large volume of intellection that goes on do we get any further purchase in thinking primarily as a matter of communicability of routinely in vernacular domains, often outside interdisciplinarity by seeing disciplines as content, presumed to be already and enclosed academic institutions and in the different languages seeking to access a sufficiently available in English. Connected to larger public sphere of essays, journals and common or a shared object of knowledge, this is the question of availability of reading little magazines. In this context, I think it is rather than by seeing disciplines as primarily materials in Indian languages. As of now, in useful to draw in the language question constituted by incommensurably different teaching contexts, language thus comes up within the purview of our thoughts on objects of knowledge and different methods? primarily as a translatability question. Hence, interdisciplinarity. the recent governmental initiative of the Finally, we can also consider setting up in our National Translation Mission, which however First of all, we could consider if it is academic institutions centres of ‘regional seems defunct even before take-off. worthwhile setting up ‘translation studies’, studies’ – somewhat similar to, yet distinct within or outside universities, in the shape of from, the ‘area studies’ model of US To my mind, the problem here is that we have an interdisciplinary field – rather than simply universities. What this does is to subsume, yet failed to establish translation itself as a presume that translation is either a matter of critically foreground, the language and worthwhile academic act – based on research, individual multilingual skill or a subsidiary translation question within a larger offering employment at par within academic field to language and literary studies. We problematic of what is today being called the institutions and bringing formal credit to must admit that different disciplines have ‘vernacular domain’. These centres, of say students specializing in it. Also, in contexts of evolved different languages of thought, and Tamil studies or Bengal studies or North East research, the language question is barely ever academic translation requires a simultaneous studies, would call upon all social science raised. It is presumed that high-end research engagement with these distinctive conceptual disciplines (including economics, film studies would happen by default in English. Indian languages. The question of academic language and environmental studies) to simultaneously languages will of course figure in such thus is tied to but not reducible to the question engage with the ‘region’ in India. It will be research if they are social sciences, but only as of English versus vernacular or spoken versus within this larger framework, then, that we primary materials (drawn from archives, literary. We must ask then if social sciences address simultaneously the question of language, of vernacular social science, and of fieldwork, interviews etc.), subsequently share the same conceptual language translation. Needless to say, this would cooked in English before being served as irrespective of whether they are carried on in require a critical rethinking of what it is to knowledge, as it were. Finished products of English or Bengali or Malayalam? research then would be translated back into mark out regions, without simply validating the vernaculars for purpose of dissemination. If not, which is most likely, then the interface the political boundaries of the Indian federal between vernacular social science domains space. It is important to note here that since the and the formal, academic domain is not (Excerpted with gratitude from Prathama 1950s, translation of ‘regional’ literature into merely that of translatability but also of Banerjee, “Disciplines Inter-disciplines and English, especially under the aegis of the interdisciplinarity. That is, the language Languages” Seminar #624, August 2011, ) Sahitya Akademi, has been central to our question here is embedded in the larger Accessed at: http://www.india-seminar.com/ cultural imaginary. More recently, question of the relationship between distinct 2011/624/624_prathama_banerjee.htm translations of feminist and dalit writings bodies of knowledge with different norms, from the bhashas into English have further forms, protocols and textual genres. In other Prathama Banerjee is a researcher and teaches at reinforced this centrality of translation and words, translation studies must open unto the CSDS.

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